INTRODUCTION

The science of mineralogy is a branch of the earth sciences that is concerned with
studying minerals and their physical and chemical properties. Within mineralogy there
are also those who study how minerals are formed, where they are geographically
located, as well as their potential uses. Like many sciences, mineralogy has its origins
in several ancient civilizations, and it has been concerned primarily with the various
methods of classification of minerals for most of its history. Modern-day mineralogy has
been expanded by advances in other sciences, such as biology and chemistry, to shed
even more light on the nature of the materials that form the earth we live on. The
ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first people to theorize extensively
about the origins and properties of minerals. His ideas were new and advanced for the
time, but he and his contemporaries were largely incorrect in their assumptions. For
example, it was a widely held belief in ancient Greece that the mineral asbestos was a
kind of vegetable. Nevertheless, these ancient theories provided a starting point for the
evolution of mineralogy as we have come to know it. It was not until the 16th century
that mineralogy began to take a form that is recognizable to us, largely thanks to the
work of German scientist Georgius Agricola.
 For example, it was a widely held belief in ancient Greece that the mineral
asbestos was a kind of vegetable. Nevertheless, these ancient theories provided a
starting point for the evolution of mineralogy as we have come to know it. It was not until
the 16th century that mineralogy began to take a form that is recognizable to us, largely
thanks to the work of German scientist Georgius Agricola
DEFINITION OF MINERAL
A mineral is a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite, but generally not
fixed, chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement. It is usually formed by
inorganic processes. Let's look at the five parts of this definition:
 "Naturally occurring" means that synthetic compounds not known to occur in
nature cannot have a mineral name. However, it may occur anywhere, other
planets, deep in the earth, as long as there exists a natural sample to describe.
 "Homogeneous solid" means that it must be chemically and physically
homogeneous down to the basic repeat unit of the atoms. It will then have
absolutely predictable physical properties (density, compressibility, index of
refraction, etc.). This means that rocks such as granite or basalt are not minerals
because they contain more than one compound.
 "Definite, but generally not fixed, composition" means that atoms, or groups of
atoms must occur in specific ratios. For ionic crystals (i.e. most minerals) ratios of
cations to anions will be constrained by charge balance, however, atoms of
similar charge and ionic radius may substitute freely for one another; hence
definite, but not fixed.
  "Ordered atomic arrangement" means crystalline. Crystalline materials are
threedimensional periodic arrays of precise geometric arrangement of atoms.
Glasses such as obsidian, which are disordered solids, liquids (e.g., water,
mercury), and gases (e.g., air) are not minerals.
 "Inorganic processes" means that crystalline organic compounds formed by
organisms are generally not considered minerals. However, carbonate shells are
minerals because they are identical to compounds formed by purely inorganic
processes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERAL
The physical properties of a mineral are determined by its chemical composition and
its crystalline structure. Within the limits of the permissible variation in chemical
composition, different samples of a single mineral species are expected to display the
same set of physical properties. These characteristic physical properties are therefore
very useful to the field geologist in identifying and describing a specimen (Zoltai &
Stout,1984). Properties which describe the physical appearance of a mineral specimen
include color, streak, and luster. Mass-dependent properties include density;
mechanical properties include hardness, cleavage, fracture, and tenacity. Properties
relating to the growth patterns and physical appearance of crystals, both individually
and in aggregate, are described in terms of crystal habit, crystal form, and crystal
system (Klein & Hurlbut, 1985).
1. Crystal form and habit (shape).
2. Luster and transparency
3. Color and streak.
4. Cleavage, fracture, and parting.
5. Tenacity
6. Density
7. Hardness
The standard minerals making up the Mohs scale of hardness are:
1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topas
9. Corundum
10. Diamond
This scale is approximately linear up to corundum, but diamond is approximately
5 times harder than corundum.
BRANCES OF MINERALOGY (Environmental Mineralogy
Environmental mineralogy deals with the minerals taking part in
constructing basic environmental systems. Minerals sometimes play crucial role
in environmental degradation. Rock layers excavated for mining, mine and
industrial waste dumps, abandoned mines, etc. are sources of minerals that may
lead to environmental pollution which is a matter of serious concern nowadays.
Environmental mineralogy, in an interdisciplinary approach, deals with the
interaction of the minerals with the biogeochemical environment.
The objective of the study of environmental mineralogy is to provide
detailed information regarding mineral-related environmental problems like
effects of minerals on human health, formation of surficial acidic environments,
microbe mineral interactions etc.
The scope of environmental mineralogical study is to carry out
mineralogical research that ultimately contributes to the development of effective
solutions to these problems. The primary parameters, needed to determine these
minerals, are identification of minerals, determination of quantity of the phases,
together with compositional and textural information, and also microstructure or
mineral surface chemistry. Apart from natural minerals, synthetic minerals are
also taken into consideration to study their effects on environmental mineralogy.
Environmental Mineralogy is also concerned with major issues such as the
remediation of polluted or contaminated sites; the sequestration of heavy
metal/metalloid and organic pollutants/contaminants in ecosystems; and the
disposition of waste (industrial, nuclear, etc.). In addition, the development of
novel technologies poses potential threats to organisms (e.g., the use of
engineered nanomaterials: section 5). Addressing such issues requires
molecular-scale knowledge about biogeochemical processes at mineral and
nanomaterial surfaces that can transform pollutants into less (or more) toxic
forms. It also requires knowledge of the defective nature of minerals, the
structural chemistry of disordered materials (nanophases, glasses, gels,
metamict minerals) and aqueous solutions, and the speciation of trace elements
in minerals, natural organic matter, and aqueous solutions. Although not usually
considered part of “classical” mineralogy, Environmental Mineralogy is emerging
as an important subdiscipline that helps explain the functioning of
biogeochemical systems, the interplay between contaminant and pollutant
release/sequestration/transport, and the impact of certain minerals or the
elements they contain (or release) on human health.
The relevance of Environmental Mineralogy to human health is illustrated
by the recognition that some minerals, such as asbestiform amphiboles and
certain fibrous zeolites (e.g., erionite), may pose significant health hazards to
 humans when inhaled (Guthrie and Mossman, 1993). In addition, a wide variety
of minerals and Earth materials such as coal contain contaminants/pollutants (Cr,
As, Se, Hg, Pb…) that can be released into the biosphere as a result of natural
chemical weathering or human activities. For instance, 800 tons of fly ash not
captured by particulate control devices in coal-fired power plants are released
daily in the USA, China and India (Lester and Steinfeld, 2007). Fly-ashes contain
known carcinogens (e.g., Cr and As in the forms of Cr(VI)O 42− and As(III)O33−,
respectively), whereas other pollutants released during the refining and
combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., Hg, in the form of CH 3Hg+, and Pb2+) can cause
neurological damage (Plumlee et al., 2006). The emerging field of Medical
Mineralogy and Geochemistry (Sahai and Schoonen, 2006) is closely related
to Environmental Mineralogy. In addition, minerals are projected to play a major
role in the long-term sequestration of CO 2 from the burning of fossil fuels (Guyot
et al., 2011), as well as in the long-term sequestration of nuclear waste materials
(Ewing, 2011, Libourel et al., 2011, Montel, 2011).

HISTORY OF MINERALOGY
Mineralogy is one of the oldest natural sciences and has a long and complicated
history. It shows very clearly a tendency found in all science, namely differentiation,
which reflects the development of our knowledge of the products of inorganic nature.
Some stages are clearly related to vari0us principles. The best mode of division
appears to be in accordance with the depth of our knowledge of the main features of
the nature of a mineral, which itself is dependent on the perfection of methods and
on the state of scientific concepts regarding minerals (Povarennykh, 1962 [1 J).
THE PRINCIPAL STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MINERALOGY
The recognition of mineralogy as a definite division of knowledge was preceded
by a long period of development of human understanding, which was a period of
accumulation of experience and insight, accompanied by the discovery of new and
hitherto unknown properties. Thought at first was crudely concrete, and logical abstract
thought developed only very slowly. During this period various rocks and minerals were
gradually introduced for use in work, tools, and medicine (Ives, 1958 [2]). At the end of
the Neolithic period, i.e., 6000-7000 years ago, the total number of mineral species and
varieties in use already exceeded 40 (Boldyrev, 1944 [3]; Ball, 1931 [4]; Petrun' , 1960
[5]). There is no doubt that men were well acquainted with the properties of minerals
and rocks. The oldest writings containing information on minerals are the Indian Vedas
(11th to 10th century B. C.). the Ramayana and Mahabharata (3rd to 2nd centuryB.C.)
(Belyaevskii.1958 [6]). some Chinese compilations (roughly 7th to 5th centuries B. CJ
(Tokarev, 1956 [7]; Tikhomirov and Khain, 1956 [8]), Theophrastus's "On Stones" (Lenz,
1861 [9]; Caley and Richards, 1956 [10]), and the writings of Pliny the Elder (Severgin,
1819 [11]; Ball, 1950 [12]). These all show that 2000-3000 years ago there was already
much experience in the identification and use of minerals, ores, and rocks. Particular
attention was given to precious metals and colored stones, which were often ascribed
magical powers (Mieleitner, 1922 [13]; Tertsch, 1947 [14]).
Of course, the science of mineralogy did not exist at that time. Science as we
mean it arose as a single undifferentiated body of knowledge, which in antiquity was
correctly called philosophy, which included all scientific ideas. During the great periods
of the Indian, Chinese, and classical cultures, the natural sciences were in an
embryonic state; as Engels [15] says, the Greeks had not reached the stage of analysis
or differentiation of nature.
Aristotle took the first steps in this direction when he dIvided nature into animal,
vegetable, and mineral, the last including all nonliving nature (the inorganic world),
encompassing various stonelike products of the vital activities of plants and animals.
From the classical period up to the start of the 16th century the science of the
inorganic world was a collection of isolated, mainly practical, pieces of information about
all forms of matter in this category, whether of natural origin (rocks, soils, ores, stones,
salts, and so on) or artifical (metals and alloys, pigments and enamels, and even glass
and porcelain) (King, 1870 [16]; Mieleitner, 1922 [13]; Adams, 1938 [17]). The unifying
features of these were purely superficial and based directly on practical uses.
Classification was primitive and uncertain, while origins were ascribed very vaguely,
often being fantastic. Science as a subject did not exist; the concept of a mineral (and
even the word) did not exist.
The Arab East and Central Asia attained a relatively high level in the recognition
of minerals, rocks, and other inorganic bodies in the early Middle Ages. There was
considerable progress relative to the ancient Indian and Chinese sources, especially in
the identification, classification, and production of minerals; but there were no essential
differences from the picture outlined above. The first to give separate consideration to
minerals and other inorganic substances were the following: The Persian alchemist
Jabir (721-815), the Arab philospher and mathematician Al Kindi (800-879), and the
Persian alchemist and phYSician Ar Razi (864-925) (Ruska, 1912 [18]; Mieleitner, 1922
[13]).