5.

PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK

FORMATION
5.1 The rock cycle
With a few exceptions, rocks are made of minerals. Some minerals break
down chemically and form new minerals and a rock finds itself in a new
physical setting. There are three major types of rocks:
• igneous,
• sedimentary and
• metamorphic.
Igneous rocks form when magma from the mantle or core solidifies. If
magma is brought to the surface by a volcanic eruption it may solidify to
form extrusive igneous rocks. Magma may also solidify very slowly beneath
the surface. The resulting intrusive igneous rocks may be exposed later by
uplift and erosion. The igneous rock being out of equilibrium may the
undergo weathering and the debris produced is transported and ultimately
deposited as sediment.
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5. PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK
FORMATION
• If the unconsolidated material is cemented or otherwise
consolidated into a rock, it becomes a sedimentary rock. As the
rock is buried by additional layers of sediment and sedimentary
rock, heat and pressure increase. Tectonic forces may also
increase the temperature and pressure.
• If the temperature and pressure become high enough, usually at
depths greater than several kilometres below the surface, the
original sedimentary rock is no longer at equilibrium and re-
crystalizes. The new rock that forms is called a metamorphic rock.
If the temperatures are too high, the rock melts and becomes
magma, completing the cycle. This cycle can be repeated.
However the is no reason to expect all rocks to go through each
step in the cycle.
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 Figure 5.1 : Diagrammatic presentation of the rock cycle

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 5. PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK
FORMATION
5.2 Types of rocks
IGNEOUS ROCKS
a) Formation of igneous rocks
- The word 'igneous' is derived from Latin, meaning fire. Igneous rock
formation takes place by subsequent cooling and solidification of moulten
material.
- Below the surface the molten rock is called magma; at the earth's surface it
becomes lava, although nothing has changed except the name.
- The fresh magma is white hot, brilliant enough that you would have trouble
looking at it. But as it cools it turns yellow, and then various shades of red.
Eventually it cools enough to solidify completely and form an igneous rock.
- The process occurs when the parent rock is fractionated, that is split into two
fractions each with a composition different from the parent. Fractionation
may occur during crystallization of magma, or melting of a preexisting rock.
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FORMATION
- On an earth time scale, igneous fractionation is responsible for
the formation of all the world's volcanic arcs and continents, the
implication being, the earth began without continents, and the
total size of the continents has grown with geologic time.
- A final outcome of all this is that different igneous rocks are
found in different places on the earth, and all these different
distributions are related to plate tectonic processes, and to the
history of the earth.
- The upper 16 kilometres of Earth's crust is composed of
approximately 95% igneous rocks with only a thin, widespread
covering of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
- Granite and basalt are the two most abundant igneous rocks at
the earth's surface.
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 5. PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK
FORMATION
b) Importance of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are geologically important because:
- their minerals and global chemistry give information about the composition of
the mantle, from which some igneous rocks are extracted, and the temperature
and pressure conditions that allowed this extraction, and/or of other pre-existing
rock that melted;
- their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of radiometric dating and
thus can be compared to adjacent geological strata, allowing a time sequence of
events;
- their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic environment,
allowing tectonic reconstitutions
- in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for
example, tungsten, tin, and uranium are commonly associated with granites and
diorites, whereas ores of chromium and platinum are commonly associated with
gabbros.
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FORMATION
c) The major characteristics of igneous rocks.
i) Normally contains no fossils
ii) Rarely reacts with acid
iii) Usually has no layering
iv) Usually made of two or more minerals
v) May be light or dark coloured
vi) Usually made of mineral crystals of different sizes
vii) Sometimes has openings or glass fibres
viii) May be fine-grained or glassy (extrusive)
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 5. PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
d) Classification of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are broadly classified according to mode of occurrence,
texture, color and composition
i) Chemical composition and colour
• There are approximately 900 different varieties of igneous rocks
identified on the basis of chemical composition of magma, rate of
cooling and temperature of solidification. On the basis of its
chemical composition, igneous rocks are classified as ultrabasic,
mafic, intermediate and felsic.
• Ultrabasic igneous rocks have less than 45% silica. Examples are
picrite and komatiite. These rocks are very dark in colour.
• Mafic (basic) rocks have silica content, 45-52 % by weight. Mafic
rocks are dark colored, hard and dense and are also known as silica
deficient rocks. Other chemicals include calcium and iron oxides,
aluminum oxides and magnesium
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oxides. Gabbro and basalt are 8the
Engineering Geology
most common types of mafic rocks.
 5. PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
• Intermediate igneous rocks contain between 52 - 63% SiO2. Example are
andesite and dacite.
• Felsic (acid) rocks contain more than 65% silica oxides. Aluminum oxide,
potassium oxide and sodium oxide are other chemical compounds present
in felsic rocks. The rock is light in color and contains low percentage of
iron and magnesium oxides. The most common types are granite and
rhyolite.
• There are some special igneous rocks known as alkalic igneous rocks with
5 - 15% alkali (K2O + Na2O) content or with a molar ratio of alkali to silica
greater than 1:6. Examples are phonolite and trachyte
ii) Texture
1. Glassy - instantaneous cooling (hours to days) forms Obsidian = volcanic
glass
2. Aphanitic - fine grain size (< 1 mm); result of quick cooling (days to weeks)
e.g. rhylite, basalt and andesite
3. Phaneritic - coarse grain size; visible grains (1-10 mm); result of slow
cooling (thousands to millions of years) e.g. granite, diorite and gabbro
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 5. PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
4. Pegmatitic - very large crystals (many over 2 cm) e.g granite pegmatite or pegmatitic granite
mainly in dykes
5. Porphyritic- Mixture of grain sizes caused by mixed cooling history; slow cooling first, followed
by a period of somewhat faster cooling.
a. Terms for the textural components:
i. Phenocrysts - the large crystals
ii. Groundmass or matrix - the finer crystals surrounding the large crystals. The groundmass may
be either aphanitic or phaneritic.
b. Types of porphyritic textures:
i. Porphyritic-aphanitic
ii. Porphyritic-phaneritic
c. Origin: mixed grain sizes and hence cooling rates, imply upward movement of magma from a
deeper (hotter) location of extremely slow cooling, to either:
i. a much shallower (cooler) location with fast cooling (porphyritic- aphanitic), or
ii. a somewhat shallower (slightly cooler) location with continued fairly slow cooling (porphyritic-
phaneritic).
d. Rock name = porphyry
i. Granite porphyry or porphyritic granite (porphyritic-phaneritic) - phenocrysts usually potassium
feldspar
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 5. PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
6. Vesicular - contains tiny holes called vesicles which
formed due to gas bubbles in the lava or magma. Very
porous. May resemble a sponge. Commonly low density;
may float on water. Examples are basalt, pumice and scoria
a. Vesicular basalt - basalt with vesicles, which may be quite
large. Sometimes lined with crystals to form geodes.
b. Pumice - light in color; white to gray; may be glassy or
dull. Fully riddled with holes. Very sponge-like. Floats. Used
as an abrasive. (Pumice stone, Lava Soap).
c. Scoria - dark in color; brown, black, or dark red; similar to
vesicular basalt but is fully riddled with holes to form a
spongy mass. (May find in barbecue grills as lava rock).

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 5. PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
7. Pyroclastic or Fragmental - pieces of rock and ash come out of a volcano and get
welded together by heat. May resemble rhyolite or andesite, but close examination
shows pieces of fine-grained rock fragments in it. May also resemble a sedimentary
conglomerate or breccia, except that rock fragments are all fine-grained igneous or
vesicular.
a. Tuff - made of volcanic ash
b. Volcanic breccia - contains fragments of fine-grained igneous rocks that are larger
than ash
iii) Mode of occurrence
In terms of modes of occurrence, igneous rocks can be either intrusive (plutonic),
extrusive (volcanic) or intermediate (hypabyssal).
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the
crust of a planet. Surrounded by pre-existing rock (called country rock), the magma
cools slowly, and as a result these rocks are coarse grained. The mineral grains in such
rocks can generally be identified with the naked eye. Intrusive rocks can also be
classified according to the shape and size of the intrusive body and its relation to the
other formations into which it intrudes. Typical intrusive formations are batholiths,
stocks, laccoliths, sills and dykes.
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 5. PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Sedimentary rocks are the second great rock class. Whereas igneous
rocks are born hot, sedimentary rocks are born cool at the Earth's
surface, mostly under water. They usually consist of layers or strata,
hence they are also called stratified rocks. Sedimentary Rocks are
formed by the accumulation and subsequent consolidation of
sediments into various types of rock. The key is the sediments.
Sediments are unconsolidated material and have different origins.
• Ultimately, the origin of these sediments is the weathering, erosion
and/or the chemical breakdown of other rocks. These "other" rocks
could be igneous, metamorphic or even other sedimentary rocks.
The type and size of the sediments and how they are formed will
lead to the classification of the different sedimentary rocks into
three classes: biochemical, clastic and evaporative sedimentary
rocks.

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 PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS…
• No matter what type of sedimentary rock, water is almost always a
key component. The only real exception to this is desert wind
blown sediments. All other rock types involve water is some way
and generally in an important way.
• The biochemical rocks come from water born organisms. Clastic
rocks are usually water transported, sorted and deposited.
Evaporative rocks are of course derived from chemicals dissolved in
water. Where there is water, there are sedimentary rocks being
formed.
• Another common factor to sedimentary rocks is that they originate
on the surface of the Earth, unlike most igneous and metamorphic
rocks which originate in the interior of the Earth's crust. Anyone
can actually see many sedimentary rocks form or at least see the
sediments that will become sedimentary rocks prior to their
lithification (literally "turning into stone").
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 PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS…

• The lithification of the sediments is usually accomplished by a

cementing agent. Once the sediments are no longer loose
sediments, but cemented together grains or crystals, they become
a rock. What happens to sediments from this stage on is called
diagenesis.
• Diagenesis is important to study in sedimentary rocks. It includes
the study of the compaction of the rock, physical conditions,
chemical alterations and biological interactions. Cementation is
usually the first aspect of diagenesis, but cementation can be
episodic, reversed and recementation can occur.
• Compression of the rocks can change the banding and increase
chemical alterations. Chemicals can leave or enter a rock through
pore space waters, and minerals can crystallize, or dissolve, or
become hydrated or oxidized or chemically changed in other ways.
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SEDIMENTARY ROCKS…

• Temperature increases can alter the characteristics of the rock

as well. If too much heat and pressure occur during diagenesis
then the rock may wander into the regime of metamorphism.
• The most important types of diagenesis involve the formation
of dolomite mineralization in limestones, the formation of
petroleum and of higher grades of coal and the formation of
many types of ore bodies. The industrially important zeolite
minerals also form by diagenetic processes .
• Geodes are another type of sedimentary rock. They form when
minerals in aqueous solution crystallize on the interiors of
cavities. This may occur in typical sedimentary formations, or
as ground water penetrates igneous formations

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 PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS…
i) Biochemical or organic sedimentary rocks
• Are formed in the sea as snails and clams as well as microscopic organisms (planktons)
build shells out of dissolved calcium carbonate or silica. Dead organisms steadily shower
their dust-sized shells onto the seafloor, where they accumulate in thick layers. That
material turns to two more rock types, limestone (carbonate) and chert (silica). Although
the origin of the sediments are organic, most of the chemicals that the living organisms
used to produce their shells or their body parts have origins from previous rocks.
• Thus these are sedimentary rocks, but with a biogenic intermediate so to speak. Another
type of sediment forms where dead plant material builds up into thick layers. With a
small degree of compaction, this becomes peat; after much longer and deeper burial, it
becomes coal. Coal and peat are organic in both the geological and the chemical sense.
• Although peat is forming in parts of the world today, the great beds of coal we mine
formed during past ages in enormous swamps. There are no coal swamps around today,
because conditions do not favour them. The sea needs to be much higher. Most of the
time, geologically speaking, and the sea is hundreds of meters higher than today and
most of the continents are shallow seas. That's why we have sandstone, limestone, shale
and coal over the world's continents.

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 PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS…
ii) Clastic sedimentary rocks
• The most common set of sedimentary rocks consist of the granular materials that occur in
sediment: mud and sand and gravel and clay. Sediment mostly consists of surface minerals
(quartz and clays) that are made by the physical breakdown and chemical alteration of rocks
(Feldspar and other minerals may also be in sediment if they have not had time to break
down). These are carried away by water or wind and laid down in a different place. Sediment
may also include fragments from other rocks and shells and other objects, not just grains of
pure minerals. These fragments are called clasts, hence the term clastic.
• Sand and mud is carried down rivers to the sea, mostly. Sand is made of quartz, and mud is
made of clay minerals. As these sediments are steadily buried over geologic time, they get
packed together under pressure and low heat, not much more than 100°C. In these
conditions the sediment is cemented into rock: sand becomes sandstone and clay becomes
shale.
• If gravel or pebbles are part of the sediment, the rock that forms is conglomerate. If the rock
is broken and recemented together it is called breccia. Often clastic rocks can have their clasts
analyzed and the original source rocks can be determined if the clasts have not been moved
too far from the source or have not been worked and reworked into sedimentary rock after
sedimentary rock. Glacial till from a large continental glacier can be analyzed and the origin of
the glacier's debris could be determined and therefore the possible path of the glacier could
be determined.
• It's worth noting that some rocks commonly lumped in the igneous category are actually
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 PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS…
iii) Evaporative or chemical sedimentary rocks
• Are formed from the generally inorganic deposition of chemicals, usually through
evaporation of a chemical rich solution. These chemicals generally have their
origin from the chemical weathering of other rocks or other sediments. They are
found where some ancient shallow seas became isolated and dried up. As the
seawater evaporates, more concentrated minerals begin to come out of solution
(precipitate), starting with calcite, then gypsum, then halite (sodium chloride or
table salt).
• The resulting rocks are certain limestones or dolomites, gypsum rock, and rock
salt respectively. These rocks, called the evaporite sequence, are also part of the
sedimentary clan. Unlike clastic sedimentary rocks, the direct origin of the
chemicals is rarely easy to identify. The chemicals could come from magma deep in
the crust of the Earth, rocks that dissolved in the ocean billions of years ago or
from an outcrop in the hillside next to a playa lake. Sometimes the origin can be
figured out and sometimes there is no way to know the originating source. In some
cases chert can also form by precipitation. This usually happens below the
sediment surface, where different fluids can circulate and interact chemically.

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 PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
METAMORPHIC ROCKS

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Metamorphic rocks are those which have been changed inside the
Earth's crust by heat, pressure and chemical activity. Both igneous
and sedimentary rocks can be metamorphosed, a word which
means changed completely. Some rocks are metamorphosed over
thousands of square kilometres.
• This happens when rocks that have been buried deep in the Earth
return to the surface through earthquakes or the erosion of the
rocks above them. This is known as regional metamorphism.
Contact metamorphism occurs in rocks that lie close to where
new igneous rocks have been thrust up to the surface. This heats
the existing rocks up and changes them. Contact metamorphism is
often found in the rock surrounding a dyke.
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 PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
METAMORPHIC ROCKS…

Metamorphic rock terms

Gneiss
Gneiss is a regional metamorphosed rock. The parent rocks are often sedimentary, but
some gneisses have formed from granite-like igneous rocks. The main minerals include
feldspars, biotite and muscovite. Gneiss is coarse-grained, with irregular banding. The
colour varies from light, in gneisses derived from granite, to dark in rocks derived from
sandstones. Gneiss occurs worldwide. In Kenya they are found in Ukambani Area. They
are formed under considerable pressure. It is sometimes used as a building stone. The
name comes from an old German word meaning to give off sparkles.
Hornfels
Hornfels is a contact metamorphic rock, derived from clays. The main minerals include
quartz, feldspars, andalusite and biotite. The colour may be pink, brown, violet or
green. Hornfels contains crystals enclosing other crystals of different minerals. It
occurs in Scotland, Norway, France and the Sierra Nevada, California. It has no
particular use. Its name comes from a German word meaning horn rock, referring to
its lustre.
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METAMORPHIC ROCKS…

Marble
Marble is formed by both regional and contact metamorphism. The parent rock is
limestone, recrystallized, and the main mineral is calcite. The colours vary from pure
white to a mosaic of red, green or brown streaks and patches. Marble is found all over
the world, sometimes in huge quantities such as the 130km long bed in Vermont, USA,
which contains marbles of several different colours. The most famous marble comes
from Carrara, Italy. It has been used by sculptors for hundreds of years. The name
marble comes from a Greek word meaning to sparkle.
Schist
Schist is the name given to a variety of regional metamorphic rocks, which vary
according to the main minerals in them and the parent rocks. Schists can be identified
by the parallel arrangement of most of their minerals. The name schist comes from a
Greek word meaning to split. Mica schists come from clayey sedimentary rocks, and
contain mica (biotite and muscovite) and quartz. Chlorite schists come from lava, and
the main mineral is chlorite. Talc schist is greasy to the touch, like the mineral talc
which is its main ingredient.

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 PHYSCO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION
METAMORPHIC ROCKS…

c) Marble
a) Gneiss b) Hornfels

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METAMORPHIC ROCKS…
Migmatite
Migmatite is the name given to a type of composite rock which is a mixture
of two pre-existing rocks. The country (original) rock is some kind of
metamorphic rock which is remelted when it is invaded by either magma or
a hydrothermal solution. The formation takes place far below the surface.
Migmatites are found worldwide, in rocks more than 560 million years old.
The origin of the name is uncertain. They are used as building stone.
Quartzite
Quartzite is a regional metamorphic rock made up entirely or mostly of the
mineral quartz, hence its name. The parent rocks are many kinds of quartz-
rich sedimentary rocks, for example greywacke or flint. Pure quartzite is
white, but if there are other minerals present it may be grey - even black if
dark minerals such as biotite are included. It is found worldwide. It is
abundant in the Scottish Highlands, and in the USA there are large deposits
in the Carolinas. Quartzite is used in buildings as flooring and as a facing
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stone. It is also used in glass and Engineering
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METAMORPHIC ROCKS…
Skarn
Skarn is formed by the metamorphism of limestones in contact with
granites. Volatile fIuids containing boron, chlorine and fluorine take iron,
magnesium, manganese and silicon from the granitic rock into the
limestone to form new minerals. It is found in northern England, Scotland
and Ireland and is common in Sweden, Japan, parts of Central and South
America and the USA. Skarn is often a source rock for copper, iron,
manganese and molybdenum. The name is of uncertain origin.
Slate
Slate is a contact metamorphic rock, and the parent sedimentary rocks are
mostly clays or shales. The main minerals include andalusite, biotite and
muscovite. It is found worldwide, especially in Wales, Scotland, Norway,
Finland, France and the Sierra Nevada, California. Slate is usually grey or
black. It splits easily into thin sheets which are used for roofing and as
flagstones. The name comes from an Old French word meaning to splinter
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METAMORPHIC ROCKS…

a) Migmatite b) Scarn c) Quartzite

d) Slate

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