Geology Strength Rocks

Subject Geology
Paper No and Title Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Influence of Different Geological Structures on Civil
Module No and Title
Engineering Constructions
Module Tag HG & EG XI
Principal Investigator Co-Principal Investigator Co-Principal Investigator

Prof. Talat Ahmad Prof. Devesh K Sinha Prof. P.P. Chakraborty
Vice-Chancellor Department of Geology Department of Geology
Jamia Millia Islamia University of Delhi University of Delhi
Delhi Delhi Delhi
Paper Coordinator Content Writer Reviewer
Dr. Shashank Shekhar Dr. M. Masroor Alam Prof. Vinay Jhingran

Department of Geology Department of Civil Engineering Department of Geology
University of Delhi Aligarh Muslim University University of Delhi
Delhi Aligarh Delhi
Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

GEOLOGY Module: Influence of Different Geological
Structures on Civil Engineering Constructions
Table of Content
1. Learning outcomes
2. Introduction
3. Objectives of Structural Geology and its Application in Civil
Engineering
4. Factors Controlling the Deformation of Rocks
4.1 Lithology
4.2 Lithostatic Pressure
4.3 Pore Fluid Pressure
4.4 Temperature
4.5 Strain Rate and Time
5. The Basic Structures
6. Contacts
7. Joint
7.1 Genetic Classification
7.1.1 Tectonic Joints
7.1.2 Non-Tectonic Joints
7.2 Geometric Classification
7.3 Joint Parameters and their influence on Rock Mass
Properties
7.3.1 Number of Joints per unit area/volume
7.3.2 Joint Spacings
7.3.3 Orientation or Attitude
7.3.4 Block Size and Shape
7.3.5 Length and Depth Persistence
7.3.6 Aperture or Openness
7.3.7 Asperities or Roughness
7.3.8 Joint Filling Material
7.3.9 Presence of Water

8. Shear Zone
9. Fault
9.1 Genetic and Geometric Classification
9.2 Identification and Effect of Faulting
9.2.1 Fault Plane Criteria
9.2.2 Topographic Criteria
9.2.3 Geological Criteria
9.2.4 Types of Faults and its relation to Major
Stress Directions
9.3 Influence of Faults on Major Geo-Engineering Projects
10. Fold
10.1 Genetic and Geometric Classification
10.2 Plunging Fold
10.3 Effect of folding
10.4 Fold and its relation to Major Stress Directions
10.5 Influence of Folds on major Geo-Engineering Projects
11. Unconformity
11.1 Influence of Unconformity on Major Geo-Engineering
Projects
12. Some other structures
12.1 Diapirs
12.2 Nappe
12.3 Klippe
12.4 Window
12.5 Outlier and Inlier
13. Summary

1. Learning outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to:
 Know different structures in rocks important in context of civil engineering.
 Learn about different aspects of joints and its importance in rock mass
characterization.
 Understand different aspects of shear zones and rock mass strength.
 Identify effect of folding and faulting on ground conditions.
 Relate deformation structures with residual stresses.
2. Introduction
All the rocks, on or near the earth surface are deformed to some level or degree, a
testimony of ever presence of forces in and around the rock masses. The movement
of plates can be cited as one of the manifestation of extremely high magnitude of
these forces termed as “tectonic forces”. Tectonics a word from Greek word
“tektos”, meaning “builder” and the word structure is from Latin word “struere”,
meaning “to build” goes hand in hand and are responsible for earths geological
architecture or in other words geological structures. The word deformation refers to
the changes that take place in the original location, shape and volume of a body in
response to some force. A rock body too, no matter how hard, provided right
conditions would undergo deformation. The features forming due to negotiation
and accommodation of forces by rocks are called as structure. Structural Geology,
which deals with the identification, classification and genesis of these geo-
architecture, plays an important role in deciding site, size and types of different
civil structures.
As for as civil engineering is concerned, the deformation of rocks results into

different kinds and magnitude of heterogeneities. A very common result of
deformation is generation of discontinuity surfaces other than the primary ones
resulting into separation of rock mass into smaller units or blocks. Pulverization of
rocks to various degrees along linear zones are common effects of rock
deformation. Large-scale deformation also results into disruption, dislocation,
repetition and omission of rocks. In a nutshell, deformation of rocks bring in chaos
and unpredictability, which should be identified, classified to get some order by
engineering geologist. So that the problem can be rectified and minimized by civil
engineer while designing for any mega construction project.
3. Objectives of Structural Geology and its Application in Civil

Engineering
Structural geology primarily deals with solid materials, present in nature in form of
minerals and rocks. Solid mechanics are an integral part of this discipline dealing
with dynamics and kinematics of deformation forces and resulting deformation
structures. The structural geology is concerned with three major objectives: (1) what
type of the structure (deformation)? (2) When did it develop (time)? (3) Under what
physical conditions did it formed (forces, temperature)?
To answer these questions geological field work becomes an essential and

indispensable tool for structural geology involving mapping of rocks exposed as
outcrops, relationship amongst the rocks present, identification and measurements of
structures in rocks, present either as primary (genetic) structures or as secondary
(deformation) structures for analyzing it to work out its genesis i.e. stress – strain
analysis. Exposed outcrops, open pits, mines, road, rail, river cuttings and
excavations for civil engineering works are important locales for observing above-
mentioned features. The structures or strain features developed in response to
stresses come in many numbers, varied sizes and shapes. Some of them may
represent latest stressing event some past events covering a large geological time
span. Here lies the second objective of structural geologists that is to resolve the
chronological order in which these structures came into being thereby judging the
number and magnitude of the forces the rocks were subjected to, from time to time
and are being stressed even presently. To resolve the third objective knowledge of
intrinsic properties of material undergoing deformation, residual stresses locked in

between mineral grains, involvement and role of already existing structures are to be
taken into consideration.
As we know that rocks are being used in civil engineering as a construction,

material and as founding ground. In case of rocks used as construction material all
the concept of solid mechanics can be applied and only structures at the scale of
mineral or grain size (tectonites) will come into play. Pulverization of rocks to
various degrees along linear zones are common effects of rock deformation. Large-
scale deformation also results into disruption, dislocation, repetition and omission
of rocks. The rock strength, elasticity, Poison’s ratio, rigidity and deformability
etc. are of prime concern as far as their common uses are concerned and have been
dealt in module 2, to the extent needed at this level. In this module, the emphasis
will primarily be on rocks being used as founding ground or as site rocks. The
plains or surfaces of discontinuity are of utmost importance hence need to be
scrutinized in context of built structure to come up. Here the contacts apart from
deformation structures such as joints, shear zones, faults, folds and unconformity
at a scale of outcrop to the base map (1:50,000), are considered, as they have
profound control on the stability civil engineering structures.
There are three stages of deformation, initial elastic, intermediate plastic and final
brittle. In the elastic stage, theoretically, the strain vanishes as and when stresses
are withdrawn. When deformation goes beyond elastic limit, the body does not
return to its original shape or size then it is called as plastic deformation. The
plastic deformation is a permanent deformation. When strain is such that fractures
develop then it is brittle deformation, it is also a permanent deformation (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Stress-strain diagram showing different kinds of deformation.
4. Factors Controlling the Deformation of Rocks
Igneous and sedimentary rocks undergo deformation after they form by processes of
solidification and lithification respectively, while metamorphic rocks can undergo
deformation during and also after their formation. The mechanical behavior of rocks
to stresses are controlled by its internal properties such as mineral composition,
texture, primary structures as well as by some external factors such as lithological
association, lithostatic pressure, pore fluid pressure, temperature, strain rate and
time. Hence, similar rocks in different external conditions may give rise to different
deformation structures.

4.1 Lithology: All other things being equal strong rocks undergo readily elastic
and brittle deformation as compared to weak rocks, which undergo elastic
and plastic deformation before brittle deformation. Sometime weak,
incompetent rocks in intimate association with strong competent rocks
deform differently to a force condition giving rise to different structures. In
general, igneous rocks are very strong and sedimentary rocks are weak
while metamorphic rocks will come in between. Some metamorphic rocks
such as granulite and quartzite are as strong as any igneous rock and schist
may be weaker than many sedimentary rocks (Table 1).
Table 1: Ranking of some common rocks based on Strength tests in laboratory.
Strong Moderate Weak Weakest

Basalt Hornfels Calcareous sandstone Serpetinite
Dolerite Gneiss Marble Marl
Granite Siliceous sandstone Phyllite Shale
Gabbro Limestone Slate Mudstone
Quartzite Slate Schist Chalk
Granulite Laterite Tuff Evaporites
4.2 Lithostatic Pressure: For any given rock, its strength parameters will have
higher and higher values with increasing lithostatic pressure. This has been
documented in lab tests that with increasing confining pressure yield
strength, rupture strength, ductility etc. increases. Hence, other parameters
remaining same the rocks at near earth surface conditions will undergo
brittle deformation while the rocks at greater depth in sub surface conditions
will tend to deform plastically due to high lithostatic pressure.
4.3 Pore Fluid Pressure: The rocks with intergranular and fracture porosity
may have water, gases, oil as fluids. The presence of these fluids causes
pressure, which works against lithostatic pressure and may result into
lowering the strength parameters of the rock. The difference in lithostatic

pressure and pore fluid pressure is called as “effective stress”. If this
difference is high, the rocks will have higher strength and ductility while
lesser difference will make rock weak with low ductility.
4.4 Temperature: Increased temperature of rocks generally lowers yield and

ultimate strength and helps in increasing the ductility. The rocks near or
closer to the earth surface will more likely undergo brittle deformation while
rocks deeper and deeper in subsurface conditions will be subjected to ductile
deformation due to high-temperature regime caused by geothermal gradient
(250C/km). Most of the metamorphic reactions and changes are brought in
by an increase in temperature. As such, igneous rocks are resilient to
increase in temperature to some extent as compared to sedimentary rocks.
Many of the deformation features from microscopic to macroscopic levels
depicting ductile deformation, found in metamorphic rocks are important
examples to show that sufficient heating can deform rocks.
4.5 Strain Rate and Time: The rate of application of stress is an important
factor in deciding the nature of deformation. A rock may deform in brittle
fashion if the rate of loading is fast but in the case of the slow rate of
loading, deformation may tend to be ductile. Creeping glaciers, slopes, salt
and clay diapirism etc. show rheid behaviour, ascribed to the development
of fatigue in response to a long and sustained presence of stresses. These
deformations can be cited as examples of deformations effected in a very
large time span or very slow strain rates. As we have seen that the
importance of time in strain rate. For geologist there is no dearth of time, he
has 4500 million of years to his command. Geological processes have a
great length of time to operate and inflict change. The dead slow
epeirogenic processes built continents in 1000 million years with many
inbuilt variations. Similarly, the fast orogenic movements built mountains
like the Himalayas within 25 million years with equal variations.

5. The Basic Structures
There are three kinds of basic structures: contacts, primary structures and secondary
structures. Contacts are the surface along which two different rocks are juxtaposed
for example normal depositional contacts, intrusive contacts, erosional contacts
(unconformity) etc. Primary structures are the features develop during the formation
of rock itself such as bedding planes in sedimentary, foliation in metamorphic and
flow bands in volcanic igneous rocks. Secondary structures also called as
deformation structures are incorporated in all kinds of rocks in response to stresses
as strain features such as:
Brittle Deformation: Joints, Faults
Ductile Deformation: Folds
Ductile - Brittle Deformation: Shear Zones, Rock Cleavage, Foliation
6. Contacts
The presence of contacts will offer first level of discontinuity in rock mass may not
always be discrete and clean, but will have different rock character on its two sides
or for that matter altogether different rock (Fig. 2). The contact being depositional,
intrusive and erosional may have different length and geometry. If marked change is
observed, then they should be taken into consideration and accordingly design
parameters may be changed. Some times more prevalent structures such as joints
and shear zones may mask them. Their occurrence in relation to proposed structure
may be treated as the case may be.
Fig. 2 Contact between Limestone (below hammer) and sandstone, Lalitpur. Joint
7. Joints
Joint is a misnomer and actually is a fracture. Defined as discrete fractures along

which there has been almost no or imperceptible movement. The rocks host
innumerable such discrete fractures and is known to be the most common
deformation structure or “joints are ubiquitous”. The joints impart discontinuity in
rock mass or in other words a rock mass is separated into different shapes and sizes
of rock blocks along these joints and this property is very important from the geo-
engineering point of view.
Most joints are planar but curvilinear surface are not uncommon. The length
persistence of joints can be measured as less than a meter to tens of kilometers while
depth persistence may vary from less than a centimeter to thousands of meters. The
spacing between them can be from a centimeter to tens of meters. The joints of
regional dimensions (1-10 km) are called as “master joints”. Most of the joints show
running lengths smaller than a kilometer. Joints, which are parallel to each other and
show a regular pattern of distribution are said to form “joint sets” and are called as
“systematic joints”. The haphazardly oriented joints are called as “random” or “non-
systematic” joints (Fig 3). Some very small sized random joints are present in
between the systematic joint sets. The joints can be classified on the basis of their
origin and geometrical distribution.
Fig. 3 Regularly disposed systematic joints, short, discontinuous and randomly

oriented non-systematic joints. Also see inclined, vertical and horizontal joint sets
(Bundelkhand Granite Lalitpur, UP).
7.1 Genetic Classification: Joints may be classified on the basis of their origin.
The ultimate cause of large scale jointing in rocks are tectonic stresses.
Residual stresses, contraction, desiccation etc. may also cause development
of joints though of smaller sizes.
7.1.1 Tectonic Joints: Due to regional or large magnitude stresses-
Compressive stresses- Diagonally criss-crossing, tight and closed joints

with rough surface showing plumose markings (Fig. 4a).
Fig. 4 (a) Bird’s feather like plumose marking, seen on compressive joint surface,
(b) Shearing joints in limestone showing en-echelon pattern. Also, see small ‘s’
shaped shear cracks filled with filled with secondary calcite (white).
Tensile stresses- Open joints, sharp edged and smooth surfaced mostly
found as three mutually perpendicular fractures, especially in rocks with
deep-seated origin (Fig. 4b).
Shearing stresses- Form by ever so slight sliding parallel to joint surface,
partly open, discontinuous, sometimes in en-echelon fashion with rough
surface.
7.1.2 Non-Tectonic Joints: Due to local or small magnitude stresses-
Columnar joints- Form mostly in volcanic rocks due to cooling and

contraction of lava during solidification (Fig. 5a).

Fig. 5 (a) Geometry of columnar joints, (b) Ground surface parallel, sheet joints.
Sheet joints- Ground surface parallel joints, found almost in all rocks
especially of plutonic origin or those, which have undergone deep burial.
When exposed to the earth surface, the rocks undergo de-stressing due to
removal of overburden material causing development of fractures parallel to
the ground surface (Fig. 5b). The joints are more in numbers and are closely
spaced near earth surface and their numbers decrease and spacing increases
with depth.
7.2 Geometric Classification: Geometric classification is a descriptive one,

simple and is easy to apply specially from geo-engineering point of view.
It uses attitude of the fractures to identify and differentiate one joint from
the other. The attitude of any surface or plane can be defined by the strike
and dip.
The joints are found in large numbers with varying orientations. Hence,
for their meaningful interpretation joints can be classified by taking into
account the strike and dip of joints as well as some recognizable rock
features, such as bedding or foliation especially in layered rocks.
In figure 6a a block of rocks showing few rock beds and joints which can be
recognized and classified geometrically as:

Fig. 6 (a) Block diagram showing joints, classified with reference to strike and dip
of the rock bed. (b) Block diagram showing different sets of joints.
Strike Joints- Joints parallel to the strike direction of the rocks, STUV,
S’T’U’
Dip Joints- Joints parallel to the dip direction of the rocks MNO, PQR
Bedding Joints- Joints parallel to the strike as well as dip direction of the
rocks, JKL
Diagonal Joints- Joints neither parallel to the strike, nor to the dip of the
rocks, WXY, W’X’Y’
Only the bedding joints will have unique attitude. Strike, dip, or diagonal
joints may be many, if parallel to each other will form set for example in
figure 6b, joints with notation I, II, III will form one set, joints with notation,
ab, cde, fgh, ijk will form second set, horizontal joints with notations, opq,
o’p’q’ will form third set and two vertical joints with notations RST, R’S’T’
and UVW, U’V’W’ will form fourth and fifth set respectively.
In non-layered rocks such as non-foliated metamorphic and igneous rocks,

the dip of joints is use for the classification (Fig. 7).
Horizontal Joints ► a-a Dip of the joints less than 00 to 50

Gently Inclined Joints ► b-b Dip of the joints from 60 to 150
Moderately Inclined Joints ► c-c Dip of the joints from 260 to 450
Inclined Joints ► d-d Dip of the joints from 460 to 750
Steeply Inclined Joints ► e-e Dip of the joints from 660 to 850
Vertical Joints ► f-f Dip of the joints from 860 to 900
Fig. 7 Block diagram showing different joint sets in non-layered rocks.
Another important classification of joints is related to the fold geometry, which we

will learn later on in this chapter.
7.3 Joint Parameters and their Influence on Rock Mass Properties
Joints are ubiquitous and can be readily observed and identified in the rock
outcrops. Knowledge of spatial distribution of joints is very important in
engineering geology, geo-engineering and rock mechanics. Even in quarrying
operations and ground water explorations joints play a pivotal role. In almost
all, the engineering classifications of rock masses joint parameters play the key
role. As joints are numerous, varied in orientation and with differing sizes
therefore, it is important to have thorough knowledge of joints and related
parameters to be observed and measured, as they are the single most important

parameter controlling geotechnical behavior of rock mass. These joints need to
be plotted on the plan of civil engineering structure for example dam foundation
site. Due to their small dimensions, plotting joints on a map is bit difficult. As
most of joints are smaller than 1000 m in length with less than 1 mm to 10 mm
of opening, it is impossible to show them on maps of above mentioned scales or
even on Survey of India topographic maps with scales 1: 50,000 (1 mm = 50 m
or 1cm = 500 m). Most of the maps and plans for execution of civil engineering
works are made on the scales of 1: 1,000 to 1: 5,000 (1mm = 1m to 1mm = 5m).
To understand the importance of maps showing joints, let’s take example of a
dam-reservoir setup. Maps of 1: 50,000 may be chosen for analyzing very large
catchment area for its geomorphic and hydrologic setup, the scale for reservoir
site comparatively smaller in area but important for water storage, the scale of
the order of 1: 5,000 can be taken, but for the most important dam site area or
the foundation of site the scale will be of the order of 1: 1000 or of still smaller
scale of 1: 500 (1cm = 5 m). On the above mentioned scales, the map of
catchment area will not be able to show joints, unless specifically made for, the
map of reservoir site will show almost all major joints, while the dam site map
will show almost all the systematic and non-systematic joints which are
important for rock mass evaluation. There are different methods of showing
joints on the map for example simply by plotting their length and orientation on
a map of suitable scale or by making “rose diagrams” by measuring and
incorporating all the joints and showing their strength (Fig. 8a).
The observation and measurements of joints can be easily done on naturally

exposed rocks and on vertical cuts along roads, rail tracks, stream sections in
hilly areas or in deep excavations. The most important joint parameters which
have significance in civil engineering projects involving rock mass are: (1)
Number of joints per unit area (2) Length and depth persistence, (3) Orientation
or attitude, (4) Aperture or openness, (5) Joint spacing, (6) Asperities or
roughness, (7) Joint filling material (8) Presence of water etc. (Fig. 8b).

Fig. 8 (a) Rose diagram showing three joint sets with direction and strength (each
circle represent 20%). The most prominent one is with direction N200-300/S2000–
2100 with strength 60%; (b) Block diagram showing different joint parameters used
for rock mass characterization.
7.3.1 Number of joints per unit area/volume: Total number of systematic and
non-systematic joints per unit of area or volume is an important factor in
deciding the level of discontinuity in a rock mass. These joints may form
regular sets with different orientations. The small randomly oriented
joints connecting these major joint sets are also important.
7.3.2 Joint spacings: The distance between joints varies from less than a
centimeter to more than 5m. Within one rock exposure, the joint spacing
may show random distribution, similarly some rock mass show very
regular spacing. The number of joints per unit volume as well as joint
spacing will decide the size of the blocks in rock mass.
7.3.3 Orientation or Attitude: The strike, amount and direction of dip not only
help in identifying the individual joints and joint sets but also control the
shape of the rock blocks by virtue of their intersection. In geo-
engineering, the joint attitude decides the most favorable and unfavorable
joints with respect to slope, dam foundation and tunnel alignment.

7.3.4 Block Size and Shape: Depending upon the spacing between the joints
and their orientation, rock mass is divided into different sizes and shapes
of blocks. The smaller is the block weaker will be the rock mass while
regularly shaped blocks will have higher tendency of slippage towards an
opening rather than the irregular and randomly shaped blocks.
7.3.5 Length and Depth Persistence: The length of joints which may be
discontinuous or continuous may vary from < 1 m to >1 km, on the
surface as well as in sub surface. Normally with increasing depth, the
joints are reduced in length and numbers.
7.3.6 Aperture or Openness: Depending upon the origin, present state of

stresses in rocks, weathering and exposure of rocks the joints may have
varying degree of openness. Some joints are seen as hair cracks; few may
have opening ranging from 1 mm to 5mm and sometimes can go up to
opening more than a meter, termed as fissures. Joints owe their origin to
tensile stresses have maximum aperture followed by joints originated
under shearing stresses. Joints formed under compressive stresses are
comparatively tighter. The openness of joints is more in sedimentary
rocks especially limestone, which may have aperture, more than one
meter due to weathering and erosion caused by moving/flowing water.
The openness of joints is generally more on the surface and diminishes
with depth.
7.3.7 Asperities or Roughness: It is related to the irregularity or roughness of

the joint surface. The joint surface may be planar, wavy and stepped.
Within these three types, the surface may be polished or slicken-sided,
uneven or irregular. The surface of joints form under tensile stresses have
comparatively even surface with feather like ‘plumose markings’, while
joint surfaces developed under shear and compressive stresses are
irregular to highly irregular. The joint roughness is a very important
factor for the strength of rock mass. For example on rocky slopes,

inclined joints along which rocks may slide, roughness provides
resistance to such movements.
7.3.8 Joint Filling Material: The open joints are amenable to filling by
sediments brought in by wind and water. The filling sediments may wary
from pure gravel, granule, sand, silt and clays to mineral such as calcite,
hematite and quartz precipitated out of flowing water and other solutions.
The precipitated minerals may completely fill or heal the opening and
provide strength. The wet clays as filling material pose problem, as they
act as lubricant and decrease the frictional resistance along joints. If clay
or gouge is continuous and has more than 5 mm thickness in a fracture, it
will make the surface roughness redundant.
7.3.9 Presence of water: The joints are the avenues for natural ground water in
rocks. The rainwater seeps in, stored and moves through interconnecting
joints forming secondary porosity and permeability. However, the
presence of ground water in joints has negative affect on the strength of
rock mass due to its weathering effect and due to fracture water pressure.
8. Shear Zone
Next to contacts and joints, shear zone is the most prevalent deformation structure. It
is also most unpredictable and is most problematic in the field of geo-engineering. A
shear zone represents partly brittle to partly ductile deformation in form of tabular
planar to curviplanar zone of highly strained rock within a largely non deformed
rock block. It is a common deformation feature after joints varying from
microscopic size (Fig. 3.9a) to outcrop size (Fig. 3.9b) or as large as tens of
kilometers with large length and depth persistence as compared to its thickness.

Fig. 9 (a) Microscopic outcrop sized shearing in micaceous schist, (b) An outcrop
size folded shear zone in phyllite.
The fault and shear zone both accommodate offset but the former one shows discrete
displacement while later one distribute the total offset along its thickness (Fig. 10a & b).
Fig. 10 (a) A fault showing discrete displacement of a bed, (b) A shear zone showing
accommodation of displacement.
The effectiveness of deformation can be gauged from the fact that the rocks get
pulverized to form cataclastic rocks as breccia, mylonite and as gouge. Even a
granite or basalt may get sheared to schist and phyllite like rocks along the shear
zone.

Fig. 11 Different types of shear zones. (a) Horizontal ‘H’, Vertical ‘V’, Inclined; (b)
Diverging ‘D’, Converging ‘C’, Parallel; (c) Anatomizing; (d) Conjugate; (e) Folded; (f)
Faulted.
The overall effect is weakening of rock mass along horizontal, inclined, vertical,
parallel, diverging, converging, anatomizing, conjugate, folded or faulted shear zones
(Fig. 11 a, b, c, d, e & f). The most problematic material found along the shear zones are
gouge, whose thickness and continuity has profound effect on the behavior of rock mass
as they are the locales of least fraction along the rock wall surfaces.
9. Fault
Fracture along which at least some perceptible movement or offset has taken place is
called as fault. The fault may be a single discrete fracture or it may have multiple
fractures forming fault zones. The movement and displacement along a fault surface
may vary from few centimeters to 100s of kilometers. The faults are not as common as
joints but are very important deformation structure and their importance can be
gauged by the fact that all most 90% of the earthquakes are generated due to faulting
or renewed movement along already existing faults. The faults can be seen in a hand
specimen, in an outcrop, in geological maps aerial photographs and imageries
depending up on its size. The basic cause of faulting is the brittle deformation of the
earth crust, which is subjected to the tectonic loading, which not only breaks the rocks,
but also bring them into best fit after some displacement. The movement long the
faults are mostly translational but rotational movements are not uncommon. Faulting
brings in lot of changes starting from movement of rocks upward and downward and
displacement of rocks laterally depending upon the nature of fault. The orientation of
the fault plane can be identified by its running direction (strike) and by the direction
and amount of its inclination (dip) if measured from the horizontal surface. Hade is the
inclination measured from the vertical plane. Identify in figure 12, other elements of
fault such as vertical displacement, termed as throw and horizontal displacement,
termed as heave, of the two previously adjacent points before faulting. These
parameters are measured in vertical sections perpendicular to strike of the fault plain.
Fig. 12 Different elements of fault, see dip, hade, throw, heave, slip etc.
9.1 Genetic and Geometric Classification: The faults are classified as per
their origin and geometry. The faults originate due to the natural application
of stresses on rock masses. Different kind of stresses will produce following
types of faults:
Tensile Stresses- Gravity Fault- The movement is along the direction of

gravity
Shearing Stresses- Tear Fault- The movement is lateral and along the earth
surface
Compressive Stresses- Thrust Fault- The movement is against the direction
of gravity
Geometrically faults are classified as Normal Fault, Reverse Fault and

Translational Fault, depending upon relative movement of foot and hanging
blocks along the fault plane. A low angle (< 300) reverse fault is called as
Thrust fault. The relative movement along the dip and strike of the fault
plane faults are also classified as Dip Slip Faults (normal and reverse),
Strike Slip Faults (right-handed lateral or Dextral Fault and left-handed
Sinistral Fault) and Oblique Slip Faults (normal and reverse). See, in the
figure 13, displacement along the strike as ps, termed as strike slip, pd along
the dip, termed as dip slip and pn as oblique or net slip.
Fig. 13 Normal oblique slip Dextral and Sinistral Fault. See the displacement along
strike (ps), along dip (pd) and oblique or net displacement (pn).

The other kinds of faults are based on their mode of occurrence seen on
map, aerial photographs or satellite imageries and regional stresses can be
deduced, an important aspect of geo engineering. For example normal
parallel faults are common in the regions of tensile (divergent plate
boundary) stress regions while in compressive stress regions (convergent
plate boundary), reverse parallel faults are common. En-echelon faults are
common in the regions of shearing stresses (translational plate boundary).
9.2 Identification and Effect of Faulting: Field identification of faults is

important for mega geo-engineering projects. One has to identify if a fault is
live, dormant or dead by geological and geophysical methods. Most of the
major faults are already identified and mapped. It is the small scale and
local faults encountered during excavations need to be identified and
mended if need be. There are different methods to identify faults but only
few can be applied in any particular case. The selection of identification
method depends on the size of the faulting and area of observation. Out
crop, small scale faults can be identified in natural exposures, road and
stream cuttings, mines, tunnel etc. applying fault plane criteria. However,
large-scale faults can only be visualized and identified after applying
topographic and stratigraphic criteria.
9.3.1 Fault Plane Criteria: The fault planes themselves have some features,
which become conclusive proof of faulting. Presence of Striations, or
longitudinal scratches few millimeters deep or few centimeters deep
Grooves and Casts, on the fault plane indicative of movement of one
rock block over the other. The movement along fault plane also results
into development of polished, striated surface with transverse sharp
steps and some precipitation of silicified material, together called as
slickensides (Fig. 14a).

Fig. 14 Features common along fault and fault zone. (a) Striations or slickensides on
a rock surface over which another rock block has moved. (b) Fault Breccia found
along fault zone with coarse quartzite clasts embedded in iron oxide cement/matrix.
The breaking of rocks caught along the fault plane or fault zone is
very common. The rocks may get pulverized into powder called as
gouge, sand sized foliated coherent material called as mylonites or into
gravel sized angular material called as breccia (Fig. 14b), similar to
what we find along shear zones but here in much wider, lengthier and
thicker.
9.3.2 Topographic Criteria: Faulting leaves some distinct imprint on the

topography. The offsetting of ridges and valleys across the fault line,
which can be viewed in topographic or aerial photographs, are
common. The sharp linear bends of rivers and linearly distributed
natural springs and lakes are also probable sites representing fault
lines. Topographic features, which are typical of faulted areas, include
Scarp hills or linear array of such hills forming Fault Line Scarp along
which ridges with triangular facets are common. Regional scale faults
can develop hills and valleys by combination of up and down thrown
fault blocks known as horst and graben topography.
9.3.3 Geological Criteria: The most important effect of faulting is

displacement or disruption of rocks, which can be seen only if
displacement is more than the thickness of the individual rock beds.

The apparent displacement of the rocks may be very different from the
net slip. To work out geologically correct displacement of rocks
different variables such as strike and dip of the fault plane, strike and
dip of the disrupted rocks, orientation and slope of the surface on
which observations are carried out and the erosion level of rocks
should be properly known. Depending upon the magnitude of the
displacement, the younger rocks of a sequence may come in contact
with the older rocks of the same sequence across the fault plane.
Similarly, a geologically younger sequence may get juxtaposed to
older or much older sequence of rocks. When a large area is affected
by, the large scale faulting then it can be only observed through
geological mapping of the area. It has been normally found that due to
faulting there happens to be repetition of all the rocks with omission of
one or few rocks.
9.3.4 Types of Faults and its Relation to Major Stress Directions: Normal,
reverse and strike slip faults can form respectively in the regions of
tensile, compressive and shearing stresses. If the stresses are resolved
into three mutually perpendicular principal stress directions as greatest
principal axis (σ1), intermediate principal axis (σ2) and least principal
axis (σ3) then the faults can be used to ascertain the orientation of
these principle axes. In the case of normal faults the greatest principal
axis will be vertical, intermediate principal axis will lie along the fault
plane and will be horizontal, while the least principal axis will be
horizontal and perpendicular to both the axes (Fig. 15a). In reverse
faults the least principal axis will be vertical, intermediate principal
axis will lie along the fault plane and will be horizontal, while the
greatest principal axis will be horizontal and perpendicular to both the
axes (Fig. 15b). For the strike slip faults the intermediate principal
axis will be vertical and will lie along the fault plane, the greatest
principal axis will lie along the fault plane and will be horizontal,

while the least principal axis will be horizontal and perpendicular to
both the axes (Fig. 15c).
Fig. 15 Regional scale stresses and different type of faults. (a) Normal fault; (b)
Reverse Fault; (c) Strike Slip Fault. σ1- Maximum Principal Stress, σ2- Intermediate
Principal Stress, σ3- Minimum Principal Stress.
9.3 Influence of Faults on Major Geo-Engineering Projects: Faults with

known history of activity should be avoided on or near the major geo-
engineering projects. Along the fault plane, it is common to have pulverized
rocks sometimes with lot of water making rock mass amenable to failure. The
location of faults are also a common site of landslides, hence should be taken
into consideration for any road or rail project and hill area development.
In case of dam and reservoir site, it is not advisable to have dam foundation
or abutment on or near a fault plane. If there is a known active fault at a
probable site, it should be in downstream of the dam. Because reservoir area
use to cover a lot of ground and in geo-tectonically active area such as
Himalayan Mountain System, it is not always possible to avoid all the
faults. In such cases, faults should be excavated to reasonable depths and
back filled by concrete to avoid seepage through fault planes.
In case of tunnels, the alignment chosen should be such that if any fault
comes in its way it should be negotiated at 900, to keep its effect minimum.
The strengthening along the fault zone by hacking and back filling by
shotcrete and fibercrete is a must.
10. Folds
Folds are up and down warps form in rocks due to their ductile deformation,
especially under compressive forces. The size of fold can be measured with the help of
wavelength of the fold i.e. crest-to-crest or trough to trough distance and its amplitude.
Folds may have wavelengths from vary from few millimeters to be seen in hand
specimens to thousands of meters, can be seen on geological maps, aerial photographs
and satellite imageries. Folds of outcrop size can be observed directly and are best
seen in layered rocks. Folding in metamorphic rocks are very common and pervasive,
due to involvement of high temperature and pressure leading to ductile deformation
wherein even minerals can be seen forming microscopic sized folds.
10.1 Genetic and Geometric Classification of Folds: Folds normally form

under compressive stresses at high temperature and high confining pressures
resulting into ductile deformation of rocks. Such conditions are normally
found deep inside the earth. That is why most of the dynamo thermal
(regional) metamorphic rocks are folded to some degree. The areas of huge
salt deposits or clay deposits experience diapirism i.e. upward movement of
low-density salts and mud through high-density sand and/or carbonate
deposits. While moving up the salts and mud pierce through overlying
sedimentary rocks and molding them into fold like features called as diapiric
folds. There are large numbers of folds, which can be identified based on
their geometry, starting from Symmetrical, Asymmetrical, Overturned,
Isoclinal and Recumbent fold (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16 Cross sectional view of types of folds and its relation to formation of thrust
and nappe.
The folds can also be classified on the basis of inter limb angle (Fig. 17).
This classification is important because the wavelength and amplitude of the
fold will come into play, which will have direct implication on its recurrence
with reference to width and length of the civil engineering structure. The
open folds signify lesser compressive forces as compared to tight folds
during their formation.
Broad fold 1800 to 1200 Open fold 1500 to 1200
Closed fold 1200 to 900 Tight fold 900 to 600
Very tight fold 600 to 300 Extremely tight fold < 300
Fig. 17 Type of fold based on inter limb angle.

10.2 Plunging Fold: Most of the regional or large-scale folds are plunging folds.
The term plunging is used for inclination of a line, similar to the term dip, used
for the inclination of a plane. In plunging folds, the fold axis is always inclined
and strike lines drawn on the fold limbs will converge in one and diverge in
other direction. In the case of non-plunging folds, the strike lines drawn on the
fold limbs will be parallel to each other and to the fold axis and will remain
horizontal. The map pattern of plunging and doubly plunging folds are shown
in figure 18, 19 and 20 (After Billings, 2001).
Fig. 18 (a) Plunging fold with about 100 plunge towards left. See two plunging
anticlines with one plunging syncline in its mid. Non-plunging fold with parallel
limbs/strike lines.
Fig. 19 Map pattern of plunging fold.

Fig. 20 Map pattern of doubly plunging fold.
10.3 Effect of Folding: Folds can easily be observed in rail, road and stream cuts
if they are of sizes, which can be glanced by human eyes. Aerial photographs
and satellite imageries are also helpful in identification of folds especially the
plunging and doubly plunging folds due to their typical topographic
impressions. Most of the topographic edifices are made by folding of rocks.
In fact small scale folds seen on outcrops are features actually associated
with much larger fold systems. When a folded rock sequence gets exposed
through uplift and erosion, the anticlinal folds form hills and synclinal folds
form valleys. However, with time as more of the anticlinal zone gets exposed
it experiences tensile stresses resulting into development of hundreds of
closely spaced fractures called as rock cleavages well as numerous tensile
joints in anticlinal zone. Contrary to this, the synclinal zone experiences
compressive stresses being confined by rocks all around thereby has fewer
rock cleavages and joints. The erosive agencies such as rivers will find it
easy to erode easily along the anticlinal zones as compared to synclinal
zones. This results into differential erosion of rocks i.e. more of rocks around
anticlines and less around synclines resulting into pene-planation and then
formation of valleys at anticlinal zones and hill at synclinal zones (Fig. 21 a,
b, c & d). It is important for the engineering geologist to know the evolution
of topographic features, such as of a river valley over which a bridge is to be
made or the hill through which a tunnel is to be carved out because rock
mass behavior and residual stresses will be guided by the intrinsic
deformation structure.

Fig. 21 Different stages involve in the reversal of topography. (a) Folds as
underground; (b) Exposure of rocks due to erosion and isostatic upheaval. See
anticlines forming hills and syncline forms a valley; (c) High rate of erosion along
the anticlinal zone due to presence of myriads of fractures makes the ground leveled;
(d) Still rising anticlines will be subjected to more erosion as compared to synclinal
zone resulting into development of valleys along anticline and high grounds along
synclines. R- River
This phenomenon is called as “Paradox of Folding” or “Reversal of

Topography”. Most of the hills in today’s world of folded regions are
actually synclines i.e. antiformal synclines, while most of the valleys are
actually anticlines i.e. synformal anticlines. For example, hills of
geologically very old Aravalli and Vindhyan ranges comprising
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks are synclinal in nature. Even many high
peaks of Himalayas, geologically youngest mountain system too are
synclinal in nature.
Folds bigger than outcrops can be discerned by some direct and indirect
methods. Identification of present day exposed folded sequences, left after an
age of weathering and erosion are based on direct observation of changing

dip direction while making traverse perpendicular to strike line of the rocks.
The dip direction will change as one crosses the anticlinal or synclinal axis.
The repetition of rocks is another effect of folding which can be observed
directly by traversing across the strike direction and from proper geological
maps. Identification of youngest and oldest rocks for locating synclinal and
anticlinal fold axes is another way out provided stratigraphy of the area is
known. There are some other methods based on drilling, geophysical
methods and stereo net plotting (beta and pie diagrams) to identify and
classify folds, but are beyond the scope of this book and course.
10.4 Folds and its Relation to Major Stress Directions: Folds are the result of
compressive stresses. The maximum stresses are perpendicular to the axis or
axial plane of the fold. In response to compressive stresses there use to be
development of feeble tensile stresses along the axis of the fold (Fig. 22).
The presence of these stresses is reflected when folded rocks undergo brittle
deformation and develop joints.
Fig. 22 The folds are manifestation of compressive deformation hence σ1

(maximum) is perpendicular to the axial plane, σ2 (intermediate) is horizontal and
runs along axial plane while σ1 is vertical perpendicular to the σ3 (minimum) in
normal symmetrical fold.

10.5 Influence of Folds on Major Geo-Engineering Projects: Folding of rocks
can bring in lot of issues in geo-engineering depending upon the wavelength
of the folding and orientation of fold axis with respect to the length and the
width civil engineering structure and its alignment. If one forgets about the
hand specimen scale folding where it is a matter of anisotropy or isotropy of
rock material fabric, the outcrop scale folds can pose different kinds of
problems. Folds result into contortion of rocks from microscopic to hand
specimen to outcrop to regional scales. The level of contortion will control
the distribution of stresses exerted on rocks during loading and unloading.
The most important issue is of repetition of rocks. If some weak rocks are
present in the stratigraphic column of that area then that rock will keep
coming after some distance depending upon the wavelength of the folds and
dimensions of structure involved.
As we know that the anticlinal zones of a fold are under tensile stresses,
hence have more fractures or rock cleavages as compared to synclinal zones,
which are under compressive forces and are completely less fractured. If a
tunnel is derived parallel to fold axis then it will be easy to drive a tunnel
along the anticlinal, rather than along synclinal zone, the chances of
providing support may be more in first case rather than in second case at the
same time the problem of ground water seepage will be less in first case as
compared to the second one. It is suggested that tunnel should be aligned in
such a way that it goes through the limb lying in between the anticlinal and
synclinal axis. However, if the tunnel is being made perpendicular to the fold
axis the problems encountered in anticlinal and synclinal zone will keep
coming after some distance.
Similarly in case of dam, when dam axis runs parallel to the fold axis then the
foundation may be kept just before the anticlinal axis to achieve the
“upstream” rock dip conditions. In case of fold axis perpendicular to the dam
axis then both anticline and syncline axis may come and as we know that
anticlinal zone may have large number of fractures, the must be sealed or
grouted to avoid water seepage through them. Fold axis may also have its
orientation in between the two extremes discussed above i.e. oblique/diagonal;
some new problems may crop up and need solution to specific case.
Sometimes incidence of large number of rock cleavages especially in
anticlines can inflict extra discontinuity, further weakening a rock mass.
11. Unconformity
Unconformity is a surface between two sequences of different geological ages. The

rocks below, are much older, more deformed, more lithified and metamorphosed,
than the rocks above the unconformity surface. The presence of unconformity
represents a time period of large-scale upheavals on the earth surface, tectonic
movements and widespread deep erosion. Most of the unconformity surfaces are
irregular and represent the paleo topographic surface on which the
geomorphological agencies were carrying out the processes of weathering and
erosion of the older rock sequence. That is why erosional remnants in form of gravel
deposits called as residual conglomerates and soil developed at that geological time
span called as palaeosols are found more than often. Depending upon the
relationship of overlying and underlying rock sequences unconformities are
classified into nonconformity, angular unconformity (Fig. 23a & b),blended
unconformity, disconformity (Fig. 24a & b) and paraconformity (Fig. 25).
Fig. 23 (a) Nonconformity (U – U) between lower igneous and upper metamorphic

or sedimentary rocks; (b) Angular Unconformity (U – U), lower and upper rocks
will have different strike and dip amount and directions. See residual conglomerates
lenses along unconformities.
Fig. 24 (a) Blended Unconformity with a palaeosols layer; (b) Disconformity, note
presence of residual conglomerate. Both lower and upper rocks are sedimentary and
are horizontal. (U – U) Unconformity.
The maximum time of break is involved in non- and angular unconformity followed
by blended and disconformity, while the least time break is ascribed to
paraconformity.
Fig. 25 Paraconformity, both lower and upper rocks are sedimentary and are
horizontal, with no irregular surface. (U – U) Unconformity.
11.1 Influence of Unconformity on Major Geo-Engineering Projects: The

effect of unconformity is almost similar to the fault, as across it there will be
found altogether different rocks, less deformed or more having different rock
mass characteristics and even groundwater regime. However, the main
problem is the presence of very weak, problematic rocks i.e. palaeosols, and
residual conglomerates, invariably present along unconformity surfaces. The
St. Francis Dam, California, USA, failed in 1928 was founded partly on
residual conglomerate and partly on weathered schists.

12. Some other Structures
There are some other structures, which are directly or indirectly related to
deformation, such as diapirs, nappe, klippe, outlier and inlier. These structures are
not very common but may be found at some sites of engineering projects hence
some basic idea of them is required.
12.1 Diapirs: The Greek word “diapir” means “to pierce”. This term is used for
rocks, which pierce through some other rocks due to its upward movement
owing to less density. Evaporites (rock salt, gypsum, anhydrite), shale,
mudstone etc. commonly form most of the diapirs. Mostly rocks move up as
solids and form dome, mushroom, umbrella and spindle shapes. The cross
sectional diameter and diapiric rise of diapirs may wary from less than a meter
to thousands of meters. Such diapirs are very common in sedimentary basins
of USA, Iran, Russia, Yemen and Canada. In Indian sub-continent, their
presence have been recorded in Salt Range (J & K) and in Bilara-Nagaur area
(Rajasthan). Small scale, local folding and faulting are associated with diapirs
and have been found to have trapped natural oil and gas.
Fig. 26 The formation of Nappes. (a) In a thrust fault rocks are displaced so that
older rocks overlay younger rocks; (b) Displacement of folded rocks along a fault
bringing older rocks over younger rocks; (c) Thrust fault breaking a crest of a fold
and bringing older rocks overlay younger rocks; (d) Over stretching and breaking of
recumbent fold bringing older rocks overlay younger rocks.
12.2 Nappe: It is a structure associated with thrust fault especially over thrusts,
wherein hanging wall moves up relative to footwall along the fault plane, for
kilometers. Such thrusts are invariably found in the tectonic regions of
convergent plate folded mountain belts. They are also related to recumbent
folding and faulting. The nappes are large over thrusted or over folded sheet
of older rocks are found to overlie the younger rocks (Fig. 26 a-d).
12.3 Klippe: The erosional remnants of nappes away from the main body of
nappe, present as small outcrops are called as klippe (Fig. 27a).
Fig. 27 (a) Mechanism of Klippe and (b) Window formation.
12.4 Window: When a nappe is subjected to erosion in such a way that the
younger rocks below the thrust plane are seen then it is called as window or
fenester (Fig. 27b).
12.5 Outlier and Inlier: A limited exposure of younger rocks completely

surrounded by older rocks form due to, either erosion of a hill or syncline or
a fault (Fig. 28a) is called as outlier. Similarly a limited exposure of older
rocks completely surrounded by younger rocks, form due to either erosion of
anticline or valley or a fault (Fig. 28b) is called as inlier. Not of much
significance to geo-engineering but there, presence can give indication of
presence of folding or differential erosion.

Fig. 28 (a) Different ways of formation of inliers and (b) outliers.
13. Summary
All the rocks, on or near the earth surface are deformed to some level or degree
suggesting presence of stresses naturally and their application on rocks and rock
masses. A civil engineer has to work on these deformed rocks with different kinds of
heterogeneities. A very common result of deformation is generation of discontinuity
surfaces, pulverization, disruption, dislocation, repetition and omission of rocks. The
chaos and unpredictability, which is incorporated due to deformation need to be
identified, classified by engineering geologist, so that their effect is predicted,
rectified and minimized by civil engineers while planning and designing any mega
construction project. The important deformation structures are contacts, joints, shear
zones, faults, folds and unconformity. Some less found structures are outliers,
inliers, nappe and its variants. Exposed outcrops, open pits, mines, road, rail, river

cuttings and excavations for civil engineering works are important locales for
observing different deformation structures.
Joints as discrete fractures, being ubiquitous have profound control on rock mass
properties hence are of utmost importance from the geo-engineering point of view.
There numbers, orientation, continuity, spacing, aperture, condition etc. exert the
most dominant control on the performance of rock mass to geo-engineering loading
and unloading.
Next to contacts and joints, shear zone is the most prevalent deformation structure. It
represents partly brittle to partly ductile deformation in form of tabular planar to curvi-
planar zone of highly strained rock within a largely non-deformed rock block.
Depending upon its length, thickness and depth persistence different problems may be
encountered. The most common way of treating it is its excavation and back filling.
Faults are not that common but in tectonically active areas their presence cannot be
overlooked, as they may be active at these places and are locales of earthquakes.
Fault with known history of activity should be avoided on or near the major geo-
engineering projects. The fault planes commonly have pulverized rocks sometimes
with groundwater stored in them hence locales of rock failure and other problems.
The location of faults are also a common site of landslides, hence should be taken
into consideration for any road or rail project and hill area development. In case of
dam and reservoir site, tunnels and other underground structures its antiquity and
activity should be established before final selection of the site. In case of multiple
faults and fault zones, the hacking of pulverized and degraded rock material must be
taken up and should be backfilled by reinforced concrete, shotcrete or fibercrete as
the case may be for the strengthening.
Folding of rocks at different scales can bring in lot of issues in geo-engineering.

Starting from parasitic folds to large scale folds have some or other effect on
behavior of rock mass and its disposition. The relationship of fold axis with respect
to the length and the width of civil engineering structure and its alignment is an

important factor, which will decide the overall approach for design, and execution of
construction works in rocks, especially in anticlinal and synclinal zones.
Unconformity, not so common structure does bring rocks of two different geological
sequences of rocks juxtaposed to each other. The rocks below are usually much
older, more deformed, more lithified and metamorphosed, than the rocks above the
unconformity surface. The weathered and erosional remnants in form of palaeosols
and residual conglomerates are problematic horizons; need to be identified, as there
are instances of dam failures over them. There are some other structures, which are
directly or indirectly related to deformation, such as diapirs, nappe, klippe, outlier
and inlier. Many of these though rare, are found along most tectonically active
zones, usually convergent plate boundaries. The major issue is different rocks at
different locales with in the project site.
The folds and faults can also give an idea of major stress directions currently under
play. In the case of normal faults the greatest principal axis will be vertical,
intermediate principal axis will lie along the fault plane and will be horizontal, while
the least principal axis will be horizontal and perpendicular to both the axes. In
reverse faults the least principal axis will be vertical, intermediate principal axis will
lie along the fault plane and will be horizontal, while the greatest principal axis will
be horizontal and perpendicular to both the axes. For the strike slip faults the
intermediate principal axis will be vertical and will lie along the fault plane, the
greatest principal axis will lie along the fault plane and will be horizontal, while the
least principal axis will be horizontal and perpendicular to both the axes.
Folds are the result of compressive stresses. The maximum stresses are
perpendicular to the axis or axial plane of the fold. In response to compressive
stresses there use to be development of feeble tensile stresses along the axis of the
fold. The presence of these stresses is reflected when folded rocks undergo brittle
deformation and develop joints.

Frequently Asked Questions-
Q1. What are the important deformation structures, enumerate their

importance in civil engineering?
All the rocks, on or near the earth surface are deformed due to past and present
prevailing stresses. A civil engineer has to work on these deformed rocks with
different kinds of heterogeneities. A very common result of deformation is
generation of discontinuity surfaces, pulverization, disruption, dislocation, repetition
and omission of rocks. The chaos and unpredictability, which is incorporated due to
deformation need to be identified, classified by engineering geologist, so that their
effect is predicted, rectified and minimized by civil engineers while planning and
designing any mega construction project. The important deformation structures are
contacts, joints, shear zones, faults, folds and unconformity. Some less found
structures are outliers, inliers, nappe and its variants.
Joints as discrete fractures, being ubiquitous have profound control on rock mass
properties hence are of utmost importance from the geo-engineering point of view.
There numbers, orientation, continuity, spacing, aperture, condition etc. exert the
most dominant control on the performance of rock mass to geo-engineering loading
and unloading.
Shear zones are other prevalent deformation feature found in rock masses present in
form of tabular planar to curviplanar zone of highly strained rock within a largely
non deformed rock block. Depending upon its length, thickness and depth
persistence different problems may be encountered. The most common way of
treating it is its excavation and back filling.
Faults normally dislocate rocks and in tectonically active areas their presence with
known history of activity should be taken into consideration and properly analyzed
to minimize its effect in case of major geo-engineering projects. The fault planes
commonly have pulverized rocks sometimes with groundwater stored in them hence
locales of rock failure and other problems. The location of faults are also a common
site of landslides, hence should be taken into consideration for any road or rail

project and hill area development. In case of dam and reservoir site, tunnels and
other underground structures its antiquity and activity should be established before
final selection of the site. In case of small multiple faults and fault zones pulverized
and degraded rock material must be excavated out backfilled by reinforced concrete,
shotcrete or fibercrete as the case may be for the strengthening.
Folding of rocks at different scales can bring in lot of issues in geo-engineering. The
relationship of fold axis with respect to the length and the width of civil engineering
structure and its alignment is an important factor, which will decide the overall
approach for design, and execution of construction works in rocks, especially in
anticlinal and synclinal zones.
Unconformity, not so common structure does bring rocks of two different geological
sequences of rocks juxtaposed to each other. The rocks below are usually much
older, more deformed, more lithified and metamorphosed, than the rocks above the
unconformity surface. The weathered and erosional remnants in form of palaeosols
and residual conglomerates are problematic horizons; need to be identified, as there
are instances of dam failures over them. There are some other structures, which are
directly or indirectly related to deformation, such as diapirs, nappe, klippe, outlier
and inlier. Many of these though rare, are found along most tectonically active
zones, usually convergent plate boundaries. The major issue is different rocks at
different locales with in the project site.
The folds and faults can also give an idea of major stress directions currently under
play depending upon faults being normal, reverse or of strike slip nature. Folds
though represent compressive stresses across the axial plane but tensile stresses
along the axis and shearing stresses oblique to it can be unraveled.
Q2. Enumerate different kinds of joint related parameters and there overall
effect on rock mass?
The rock mass has innumerable discrete fracture system termed as joints forms the
most common and formidable discontinuity surfaces dividing a rock mass into rock
blocks of different shapes and sizes. Most joints are planar but curvilinear surface
are not uncommon. The joints of regional dimensions (1-10 km) are called as
“master joints”. Joints, which are parallel to each other and show a regular pattern of
distribution are said to form “joint sets” and are called as “systematic joints”. The
haphazardly oriented joints are called as “random” or “non-systematic” joints. Some
very small sized random joints are present in between the systematic joint sets. The
joints can be classified on the basis of their origin and geometrical distribution. The
ultimate cause of large scale jointing in rocks are due to compressive, shear and
tensile stresses produced in different tectonic regimes. Residual stresses may also
cause development of sheet joints parallel to the ground surface.
Geometric classification is a descriptive one, simple and is easy to apply specially

from geo-engineering point of view as Strike Joints, Dip Joints, Diagonal Joints and
Bedding or Foliation Joints, when related to bedding or foliation of layered rocks. In
non-layered rocks such as igneous and non-foliated metamorphic rocks, dips of
joints are used for the classification.
Knowledge of spatial distribution of joints is very important in engineering geology,

geo-engineering and rock mechanics. Even in quarrying operations and ground
water explorations joints play a pivotal role. Almost all the engineering
classifications of rock mass joint parameters play the key role. As joints are
numerous, varied in orientation and with differing sizes therefore, it is important to
have thorough knowledge of joints and related parameters to be observed and
measured, as they are the single most important parameter controlling geotechnical
behavior of rock mass. These joints need to be plotted on the plan of civil
engineering structure on suitable scales. The important parameters and their effects
are as follows:
i. Number of joints per unit area/volume: Total number of systematic and

non-systematic joints per unit of area or volume is an important factor in
deciding the level of discontinuity in a rock mass.
ii. Joint Spacings: It is related to the distance between joints from a single set,
may vary from less than a centimeter to more than 5m. The number of joints

per unit volume as well as joint spacing will decide the size of the blocks in
rock mass.
iii. Orientation or Attitude: The strike, amount and direction of dip not only
help in identifying the individual joints and joint sets but also control the
shape of the rock blocks by virtue of their intersection. In geo-engineering
the joint attitude decides the most favorable and unfavorable joints with
respect to slope, alignment of dam foundation and tunnel opening.
iv. Block Size and Shape: Depending upon the spacing between the joints and
their orientation results into separation of rock mass into different sizes and
shapes of blocks. The smaller is the block weaker will be the rock mass
while regularly shaped blocks will have higher tendency of slippage towards
an opening rather than the irregular and randomly shaped blocks.
v. Length and Depth Persistence: The length of joints, which may be

discontinuous or continuous, may vary from < 1 m to > 20km, on the surface
as well as in sub surface. Normally with increasing depth, the joints get
reduced in numbers.
vi. Aperture or Openness: Depending upon the origin, weathering and exposure
of rocks the joints may have varying degree of openness. Some joints are
seen as hair cracks, few may have opening less than 1 mm to 5mm and can
go up to 1 meter. The openness of joints is more in sedimentary rocks
especially limestone due to easy weathering and erosion caused by
moving/flowing water. The openness of joints is generally more on the
surface and diminishes with depth. The open joints may have different levels
of infilling.
vii. Asperities or Roughness: It is related to the irregularity of the joint surface.

The joint surface may be planar, wavy and stepped. Within these three types
the surface may be polished or slicken sided, uneven or irregular. The joint
roughness offers the resistance to slippage and is a very important factor for
the overall strength of rock mass.

viii. Joint Filling Material: The open joints are amenable to filling by sediments
brought in by wind and water. The sediments may vary from pure gravel,
granule, sand, silt and clays or their mixture. Sometimes minerals such as
clays, calcite, epidote and quartz are precipitated out of flowing water and
other low to high temperature solutions. The precipitated minerals may
completely fill or heal the opening and provide strength. The wet clays as
filling material pose problem, as they act as lubricant and decrease the
frictional resistance along joints. The presence of clay or gouge more than 5
mm continuously along a fracture opening will make the surface roughness
redundant.
ix. Presence of water: The joints are the avenues for natural ground water to
reside. The rainwater seeps in, stored and moves through interconnecting
joints forming secondary porosity and permeability. However, the presence
of ground water in joints has negative affect on the strength of rock mass due
to its solution/weathering effect as well as by creating fracture water
pressure.
The above mentioned parameters play major role in controlling the rock mass
behavior hence most of the engineering classes of rock mass incorporate all of these
in one way or another.
Q3. What do you understand by shear zone? What are the problems created by
them and suggest remedies for different types of shear zones with
diagrams?
Shear zones are most prevalent deformation structure, next only to joints. They
represent partly brittle to partly ductile deformation in form of tabular planar to a
curviplanar zone of highly strained rock within a largely non-deformed rock, across
them. The size may vary from microscopic ones to normal outcrop size to as large as
tens of kilometers in length and accordingly may have large depth persistence as
compared to its thickness. The fault and shear zone both accommodate offset but the
former one shows discrete displacement while later one distribute the total offset
along its thickness.

The effectiveness of deformation can be gauged from the fact that the rocks get
pulverized to form cataclastic rocks as breccia, mylonite and as a gouge. The rocks
loose their original character and have altogether different character along the shear
zone. The shear zones have different geometries as horizontal, inclined, vertical,
parallel, diverging, converging, anatomizing, conjugate, folded or faulted shear zones.
The overall effect is weakening of rock mass due to the presence of a number of shear
zones in unit area or volume with respect to the dimensions of the civil structure.
It is highly unpredictable and most problematic feature in rock masses in the field of
geo-engineering especially very fine powdered gouge, whose thickness and continuity
has a profound effect on the behavior of rock mass, as they are the locales of least
fraction along the rock wall surfaces. To counter this problem, if shear zones are close
to the surface then it can be excavated and backfilled with concrete or any other sealing
material. In case shear zones are going very deep, then grouting is the best option.
Q4. What will be the effect of folding on geo-engineering projects?
Folding of rocks can bring in lot of issues in the arena of geo-engineering,

depending upon the wavelength of the folding and orientation of fold axis with
respect to the length and the width civil engineering structure and its alignment. The
most important issue is of repetition of rocks. If some weak rocks are present in the
stratigraphic sequence of that area then that rock will keep coming after some
distance depending upon the wavelength of the folds and dimensions of structure
involved. Also, anticlinal zones of a fold are under tensile stresses hence have more
fractures or rock cleavages as compared to synclinal zones which are under
compressive forces and are comparatively less fractured. For example if tunnel is
constructed parallel to fold axis then it will be easy to drive a tunnel along the
anticlinal, rather along synclinal zone, but chances of providing support may be
more in first case as compared to second case. However, at the same time the
problem of ground water seepage will be less in first case as compared to the second
one. It is suggested that tunnel should be aligned in such a way that it goes through
the limb lying in between the anticlinal and synclinal axis. In case tunnel is being
made perpendicular to the fold axis, the problems encountered in anticlinal and
synclinal zone will keep coming after some distance depending upon the wavelength
of the folding and length of the structure.
Similarly in case of dam, when dam axis runs parallel to the fold axis then the
foundation may be kept just before the anticlinal axis to achieve the “upstream” rock
dip conditions. In case of fold axis perpendicular to the dam axis then both anticline
and syncline axis may come and as we know that anticlinal zone may have large
number of fractures, the must be sealed or grouted to avoid water seepage through
them. Fold axis may also have its orientation in between the two extremes discussed
above i.e. oblique/diagonal; some new problems may crop up and need solution to
specific case. Sometimes incidence of large number of rock cleavages especially in
anticlines can inflict extra discontinuity, further weakening a rock mass.
Q5. What will be the effect of faulting on rock strata and topography?
Faults are not very frequent in rock masses, but their absence cannot be taken for
granted. If a fault is present then its antiquity should be established and faults with a
known history of activity should be avoided on or near the major geo-engineering
projects. Along the fault plane, it is common to have pulverized rocks sometimes
with a lot of water making rock mass amenable to failure. The location of faults are
also a common site of landslides, hence should be taken into consideration for any
road or rail project and hill area development.
In the case of dam and reservoir site, it is not advisable to have dam foundation or
abutment on or near a fault plane. If there is a known active fault at a probable site,
it should be in downstream of the dam. Because reservoir area use to cover a lot of
ground and in a geo-tectonically active area such as Himalayan Mountain System, it
is not always possible to avoid all the faults. In such cases, faults should be
excavated to reasonable depths and back filled with concrete to avoid seepage
through fault planes. Similarly, in the case of tunnels, the alignment chosen should
be such that if any fault comes in its way it should be negotiated at 900, to keep its
effect minimum. The strengthening along the fault zone by hacking and back filling
by shotcrete and fibercrete is a must.

Multiple Choice Questions-
1. Which of the following structure is not a deformation structure

(a) Joint
(b) Contact
(c) Rock Cleavage
(d) Klippe
2. Which of the following parameter is not related to joints

(a) Asperties
(b) Aperture
(c) Persistence
(d) Hade
3. Which of the following structure is present as sets

(a) Joints
(b) Shear Zones
(c) Nappe
(d) Fenester
4. Which of the following structure results in repetition of rocks

(a) Fault
(b) Thrust
(c) Fold
(d) Shear Zone
5. Residual Conglomerate is found along

(a) Reverse Fault
(b) Translational Fault
(c) Plunging Fold
(d) Unconformity

Suggested Readings:
1. Subinoy Gangopadhyay (2013), Engineering Geology, Oxford University

Press, New Delhi.
2. Krynine, Dmitri P and Judd, William R (2005), Principles of Engineering
Geology and Geotechnics, CBS Publishers, New Delhi.
3. Tony Waltham (2002), Foundation of Engineering Geology, 3rd Edition,
CRC Press, London.
4. Bell, F G (1983), Fundamentals of Engineering Geology, Butterworths,
London.
5. Marland P. Billings (2001), Structural Geology, Prentice Hall India, New
Delhi.
6. Alam Masroor M. (2013), Fundamentals of Engineering Geology and Geo-
Engineering, Axioe Books, India.


Geology Strength Rocks

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Geology Strength Rocks

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Subject Geology

Paper No and Title Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Principal Investigator Co-Principal Investigator Co-Principal Investigator

Dr. Shashank Shekhar Dr. M. Masroor Alam Prof. Vinay Jhingran

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

After studying this module, you shall be able to:

 Know different structures in rocks important in context of civil engineering.

 Understand different aspects of shear zones and rock mass strength.

 Identify effect of folding and faulting on ground conditions.

 Relate deformation structures with residual stresses.

As for as civil engineering is concerned, the deformation of rocks results into

3. Objectives of Structural Geology and its Application in Civil

To answer these questions geological field work becomes an essential and

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

As we know that rocks are being used in civil engineering as a construction,

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

4. Factors Controlling the Deformation of Rocks

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Table 1: Ranking of some common rocks based on Strength tests in laboratory.

Strong Moderate Weak Weakest

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

4.4 Temperature: Increased temperature of rocks generally lowers yield and

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Joint is a misnomer and actually is a fracture. Defined as discrete fractures along

Fig. 3 Regularly disposed systematic joints, short, discontinuous and randomly

7.1.1 Tectonic Joints: Due to regional or large magnitude stresses-

Compressive stresses- Diagonally criss-crossing, tight and closed joints

7.1.2 Non-Tectonic Joints: Due to local or small magnitude stresses-

Columnar joints- Form mostly in volcanic rocks due to cooling and

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

7.2 Geometric Classification: Geometric classification is a descriptive one,

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

In non-layered rocks such as non-foliated metamorphic and igneous rocks,

Horizontal Joints ► a-a Dip of the joints less than 00 to 50

Another important classification of joints is related to the fold geometry, which we

7.3 Joint Parameters and their Influence on Rock Mass Properties

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

The observation and measurements of joints can be easily done on naturally

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

7.3.6 Aperture or Openness: Depending upon the origin, present state of

7.3.7 Asperities or Roughness: It is related to the irregularity or roughness of

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Tensile Stresses- Gravity Fault- The movement is along the direction of

Geometrically faults are classified as Normal Fault, Reverse Fault and

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

9.2 Identification and Effect of Faulting: Field identification of faults is

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

9.3.2 Topographic Criteria: Faulting leaves some distinct imprint on the

9.3.3 Geological Criteria: The most important effect of faulting is

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

9.3 Influence of Faults on Major Geo-Engineering Projects: Faults with

10.1 Genetic and Geometric Classification of Folds: Folds normally form

Broad fold 1800 to 1200 Open fold 1500 to 1200

Closed fold 1200 to 900 Tight fold 900 to 600

Fig. 17 Type of fold based on inter limb angle.

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Fig. 19 Map pattern of plunging fold.