Eg Unit-Ii

Engineering Geology Petrology
2.1 PETROLOGY
The study of rocks in all their aspects including their mineralogy, structures, textures, their
origin and their relationships to other rocks is termed as petrology. Petrography deals with the
descriptive part of the rock and petrogeny (geny= genesis= origin) deals with the mode of
formation of rocks. These to gather make petrology.
Rock: A Rock is a defined as an aggregate of mineral.
2.2 CIVIL ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE OF PETROLOGY
 Petrology is very important from the civil engineering point of view, because this
provides a proper concept and logical basis for interpreting physical properties of
rocks.
 Thus, the study of texture, structure, mineral composition, chemical composition, etc.
gives all necessary details regarding the strength, durability, colour, chemical
composition, etc of rocks.
 These inherent characters of rocks, concern for a civil engineer to judicious assess the
suitability at his project site for the required purpose.
 This is necessary because different kind of rocks are suitable for different specific
purpose and no rock is ideal or best suited for all kind of purposes of construction.
 For ex, granite-like rock being hard, competent, durable and free from weak planes is
suitable for foundation purposes. Stones like Cuddapah, slab and Shahabad type
limestone are suitable for flooring and roofing purpose. Marble by virtue of its
attractiveness colour and softness is the most sought for face work, statue making,
decorative and other sculptural work. Sandstone being easily workable can be neatly
dressed and hence are suitable for construction of wall.
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
The rocks are classified in various ways based on different principles such as physical
classification (as Stratified and unstratified), chemical classification as (Calcareous, siliceous
etc) geological classification (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic) etc. Among the different
classification, geological classification is the most proper because grouping of rock is more
logical, less ambiguous, orderly and comprehensive. The geological classification of rock is
based on mode of origin.
2.4 GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
Geological classification of rocks is based on their mode of origin. The rocks are classified
as;
 Igneous rocks (Ignum = fire(very hot))
Igneous rocks are formed by cooling and solidification of magma and Lava. Typical igneous
rocks are granite and basalt.
 Sedimentary Rocks
By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 1

Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the deposition and subsequent
cementation of the sediments at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water. Typical
sedimentary rocks are sandstone, limestone and shale.
 Metamorphic Rocks
A metamorphic rock is a result of a transformation of a pre-existing rock. The original rock is

subjected to very high heat and pressure, which cause physical and chemical changes.
Typical metamorphic rocks are marble, slate, gneiss, schist.
2.5 ROCK CYCLE
The three group of rock, i.e. Igneous, Sedimentary and metamorphic, which occurs in nature
give rise to one another as explained below
 Igneous rocks, as a consequence of weathering, gives rise to sedimentary rocks,

further under the influence of metamorphism they also give rise to metamorphic
rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks, when buried to great depths, form magma on melting and
subsequently solidify to form igneous rocks and under the influence of
metamorphism, change over to metamorphic rocks.
 The metamorphic rocks on weathering gives rise to sedimentary rocks and when
buried to great depths, form magma on melting and subsequently solidify to form
igneous rocks. Thus one group of rocks give rise to another in nature due to
geological reasons and this phenomenon is called 'Rock Cycle'.
Figure 2.1 Rock Cycle

2.6 IGNEOUS ROCKS (IGNUM = FIRE (VERY HOT))
Igneous rocks are formed by cooling and solidification of magma and Lava. If the molten
material is below the Earth’s surface, it is called magma or else it comes out about the
surface, it is known as lava.
2.6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Based On Depth of Formation
In terms of modes of occurrence i.e. depth of formation, igneous rocks can be either intrusive
(plutonic), extrusive (volcanic) or hypabyssal.
 Extrusive rocks are formed by solidification of lava; Volcanic Rocks.

 Intrusive rocks are formed by the crystallization of magma beneath the earth surface;
Plutonic rocks, Hypabyssal rocks.
Volcanic Rocks: The igneous rocks which are formed by solidification of lava at shallow
depths are called volcanic rocks. Rapid cooling and quick crystallization of lava makes faster
the process of solidification due to heat difference. The net result of all these processes is the
development of fine grained texture. Eg: Basalt.
Figure2.2 Basalt
Plutonic Rocks: The igneous rocks formed by crystallization of magma under high
temperature pressure at greater depths are called plutonic rocks. Greater pressure ensures
total crystallization of minerals formed and the hot surroundings slow down the process of
solidification. The net result of all these processes is the development of coarse grained
texture. Eg: Granite.
Hypabyssal Rock: The igneous rocks formed by solidification of magma close to the earth
surface under moderate temperature & pressures are called as hypabyssal rocks. Medium rate
of cooling causes for the formation of medium grained rocks.
Eg: Dolerite.

Figure 2.3 (a) Granite; (b) Dolerite
 Classification of Igneous Rocks Based on Silica %

Silica % Nature Examples
>65 Acidic Granite, Pegmatites; (coarse) ; Rhyolite (fine )
55 – 65 Intermediate Syenite (coarse) ; Trachyte (fine )
45 – 55 Basic Gabbro (coarse ); Basalt ( fine )
< 45 Ultra Basic Picrite, Peridotite , Dunite ( coarse )
2.6.2 MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

The igneous rocks are characterized by the abundance of only few minerals. The relative
abundance of different minerals in igneous rocks is as given below; (given by Clark);
Sno. Mineral (%)

1. Feldspars 59.5
2. Pyroxenes & Amphiboles 16.8
3. Quartz 12.0
4. Biotite 3.8
5. Titanium 1.5
6. Apatite 0.6
7. Accessory Minerals 5.8
From the above table, the most common minerals of igneous rocks are feldspar, amphiboles,
pyroxenes and quartz. The igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements like feldspar,
quartz and muscovite are referred as Felsic. These are generally light in colour, low specific
gravity and late crystallization products of magma. (Also called as salic minerals).
Rocks, which are relatively richer in pyroxenes, amphiboles, olivines, biotite, iron oxides
etc, are referred as Mafic. These are generally dark in colour and early crystallization
products of magma.(also called as femic or ferromagnesium minerals).
2.6.3 STRUCTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Structures and textures are physical features associated with the rocks. These occur along
with the formation of rocks and are important in view of civil engineering point because

 They contribute to the strength of rocks.

 They contribute to the weakness of rocks.
 They reveal mode of origin of rocks.
The term structure refers to shape or forms of rocks.
The common structures are vesicular structure, amygdaloidal structure, columnar structure,
sheet structure, flow structure and pillow structure.
1. Vesicular Structure
This structure is due to presence of pores in rocks, in nature commonly observed in volcanic
rocks. Most of the lava contains volatiles (gasses like CO 2, water vapour) which escape into
the atmosphere by creating various sizes and shapes of cavities near the surface of lava flow.
These cavities are called vesicles.
Eg: Scoria, is a volcanic rock of highly porous.
Eg: Pumice, a light rock with porosity even that floats on water.
Figure 2.4 Vesicular Structure

2. Amygdaloidal Structure
When secondary minerals such as calcite, zeolites, hydrated forms of silica (chalcedony,
agate, amethyst, opal) are filled in vesicles, in such a case it is said Amygdaloidal structure.
Eg: Deccan traps of India.(ie basalts).
Figure 2.5 Amygdaloidal Structure
3. Columnar Structure
Uniform cooling and contraction causes a regular or hexagonal form, which may result in
columnar structure. Eg: Columnar basalts, around 40 m high are seen at Andheri, Bombay.

Figure 2.6 Columnar Structure
4. Sheet Structure
In this structure, the rocks appear to be made up of a number of sheets, because of the
development of horizontal cracks. When erosion takes place, the overlying strata gradually
disappear and ultimately the plutonic rocks exposed to the surface resulting the development
of joints / cracks parallel to the surface. Thus, the horizontal joint planes are sometimes so
closely spaced as to produce a sheet structure. Eg: granite.
Figure 2.7 Sheet Structure
5. Flow Structure
In igneous rocks sometimes a bands or lines are seen over the surfaces which are caused by
flow of lava or magma during the solidification. Eg: Rhyolite.

Figure 2.8 Flow Structure
6. Pillow Structure
This type of structure contains characteristic pillow shaped structures that are
attributed to the extrusion of the lava under water, or subaqueous extrusion. Pillow
lavas in volcanic rock are characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-
shaped masses, commonly up to one metre in diameter.
Figure 2.9 Pillow Structure
2.6.4 TEXTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

The texture of a rock refers to the individual mineral grains of size, shape, and mutual
relations of mineral constituents and glassy matter in a rock. The different types of texture are
as follows;
1. Based on Degree of crystallinity
Depending on the nature of cooling, the textures in igneous rocks are categorized into
following;
 Rocks composed entirely of crystals are called holocrystalline (holo= completely);

 Rocks composed entirely of glass are holohyaline (hyaline = glassy or amorphous) ;
 Rocks that contain both crystals and glass are merocrystalline / hemicrystalline
(hemi= half).

Figure2.10 (a) Holocrystalline;(b) Holohyaline
2. Based on Granularity
The rocks that crystallized at depth are medium to coarse grained and those that crystallized
at shallow depth are finer grained. Based on the grain size of minerals present in the rocks the
texture may be categorized as;
 Phaneric texture: If minerals in the rock are big enough to seen by the naked eye, the
texture is said to be Phaneric. Eg: granite. Phaneric Igneous Rocks are further
subdivided into;
 Coarse Grain Texture ; (if size of grains in Rocks>5mm)
 Medium Grain Texture; (if size of grains in Rocks is between 1mm and 5mm)
 Fine Grain Texture ; (if size of grains in Rocks <1mm)
 Aphanitic texture: If minerals are too fine to be seen the texture is said to be
aphanitic. Eg: basalts. Aphanitic Igneous Rocks are further subdivided into;
 Microcrystalline Texture; ( if mineral grains are distinguished under
microscope)
 Cryptocrystalline Texture; ( if mineral grains are distinguished under
microscope, presence can be felt when they react with polarized light
Figure2.11 (a) Phaneric texture; (b) Aphanitic texture
3. Based on shape of crystals

Based on the shape of grains the texture is categorized into;

1. Euhedral, refer to grains that are bounded by crystal faces

2. Subhedral, grains that are bounded partly by some crystal faces
3. Anhedral, when crystal faces are absent, it is called anhedral.
Figure2.12 (a) Euhedral; (b) Subhedral; (c) Anhedral
Figure 2.13 Shapes of Crystals
4. Texture Based on Mutual Relation of Constituent Minerals of Rocks

 Equigranular Texture: If rock contains minerals grains of more or less equal size,
then they are said to have equigranular texture.
 Inequigranular Texture: If rock contains minerals grains of various size, then they
are said to have inequigranular texture.
Eg: porphyritic texture, ophitic texture, poikilitic texture, Seriate Texture.
 Porphyritic texture: Porphyritic rocks are composed of at least two minerals
having a conspicuous (large) difference in grain size.The larger grains are
termed phenocrysts and the finer grains either matrix or groundmass.
Porphyritic rocks are thought to have undergone two stages of cooling; one at
depth where the larger phenocrysts formed and a second at or near the surface
where the matrix grains crystallized.

Figure 2.14 Porphyritic texture

 Ophitic texture - In this texture random plagioclase laths are enclosed by
pyroxene or olivine. If plagioclase is larger and encloses the ferromagnesian
minerals, then the texture is subophitic . Eg: Basalt.
Figure 2.15 Ophitic texture
 Poikilitic texture: Small euhedral crystals that are enclosed within a large
mineral.
Figure 2.16 Poikilitic texture

 Seriate Texture : The grain size of minerals vary gradually from smallest to
the largest.

Figure 2.17 Poikilitic texture
 Intergranular texture: A texture in which the angular interstices between

plagioclase grains are occupied by grains of ferromagnesium minerals such as olivine,
pyroxene, or iron titanium oxides
5. Others
 Glassy Texture: Glassy textured igneous rocks are non-crystalline meaning the rock
contains no mineral grains. Glass results from cooling that is so fast that minerals do
not have a chance to crystallize. This may happen when magma or lava comes into
quick contact with much cooler materials near the Earth's surface. Pure volcanic glass
is known as obsidian.
2.6.5 PROPERTIES OF SOME IMPORTANT IGNEOUS ROCKS

GRANITE
Nature Plutonic igneous rock. Granites are unstratified but characterized by joints.
Colour Grey, greyish white, pink, some varieties multicoloured

Composition Essential minerals
Consists of quartz - > 20 – 30 %
Feldspars - 60% (orthoclase and plagioclase feldspars )
Accessory minerals
Mica, Amphibole like hornblende and pyroxene like augite.

Structure  Compact, Dense, massive and hard rock.

&Texture  Granites exhibit interlocking phaneric texture.
 Granites are usually equigranular but sometimes show
inequigranular texture in case of Porphyritic texture (feldspars
occur as phenocrysts).
Hand Granite is grayish or pinkish in color. Feldspar appears with white or

specimen brownish – red color. Quartz looks colorless.
Biotite is jet black and is found as small shining flakes. Hornblende is dark
greenish black.
Properties  Specific gravity of granite is 2.6 – 2.8

 Density = 2500 – 2650 kg/cm3;
 Compressive strength = 1000 – 2500 kg /sq cm
 Granite is very rich in silica; therefore it is very much resistant to
decay.
 Granites have the ability to take superb polish, and hence are
becoming increasingly popular for face works of construction.
 Granites offer reasonable fire and frost resistance, because minerals
are not many and these rocks are free from fractures.
Uses  Granite dimension stone is used in buildings, bridges, paving,

monuments, and many other exterior projects. Indoors, polished
granite slabs and tiles are used in countertops, tile floors, stair
treads and many other design elements
SYENITE
Igneous rock Plutonic Rocks. Composition is between acid and base.

Nature
Colour Light coloured

K-feldspar and oligoclase. The average syenite contains 80 - 85% feldspar.
hornblende,
Accessory minerals

Biotite and pyroxene.

Texture Generally equigranular coarse grained. Some varieties may show porphyritic
structure
Uses  Used in Flooring, Interior Decoration.
 As Dimension Stone, Cement Manufacture, Construction Aggregate,
for Road Aggregate.
DOLERITE
Intrusive Igneous rock. .

Nature
Colour Dark coloured, black or dark greenish black

Plagioclase Feldspars and pyroxene (augite). Augite forms nearly 50% of
rock.
Accessory Minerals
Iron oxide, Biotite and hypersthene
Structure &  Dense, massive and compact rock. Neither porous nor permeable.
Texture It is heavier than granites as it consists of mafic minerals.
 Texture in dolerites is generally equigranular. Interlocking texture
is also common in dolerite. Under the microscope, dolerite exhibit
Ophitic or subophitic texture
Properties &  Dolerite has all the merits and virtues possessed by granite, except
Uses its color.
 Since dolerites are more fine grained, they are stronger and more
competent they are stronger and more competent than granites.
 They are suitable as railway ballast, concrete or bitumen
aggregate, etc.

GABBRO
Nature Plutonic Igneous Rocks, Basic.
Colour Dark grey to black

Composition Plagioclase feldspar and mafic minerals are present in almost equal amount.
Essential mineral
Plagioclase feldspar.
Accessary minerals
Biotite, hornblende, olivine, ironoxides.
Texture Equigranular. Coarse to medium grained.
Uses Ornamental, Road metal, Concrete aggregate etc
DIORITE
Nature Plutonic rock, Silica % - 52-66% (Acidic – Basic)
Colour Speckled Black and White

Composition Essential mineral
Plagioclase feldspar
Accessory Minerals
Hornblende, biotite and some Pyroxenes
Texture Equigranular. Coarse to medium grained, Holocrystalline. Resembles granite.
Uses Construction Stone, Architectural Stone
BASALT

Volcanic Igneous Rocks. Composition basic to ultrabasic.

Nature
Colour Dark colour

Composition Essential mineral
Basalt consists of plagioclase feldspars, Pyroxenes and iron oxides.
Accessory Minerals
Biotite, hornblende and hypersthenes.
Structure &  Vesicular, amygdaloidal Structure. Columnar and flow structure also
Texture occur.
 Fine grained to glassy and Aphanitic texture. Abundant gas cavities
may occur near the top of basalt flows to make the rock vesicular
Properties &  Massive basalts are highly durable and the strongest. This is because
Uses not only they are compact, hard and tough but also more fine grained
than dolerite.
 Basalts are extensively used as building stones.
 As a road metal, the basalts are excellent for macadam and bitumen
roads. They are hard, tough and wear-resisting and have good binding
properties.
2.7 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary Rocks are those formed due to weathering (which is a natural process of
disintegration and decomposition) and / or erosion of the pre-existing rocks. These are also
formed due to chemical precipitation or due to accumulation of organic remains such as
plants and animal hard parts. Since, the sediments represent secondary; these rocks are also
called as “Secondary rocks”.
2.7.1 FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The formation of sedimentary rocks takes place in three stages:
(1) Weathering and erosion of pre existing rocks,

(2) Sedimentation, and
(3) Lithification and diagencsis.
Weathering and Erosion

During weathering and erosion, the pre-existing rocks and their constituent minerals are
broken down. The material thus produced is called the "sediment". The sediments are usually
transported and deposited in areas of accumulation by the action of water or less frequently
by glacial or wind action. During transportation, the sediments are roughly sorted and
deposited according to size. Bigger rocks fragments, such as gravel, settle first, sands are next
in order and clays are deposited in the last. The minerals which are dissolved by the water
travel in solution.
Sedimentation
The process of accumulation of sediments at a site of deposition is called the

"sedimentation". The material carried in solution precipitates and accumulates. Sedimentation
is the intermediate stage in the formation of sedimentary rocks.
Lithification and Diagenesis
"Lithification" is a process by which soft and loose sediments are converted into hard and
firm rocks. During this process many physical and chemical changes takes place within the
sediment. Such a change is described as “diagenesis”.The diagenesis include three processes:
(i) Compaction; (ii) Cementation; (iii) Recrystallization.
2.7.2 CLASSIFIATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The sediments, from which sedimentary rocks are formed, are divided into two major groups:
i. Clastic sediments, and

ii. Non-clastic sediments,
 Clastic Sediments
"Clastic sediments" are broken fragments of pre-existing rocks. Clastic rocks are formed by
the mechanical accumulation of grains of clastic sediments. Depending upon the size of
constituent grains, the clastic rocks are classified into, three groups;
i. Rudaceous rocks,
ii. Arenaceous rocks, and
iii. Argillaceous, rocks.
i. Rudaceous Rocks
These rocks are formed by accumulation of bigger rocks fragments such as gravels, pebbles
and boulders.
 If the grains are rounded, the rock is called "conglomerate" and

 If the grains are angular, the rock is termed as "breccia".
ii. Arenaceous Rocks

These rocks are composed almost entirely of sand.
When individual grains are rounded, the rock is called -‘sandstone".
When individual grains are angular, the rock is called -‘girt".
iii. Argillaceous Rock
These rocks are made up of very fine grained clay sized sediments. "Shale" and "mudstone"
are typical argillaceous rocks which are composed of clay-sized sediment.
 Non-Clastic Sediments
Non clastic rocks are formed by chemical precipitation of minerals from water or by
accumulation of remains of animals and plants. They are classified into two groups;
chemically formed rocks, and organically formed rocks.
Chemically formed Rocks
These rocks are formed when mineral matter in solution is precipitated from water, usually
because of changes in water temperature or in the chemical content of water. Such chemical
derived from the dissolution of materials from older rocks and subsequent transportation of
dissolved chemical substances into a sea or lake. On the basis of composition, the chemically
formed are classified as follows;
Carbonate Rocks
"Limestones." and "Dolomites" are the most abundant carbonate rocks. They are formed by
the chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate from sea water.
Salt Rocks
The salt deposits formed by the evaporation of saline lakes are called the "evaporites". The
principal minerals of these deposits are chlorides and sulfates of Na, K, Mg and Ca. Rock-
salt, gypsum and anhydrite are most abundant minerals of evaporites. They commonly form
massive beds.
Ferruginous Rocks
This group includes those rocks which are formed by the chemical precipitation of iron
oxides. Such rocks contain a high proportion of iron-bearing minerals% such as siderite,
hematite, chamosite and pyrite.
Siliceous Deposits
Siliceous rocks are formed when silica is precipitated from water.
Eg: Flint, jasper.
Organically Formed Rocks

These rocks are composed mainly of remains of animals or plants. Organically formed rocks
are subdivided into two groups:
(i) biochemical rocks,and

(ii) organic rocks.
Biochemical Rocks
The biochemical sediment is produced when plants and animals living under water, extract
from it dissolved mineral matter, usually calcite, to form shells or other hard parts. These
shells accumulate on the ocean floor to form sedimentary rocks. An example of the
biochemical rock is "shell - limestone".
Organic Rocks
Rocks containing organic matter belong to this group. An example of such rocks is "coal".
These are also called as "carbonaceous rocks".
2.7.3 MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION
The minerals of sedimentary rocks can be divided into two major groups;
 Minerals which are resistant to weathering;
• Quartz
• K- Feldspar
• Mica
• Plagioclase
 Minerals which are products of chemical weathering
Olivine, Clay minerals such as Kaolinite, Montmorillonite, Illite and chlorite etc
Detrital sedimentary rocks consist mainly of the most resistant rock-forming minerals such as
quartz, K-feldspar, mica and sometimes plagioclase. Small amounts of garnet, zircon and
spinel may also occur.
Sedimentary rocks which are formed from the inorganic or organic precipitation of minerals
frequently contain calcite, argonite, gypsum, halite, hematite, siderite and chert.
In addition to the detrital minerals and chemical precipitates, sedimentary rocks may contain
minerals (Kaolinite, Montmorillonite, Illite) and chlorite. These minerals result from the
weathering of primary silictes such as feldspar’s, olivines and pyroxenes.
2.7.4 STRUCTURE

The important structural features of sedimentary rocks are stratification, graded bedding,
current bedding, ripple marks.
Stratification
All sedimentary rocks are in general, characterized by stratification. Deposition of sediments

into layers or beds is called the “stratification". The planes dividing different beds are called
the "bedding planes".
Figure 2.18 Stratification
Graded Bedding
Graded bedding usually occurs within a single bed where there is variation in grain size from
large/coarse near the bottom to fine/small near the top.
Figure 2.19 Graded Bedding
Cross Bedding or Current Bedding
Cross bedding occurs as a result of the sloping of the sub parallel planes within and at an
angle to the main bedding plane. They are produced by deposition of sediments high velocity
moving water and strong winds and hence not all bedding structure is originally horizontal.

Figure 2.20 Cross Bedding
Ripple Marks
The ripple marks occur on top of beds and are due to water movements over the bed during
its formation. Their presence indicates higher water speeds involving the movement of coarse
particles in the bed-load. The ripple marks are of two types; Symmetric and Asymmetric
ripple marks.
Figure 2.21 Ripple Marks
Mud Cracks
Mud cracks also occur on top of beds where drying out of sediments causes them to contract
forming polygonal cracks e.g. those in dried up lake beds and in tidal mud flats. Mostly found
in fine grained sedimentary rocks.

Figure 2.22 Mud Cracks
Rain prints
• Formed due to impact of rain drops.
• Formed when rain showers on smooth surface of fine grained sediments.
Figure 2.23 Rain Prints
Tracks and trails
• Markings indicating the passage of some animal over the soft sediments.
Figure 2.24 Tracks and Trails
2.7.5 TEXTURE
“Texture" means the size, shape and arrangement of grains in rocks.
Based on Grain Size
Grain size is an important factor in description of rocks. Depending on size of particles,

sediments are classified into pebbles, gravels, sand, silt and clay. Each type of sediment form
particular type of rocks;

Grade Grain Size Rock type

Pebble, 10 mm and above Conglomerate
Gravel 2 mm to 10 mm
Sand 0.1 mm to 2 mm Sandstone
Silt 0.01 mm to 0.1 mm Siltstone
Clay Less than 0.01 mm Shale
Based on Arrangement of Grains
In sedimentary rocks all the grains of the rock may not be of the same size. Sediments
containing mainly grains of one grade only, are said to be "well assorted' or "graded”.
Sediments which contain grains of various grades in nearly equal amount are said to be
"Poorly sorted".
Figure 2.23 (a) Well Sorted (b) Poorly Sorted
Based On Shape of Grains
Rounding: The rock fragments are being transported; they collide with other fragments and
become less angular i.e. more rounded. The chemically formed rocks may contain rounded
concretions. If they are of the size of a pin head (size 1 mm), the texture of the rock is said to
be “oolitic”and if they are of the size of a pea, the texture is described as 'pisolitic".
Figure 2.24 (a) Oolitic Texture (b) Pisolitic Texture

2.7.6 PROPERTIES OF SOME IMPORTANT SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

CONGLOMERATE
Consolidated gravels
Nature
Colour Variable Colour
Mineral  Rounded pebbles are set in a fine grained matrix.
Composition  The matrix commonly consists of sand or silt and it is
cemented by silica, calcium carbonate or iron oxide.
 The individual pebbles may be entirely composed of
quartz or may be rock fragments that have not been
decomposed.
Texture Very coarse grained.
Varieties  If the rock contains angular or subangular fragments, it is

called "BRECCIA".
 The angularity of rock fragments in breccia suggests that
this material could not have travelled very far from its
source.
Uses Ornamental purpose
SANDSTONE
Arenaceous.
Nature
Colour  Colour variable according to the type of Cementing
material.
 Rocks having silica or calcite as their cementing material
are light in colour,
 Rocks containing iron oxide are red to reddish brown
Mineral Composition  Quartz is the chief mineral constituent.
 Small amounts of feldspar, mica, garnet, etc. may also
occur.
 Cementing material may be silica, calcite, iron oxide, clay
or chlorite.

Texture Well sorted, sub-angular to rounded sand grains texture. The

texture of sandstone is:
(i) "coarse grained' when the size of grains is between 2 to
0.5 mm,
(ii) "medium grained", when the size of grains is between
0.5 to 0.25 ,mm, and
(iii) “Fine grained", when the size of grains is between 0.25
to 0.1mm.
Structure Stratification, current bedding, ripple marks and rain prints.
SHALE
Argillaceous, Shales are often soft and can be scratched by a knife.

Nature
Colour Colour variable
Mineral Composition  Shales are composed mainly of clay mineral kaolinite,
montmorillonite and illite.
 Small amounts of other minerals such as quartz, mica and
chlorite are also present.
Texture Very fine grained with grain size less than 0.01 mm.
Structure Lamination, ripple marks and some organic structures may be

present.
Uses Cement manufacture, light weight materials
LIMESTONE
Calcarious rock is formed chemically or organically. Often

Nature contains fossils. Limestones are identified by their softness, fossil
content and effervescence in dilute hydrochloric acid.
Colour white, grey or cream coloured

Mineral Composition  Calcium carbonate is the chief constituent.

 Magnesium carbonate is also present in variable amounts.

 Chalcedony, silt and clays are present as impurities.
 Some limestones may also contain calcarious shells of
marine animals.
Texture Limestone is a fine grained rock. Some limestones may have

oolitic structure.
Structure Compact and massive.
Uses Building stone, Road metal
2.8 DYKES AND SILLS
Igneous rocks are formed out of hot magma or lava. The lava on solidification over the
earth’s surface gives rise to Extrusive igneous rocks while the magma on solidification below
the earth’s surface gives rise to intrusive igneous rocks. Igneous intrusions occur in different
sizes and forms depending on the conditions during the formation of intrusion. e.g. Dykes
and Sills are the common forms. If the intrusion is parallel to the layering in the host rock, it
is called as a sill whereas the intrusion cutting across the trend of the host rock, it is called as
a dyke.
Dykes
Dykes are the common form of igneous rocks and are vertical or inclined intrusive igneous
bodies. Dykes occurs cutting across the bedding planes of the country rocks in which they are
found. Due to forceful pressure, magma intrudes through the fractures, cracks, joints, shear
zones, weak planes and subsequent solidification of this gives rise to dykes.
The dimensions of dykes vary widely. They may be long (50-60 km ) and thick (upto 30 m).
eg: dyke of midland of Scotland or t hey may be short upto to a few m and thin a few cms.
Though different rocks may appear as dykes, dolerite dykes are the most common.
Sills
Sills are similar to dykes but are formed due to penetration of magma into bedding planes of
country rocks. The spreading capacity depends on the viscosity of magma, its temperature
and the weight of the overlying rocks. Sills which spread over large.
Eg: The great whin soil of England spreads over 3900 sq.km.
Eg: 2 Karroo sills (dolerite composition) spreads over 510000 sq km in South Africa.

Figure2.25 Dykes and Sills
2.8 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
“Metamorphic rocks" are formed from the older rocks when they are subjected to increased
temperature, pressure and shearing stresses at considerable depth in the earth's crust. The
older rocks may be sedimentary, igneous or other metamorphic rocks. During metamorphism
recrystallization takes place essentially in the solid state and new minerals and new textures
are produced.
As a result of Metamorphism;
1. Granite changes to Granitic Gneiss
2. Peridotite (Ultrabasic) changes to Serpentine / Talc Schist.
3. Gabbro changes to Hornblende Schist.
4. Sandstone changes to Quartzite.
5. Limestone changes into Marble.
6. Shale changes into Slate.
Agents of Metamorphism
The agents which bring about metamorphic changes in the rocks are;
(i) heat,
(ii) uniform pressure,
(iii) Directed pressure or stress, and
(iv) Chemically active fluids and gases.
Heat
Within the earth, temperature increases with depth. In the outer parts of the earth, the
common cause for elevated temperature is the intrusion of hot igneous bodies.

Uniform Pressure
The static pressure on rocks is caused by deep burial. This pressure is due to the weight of the
overlying rocks. As temperature gradient exists within the earth, the static pressure is usually
associated with higher temperatures.
Directed Pressure
Directed pressure or stress operates during folding movements that accompany mountain
building. Generally directed plays an important role near the earth's surface. As the depth
increases, the effect of directed pressure decreases and that of uniform pressure increases.
Chemically Active Fluids and Gases
Chemically active fluids and gases when pass through the pores of rocks, they bring about
changes in their original composition. The source of these chemical agents is generally the
intrusive igneous body within the country rocks.
2.8.1 PROCESSES OF METAMORPHISM
The processes which operate together in the effected rock to bring about metamorphism are
(i) granulation, (ii) plastic deformation, (iii) recyrstallization, and (iv) metasomatism.
Granulation: The process where crushing of rocks takes place without loss of coherence, is
called the "granulation.
Plastic Deformation: When a solid is subjected to stresses its shape changes. On the removal
of stresses if the solid does not regain its original shape, it is said to be plastically deformed.
Recrystallization: "Recrystallization" means either the formation of new minerals or

formation of new crystals of the pre-existing minerals. Recrystallization causes mineralogical
and textural changes in rocks during metamorphism.
Metasomatism: "Metasomatism" is the process in which the original composition of rocks

are changed primarily by the addition or removal of material. This change is caused by the
movement of hydrothermal fluids through rocks usually under high temperatures and
pressures.
2.8.2 TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
 Contact or thermal metamorphism – driven by a rise in temperature within

the host rock
 Hydrothermal metamorphism – chemical alterations from hot, ion-rich
water
 Regional metamorphism
 Occurs during mountain building
 Produces the greatest volume of metamorphic rock
 Rocks usually display zones of contact and/or hydrothermal metamorphism

2.8.3 MINERAL COMPOSITION
These minerals can be divided into three groups; (i) stress minerals, (ii) antistress minerals,
and Relict minerals.
Stress minerals are formed under condition of stress or directed pressure. They are usually
flat, tabular, enlongated or flaky in nature and grow parallel to the direction of least pressure.
Examples of stress minerals are micas, chlorite, talc, albite, amphihole, kvanite and staurolite.
The antistress minerals" develop mainly under conditions of uniform pressure. These
minerals are often dimensional in form. Examples of antistress minerals are pyroxenes,
olivine, andalucite, sillimanite, cordierite and spinel.
Relict minerals: Complete recrystallization is not always possible and therefore certain
original minerals continue to survive in the metamorphic rocks. These original minerals
which have failed to react to the conditions of temperature and pressure, are called the "relict
minerals”.
2.8.4 TEXTURE OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Foliated Texture: Foliated texture results whenever the minerals and structural features of a
metamorphic rock are forced into parallel alignment
Figure 2.26 Foliation Texture
Crystalloblastic Texture: The holocrystalline texture of metamorphic rocks is called the

"crystalloblastic texture”. This texture develops due to recrystallization of mineral grains in
the solid medium. The crystals showing perfect crystal outline are called as idioblasts, while
those do not have any definite shape are called as xenoblasts.
Porphyroblastic Texture: When large crystals embedded in a fine grained groundmass, then
texture is called "porphyroblastic”. The large well-shaped crystals of this texture are referred
to as "por-phyroblasts" or "metacrysts".

Granoblastic Texture: In a metamorphic rock if the major constituents are granular or

equidimensional, the texture is called "granoblastic".
Palimpest Texture: The remnant texture of the parent rock found preserved in the
metamorphic rock, is called "palimpest texture"
2.8.5 STRUCTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Cataclastic Structure: Cataclastic structure is found in rocks such as crush breccias and
mylonites. These rocks are formed mainly under the influence of shearing stresses in the
upper zones of the earth's crust. Harder constituents of rocks are broken into pieces while
softer ones are crushed to Powder.
Eg Hornfels.
Gneissose Structure: Both equidimensional ( quartz, feldspars, pyroxenes, calcite) and other
platy and prismatic minerals occur in considerable proportions and they appear in alternating
bands.
Eg: Granitic Gneiss.
Schistose Structure: If a rock consists of only prismatic or platy minerals without any
segregation is called a Schistose structure. (equidimensional minerals will be negligible)
Eg: Mica schist, Chlorite schist, Hornblende schist, Kyanite schist.
Granulose Structure: Only equidimensional minerals present in the Metamorphic rocks.

Prismatic or platy minerals will be either negligible or absent.
Eg: Marble, Quatzite.
Slaty Structure: During the transformation of shale to slate, clay minerals recrystalize into
minute mica flakes. These platy mica crystals become aligned so that their flat surfaces are
nearly parallel. Consequently, slate can be split easily along these layers of mica grains into
flat slabs. This property is called rock or slaty cleavage.
2.8.6 IMPORTANT METAMORPHIC ROCKS
GNEISS
Colour Different shades of grey pink, generally pale Coloured

Mineral Composition  Quartz and feldspar occur together in light coloured bands
with alternate dark bands of ferromagnesium minerals such
as biotite and hornblende.

Texture Medium to Coarse grained, generally equigranular but sometimes

porphyroblastic.
Structure Gneissose Structure
Uses Gneiss is similar to granite hence

 Used as foundation rock if present at site
 Building stones
 Aggregate, road metal
 Railway ballast
 Facing stones.
SCHIST
Colour Colour varies according to mineral composition

Mineral Composition Main Minerals
Mica is major minerals.
Accessory minerals
Garnet,staurolite,kyanite,sillimanie,hornblende.
Texture Coarse grained metamorphic rocks, foliated texture
Structure Schistose Structure, splits easily into thin sheets along the plane of
schistosity
Uses Schists are weak, incompetent, harmful and undesirable rock from
civil engineering point of view.
SLATE
Colour Generally grey to black but may be yellow, brown and red
Mineral Composition Mixture of Mica and Chlorite with some quartz and feldspar.

Texture Fine grained metamorphic rocks
Structure Slaty Structure, splits easily into thin sheets

Uses Slates are dense, fine grained, impermeable and relatively resistant
to decay. Slates are soft and incompetent, they cannot withstand
great loads.
 Thus cannot be Used as foundation rock if present at site,
Building stones, Aggregate, road metal
 Can be used for flooring and roofing.
MARBLE
Colour Uniform colour throughout the rock. Colour variable. Pure marble
is milky white in colour.
Mineral Composition Composed mainly of grains of calcite. Small amount of olivine,
mica, talc etc may also present.
Texture Fine grained metamorphic rocks
Structure Granulose Structure

Uses  Marbles is well known for its beautiful appearance and easy
workability.
 Though it is non porous and competent, but if it is present
at the site it cannot be used as foundation stone.
 Used for face work, wall panels, flooring, statue making,
table tops etc.
 Also used for monumental works, polishing etc.
QUARTZITE
Colour Uniform colour throughout the rock, generally white or pale

coloured, but yellow, brown, red, grey, green may also occur.
Looks fresh and shiny.

Mineral Composition  Quartz is essential minerals.

 Other minerals like mica, garnet, feldspar, pyroxene etc
may present in small quantities.
Texture Variable, some rocks are fine grained others may be coarse
grained.
Structure Granulose Structure. Crystalline, dense and compact.

Uses  Silica composition of rock makes it highly durable and very
hard.
 Quartzites are strong and hard, hence workability and
dressing becomes very tough.
 Used as railway ballast, concrete aggregate, paving blocks
etc.
CHARNOKITE
Colour Dark coloured

Mineral Composition  Rich in felsic minerals like quartz and microcline,
 Mafic minerals, full of pyroxene and olivine
Texture Medium grained to coarse grained.
Structure Granulose Structure.
KHONDALITE
Khondalite is a foliated metamorphic rock. It is also called Bezwada Gneiss and Kailasa
Gneiss. It was named after the Khond tribe of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh because well-
formed examples of the rock were found in the inhabited hills of these regions of
Eastern India.

2.9 SOIL, SOIL PROFILE
Regolith: Any solid unconsolidated material lying on top of bedrock is called "regolith". It
includes soil, alluvium, and rock fragments weathered from the bedrock. The thickness of this
mantle varies from nil over rock exposures to very deep in areas protected from erosion.
Soil: A portion of the regolith which supports the growth of plants is called as “soil". Thus
soil is a combination of minerals, organic matter, water and air.
Soil Profile: A sufficiently deep cut into the soil usually shows some fairly distinct layers. In
the figure as shown below contains a series of horizontal layers. These layers are called as
horizons. The 4 basic horizon from top to bottom are A, B, C and D.
Figure2.27 Soil Profile
A-Horizon: It is the upper most layer of the soil profile. It is also called "surface soil". This
layer contains organic matter and micro-organisms. In this layer the greatest biological
activity takes place.
B-Horizon: The B-horizon is also called "subsoil". This inter-mediate zone is also called the
"zone of accumulation" as much of the material which is leached out from A-horizon, is
deposited here.
C-Horizon: It consists of the partly altered parent rock material.
D Horizon: This horizon consists of unweathered parent bed rock.
2.10 GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
Soil types may be classified on the basis of their geological origin. The origin of a soil may
refer either to its constituents or to the agencies responsible for its present status.

Based on constituents, soil may be classified as:
1. Inorganic soil
The inorganic fraction, which comprises the bulk of most soils, is derived from rocks and
their degradation products.
2. Organic soil
Organic soil consists of plant and animal residues at various stages of decomposition, cells
and tissues of soil organisms, and substances synthesized by soil organisms.
Based on the agencies responsible for their present state, soils may be classified under
following types:
1. Residual Soils
In plain areas the products of rock weathering continue to accumulate in place over the parent
rock masses and give rise to a “Residual Deposists".
Eg Laterite etc
2. Transported Soils
The weathered and broken rock materials are eroded from one place to another by natural
agencies such as wind, water, ice or gravity. The deposits of soil formed in this manner are
called as transported soil deposits.
 Alluvial or sedimentary soils

 Aeolian soils
 Glacial soils
 Lacustrine soils
 Marine soils
Transportation agency Nature of Soil

Rivers Alluvial Deposits
Lakes Lacustrine Deposits
Sea Marine Deposits
Wind Aeolian Deposits
Glacier Glacial Deposits

2.11 ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
The size of the soil particles is extremely variable. It ranges from a big boulder to fine clays.
As per the Indian Standard Soil classification system the nomenclature of soil particles
according to size is given in Table. The soil containing mixture of clay and sand is called
"loam", and the clayey soil having appreciable lime content is called "marl".
Sediment Name Size Range

Boulder 300mm or more
Cobble Between 300 – 80 mm
Gravel Between 80 – 4.75 mm
Coarse Sand Between 4.75 – 2 mm
Medium Sand Between 2 – 0.425 mm
Fine Sand Between 0.425 – 0.075 mm
Silt Between 0.075-0.002mm
Clay <0.002 mm
2.12 DESCRIPTION OF INDIAN SOIL
Six Different Types of Soils Found in India are as follows;
1. Mountain soil
 In the mountain regions of the country.

 Immature soil with low humus and acidic

2. Forest soil
 Regions of high rainfall.

 Humus content is less and thus the soil is acidic.
3. Alluvial soil
 Mostly available soil in India (about 43%) which covers an area of 143 sq.km.
 Widespread in northern plains and river valleys.
 In peninsular-India, they are mostly found in deltas and estuaries.
 Humus, lime and organic matters are present.
 Highly fertile.
 Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputhra plain, Narmada-Tapi plain etc are examples.
 They are depositional soil – transported and deposited by rivers, streams etc.
 Sand content decreases from west to east of the country.
 New alluvium is termed as Khadar and old alluvium is termed as Bhangar.
 Colour: Light Grey to Ash Grey.
 Texture: Sandy to silty loam or clay.
 Rich in: potash
 Poor in: phosphorous.
 Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed etc are cultivated mainly.
4. Red soil
 Seen mainly in low rainfall area.

 Porous, friable structure.
 Absence of lime, kankar (impure calcium carbonate).
 Deficient in: lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus and potash.
 Colour: Red because of Ferric oxide. The lower layer is reddish yellow or yellow.
 Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.
 Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potato etc are cultivated.
5. Black soil
 Regur means cotton – best soil for cotton cultivation.

 Most of the Deccan is occupied by Black soil.
 Mature soil.
 High water retaining capacity.

 Swells and will become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.
 Self-ploughing is a characteristic of the black soil as it develops wide cracks when dried.
 Rich in: Iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum and magnesium.
 Deficient in: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and organic matter.
 Colour: Deep black to light black.
 Texture: Clayey.
6. Laterite soil
 Name from Latin word ‘Later’ which means Brick.

 Become so soft when wet and so hard when dried.
 In the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.
 Formed as a result of high leaching.
 Lime and silica will be leached away from the soil.
 Organic matters of the soil will be removed fast by the bacteria as it is high temperature
and humus will be taken quickly by the trees and other plants. Thus, humus content is
low.
 Rich in: Iron and Aluminum
 Deficient in: Nitrogen, Potash, Potassium, Lime, Humus
 Colour: Red colour due to iron oxide.
 Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane and Cashew nuts are cultivated mainly.
7. Desert / arid soil:
 Seen under Arid and Semi-Arid conditions.

 Deposited mainly by wind activities.
 High salt content.
 Lack of moisture and Humus.
 Kankar or Impure Calcium carbonate content is high which restricts the infiltration of
water.
 Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal.
 Texture: Sandy
 Colour: Red to Brown.
2.13 SOIL EROSION AND CONSERVATION
Washing away of top soil by different agents of gradation and human activities is called as
soil erosion.

2.13.1 TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
 Soil Erosion due to running water: It is caused by the action of water, which
removes the soil by falling on as rain drops as well as by its surface flow action.
Depending upon the form of the lost soil it may be;
(a) Sheet erosion: The removed soil is like a thin covering from large area. This sheet is lost
more or less uniformly.
(b) Rill erosion: If sheet erosion occurs with full force, the runoff water moves rapidly over
the soil surface cutting well defined finger-shaped groove like structures, appearing as thin
channels or streams.
(c) Gully erosion: This results due to the convergence of several rills (thin channels formed
during rill erosion) towards the steep slope, which form together wider channels (grooves) of
water, known as gullies.
 Soil Erosion due to wind: It is common in dry (arid) region where soil is chiefly
sandy and the vegetation is very poor or even absent. Once the top soil is laid bare to
the fury of strong winds, it gets blown off in the form of dust storm and sand storm.
 Landslides or slip erosion: The hydraulic pressure caused by heavy rains increases
the weight of rocks at cliffs which come under the gravitational force and finally slip
or fall off.
 Stream bank erosion: The rivers during floods splash their water against the banks
and thus cut through them. Particularly at meanders. This type of erosion is known as
riparian erosion.
 Deforestation and over-grazing: Deforestation makes soil cover vulnerable for wind
and water erosion. Over grazing is a major hazard affecting pastures, forests, and
mountains. Grazing destroys the little cover and enhances wind and water erosion.
2.13.2 METHODS OF CONTROLLING SOIL EROSION /SOIL CONSERVATION
 Biological methods: It includes the use of plant of vegetation cover.

(i) Agronomic practices: It includes natural protection by growing vegetation in a manner
that reduces soil loss. These are:
(a) Contour farming: In which preparation of fields with alternate furrows and
ridges to reduce water flow.

(b) Mulching: It is effective against wind as well as water erosion. Some plants as
maize stalks, cotton stalks etc.., are used as a 'mulch' (a protective layer formed by the
stubble). Mulches reduce soil moisture evaporation and increase amount of soil moisture by
addition of organic matter to soil.
(c) Crop rotation: It decreases soil loss and preserves the productivity of land.
(d) Strip cropping: It involves the planting of crop in rows or strips to check flow of
water.
 Mechanical methods: These methods are used as supplements to biological methods.

These are:
(i) Basin listing: i.e. to construct small basin along the slope to intercept and divert the runoff
water.
(ii) Contour terracing: To construct a channel along the slope to intercept and divert the
runoff water. This may be:
(a) Channel terrace: To dig channels at suitable intervals and the excavated soil
deposited as a wide, low, ridge along, the lower edge of the channel.
(b) Broad based ridge terrace: i.e. to construct ridge along both the sides of the
channel:
(c) Bench terrace: To construct a number of platforms along contours or suitable
graded lines across the slope.
 Other methods: These include;
(i) Stream bank protection: To grow vegetation alongside the river bank, to construct
drains, concrete or stone Pitching etc. for checking & cutting and carving 'of riverbanks.
(ii) Afforestation: Afforestation is the establishment of a forest in an area where there was
no previous tree cover.
2.14 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
As per IS codes the different engineering properties of rocks are;
1. Compressive Strength
2. Shearing Strength
3. Density
4. Porosity
5. Toughness
6. Resistance to abrasion

7. Durability
1. Compressive Strength or crushing strength: Compressive strength is the capacity
of a material to withstand loads tending to reduce its size. It can be described as the
maximum load per unit area which rock can withstand without undergoing failure. IS-
9143-1979 is used to determine the unconfined compressive strength of the rocks.
2. Shearing Strength: Shear strength is the strength of a rock against the type of yield
or structural failure where the rock fails in shear. A shear load is a force that tends to
produce a sliding failure on a rock along a plane that is parallel to the direction of the
force. Direct shear strength test, indirect shear strength test are used for evaluation of
shear strength of rocks.
3. Density: Density is defined as mass per unit volume of rock.
Eg Density of Granite is 2500 to 2700 kg/m3
Density of sandstone is 2600 kg/m3
4. Porosity: Porosity is the percentage of void space in a rock. It is defined as the ratio
of the volume of the voids or pore space divided by the total volume. It is written as
either a decimal fraction between 0 and 1 or as a percentage.
Eg: Granites – 0.1 -0.5 %,
Sandstone – 5-25%
5. Toughness: Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically

deform without fracturing. The toughness can be determined by impact test for single
stone and impact test for aggregates.
6. Resistance to abrasion: Abrasive resistance is the resistance offered by rock to
mechanical wear and tear. The abrasive resistance of rock is generally determined by
Dorry’s Abrasion testing machine.
7. Durability: Durability is a very important requirement of good building stone. The
durability o0f stone can be determined by subjecting stone samples to the weathering
action. Smith’s Tests, acid test are used to determine the durability of rocks.

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Engineering Geology Petrology

Rock: A Rock is a defined as an aggregate of mineral.

2.2 CIVIL ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE OF PETROLOGY

2.4 GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

 Igneous rocks (Ignum = fire(very hot))

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 1

A metamorphic rock is a result of a transformation of a pre-existing rock. The original rock is

2.5 ROCK CYCLE

 Igneous rocks, as a consequence of weathering, gives rise to sedimentary rocks,

Figure 2.1 Rock Cycle

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 2

2.6 IGNEOUS ROCKS (IGNUM = FIRE (VERY HOT))

 Extrusive rocks are formed by solidification of lava; Volcanic Rocks.

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 3

Figure 2.3 (a) Granite; (b) Dolerite

 Classification of Igneous Rocks Based on Silica %

2.6.2 MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Sno. Mineral (%)

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 4

 They contribute to the strength of rocks.

Figure 2.4 Vesicular Structure

Figure 2.5 Amygdaloidal Structure

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 5

Figure 2.6 Columnar Structure

Figure 2.7 Sheet Structure

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 6

Figure 2.8 Flow Structure

Figure 2.9 Pillow Structure

2.6.4 TEXTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

 Rocks composed entirely of crystals are called holocrystalline (holo= completely);

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 7

Figure2.10 (a) Holocrystalline;(b) Holohyaline

Figure2.11 (a) Phaneric texture; (b) Aphanitic texture

3. Based on shape of crystals

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 8

1. Euhedral, refer to grains that are bounded by crystal faces

Figure2.12 (a) Euhedral; (b) Subhedral; (c) Anhedral

Figure 2.13 Shapes of Crystals

4. Texture Based on Mutual Relation of Constituent Minerals of Rocks

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 9

Figure 2.14 Porphyritic texture

Figure 2.15 Ophitic texture

Figure 2.16 Poikilitic texture

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 10

Figure 2.17 Poikilitic texture

 Intergranular texture: A texture in which the angular interstices between

2.6.5 PROPERTIES OF SOME IMPORTANT IGNEOUS ROCKS

Colour Grey, greyish white, pink, some varieties multicoloured

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 11

Structure  Compact, Dense, massive and hard rock.

Hand Granite is grayish or pinkish in color. Feldspar appears with white or

Properties  Specific gravity of granite is 2.6 – 2.8

Uses  Granite dimension stone is used in buildings, bridges, paving,

Igneous rock Plutonic Rocks. Composition is between acid and base.

Colour Light coloured

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 12

Biotite and pyroxene.

Intrusive Igneous rock. .

Colour Dark coloured, black or dark greenish black

By Sk Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS Page 13

Nature Plutonic Igneous Rocks, Basic.

Colour Dark grey to black

Uses Ornamental, Road metal, Concrete aggregate etc