Basic mineralogy

S.K. Haldar, in Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology (Second Edition), 2020

3.1 Introduction
Mineralogy is the systematic study that deals with the characteristics of the individual and
group of minerals. The mineralogy has many more scientific branches. The first detailed
narratives considering all the minerals at that time authored by Dana (1951), and with a
subsequent enhanced update by Gaines et al. (1997). The concept of mineralogy (minerals)
and petrology (rocks) have been described by Pirsson (1947) and (Klein and Philpotts, 2012).
The various branches of mineralogy can broadly be grouped as follows:
1.
Crystallography studies crystal forms, that is, forms in which the minerals crystallize,
as well as their internal structure, relations, and distribution of atoms, ions, or ionic
groups in the crystal lattice.
2.
Physical mineralogy is the study of physical properties of minerals, such as
cohesion cleavage, elasticity, color, luster, streak, hardness, and average density
(Table 1.1).
3.
Optical, thermal, and magnetic properties, electrical conductivity, radioactivity, and so
on.
4.
Chemical mineralogy is the study of chemical formula (Table 1.1), percentage
contribution of individual elements, and other chemical properties of the minerals.
5.
Classification of minerals based on metallic/nonmetallic type (iron ore and quartz),
chemistry (oxides, sulfides, arsenide, and silicates).
6.
Descriptive mineralogy deals with the classification of minerals into groups based on
their common properties, mostly chemical and structural properties.
7.
Environmental mineralogy narrates the complex and very different conditions of the
origin of the minerals, explores the possible hazards associated with specific
minerals/elements or industry, if any, optimum consumption, recycling, and
sustainable development.
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Basic Mineralogy
S.K. Haldar, Josip Tišljar, in Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology, 2014
2.1 Introduction
Mineralogy is the systematic study that deals with the characteristics of minerals. The
mineralogy has more scientific branches such as the following:
1.
Crystallography studies crystal forms, i.e. forms in which the minerals crystallize, as
well as their internal structure, relations and distribution of atoms, ions or ionic groups
in the crystal lattice.
2.
Physical mineralogy is the study of physical properties of minerals, such as cohesion
(hardness, cleavage, elasticity, and density; refer Table 1.1), optical, thermal and
magnetic properties, electrical conductivity, and radioactivity, and so on.
 3.
Chemical mineralogy is the study of chemical formula (Table 1.1) and chemical
properties of the minerals.
4.
Environmental mineralogy studies complex and very different conditions of the origin
of minerals, understand element behavior in echo-systems, natural and industrial
effects of minerals, and mitigates potential contamination problems.
5.
Descriptive mineralogy deals with the classification of minerals into groups based on
their common properties, mostly chemical and structural properties.
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PALEOCEANOGRAPHY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
PROXIES | Terrigenous Sediments
S.R. Hemming, in Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, 2007
Mineralogy
Mineralogy by X-ray diffraction (XRD) provides important information on and weathering
history of marine sediments (e.g., Biscaye (1965)). For example, the kaolinite/chlorite of the
<2 μm fraction of surface sediments from the Atlantic Ocean gives an important first-order
view of the sources and processes responsible for distributing sediments in the ocean (Fig. 1).
Mineralogy by XRD has become a widely used tool in paleoceanography to constrain
weathering intensity as well as sources and transportation pathways.
Geographic variations in mineralogy can help to constrain sediment transportation processes.
For example, Petschick et al. (1996) made a more detailed map of the clay mineral
distribution in the South Atlantic Ocean than the one from Biscaye (1965). The summary map
from Petschick et al. (1996) is shown in Figure 3A, along with surface contributions and deep
current systems. An example of inherited ‘tropical’ signal is seen in the kaolinite-rich zone
near the Filchner-Ronne Ice shelf. Although deep currents represent an important means of
transporting sediment, for example, the tongue of chlorite-rich sediment in the western South
Atlantic along the South American margin, comparison of the clay province boundaries with
the distribution of surface currents in the South Atlantic (Fig. 3B), the bathymetry of the
South Atlantic (Fig. 3C), and the July and January average winds (Figs. 3D and E), it
becomes clear that surface currents (and/or the winds that drive them) are also responsible for
the first-order distribution of terrigenous sediments in the South Atlantic. Further support for
the importance of surface currents for distributing sediments from long-distance
transport comes from the emerging work of Franzese et al. (submitted), that makes a
compelling case for the importance of the Agulhas Current as a key pathway for sediment
transport around the tip of Africa.
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Figure 3. Maps of clay mineral distribution in the South Atlantic, along with regional deep currents and local,

near-continent surface currents (A) from Petschick R, Kuhn G, and Gingele F (1996) Clay mineral distribution in

surface sediments of the South Atlantic: Sources, transport, and relation to oceanography. Marine

Geology 130: 203–229), surface currents in the South Atlantic (B) from Open University Oceanography

Course Team (1989) Ocean Circulation, 238 p. Oxford/ New York: Pergamon Press; Milton Keynes, England:

The Open University), bathymetry of the South Atlantic (C), January winds (D), and July winds (E) from Open

University Oceanography Course Team (1989) Ocean Circulation, 238 p. Oxford/ New York: Pergamon

Press; Milton Keynes, England: The Open University. The distribution of clay provinces in the South Atlantic

appears to be controlled by a combination of surface and deep currents, and possibly surface winds.

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Geochemistry of Mineral Deposits
E.R. Ramanaidou, M.A. Wells, in Treatise on Geochemistry (Second Edition), 2014
13.13.2.6 Beneficiation of BIF/GIF
Mineralogy and grain size are two of the most critical parameters to beneficiate BIF.
Understanding the speciation of iron is important as Fe can also occur as silicates and
carbonates. Upgrading of a magnetite BIF/GIF to ore requires beneficiation
including pulverization, generally to less than 20–75 μm, to liberate the minerals and
magnetic separation sometimes followed by flotation to remove the quartz,
and hydrocyclone to collect the ultrafines in which the gangue minerals are removed to
generate a magnetite concentrate. Hematite BIF/GIF upgrading involves more complex
beneficiation as hematite is not magnetic. It also requires grinding as well as wet high-
intensity magnetic separation, and hydrocyclone to remove the ultrafines, spirals, and reverse
flotation.
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Mineralogy and Instrumentation
Johan P.R. de Villiers, Peter R. Buseck, in Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology
(Third Edition), 2003
I Introduction
Mineralogy is concerned with the inorganic materials of the universe and, as such, is an
essential component of the earth and planetary sciences; almost every aspect of the earth
sciences involves minerals. There are almost 5000 mineral species. However, only several
dozen of the so-called rock-forming minerals constitute the largest component of Earth's
crust, and these are of greatest geological interest. However, geological studies also include
minerals that occur in Earth's interior down to the extreme conditions at its inner core.
Minerals are the source of the basic inorganic commodities upon which our society relies.
They are the sources of all metals and provide the raw materials for industries and
applications that range from the cement and construction industry to computer chips and
lasers. They form the soils, supply the fertilizers that support agriculture, and constitute the
aquifers and oil reservoirs that are so important to our modern society. As gemstones, they are
used to adorn the human body and are used as instruments of wealth. There is even recent
evidence that minerals may have been involved in catalytic reactions that led to the very
development of life.
Mineralogy, and the instrumentation that is necessary to determine the structure, composition,
and properties of minerals, plays a central role in the various branches of earth sciences such
as petrology, structural geology, geochemistry, sedimentology, geophysics, and economic
geology. The minerals and their intergrowths determine the physical and chemical properties
of rocks and ores, they influence processes of ore beneficiation and extraction, and they offer
clues to the physical and chemical conditions that led to their formation. Mineralogy is
therefore an essential discipline in earth sciences, and knowledge of the structure, chemistry,
and physical properties of the constituent minerals is indispensable for the proper
characterization and use of rocks and ores. Such knowledge is also used for the deciphering of
the processes involved in the formation of the solar system, and Earth and its crust.
In this article the chemistry, structure, and properties of minerals will be discussed as well as
the instrumental methods used in their characterization and the reactions and transformations
that they undergo in response to changes in physical and chemical conditions.
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PERIGLACIAL LANDFORMS, ROCK FORMS |
Blockfields (Felsenmeer)
B. Rea, in Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, 2007
Mineralogy of the Weathering Products
The mineralogy of the weathering products is potentially a diagnostic tool for the weathering
origin and thus the age of blockfields, but must be treated with caution. Of greatest
importance are the clays that result from chemical weathering processes occurring at the
Earth’s surface, that is, not those produced by hydrothermal alteration or recrystallization at
depth. Controlling factors on the weathering process are:
1.
parent lithology which dictates the mineralogy
2.
climate, sub-divided into precipitation and temperature
3.
topography, combined with (2), controlling the water to rock contact area (drainage)
4.
age which controls the length of time exposed to weathering
Parent lithology and water/rock ratio control the clay minerals that are produced, temperature
controls the reaction rates, and time determines how far along a particular path the weathering
sequence has reached (Velde, 1992). The importance of time must be emphasized and is
highlighted in Figure 7. Even under unfavorable conditions of low reaction intensity and low
temperature, for example, high latitudes/altitudes, time alone may progress the chemical
weathering process toward clay mineral production. However, time has significant
implications for origin of blockfields in mid- to high latitudes, as discussed below.

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Figure 7. A weathering sequence shown as a function of reaction intensity and reaction progress. Given a

higher reaction intensity (e.g., greater water/rock ratio), less time is required to progress from minerals through

the weathering sequence. Alternatively, for a given reaction intensity increasing age will ultimately progress the

weathering process, while increasing temperature may counter a lower reaction intensity or decrease the exposure
 time. From Velde B (1992) Introduction to Clay Minerals: Chemistry, Origins, Uses and Environmental

Significance, 198p. London: Chapman and Hall.

Some generalizations are useful for understanding the generation and presence of clay
minerals, which may be present in blockfiled matrix sediments. Table 2 shows the major clay
mineral types and associated climates, but it must be remembered that local factors, including
parent lithology, inheritance, and age, will all influence the actual minerals found in any
location. Excluding dissolution of carbonate, in high-latitude/-altitude environments, low
temperatures and often limited availability of moisture ensure that chemical weathering is
curtailed. However, it is not absent, as surface and near-surface temperatures can be sufficient
to allow limited chemical weathering, but the production rates are likely to be extremely low
(Hall et al., 2002). This simply means that the presence of clay minerals (excluding
hydrothermal, diagenetic, or metamorphic sources) is not sufficient to interpret blockfield
matrix sediments as inherited from a past climatic regime. Rather it is a combination of clay
types and concentrations that better-represent inheritance from a previous weathering climatic
regime (e.g., Roaldset (1982), Dahl (1987), Hall et al. (1989), Rea et al. (1996a,
b), Marquette et al. (2004)). Given that even in the coldest and driest of environments, limited
chemical and mechanical weathering will still occur, no matter how slow, means that relict
autochthonous blockfields do not really exist. It should also be mentioned that aeolian
deposition could deliver clay minerals to a site, though no reports of such a source in
blockfields are known from the literature.
Table 2. Idealized, climate, weathering profile, and clay mineralogy relationships. It should be noted that the parent

lithology, local conditions, and inheritance will control the actual weathering products found in situ

Climate Depth to Predominant clays

rockhead (m)
Desert (hot and 0.1 Mostly inherited (mica chlorite)
cold)
Semiarid steppe 1.0 Smectite (salts, carbonate concentrations,
sepiolite-palygorskite)
Temperate 1.0 Illite, kaolinite, soil vermiculit, hydrated
oxides, (monor smectite)
Tropical wet 15 Kaolinite, hydrated iron aluminum oxides
Tropical dry 1.5 Smectite
Data from Velde B (1992) Introduction to clay Minerals: Chemistry, Origins, Uses and Environmental
Significance, 198p. London: Chapman and Hall.

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Crystallochemical Behavior of Slag Minerals and the
Occurrence of Potentially New Mineral Species From
Lapanouse-de-Sévérac, France
Glenn B. Stracher, ... Danuta Kusy, in Coal and Peat Fires: A Global Perspective, 2019
Abstract
Mineralogy and crystal chemistry of minerals constituting slags of the burnt Lapanouse-de-
Sévérac oil-shale gobs were examined in detail. The minerals and groups characterized
include anhydrite, apatite group, calcium ferrites, cancrinite group (giuseppettite and two
depmeierite-like species with latiumite and tuscanite members
involved), clinopyroxene subgroup, cuspidine, ettringite group, garnet group, hematite,
larnite, leucite, melilite group, nepheline, oldhamite, olivine group, perovskite, petalite-like
species, plagioclase, pseudobrookite, pyrrhotite, spinel group, titanite, vaterite, wollastonite,
ye'elimite, and numerous associating, accessory minerals. At least 16 potentially new mineral
species were found: V-analogue of fluorapatite; Ca–Al phosphate silicate fluoride;
“magnesiograndiferrite” amphibole-like phases A, B, and C; dominant ferri-gehlenite; Ca(Na)
titanate(niobate); “Ba-petalite” and “K-petalite” Mg–Ti-[] analogue of batiferrite; pyrrhotite-
like Fe10S9 phase; and two Zn-bearing Fe3+-Cr and Fe3+ oxides, “ferro-ferri-shulamitite” and a
supposed Ca pyrosulfate/disilicate. Most of the compounds analyzed have anomalous and far-
from-ideal compositions suggestive for large-bias formation conditions. Formation of
untypical solid solutions and small to moderate parts of many hypothetical end-members are
suggested to best describe the crystals chemistry. The slags may have formed in the mean
1150–1250°C thermal range.
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Carbonate Reservoirs
Clyde H. Moore, William J. Wade, in Developments in Sedimentology, 2013
Impact of Biologic Evolution on the Mineralogy of Carbonate Skeletal Sediments
The bulk mineralogy of carbonate skeletal sediments at any one instant of time is determined
by the skeletal composition and productivity of the organisms present in the depositional
environment. Each carbonate organism generates skeletal elements of a particular mineralogy
that is genetically coded. For example, gastropods have secreted aragonite shells since the
early Paleozoic, while coccolith tests have been composed of calcite since their appearance
in Mesozoic time. It stands to reason then that the mineralogy of carbonate skeletal sediments
has changed during the Phanerozoic as organisms appear, flourish, and ultimately disappear.
Figure 3.10 outlines the mineralogical evolution of benthic and pelagic organisms during the
Phanerozoic. The Paleozoic benthos was dominated by the organisms that secrete calcite and
magnesian calcite; the Mesozoic and Cenozoic benthos has been dominated by organisms that
secrete aragonite. As we will see in the succeeding chapters, the diagenetic potential and
ultimate porosity of a sedimentary sequence is closely tied to its original mineralogy.
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Figure 3.10. Mineralogical evolution of benthic and planktonic organisms during the Phanerozoic

Used with the permission of Elsevier.

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Lake Bonneville
K.A. Rey, ... S.T. Nelson, in Developments in Earth Surface Processes, 2016
10.4.3 Mineralogy
Mineralogy includes nonclays and clays. Nonclays are primarily quartz, orthoclase,
oligoclase, calcite, aragonite, and dolomite with minor amounts of halite and pyrite. Clays
are smectite and muscovite. Quartz, orthoclase, and oligoclase generally vary directly with
each other and so are plotted together in Fig. 10.14.
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Fig. 10.14. PVC 15 core depth vs mineralogy. Carbonate is combined calcite and aragonite. “Silicates” is

combined quartz, orthoclase, and oligoclase. Vertical axis is depth in cm, horizontal axes are wt%. Unit

boundaries are short dashed lines. Sand bed is labeled.

The silicate content in Unit V is very low, ranging from 0 to a few weight %. A large silicate
spike occurs at the base of Unit IV to almost 70%, followed by a decrease to an average value
of ~ 35%. Silicate concentrations in Unit III have an average value of about 50%. At the base
of Unit II, silicate concentration abruptly decreases to about 15% and then rises gradually to
about 40% at the top of the unit. Silicate concentrations are relative constant in Unit I and
vary between 30% and 40%.
Carbonate mineral concentrations of calcite, aragonite, and dolomite average 19%, 14%, and
7%, respectively, in PVC 15. The carbonate minerals are both primary and secondary
(Mueller and Foerstner, 1972). Calcite and aragonite are principally primary carbonate
minerals that precipitated out of the water column. However, the surrounding mountains do
contain limestone, so some of the calcite is likely detrital in origin. Dolomite may have
originated from the surrounding mountains as clastic debris, but its origin is uncertain.
Calcite abundance varies from 3% to ~ 5% in Unit V. In Unit IV it increases from 5% at the
base, to ~ 20% in the middle of the unit, then decreases to ~ 13% near the top. In Unit III
calcite concentration is relatively constant at ~ 20% with a few excursions. In Unit II calcite
concentration abruptly decreases at the base from ~ 30% to 13%. It gradually increases to
~ 21% at the top of the unit. In Unit I, calcite is relatively constant at ~ 21% from 97 to
36 cm, after which it decreases to ~ 16% (Fig. 10.15).
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Fig. 10.15. PVC 15 depth vs calcite and aragonite. Unit boundaries are short dashed lines. Sand bed is labeled.

Greater than 90% of Unit V is aragonite (Fig. 10.15). In Unit IV, aragonite is about 4.5%
where the silicate concentration is high, then varies between 15% and 30% over the rest of the
unit. In Unit III, aragonite forms only ~ 1% of the sediment, except for two excursions to a
maximum of 10%. At the base of Unit II, aragonite abruptly increases to > 55% and then
gradually decreases to < 15% just below Unit I. The aragonite content of the lower half of
Unit I ranges from ~ 15% to 22%, after which it decreases to ~ 4%.
Dolomite has lower overall abundance than either calcite or aragonite, ranging from ~ 2% to
14%. The lowest abundance of dolomite is in Unit V where it averages 2%. Dolomite abruptly
increases to 10% at the base of Unit IV, then decreases abruptly to ~ 5% for the remainder of
that unit. The dolomite concentration just above the sand bed (167 cm depth) is 10%.
Dolomite at the base of Unit II is ~ 4% but steadily increases to 11% near the contact with
Unit I. The abundance in Unit I from 97 to 72 cm averages 11% and above 72 cm the
concentration decreases to ~ 5%.
Other nonclay minerals include halite and pyrite. Except for the salt pan in the northeast part
of the playa, only small amounts of halite occur in four samples and are likely the result of
these samples not having been rinsed thoroughly during initial preparation. Pyrite occurred in
Units IV and III with an average abundance of ~ 1%.
The primary clay mineral is smectite with lesser amounts of muscovite. Variations in clay
mineral abundance typically mirror those of silicates, though the values differ. It should be
noted that RockJock11 does not do a good job of analyzing for smectite or other clays as their
maximum two-theta peaks typically occur below the 20 degree two-theta lower limit of
RockJock11 (Eberl, 2003). However, these clay minerals do have peaks above 20 degree two-
theta which allows RockJock11 to distinguish clay minerals from nonclay minerals above its
two-theta lower limit.
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Thermohydromechanical behaviour of soils and soil–structure
interfaces
Lyesse Laloui, Alessandro F. Rotta Loria, in Analysis and Design of Energy Geostructures,
2020
5.3.1 Mineralogy and textural organisation of soils
Mineralogy is a primary attribute of soils because it influences the size, shape
and properties of their solid particles. These properties, together with those of the pore fluid,
characterise the overall behaviour of soils by means of interactions between the phases that
constitute the material (e.g. solid and fluid). In this context, soil minerals can be classified
in clay and nonclay minerals. An example of a soil structure composed by clay minerals is
reported in Fig. 5.1.

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Figure 5.1. Schematic of the two main types of water in saturated soils: (i) free water, mainly in the

interaggregate space and (ii) adsorbed water located in the interparticle and interlamellar spaces.

Redrawn after Cekerevac, C., 2003. Thermal effects on the mechanical behaviour of saturated clays: an

experimental and numerical study. EPFL Lausanne.

Clay minerals belong to the family of phyllosilicates and are mostly characterised by a small
platy shape, but may also be characterised by a needle or a tubular shape. These minerals are
made of two structural units: the silicon tetrahedron, producing a silica
sheet (Si4O10)4− by the sharing of three of the four oxygen ions in each tetrahedron, and
the aluminium or magnesium octahedron, forming an octahedral sheet by the sharing of
oxygen or hydroxyls (Mitchell and Soga, 2005). The sharing of the aforementioned ions is
achieved via strong bonds of primary valence type. Weaker Van der Waals bonds hold
together the structural units in various ways depending on the type of clay, forming clay
minerals (or lamellae), such as kaolinite, illite and smectite. Clay particles (or stacks) are
formed by various lamellae. Clay aggregates are formed by various particles. Three classes of
pore space can thus be determined by the textural organisation of clays: (1) an interlamellar
space, with average size of 1.5–2.5 nm; (2) an interparticle porosity among connected clay
clusters, with an average size of 20–150 nm; and (3) an interaggregate space between
aggregates, defining a pore size of 1.5–16 μm (Touret et al., 1990; Robinet et al., 1996). The
structure of clay minerals results in a residual negative charge on the surface of the particle
 that is balanced by the adsorption of cations from solution (Mitchell and Soga, 2005),
resulting in so-called adsorbed water. The mechanical characteristics of adsorbed water are
quite similar to those of the solid particles. For the previous reason, absorbed water is often
considered a part of the solid particles (Hueckel, 2002). Cations in excess of those needed to
neutralise the negative charge of the particle and the associated anions are present as salt
precipitate, or in water solution when water is present (Di Donna and Laloui, 2013). The
adsorbed cations try to diffuse away but are tightly held to the surface. The charged surface
and the relative distributed charge in the adjacent phase are termed diffuse double layer
(Chapman, 1913). Only at a given distance from the clay particles can water be considered
free to move and is thus often termed free water. The water located in the interlamellar and
interparticle space is typically absorbed, while that located in the interaggregate space is free
(cf. Fig. 5.1). The amount of free and adsorbed water depends on the distribution and size of
the pores and the chemical properties of the water.
Nonclay minerals are primarily characterised by a bulky shape. Quartz is probably the most
abundant nonclay mineral occurring in soils, while feldspar and mica occur in smaller
percentages (Mitchell and Soga, 2005). In many cases, nonclay minerals are relatively inert.
Based on the above, interactions between clay minerals are in most cases predominantly
chemical in nature. In contrast, interactions between nonclay minerals are predominantly
physical in nature. Because of the intrinsically different features of clay and nonclay minerals,
the behaviour of soils is markedly influenced by the clay mineral fraction. The widely
established soil classification depending on the size of the particles constituting the solid
matrix of such materials allows the distinguishing of gravels, sands, silts and clays (ASTM
D2487, 2017). The gravel, sand and most of the silt fraction of soils are composed of nonclay
minerals. The clay fraction of soils is composed of clay minerals. Therefore in coarse-grained
soils (i.e. sands and gravels), interactions between particles are predominantly physical in
nature and self-weight forces are dominant; in contrast, in fine-grained soils (i.e. clays and
silts), interactions between particles are predominantly chemical in nature and surface forces
increasingly govern interactions with regards to self-weight forces for a decreasing particle
size (Laloui, 1993; Mitchell and Soga, 2005). In general, for a given soil mineral and
electrolyte, the magnitude of surface forces is proportional to the surface area of the solid
particles, while the magnitude of body forces is proportional to the volume of the solid
particles. As particle size decreases, surface forces diminish with the square of the particle
diameter, whereas volume forces diminish with the cube of the particle diameter.
Chemical interactions between particles inherently involve a higher sensitivity of the material
to temperature compared to a material whose interactions between particles are predominantly
physical. The previous fact implies a higher sensitivity to temperature of fine-grained soils
compared to coarse-grained soils.
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