Unit 4

MINERALOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOLOGY

Introduction

Physical geology is the branch of geology concerned with understanding the composition of the
earth and the physical changes occurring in it, based on the study of rocks, minerals, and
sediments, their structures and formations, and their processes of origin and alteration. It
includes mineralogy, petrology, geomorphology, geochemistry etc.

Mineralogy on the other hand can be grouped under physical geology as stated above. It is a
subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical
(including optical) properties of minerals. Specific studies within mineralogy include the
processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical
distribution, as well as their utilization.

Stratigraphy is a branch of geology which studies rock layers (strata) and layering
(stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks.
Stratigraphy includes two related subfields: lithologic stratigraphy or lithostratigraphy, and
biologic stratigraphy or biostratigraphy.

Learning Objectives

After reading this unit you should be able to:

1. Know mineralogy and it various branches

2. Know the processes that caused the formation of the
earth and it transformation
3. Have general knowledge in stratigraphy and the
geologic time scale

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Unit content

Session 1-4: Introduction to mineralogy

1-4.1 History of mineralogy
1-4.2 Modern mineralogy
1-4.3 Branches of mineralogy
Session 2-4: Introduction to physical geology
2-4.1 Earth’s processes and environment
2-4.2 Plate tectonics
2-4.3 Consequence of moving plate
Session 3-4: Stratigraphy
3-4.1 Historical development
3-4.2 Branches of stratigraphy
3-4.3 Stratigraphic column
3-4.4 Geologic time scale

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SESSION 1-4: INTRODUCTION TO MINERALOGY
1-4.1 history of mineralogy
Early writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from ancient Babylonia,
the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and Sanskrit texts from
ancient India and the ancient Islamic World. Books on the subject included the Naturalis
Historia of Pliny the Elder, which not only described many different minerals but also
explained many of their properties, and Kitab al Jawahir (Book of Precious Stones) by
Persian scientist Al Biruni. The German Renaissance specialist Georgius Agricola wrote
works such as De re metallica (On Metals, 1556) and De Natura Fossilium (On the
Nature of Rocks, 1546) which begin the scientific approach to the subject.

Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-Renaissance

Europe. The modern study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of
crystallography (the origins of geometric crystallography, itself, can be traced back to the
mineralogy practiced in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries) and to the microscopic
study of rock sections with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century.

1-4.2 modern mineralogy

Historically, mineralogy was heavily concerned with taxonomy of the rock-forming
minerals; to this end, the International Mineralogical Association is an organization
whose members represent mineralogists in individual countries. Its activities include
managing the naming of minerals (via the Commission of New Minerals and Mineral
Names), location of known minerals, etc. As of 2004 there are over 4,000 species of
mineral recognized by the IMA. Of these, perhaps 150 can be called "common," another
50 are "occasional," and the rest are "rare" to "extremely rare."

More recently, driven by advances in experimental technique (such as neutron

diffraction) and available computational power, the latter of which has enabled extremely
accurate atomic-scale simulations of the behaviour of crystals, the science has branched
out to consider more general problems in the fields of inorganic chemistry and solid-state
physics. It, however, retains a focus on the crystal structures commonly encountered in
rock-forming minerals (such as the perovskites, clay minerals and framework silicates).

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 In particular, the field has made great advances in the understanding of the relationship
between the atomic-scale structure of minerals and their function; in nature, prominent
examples would be accurate measurement and prediction of the elastic properties of
minerals, which has led to new insight into seismological behaviour of rocks and depth-
related discontinuities in seismograms of the Earth's mantle. To this end, in their focus on
the connection between atomic-scale phenomena and macroscopic properties, the mineral
sciences (as they are now commonly known) display perhaps more of an overlap with
materials science than any other discipline.

1-4.3 branches of mineralogy

Physical mineralogy

Physical mineralogy is the specific focus on physical attributes of minerals. Description

of physical attributes is the simplest way to identify, classify, and categorize minerals,
and they include: crystal structure, crystal habit, twinning, cleavage, luster, diaphaneity,
color, streak, hardness and specific gravity

Crystal Structure

In mineralogy and crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms

or molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid. A crystal structure describes a highly ordered
structure, occurring due to the intrinsic nature of molecules to form symmetric patterns.
A crystal structure can be thought of as an infinitely repeating array of 3D 'boxes', known
as unit-cells. The unit cell is calculated from the simplest possible representation of
molecules, known as the asymmetric unit. The asymmetric unit is translated to the unit
cell through symmetry operations, and the resultant crystal lattice is constructed through
repetition of the unit cell infinitely in 3-dimensions. Patterns are located upon the points
of a lattice, which is an array of points repeating periodically in three dimensions. The
lengths of the edges of a unit cell and the angles between them are called the lattice
parameters. The symmetry properties of the crystal are embodied in its space group.

A crystal's structure and symmetry play a role in determining many of its physical
properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure, and optical transparency.

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Crystal Habit

In mineralogy, crystal habit is the characteristic external shape of individual crystals or

groups thereof. A crystal can be described by how well its characteristic form is
developed, ranging from euhedral (well-developed crystal faces due to unrestricted
formation during growth), to subhedral (partially developed crystal faces), and anhedral
(undeveloped crystal faces). The shape and size give rise to descriptive terms applied to
the typical appearance, or habit of crystals and aggregates.

The many terms used by mineralogists to report crystal habits can be used when
describing the typical appearance of a particular mineral. Recognizing the habit can aid in
identifying a mineral as some habits are distinctive of certain minerals. Most minerals,
however, do not display ideal habits due to conditions during crystallization. Euhedral
crystals occur when crystals form in uncrowded conditions with no adjacent crystal
grains, but crystal growth is typically not ideal and faces are poorly formed or unformed
against adjacent grains. The mineral's habit may not be evident.

Twinning

Crystal twinning occurs when two separate crystals share some of the same crystal lattice
points in a symmetrical manner. The result is an intergrowth of two separate crystals in a
variety of specific configurations. A twin boundary or composition surface separates the
two crystals. Crystallographers classify twinned crystals by a number of twin laws. These
twin laws are specific to the crystal system. The type of twinning can be a diagnostic tool
in mineral identification.

Twinning can often be a problem in X-ray crystallography, as a twinned crystal does not
produce a simple diffraction pattern

Cleavage

Cleavage, in mineralogy, is the tendency of crystalline materials to split along definite

crystallographic structural planes. These planes of relative weakness are a result of the

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regular locations of atoms and ions in the crystal, which create smooth repeating surfaces
that are visible both in the microscope and to the naked eye.

Lustre

Luster (or luster) is the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal, rock, or mineral.
The word traces its origins back to the latin lux, meaning "light", and generally implies
radiance, gloss, or brilliance.

A range of terms are used to describe lustre, such as earthy, metallic, greasy, and silky.
Similarly, the term vitreous (derived from the Latin for glass, vitrum) refers to a glassy
lustre. Lustre varies over a wide continuum, and so there are no rigid boundaries between
the different types of lustre. (For this reason, different sources can often describe the
same mineral differently. This ambiguity is further complicated by lustre's ability to vary
widely within a particular mineral species.) The terms are frequently combined to
describe intermediate types of lustre (for example, a "vitreous greasy" lustre).

Some minerals exhibit unusual optical phenomena, such as asterism (the display of a star-
shaped luminous area) or chatoyancy (the display of luminous bands, which appear to
move as the specimen is rotated).

Streak

The streak (also called "powder color") of a mineral is the color of the powder produced
when it is dragged across an unweathered surface. This trail's color generally is much
more consistent than that of its parent mineral and therefore is an important mineral
identification tool. If no streak appears, then the mineral's streak is said to be white or
colorless. Streak is especially important for identifying opaque and colored materials and
is less useful for silicate minerals, most whereof have a white streak and are too hard to
easily powder.

The apparent color of a mineral can greatly vary because of trace impurities or a
disturbed macroscopic crystal structure. Small amounts of an impurity that strongly

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absorbs a particular wavelength can radically change the wavelengths of light that the
specimen reflects, thereby changing the apparent color. Dragging the specimen to
produce a streak breaks into randomly oriented microscopic crystals, reducing the small
impurities' effect.

Chemical mineralogy

Chemical mineralogy focuses on the chemical composition of minerals in order to

identify, classify, and categorize them, as well as a means to find beneficial uses from
them. There are a few minerals which are classified as whole elements, including sulfur,
copper, silver, and gold, yet the vast majority of minerals are chemical compounds, some
more complex than others. In terms of major chemical divisions of minerals, most are
placed within the isomorphous groups, which are based on analogous chemical
composition and similar crystal forms. A good example of isomorphism classification
would be the calcite group, containing the minerals calcite, magnesite, siderite,
rhodochrosite, and smithsonite.

Biomineralogy

Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy, paleontology and biology. It is

the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the
sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition. It uses techniques
from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as
growth forms in living plants and animals as well as things like the original mineral
content of fossils.

Optical mineralogy

Optical mineralogy is a specific focus of mineralogy that applies sources of light as a

means to identify and classify minerals. All minerals which are not part of the cubic
system are double refracting, where ordinary light passing through them is broken up into
two plane polarized rays that travel at different velocities and refracted at different
angles. Mineral substances belonging to the cubic system contain only one index of

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 refraction. Hexagonal and tetragonal mineral substances have two indices, while
orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic substances have three indices of refraction. With
opaque ore minerals, reflected light from a microscope is needed for identification.

 Self Assessment 1-4

1. State and explain the branches of mineralogy.

2. How are minerals determined in physical mineralogy?

 Answer tips
1. Branches of geology depend on the properties of minerals used to determine minerals

2. Explain the physical properties of minerals used in mineralogy

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SESSION 2-4: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL
GEOLOGY
2-4.1 earth’s processes and environment
Internal processes

Processes that originate deep in the Earth’s interior are called internal processes. These
are the driving forces that raise mountains, cause earthquakes, and produce volcanic
eruptions. Builders, engineers, and city planners might consult geologists, asking, “What
is the probability that an earthquake or a volcanic eruption will damage our city? Is it safe
to build skyscrapers, a dam, or a nuclear waste repository in the area?”

Surface processes

Surface processes are all of those processes that sculpt the Earth’s surface. Most surface
processes are driven by water, although wind, ice, and gravity are also significant. The
hydrosphere includes water in streams, wetlands, lakes, and oceans; in the atmosphere;
and frozen in glaciers. It also includes ground water present in soil and rock to a depth of
at least 2 kilometers.

Most of us have seen water running over the ground during a heavy rain. The flowing
water dislodges tiny grains of soil and carries them downslope. If the rain continues, the
water may erode tiny gullies into a hillside. A gully may form in a single afternoon; over
much longer times, the same process forms canyons and spacious river valleys. People
build cities along rivers to take advantage of the flat land, fertile soil, and abundant water.
But the erosion continues. Rivers wear away at their banks and bed and periodically
flood adjacent land. Geologists seek to understand these processes and advise builders
and planners to minimize loss of life and property.

The oceans cover more than 70 percent of our planet. Although oceanography is a
separate scientific discipline, it overlaps with geology. Geologic processes form the
ocean basins and alter their size and shape. Weathering and erosion of continents carry
mud, sand, and salts to the sea. Earth is the only planet in the Solar System that has

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oceans. It is also the only planet that supports life. Oceanographers examine the oceans’
influence on climate, the atmosphere, life, and the solid Earth.

The Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen (Figure 37). It is held
to the Earth by gravity and thins rapidly with altitude. Ninety-nine percent is
concentrated within 30 kilometers of the Earth’s surface, but a few traces remain even
10,000 kilometers above the surface. A brief look at our neighbors in space reminds us
that the interactions among air, rock, and life affect atmospheric composition,
temperature, and movement.

The solid Earth, Venus, and Mars are approximately identical in composition. Yet the
three planets have radically different atmospheres and climates. Today, the Venusian
atmosphere is hot, acidic, and rich in carbon dioxide. The surface temperature is 450 ºC,
as hot as the interior of a self-cleaning oven, and the atmospheric pressure is 90 times
greater than that of the Earth. In contrast, Mars is frigid, with an atmospheric pressure
only 0.006 that at the surface of the Earth. Venusian water has boiled off into space;
almost all Martian water lies frozen in vast underground reservoirs.

Figure 37: This storm cloud over Mt. Robson, British Columbia, is a visible portion of the
Earth’s atmosphere

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 The Biosphere

The biosphere is the thin zone near the Earth’s surface that is inhabited by life. It includes
the uppermost solid Earth, the hydrosphere, and the lower parts of the atmosphere. Land
plants grow on the Earth’s surface, with roots penetrating at most a few meters into soil.
Animals live on the surface; fly a kilometer or two above it, or burrow a few meters
underground. Sea life also concentrates near the ocean surface, where sunlight is
available. Some aquatic communities live on the deep sea floor, bacteria live in
rock to depths of a few kilometers, and a few windblown microorganisms are found
at heights of 10 kilometers or more. But even at these extremes, the biosphere is a very
thin layer at the Earth’s surface.

Paleontologists are geologists who study the evolution and history of life by examining
fossils and other evidence preserved in rock and sediment. The study of past life shows us
that the solid Earth, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere are all
interconnected. Internal processes such as volcanic eruptions and migrating
continents have altered the Earth’s climate and atmospheric composition. Life has
altered the atmosphere. The atmosphere reacts with rocks.

2-4.2 plate tectonics

Like most great, unifying scientific ideas, the plate tectonics theory is simple. Briefly, it
describes the Earth’s outer layer, called the lithosphere, as a shell of hard, strong rock.
This shell is broken into seven large (and several smaller) segments called tectonic plates.
They are also called lithospheric plates, and the two terms are interchangeable (Figure
38). The tectonic plates float on the layer below, called the asthenosphere. The
asthenosphere, like the lithosphere, is rock. But the asthenosphere is so hot that 1 to 2
percent of it is melted. As a result, it is plastic, and weak. The lithospheric plates glide
slowly over the asthenosphere like sheets of ice drifting across a pond. Continents and
ocean basins make up the upper parts of the plates. As a tectonic plate glides over the
asthenosphere, the continents and oceans move with it.

Most of the Earth’s major geological activity occurs at plate boundaries, the zones where
tectonic plates meet and interact. Neighboring plates can move relative to one another in

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three different ways. At a divergent boundary, two plates move apart, or separate. At a
convergent boundary, two plates move toward each other, and at a transform boundary,
they slide horizontally past each other. Table 4 summarizes characteristics and examples
of each type of plate boundary. Plate interactions at these boundaries build mountain
ranges and create earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Figure 38: The Earth’s lithosphere is broken into seven large plates, separated by the red
lines; they are called the African, Eurasian, Indian–Australian, Antarctic, Pacific, North
American, and South American plates. A few of the smaller plates are also shown. White
arrows indicate directions of plate movement and show that the plates move in
different directions. The red lines also distinguish the three types of plate boundaries.

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 TYPES OF TYPES OF TOPOGRAPHY GEOLOGIC MODERN
BOUNDARY PLATE EVENTS EXAMPLES
INVOLVED

Divergent Ocean-ocean Mid-ocean ridge Sea-floor spreading, Mid –Atlantic ridge

shallow earthquakes,
volcanoes

Continent-continent Rift valley Continents torn apart, East African rift

earthquakes, rising
magma, volcanoes
Convergent Ocean-ocean Island arcs and Subduction, deep Western Aleutianns
ocean trenches earthquakes, rising
magma, volcanoes,
deformation of rocks

Ocean-continent Mountains and Subduction, deep Andes

ocean trenches earthquakes, rising
magma, volcanoes,
deformation of rocks

Continent-continent Mountains Deep earthquakes, Himalayas

deformation of rocks
Transform Ocean-ocean Major offset of Earthquakes Offset of East Pacific
mid-oceanic ridge rise in South Pacific
axis San Andreas fault

Continent-continent Small deformed Earthquakes,

mountain ranges, deformation of rocks
deformations
along fault

Table 4: Characteristics and examples of plate boundaries

2-4.3 consequences of moving plates

As we mentioned previously, the plate tectonics theory provides a unifying explanation
for earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building, moving continents, and many other
manifestations of the Earth’s dynamic nature. In this sub section, we introduce some of
these consequences of plate tectonics processes.

Volcanoes

A volcanic eruption occurs where hot magma rises to the Earth’s surface. Volcanic
eruptions are common at both divergent and convergent plate boundaries. Three factors

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can melt rock to form magma and cause volcanic eruptions. The most obvious is rising
temperature. However, hot rocks also melt to form magma if pressure decreases or if
water is added to them. These magma-forming processes were discussed in Unit 3.

At a divergent boundary, hot asthenosphere rises to fill the gap left between the two
separating plates. Pressure decreases as the asthenosphere rises. As a result, portions of
the asthenosphere melt to form huge quantities of basaltic magma, which erupts onto the
Earth’s surface. The mid-oceanic ridge is a submarine chain of volcanoes and lava flows
formed at a divergent plate boundary. Volcanoes are also common in continental rifts,
including the East African rift and the Rio Grande rift.

At a convergent plate boundary, cold, dense oceanic lithosphere dives into the
asthenosphere. The sinking plate carries water-soaked mud and rock that once lay on the
sea floor. As the sinking plate descends into the mantle, it becomes hotter. The heat
drives off the water, which rises into the hot asthenosphere beneath the opposite plate.
The water melts asthenosphere rock to form huge amounts of magma in a subduction
zone. The magma then rises through the overlying lithosphere. Some solidifies within
the crust, and some erupts from volcanoes on the Earth’s surface. Volcanoes of this type
are common in the Cascade Range of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia; in
western South America; and near most other subduction zones.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are common at all three types of plate boundaries, but less common within
the interior of a tectonic plate. Quakes concentrate at plate boundaries simply because
those boundaries are zones of deep fractures in the lithosphere where one plate slips past
another. The slippage is rarely smooth and continuous. Instead, the fractures may be
locked up for months or for hundreds of years. Then, one plate suddenly slips a few
centimeters or even a few meters past its neighbor. An earthquake is vibration in rock
caused by these abrupt movements.

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Mountain Building

Many of the world’s great mountain chains, including the Andes and parts of the
mountains of western North America, formed at subduction zones. Several processes
combine to build a mountain chain at a subduction zone.

The great volume of magma rising into the crust thickens the crust, causing mountains to
rise. Volcanic eruptions build chains of volcanoes. Additional crustal thickening may
occur where two plates converge for the same reason that a mound of bread dough
thickens when you compress it from both sides.

Great chains of volcanic mountains form at rift zones because the new, hot lithosphere
floats to a high level, and large amounts of magma form in these zones. The mid-oceanic
ridge, the East African rift, and the Rio Grande rift are examples of such mountain
chains.

Oceanic Trenches

An oceanic trench is a long, narrow trough in the sea floor that develops where a
subducting plate sinks into the mantle. To form the trough, the sinking plate drags the sea
floor downward. A trench can form wherever subduction occurs—where oceanic crust
sinks beneath the edge of a continent, or where it sinks beneath another oceanic plate.
Trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean basins. The deepest point on Earth is in the
Mariana trench in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, where the sea floor is as much as 10.9
kilometers below sea level (compared with the average sea-floor depth of about 5
kilometers).

Migrating Continents and Oceans

Continents migrate over the Earth’s surface because they are integral parts of the moving
lithospheric plates; they simply ride piggyback on the plates. Measurements of these
movements show that North America is now moving away from Europe at about 2.5
centimeters per year, as the mid-Atlantic ridge continues to separate. South America is

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 drawing away from Africa at a rate of about 3.5 centimeters per year. As the Atlantic
Ocean widens, the Pacific is shrinking at the same rate. Thus, as continents move, ocean
basins open and close over geologic time.

 Self Assessment 2-4

1. Summarize the important aspect of the plate tectonics theory.

2. How many major tectonic plates exist? List them

3. Compare and contrast internal processes with surface processes

4. Briefly explain for consequences of moving plates.

 Answer tips
1. Plate tectonics is about the dynamic nature of the earth due to the plastic nature of the
asthenosphere

2. Tectonic plates are the same as the lithospheric plate

3. Geological processes within and at the surface of the earth crust.

4. Natural occurrences that can be explained using plate tectonics

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SESSION 3-4: STRATIGRAPHY
3-4.1 historical development

Nicholas Steno and Laura Seddon established the theoretical basis for stratigraphy when
they reintroduced the law of superposition and introduced the principle of original
horizontality and the principle of lateral continuity in a 1669 work on the fossilization of
organic remains in layers of sediment. They won an award from the geological society
for their good work.

The first practical large-scale application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the
1790s and early 19th century. Smith, known as the "father of English geology," created
the first geologic map of England and first recognized the significance of strata or rock
layering and the importance of fossil markers for correlating strata. Another influential
application of stratigraphy in the early 19th century was a study by Georges Cuvier and
Alexandre Brongniart of the geology of the region around Paris.

3-4.2 branches of stratigraphy

Lithologic Stratigraphy

Lithostratigraphy, or lithologic stratigraphy, provides the most obvious visible layering.

It deals with the physical contrasts in lithology, or rock type. Such layers can occur both
vertically - in layering or bedding of varying rock type - and laterally - reflecting
changing environments of deposition, known as facies change. Key elements of
stratigraphy involve understanding how certain geometric relationships between rock
layers arise and what these geometries mean in terms of the depositional environment.
Stratigraphers have codified a basic concept of their discipline in the Law of
Superposition, which simply states that, in an undeformed stratigraphic sequence, the
oldest strata occur at the base of the sequence.

Chemostratigraphy studies the changes in the relative proportions of trace elements and
isotopes within and between lithologic units. Carbon and oxygen isotope ratios vary with

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time, and researchers can use them to map subtle changes in the paleoenvironment. This
has led to the specialized field of isotopic stratigraphy.

Cyclostratigraphy documents the often cyclic changes in the relative proportions of

minerals, particularly carbonates and of fossil diversity with time, related to changes in
palaeoclimates.

Biostratigraphy

Biostratigraphy or paleontologic stratigraphy is based on fossil evidence in the rock

layers. Strata from widespread locations containing the same fossil fauna and flora are
correlatable in time. Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's principle of
faunal succession, which predated, and was one of the first and most powerful lines of
evidence for, biological evolution. It provides strong evidence for formation (speciation)
of and the extinction of species. The geologic time scale was developed during the 19th
century, based on the evidence of biologic stratigraphy and faunal succession. This
timescale remained a relative scale until the development of radiometric dating, which
gave it and the stratigraphy it was based on an absolute time framework, leading to the
development of chronostratigraphy.

One important development is the Vail curve, which attempts to define a global historical
sea-level curve according to inferences from worldwide stratigraphic patterns.
Stratigraphy is also commonly used to delineate the nature and extent of hydrocarbon-
bearing reservoir rocks, seals, and traps in petroleum geology.

Chronostratigraphy

Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the absolute, not relative,
age of rock strata. The branch is based upon deriving geochronological data for rock
units, both directly and inferentially, so that a sequence of time-relative events of rocks
within a region can be derived. In essence, chronostratigraphy seeks to understand the
geologic history of rocks and regions.

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The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to arrange the sequence of deposition and the
time of deposition of all rocks within a geological region and, eventually, the entire
geologic record of the Earth.

A gap or lacuna in the geological record may be caused by erosion, in which case it is
called a vacuity, or by non-deposition, where is known as a stratigraphic hiatus. It is
called a hiatus because deposition was on hold for a period of time. A physical lacuna
may represent both a period of non-deposition and a period of erosion. A fault may cause
the appearance of a hiatus.

Magnetostratigraphy

Magnetostratigraphy is a chronostratigraphic technique used to date sedimentary and

volcanic sequences. The method works by collecting oriented samples at measured
intervals throughout a section. The samples are analyzed to determine their detrital
remanent magnetism (DRM), that is, the polarity of Earth's magnetic field at the time a
stratum was deposited. For sedimentary rocks, this is possible because, when very fine-
grained magnetic minerals (< 17 micrometres) fall through the water column, they orient
themselves with Earth's magnetic field. Upon burial, that orientation is preserved. The
minerals behave like tiny compasses. For volcanic rocks, magnetic minerals, which form
as the melt cools, orient with the ambient magnetic field.

Oriented paleomagnetic core samples are collected in the field; mudstones, siltstones, and
very fine-grained sandstones are the preferred lithologies because the magnetic grains are
finer and more likely to orient with the ambient field during deposition. If the ancient
magnetic field were oriented similar to today's field (North Magnetic Pole near the North
Rotational Pole), the strata would retain a normal polarity. If the data indicate that the
North Magnetic Pole was near the South Rotational Pole, the strata would exhibit
reversed polarity.

Results of the individual samples are analyzed by removing the natural remanent
magnetization (NRM) to reveal the DRM. Following statistical analysis, the results are

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 used to generate a local magnetostratigraphic column that can then be compared against
the Global Magnetic Polarity Time Scale.

This technique is used to date sequences that generally lack fossils or interbedded
igneous rocks. The continuous nature of the sampling means that it is also a powerful
technique for the estimation of sediment-accumulation rates.

Archaeological Stratigraphy

In the field of archaeology, soil stratigraphy is used to better understand the processes
that form and protect archaeological sites. The law of superposition holds true, and this
can help date finds or features from each context because they can be placed in sequence
and the dates interpolated. Phases of activity can also often be seen through stratigraphy,
especially when a trench or feature is viewed in section (profile). Because pits and other
features can be dug down into earlier levels, not all material at the same absolute depth is
necessarily of the same age, but close attention has to be paid to the archeological layers.
The Harris-matrix is a tool to depict complex stratigraphic relations when they are found,
for example, in the contexts of urban archaeology.

3-4.3 stratigraphic column

A stratigraphic column is a representation used in geology and its subfield of stratigraphy

to describe the vertical location of rock units in a particular area.A typical stratigraphic
column shows a sequence of sedimentary rocks, with the oldest rocks on the bottom and
the youngest on top (Figure 39).

In areas that are more geologically complex, such as those that contain intrusive rocks,
faults, and/or metamorphism, stratigraphic columns can still indicate the relative
locations of these units with respect to one another. However, in these cases, the
stratigraphic column must either be a structural column, in which the units are stacked
with respect to how they are observed in the field to have been moved by the faults, or a
time column, in which the units are stacked in the order in which they were formed. They
also show the lithology of the rock units.

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Figure 39: Stratigraphic column of the Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA.

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3-4.4 geologic time scale
The geologic time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological measurement that relates
stratigraphy to time, and is used by geologists, paleontologists, and other earth scientists
to describe the timing and relationships between events that have occurred throughout
Earth's history.

Geologists divide all of geologic time into smaller units for convenience. Just as a year is
subdivided into months, months into weeks, and weeks into days, large geologic time
units are split into smaller intervals. The units are named, just as months and days are.
The largest time units are eons, which are divided into eras. Eras are subdivided, in turn,
into periods, which are further subdivided into epochs.

The geologic column and the geologic time scale were constructed on the basis of relative
age determinations. When geologists developed radiometric dating, they added absolute
ages to the column and time scale. Today, geologists use this time scale to date rocks in
the field. Imagine that you are studying a sedimentary sequence. If you find an index
fossil or a key bed that has already been dated by other scientists, you know the age of
the rock and you do not need to send the sample to a laboratory for radiometric dating.

Geologic Time

Looking at the geologic time scale of Table 5, you will notice that the Phanerozoic Eon,
which comprises the most recent 538 million years of geologic time, takes up most of the
table and contains all of the named subdivisions. The earlier eons—the Proterozoic,
Archean, and Hadean—are often not subdivided at all, even though together they
constitute a time interval of 4 billion years, almost eight times as long as the
Phanerozoic. Why is Phanerozoic time subdivided so finely? Or, conversely, what
prevents subdivision of the earlier eons?

Earliest Eons of Geologic Time: Precambrian Time

Geologic time units are based largely on fossils found in rocks. Only a few Earth rocks
are known that formed during the Hadean Eon (Greek for “beneath the Earth”), the
earliest time in Earth history. No fossils of Hadean age are known. It may be that erosion

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or metamorphism destroyed traces of Hadean life, or that Hadean time preceded the
evolution of life. In any case, Hadean time is not amenable to subdivision based on
fossils.

Most rocks of the Archean Eon (Greek for “ancient”) are igneous or metamorphic,
although a few Archean sedimentary rocks are preserved. Some contain microscopic
fossils of single-celled organisms. Life on Earth apparently began sometime during the
Archean Eon, although fossils are neither numerous nor well preserved enough to permit
much fine tuning of Archean time.

Large and diverse groups of fossils have been found in sedimentary rocks of the
Proterozoic Eon (Greek for “earlier life”). The most complex are not only multicellular
but have different kinds of cells arranged into tissues and organs. Some of these
organisms look so much like modern jellyfish, corals, and worms that some
paleontologists view them as ancestors of organisms alive today. However, other
paleontologists believe that the resemblance is only superficial. A few types of
Proterozoic shell-bearing organisms have been identified, but shelled organisms did not
become abundant until the Paleozoic Era.

Commonly, the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic Eons are collectively referred to by
the informal term Precambrian, because they preceded the Cambrian Period, when
fossil remains first became very abundant.

Phanerozoic Eon

The word Phanerozoic is from the Greek, meaning “visible life.” Sedimentary rocks of
the Phanerozoic Eon contain plentiful and easily discernible fossils. The beginning of
Phanerozoic time marks a dramatic increase in the abundance and diversity of life.

Subdivision of the Phanerozoic Eon into three eras is based on the most common types of
life during each era. Sedimentary rocks formed during the Paleozoic era (Greek for “old
life”) contain fossils of early life forms, such as invertebrates, fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, ferns, and cone bearing trees. Sedimentary rocks of the Mesozoic era (Greek for
“middle life”) contain new types of phytoplankton, microscopic plants that float at or

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near the sea surface, and beautiful, swimming cephalopods called ammonoids. However,
the Mesozoic Era is most famous for the dinosaurs that dominated the land. Mammals
and flowering plants also evolved during this era. During the Cenozoic era (Greek for
“recent life”), mammals and grasses became abundant.

The eras of Phanerozoic time are subdivided into periods, the time unit most
commonly used by geologists. Some of the periods are named after special
characteristics of the rocks formed during that period. For example, the Cretaceous
Period is named from the Latin word for “chalk” (creta) after chalk beds of this age in
Africa, North America, and Europe. Other periods are named for the geographic
localities where rocks of that age were first described. For example, the Jurassic Period is
named for the Jura Mountains of France and Switzerland. The Cambrian Period is named
for Cambria, the Roman name for Wales, where rocks of this age were first studied.

In addition to the abundance of fossils, another reason that details of Phanerozoic time is
better known than those of Precambrian time is that many of the older rocks have been
metamorphosed, deformed, and eroded. It is a simple matter of probability that the older
a rock is, the greater the chance that metamorphism or erosion has obliterated fossils and
other evidence of its history.

Table 5: The geologic column and time scale

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 Self Assessment 3-4

1. Briefly explain the various subfields of stratigraphy

2. What is Stratigraphic Column?

3. What are the time units of geologic time?

4. Name the various division of each time unit.

 Answer tips
1. State and explain the various fields in which stratigraphy is used.

2. Explain the stratigraphic column and it use

3. The major units like a year is in months, weeks, days etc.

4. Each geologic time unit has division like Proterozoic Eon.

Learning Track Activities

Take different types of rocks, rub them against each other and arrange them in increasing
hardness

 Unit Summary
1. Mineralogy is a subject of geology specialization in the scientific study of chemistry,
crystal structure and physical properties of minerals. It can be divided into physical
mineralogy, chemical mineralogy, Biomineralogy and optical mineralogy.
2. Physical geology is concerned with understanding the composition of the earth and the
physical changes occurring in it. Processes causing the transformation of the earth can be
grouped into internal and surface processes. Internal processes involve the migration of
magma which causes phenomenon like earthquake and volcanic eruption. Surface

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 processes include weathering and erosions that change the earth’s that changes the earth’s
surface.
Plate tectonic is a description of the movement of the earth’s lithosphere due to the
plastic nature of the asthenosphere. This theory explains natural occurrence such as
earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building and oceanic trenches.
3. Stratigraphy is the branch of geology which studies rock layers (strata) and layering. Its
major divisions include Lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy,
magnetostratigraphy and archeology stratigraphy.
Stratigraphic column is a representation used in stratigraphy to describe the vertical
location of rock units in a particular area.
Geologic time scale is a system of chronological measurement that relates stratigraphy to
time. Geologists divide all of geologic time into small units. The largest time units are
eons, which are divided into eras. Eras are subdivided in turn into periods which are
further subdivided into epochs.

 Key terms/ New Words in Unit

1. Ammonoids: type of phytoplankton, microscopic plants that float at or near the sea
surface, and beautiful, swimming cephalopods.
2. Anhedral: undeveloped crystal faces
3. Archean: the earliest eon of geologic time, dating from four billion years ago
4. Asterism: display of a star-shaped luminous area
5. Cambrian: the period of geologic time, 570 million to 500 million years ago, during
which invertebrate animal life appeared and marine algae developed
6. Cenozoic: most recent era of geologic time, beginning about 65 million years ago, during
which modern plants and animal evolved
7. Chatoyancy: display of luminous bands which appears to move as the specimen is
rotated
8. Euhedral: well-developed crystal faces due to unrestricted formation during growth
9. Hadean: the period of geologic time not confirmed by rock formation records, beginning
approximately 4.6 billion years ago with the formation of the earth
10. Isomorphism: similarity in crystalline form between chemicals

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11. Mesozoic: the era of geologic time, 248 million to 65 million years ago, during which
dinosaurs, birds and flowering plants first appeared
12. Phanerozoic: the present eon of geologic time, beginning 570 million years ago, that
consist of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras
13. Precambrian: the period of geologic time, 4,650 to 700 million years ago, during which
the earth’s crust consolidated and primitive life first appeared
14. Proterozoic: the eon of geologic time, 2.5 billion to 750 million years ago, during which
sea plants and animals first appeared
15. Seismogram: a record of the earthquake mad by a seismograph
16. Seismology: the scientific study of earthquakes
17. Subhedral: partially developed crystal faces partially developed crystal faces
18. Taxonomy: the science of classifying plants, animals and microorganisms into
increasingly broader categories based on shared features
19. Tectonic plate: a segment of the earth crust that movies relative to another segments (
also known as lithospheric plate)
20. Vitreous: having the characteristics or appearance of glass

(choose an appropriate activity and give detail instructions)

  Review Question: Why is the Phanerozoic Eon separated into so many

 subdivisions in contrast to much longer Precambrian time, which has few

subdivisions?

  Discussion Question: Suppose that you measured and described a

 sequence of Middle Paleozoic sedimentary rocks in northern Ohio and later

did the same with a sequence of the same age in Wyoming. How would
you correlate the two sections?

 Web Activity: Research on Mohs scale of mineral hardness

 Reading: Read on the following under physical mineralogy: diaphaneity,

streak, hardness and specific gravity

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Unit Assignments 4
Discuss why a unifying theory, such as the plate tectonics theory, is desirable in any
field of science.

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