*Structure of the Earth

1)Crust
- The crust is the outermost solid part of the earth.
It is fragile in nature.
The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental areas.
Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental crust.
The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems.
The crust made up of heavier rocks having a density of 2.7 g/cm3.
The kind of rock seen in the oceanic crust is basalt(SiMa).
The kind of rock seen in the continent crust is Granite(SiAl).
The mean density of material in the oceanic crust is 3 g/cm3.
Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) are major constituent minerals. Hence it is
often termed as SIAL. Also, sometimes SIAL is used to refer to Lithosphere.
SiAl is lighter than SiMa.

2)The Mantle(Mesophere)
- The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle.and rich in
olivine rock.
It is in a solid state.
It has a density higher than the crust portion.
The thickness ranges from 10-200 km.
The mantle extends from Moho�s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
The asthenosphere is the upper portion of Mantle.
It is the chief source of magma that finds its way to the surface during
volcanic eruptions.
The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called lithosphere.
The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and
hence it is also termed as SIMA

3)The Core
- The core-mantle boundary is positioned at the depth of 2,900 km.
The inner core is in the solid state whereas the outer core is in the liquid
state.
The core is made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by nickel and
iron. Hence it is also called the �nife� layer.

*the classification of rocks

1)Igneous Rock
Crystline in struction and doesnot have strata(Layer).
if high portion of silica then called acid rock that is lighter and if greater
portion of basic oxide then caled basic rock thtat is denser than acid.
It is formed out of magma and lava from the interior of the earth.
They are also known as primary rocks.
When magma in its upward movement cools and turns into solid form it is called
igneous rock.
The process of cooling and solidification can happen in the crust of the earth
or on the surface of the earth.
Igneous rocks are classified based on texture.
If the molten material is
Cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large called
Plutonic rock.
Sudden cooling at the surface results in small and smooth grains called
Vlcanic rock.
Intermediate conditions of cooling would result in intermediate sizes of
grains making up igneous rocks.
Examples of igneous rocks
Granite
Gabbro
 Pegmatite
Basalt
Volcanic
Breccia
Tuff

2)Sedimentry Rock
- Non-cristlline in structure and have a strata(Layer),Rocks may be
coarse/soft/hard
Rocks of the earth�s surface are exposed to denudation agents and are broken up
into various sizes of fragments.
These fragments are carried by various exogenous agencies and deposited.
These deposits through compaction turn into rocks. This process is called
lithification.
In several sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits maintain their
characteristics even after lithification.
Sandstone, shale are some of the examples for Sedimentary Rocks.
Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are categorized into
three groups:
Mechanically formed
Eg: Sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess, etc.
when large pabble are cemented it is called conglomerate.
Chemically formed
Eg: Chert, limestone, halite, potash, etc.
become pit,lignite coal after compress
Organically formed
Eg: Geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal, etc.

3)Metamorphic Rocks
- These rocks form under the action of volume, pressure, and temperature (PVT)
changes.
Metamorphism happens when rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic
processes or when molten magma rising through the crust comes in contact with the
crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are exposed to great amounts of pressure
by overlying rocks.
Clay metamorphosed into slate,Limestone into marble,Granite into Gneiss,coal
into graphite.
The materials of rocks chemically modify and recrystallize due to thermal
metamorphism.
There are two types of thermal metamorphism
Contact metamorphism
Regional metamorphism
Contact metamorphism
The rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma and lava and the rock
materials recrystallize under high temperatures.
Regional metamorphism
The rocks experience recrystallization due to deformation caused by
tectonic shearing together with high temperature or pressure or both.

*Major Landforms of the Earth

Mountain building movement
-Caledonian period(320 ml ago):Mountain of scandinavia in scotland and north
america
-Hercynian period(240 ml ago) : Ural mountain,Appalachain in america
-Alpine period(30 ml ago) : Alps,Himalaya,Andeeas and Rockies

1)Fold Mountain
- Compress force,anticline(Upfolded wave) and Syncline(Downfold),Recumbent fold
and Nappe(Over-riding fold)
 They are rugged relief and high conical peaks.
g. Himalayan Mountains and the Alps (Young fold mountains)
The Aravali range in India (oldest fold mountain system in the world)
The Appalachians in North America and the Ural mountains in Russia (very old
fold mountains)
2)Block Mountains
- Tensional forse,Horst/BLock(Upstanding) and Graben/rift valley
Created when large mass of land are broken and displaced vertically.
g. The Rhine valley and the Vosges mountain in Europe
3)Volcanic Mountains
- Formed due to volcanic activity.
g. Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt. Fujiyama in Japan.
4) Residual Mountain:
-When the general level of mountain is denunded and remaining part called.
-Mt.Manodnock in USA

Platue:
-Intermont platue:enclosed with fold mountain such as Tibetian platue enclodes with
himalaya and kunlun,
1)Technonic platue:Deccan platue
2)Volcanic platue:Columbian snack platue
3)Dissected platue:By prosess of denundation
-In humid highland denude by glacier and in dry highland denude by river and wind
formed Mesas and buttes(smaller in area than a mesa).

Type of Plains:
-Some of the most extensive temperate plains are Grasslands like Russian Steppes,
North American Prairies & Argentinian Pampas. Plains may be grouped into 3 major
types based on their mode of formation as mentioned.
1)Structural Plains
- Structurally depressed areas of the world that makes up some of the most
extensive natural lowlands on the earth�s surface
Rock layers on the earth�s crust are aligned almost horizontally
They are formed by horizontally bedded rocks, relatively undisturbed by the
crustal movements of the earth
Examples include Russian Platforms, Great plains of USA & Central lowlands of
Australia
2)Depositional Plains
- Plains formed by deposition of materials brought by various agents of
transportation
Comparatively of equal level but rise gently towards adjacent highlands
Depositional work by rivers form extensive alluvial plains, flood plains &
deltaic plains; that form most productive agricultural plains of the world
For ex. Gangetic plain (for rice & jute), Nile delta of Egypt (for rice &
cotton) & Hwang ho plain in China
3)Glacial Depositional plains
- Glaciers & ice sheets may deposit fluvio glacial sands & gravels in outwash
plains
May also drop boulder clay (mixture of various sizes of boulders & clay) to
form till plain or drift plain
Outwash plains are usually barren lands but boulder clay may be very valuable
for farming
4)Aeolian Depositional plains
- Winds may blow Aeolian deposits, very fine particles known as loess, from
interior deserts or barren surfaces & deposit them upon hills, valleys or plains
forming
a loess plateau (ex. in NW China) or a loess plain (Ex. in Pampas of
Argentina).
The loess help in leveling the undulating plain by filling up groves &
depressions
Many of the loess covered plains in the world are fertile agricultural regions
5)Erosional Plains
- These plains are carved by the agents of erosion (Rain, river, ice, and wind)
Such plains of denudation are described as Peneplains, which means almost
plains.
In glaciated regions, glaciers & ice sheets scours & levels the land forming
ice scoured plains
However scooped out by the ice are now filled by the lakes for ex. in Northern
Europe & Northern Canada.
Finland is estimated to have 35000 lakes occupying 10 % of total land surface
of the country
In arid & semi-arid regions, wind erosion lowers the level of the land which
are called Reg in Africa
Mechanical weathering in arid & semi-arid areas worns mountain slopes leaving a
gentle slope, known as Pediplains or Pediments; with remaining steep hills known as
Inselbergs.

*Volcanoes & its Types

- A sudden & abrupt explosion in earth crust through which Magma, gases, dust,
smoke & solid material burst out
Volcanic activity is connected with crustal disturbances, closely related with
regions that have been intensely folded or faulted
Magma while thrusting its way upto the surface may cool & solidify within crust
as Plutonic rocks resulting in intrusive landforms
Magmas that reach the surface & solidify, form extrusive landforms
-Sills & Dikes (Common intrusive landforms)
- When an intrusion of molten magma is made horizontally along the bedding planes
of sedimentary rocks, the resultant intrusion is called a Sill.
Similar intrusion when injected vertically as narrow walls of igneous rocks
within the sedimentary layers are termed as Dikes.

-Igneous intrusions on a larger scale are various types of Liths

Laccoliths An igneous mound with a dome shaped upper surface & a level base,
fed by a pipe like conduit from below
Lopolith An igneous intrusion with a saucer shape
Phacolith A lens shaped mass of igneous rock occupying the crest of an anticline
or the bottom of a syncline & being fed by a conduit from beneath
Batholith A large emplacement of igneous intrusive rock, mainly granite, that
forms from cooled magma deep in the Earth�s crust.

*Volcano
-There are two main types of Lava
1)Basic Lava:
Hottes lava with dark colour like basalt and highly fluid.
Poor in silika,flow quitly and not very explosive, cover large area with thin
sheet.Gentle slop
forms a flatened shied or dome
2)Acid lava:
highly viscous with light colour and poor in silica
Flow slowly and seldom travel far.
Result in cinder-cone with steep slope. small volcano and occuring in groups.
Form spine or plug (Most of material are removed by erosion and the remaning is
spine)
form lava toung and lava-dammed lakes when lava confied in valeys.

Extrusive Landforms

Lava or molten magma ejects at a very high pressure through a pipe known as
Volcano�s neck or vent
Top portion of volcano is known as crater and a crater lake is formed when rain
water gets accumulated in
Some volcanos may have greatly enlarged depressions like cauldron known as
Calderas
Volcanic dust or ash (finer particles) that emerges out of volcano travels
round the world & falls as black snow, which can bury house & people.
The coarser fragmental rocks are collectively called as Pyroclasts which
include cinders, pumice & volcanic bombs.

Types of Volcanoes:
1)Composite Volcanoes (Stratovolcanoes):
-These are characterized by eruptions of cooler and more viscous lavas than basalt.
The erupted materials are accumulated near the vicinity of the vent openings
leading to formation of layers. These layers make volcano appear as composite
ones. They are characterized by high-explosivity.
Parasite cone is the cone-shaped accumulation of volcanic material not part of the
central vent of a volcano such Mou Etna in sicily.

2)Caldera:
-These are the most explosives volcanoes. Because of their high- explosivity they
do not build any tall structure, rather they tend to collapse on themselves thus
forming a steep bowl shaped depression called caldera.
-Craters are formed by the outward explosion of rocks and other materials from a
volcano. Calderas are formed by the inward collapse of a volcano. Craters are
usually
more circular than calderas

3)Active Volcano
- Keeps on ejecting volcanic material at frequent intervals
Ex � Etna (Italy), Stromboli (Sicily � largest island in the Mediterranean Sea,
near Italy)
Mt Stromboli - Lighthouse of the Mediterranean

4)Dormant Volcano
- One in which eruption has not occurred for a long time but can occur any time
in future
Barren Island (Andaman), Versuris (Italy)

5)Extinct Volcano
- No eruption has occurred in historic times & possibility of future eruption is
also remote
Mt. Popa (Myanmar). But we can never be thoroughly sure about them.
Vesuvius (Bay of Naples near Italy) & Mt. Krakatau (Sunda straits b/w Java &
Sumatra) were thought to be extinct & yet both erupted violently

Distribution of Volcanoes in the world:

-There are 500 active volcano and thousand of dormant and extinc
-Circum-Pacific belt - known as Ring of fire & houses around 2/3rd of world�s
Volcanoes
-Mid-Continental belt - This belt has various volcanoes of the Alpine mountain
chain, Mediterranean Sea (Stromboli, Vesuvius, Etna etc.)
-Mid-Atlantic belt - This belt includes the volcanoes of the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge

*Geysers:
-spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and
accompanied by steam.
-The phenomenon is associated with a volcanic region in which the water below is
being heated at 100D beyond its boiling point
-Is often triggered off by the gases seeping out of the heated rocks.
-World geyser are confined to three Major area Iceland; New Zealand & Yellowstone
park of USA
-The world�s best known geyser is perhaps old faithful in Yellowstone National
park, Wyoming

*Hot springs
- A spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermal heated groundwater
from the Earth crust
Is more common than geysers
The water rises to surface without any explosion
Such springs contain dissolved minerals which may be of medical value
Examples Include Iceland, Japan & Hawaii

*Earthquakes:
-Tremors produced by vibratory waves through rocks of earth mainly along a fault
Place of origin - Focus / Hypocenter
Point vertically above focus on earth surface - Epicenter

-Shock waves travel in all directions from focus & shaking is maximum at Epicenter
on earth surface
-Earthquake is measured in following scales
Intensity / Severity of earthquake - Measured by MMS (Modified Mercalli
Scale)
Magnitude of earthquake (Energy released at epicenter) - Measured by
Richter scale
Variation in direction of waves - Measured by Seismograph
-Earthquake waves - Most important source of earth�s interior
P & S waves - Body waves
L - Surface waves
-P waves (Longitudinal Waves) - Primary waves, travel in all mediums solid, liquid
& gases with speed of approx. 8 km/s
-S waves (Transverse Waves) - Secondary waves, travel in solid & gas medium but
not in liquid with speed of approx. 4 km/s
-L waves - Travel only in solid medium at the surface of earth
with speed of approx. 3 km/s
-Earthquake generally occurs when rocks underground breaks along a fault
-This cause a sudden release of energy known as seismic waves - mainly occur in
Lithosphere
-Distribution of Earthquakes coincides very closely with that of volcanoes with
almost 70 % of the earthquakes occurring in circum Pacific belt
-Another 20 % of earthquakes take place in the Mediterranean-Himalaya region
-Types of Earthquakes
Shallow focus earthquake � Depth ( 0 � 60 Km)
Medium focus earthquake � Depth (70 � 300 km)
Deep Focus earthquake � Depth (300 � 700 Km)
Below 700 km � Not very dangerous

Weathering � Chemical + Physical + Biological

Weathering
- The process of wearing away of earth�s surface is commonly known as denudation
& is generally carried out in four phases Weathering, Erosion, Transportation &
Deposition
Warm wet climate promotes rapid chemical weathering while dry climate provide
good conditions for physical weathering
*Chemical Weathering:
- Extremely slow & gradual decomposition of rocks due to exposer to air & water
 For example Granite when exposed to weather is found to be rough surfaced
because it is mainly made up of Quartz, Feldspar & Mica; Feldspar is more quickly
weathered than Quartz hence is worn away, eventually leaving loosened quartz
crystals.
Regolith - Weathered material from the rock or mineral remains of decomposed
rocks.
When a soil cover on the rock exists, chemical weathering of the rock enhances
because the soil absorbs rain water & keeps the underlying rock in contact with
this
moisture.
Rain water absorbs organic acids from the soil & thus become a stronger
weathering agent than pure water acting on a bare rock.
Oxidation
- Weathering by reaction of oxygen in presence of air & water with minerals
present in the rock
For example most rocks contain certain amount of iron, which when comes in
contact with air is changed in iron oxide & finally into rust, which crumbles
easily,
loosening the overall structure of the rock
Decomposition by Organic Acids
- Within the soil which covers most rocks are bacteria which thrive on decaying
plant or animal material
These bacteria produce acids when dissolved in water, help to speed up
weathering of underlying rocks
In some cases, microorganisms & plants like mosses or lichens can live on bare
rock damp surface, absorbing chemical elements from the rocks as food & producing
organic acids. Hence, they become the agent of both Chemical & Mechanical
weathering.

*Physical Weathering / Mechanical weathring

- Also known as Mechanical Weathering
Disintegration by Mechanical Process
Types of physical weathering: By insolation, by Frost
-By Insolation
1) Block Disintegration
Mainly in dry desert areas, hot at day and cold by night
Leads to expansion & contraction of rock setting up stresses in the rock
Finally leading to its disintegration
2) Granular Disintegration
Different minerals in rock leads to different rate of expansion & contraction
of rock
Leads to Fragmentation of rock for ex. Granite
3) Exfoliation
Stresses are naturally greatest near the surface & where there are sharp angles
in the rock
Rectangular blocks are thus gradually rounded by splitting away of sharp
corners
Finally it leads to peeling off of rock�s outer layer
Exfoliation also takes place by repeated wetting & drying of rocks surface as
during wetting its outer layer absorbs moisture & expand; when they dry this
moisture
evaporates & they quickly shrinks, finally leading to peeling of outer layer of
the rock
-By Frost
Mainly at high altitudes & cold climates where during day cracks & joints
inside rock fill with water & during night they get frozen
This leads to increase in volume of water in rock approx. by 9 %
-Scree is a collection of broken rock fragments at the base of crags, mountain
cliffs, volcanoes or valley shoulders that has accumulated through periodic
rockfall
from adjacent cliff faces.
-Oniin peeling:when surface layer of rounded boulder gradualy splitt off the
process is called.

*Biological Weathering
- By Men, Animals, Insects & Vegetation
vegetation grows into crevices of rock cracks or in courtyards or building
walls

Mass movement & Ground Water:

-Mass movement
Movement of weathered material down the slope due to gravitational force
Movement may be gradual or sudden depending on the gradient of the slope,
weight of the weathered debris & presence of a lubricating agent such as water
-Soil Creep
Slow & gradual but more or less continuous movement of soil down the hill
slopes
Movement is not very noticeable, especially when slope is fairly gentle or when
soil is well covered with grass or other vegetation
Most common in damp soils where water act as a lubricant so that individual
soil particles move over each other & over the underlying rock
Though the movement is slow, the gradual movement tilts trees, fences, posts &
so on which are rooted in the soil
Soil is also seen to accumulate at the foot of the slope or behind obstacles
such as walls, which may burst by weight of the soil accumulated
-Soil Flow / Mud Flow (Solifluction)
When the soil is completely saturated with water, soil particles easily move
over each other & over the underlying rock
Soil act as a liquid mixture & soil flow or mud flow occur
In Ireland such flows are known as Bog-Burst
IN arid region mantle of soil is saturated with rain-water after an strom and
flow downslope as a semi-liqued mass.
In temperate and tundra region soil flow occur when the surface layer is frogen
ground and melt in spring.
-Landslide (Slumping or Sliding)
Very rapid movements resulting in large mass of soil & rock falling suddenly
Landslide usually occurs on steep slopes & by earthquakes & volcanic activities
Landslides are often caused by the lubricating action of rain water
Slumping is usually common where permeable debris or rock layer overlie
impermeable strata such as clay
Water sinking through the permeable layer is halted by the clay
Damp clay provides a smooth slippery surface over which the upper layers slides
easily
Man often enhances the possibility of landslide by clearing natural vegetation
for agriculture & housing which allows more water to penetrate through soil & rocks

*Groundwater
- When rain falls on earth it is distributed in various ways.
Some is immediately evaporated & thus returned to atmosphere as water vapour.
Some is absorbed by plants & gradually returned to atmosphere by transpiration
from the leaves of the plant.
Much of it flow into rivers & streams eventually reaching seas & oceans as run
off.
A considerable amount of water received from rain or snow, however, percolates
downward into the soil & rocks known as groundwater.
Groundwater plays an important role in mass movement & weathering and is also
important as a mean of natural water storage.
It re-enters the hydrological cycle by way of springs.
A spring is simply an outlet of stored groundwater, released at a point where
water table reaches the surface (a man-made outlet for groundwater is known as
well)
The amount of water available to form groundwater depends to some extent on
climate, nature of the rocks (absorbing power) & seasons of the year.
Absorbing power of the rock is determined mainly by its porosity, permeability
& its structure.
For ex. Sandstone is both porous & permeable, Clay is highly porous but
impermeable, Granite is crystalline but pervious

*Water table
- Water which seeps through the ground moves downward until it reaches an
impermeable layer of rock through which it can not pass.
If there is no ready outlet for the groundwater in form of spring, water
accumulates above the impermeable layer & saturate the rock.
The permeable rock in which the water is stored is known as aquifer & surface
of saturated area is called water table.
Depth of water table varies with seasons, relief & type of rocks, as it is far
below in hilltops but is close in flat surface areas.

Landforms made by Running Water:

-Glaciers and snow only in cold areas, wind mainly in desert, waves in coastal
areas but water-action is present everywhere.
-Running water is single most important agent of denudation.
-Source � river, lake, marsh usually an upland with heaviest precipitation and
slopes down.
-Uplands form the catchment area.
-Crest of mountain is divide or watershed from which streams flow down the slope.
-Consequent stream � initial stream exists as consequence of slope
-Subsequent streem:Tributery of conseqent stream
-Obsequent stream:Tributery of subseqent stream
-If rocks are homogenous and of uniform resistance to erosion, tributaries join
obliquely as insequent streams than drainage pattern so evolve like Dendritic or
tree
pattern.
-If rock is made hard and soft and Tributery join as subseqent stream than drainge
pattern so develope called Trellised or rectangular .

Mechanism of Humid Erosion:

-Mass movement due to lubricating action of water
-Soil creep � slow
-Land slide � sudden

Process of River Action:

-Solution(Mineral that disolve in water) � dissolved (50 tons/year)
-Suspension(Sand,silt,mud) � suspended (200 tons/year)
-Traction Load � coarse material rolled along the bed like pabble,stone and rocks
-Mississippi River drains half the size of USA daily into Gulf of Mexico
-Ability of river to move depends on volume of water, velocity of water, size,
shape and weight of load
-By doubling velocity, transportation power is increased by nearly 10 times

River Erosion & Transportation:

-Corrasion or abrasion � mechanical grinding against banks and bed of river �
lateral corrasion(sideways-V shape valley) or vertical corrasion (downwards-dippen
the
river channel)
-Corrosion or solution: chemical or solvent action of water mainly in calcium
carbonate in limestone
-Hydraulic action: mechanical loosening of material by water, undermines the softer
rocks
-Attrition: wear and tear of material when they collide with one another, angular
pebbles are smoothened into round pebbles

Course of Rive:
1)Upper (youth)
-Vertical Corrasion and V Shaped valley
-Down cutting take place so Lateral corrasion is not take place
-Gorges (Steep and narrow) � Indus gorge in Kashmir, found in temperate areas like
between mountain ranges
-Canyons � arid areas � cut deep into valley floor Bryce Canyon, Utah
canyon is often wider compared to a gorge,
-Stream A would cut more rapidly due to higher gradient or more precipitation and
succeeds in enlarging the base. Beheaded stream is also called misfit stream.
-Rapids, cataracts and waterfall � due to unequal resistance of hard and soft rock
traversed by river than Plunge pool formation
-Waterfall formation � resistant rock lies transversely, fault line scrap by
faulting, waterplunges down the edge of plateau and hanging valleys(U shape) were
formed
in Glacier.

2)Middle (Maturity)
-Lateral Corrasion increases
-V shaped valley widens
-Interlocking spurs
Meander
-River cliff (eroding region) and slip off slopes (depositing region)
-In miidle course, meander is only brgining to downstream swing.In lower course the
meander is fully formed.

3)Lower (Old)
-Lateral corrosion goes on and erodes banks
-Coarse material drops and fine material carried to mouth of river
-Flood plains & levees, artificial embankment
-Braided channels
-Ox-bow lake or mortlake (dead lake) � also called cutoffs or bayouts in
Mississippi basin �degenerate into swamps, becomes marshy and dies
-Delta � fan shaped and triangular � distributaries(Due to obstruction cause by
deposition alluvium the river may discharge water through several channel called )
Types of delta:
-Bird foot delta � Mississippi river
-Arcuate (fan shaped) � Nile, Ganga and Mekong river
-Estuarine - Amazon, Ob, Vistula river
-Cuspate (tooth like) � Ebro of Spain
Where deltas are formed ?:
-Tideless areas
-Excessive sediments by acive verticle and lateral erosion in upeer course of
river.
-Shallow region
-No large lakes that filter off sediment.
-No strong currents

River Rejuvenation:
-Being youth again
-Negative movement when there is upliftment of land or fall in sea level � slope
steepens and active down-cutting is renewed
-Fall in sea level leaves floodplains at increased altitude � terraces are formed
and graded profile with rapids or knick points(where old ad rejuneveted profile
meet
is clled)
-Rejuvenation in upper course leads to steep gorges, in middle course vertical
corrasion strengthens (formation of incised meanders � common in River Colorado)
-Positive movement occurs when there is depression of land or rise in sea level �
submergeland along the coast and weaken the eroding power,drown the valley
The lower course are under sea and features of deposition are shiftes to middle
and upward course.

Human Aspects:
-Navigable (Amazon is greatest navigable river of world), Nile, Mississippi, St.
Lawrence,Rhine, Danube, Murray, Mekong, Irrawaddy
-Ganga (jute production), Nile (cotton) � support ports like New Orleans for
MississippiRiver, Rotterdam for Rhineland & Calcutta for Indo-Gangetic plain
-Political boundaries � Mekong separates Laos and Thailand; Yalu between North
Korea and USSR

Landforms of Glaciation :
-During Pleistocene period or Ice Ages (30,000 years ago) ice sheets covered
temperate latitudes covering 12 million square miles � half of N. America, Europe,
Greenland & highmountains of Eurasia
-Now, major ice caps � Greenland (720,000 square miles) & Antarctica (5 million
squaremiles)
-Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica � ice cap was 14,000 feet thick
-From central dome of ice cap, ice creeps in all directions called glaciers.
Loftier mountains above surface as nunataks
A nunatak is formed when a glacier or ice sheet covers the majority of a mountain
peak or other rock formation, leaving the nunatak exposed above.
-Ice sheets reach to the sea � extend in polar waters and float as ice shelves.
These break into blocks as icebergs (only 1/9th part is visible). Diminish as comes

close to warm waters.

-Glaciation varies based on snowline (9,000 ft. for Alps in polar and 17,000 ft.
for Mt. Kilimanjaro in equator)
-Snow accumulation takes place � melt during day and refreezes at night [repeated
to form hard granular mass as neve (French) & firn (German)]. Due to gravity, neve
brought towards valley below (beginning of flow of glacier or river of ice)
-Glacier � broadest at source & tongue shaped. It is not liquid but with continued
pressure, it moves. Movement is highest in middle where there is little
obstruction.
Side and bottom are held back by friction. Curves line � glacier moves faster at
center.
-Rate of movement of glacier:Alps � 3 ft./day,Greenland � 50 ft./day,Antarctica �
few inches/day
-Alestch Galcier in Switzerland � 10 miles long (longest glacier in Europe)but
smaller than those in Alaska & Himalaya
-Piedmont Glacier � At foot of mountain ranges, several glacier converge to form
extensive ice masses.Example, Malaspina Glacier (65 miles long, 25 miles wide and
1,600
square miles)

Landforms of Glaciation highland:

-Erosion in highlands and deposition in lowlands
-Erosion by plucking (joints and beds drag them away) and abrasion (scratches the
valley floor with frozen debris)
-Larger fragments of glacier floor bear evidence of striation or scratching while
finer material produce ground rock flour
-Factors affecting rate of erosion:Velocity of flow,Gradient of slope,Weight of
glacier,Temperature of ice,Geological structure of valley
-Corries/Cirque form in hollows where snow can accumulate. The snow compacts into
ice and this accumulates over many years to compact and grow into a corrie/cirque
glacier.
This then moves down hill because of gravity and the mass of the ice.
Deepens depression into steep, horse shoe shaped basin. At the base there is
corrie lake ortarn.
-Arete or Pyramidal Peak � 2 or more peaks join together to form pyramidal peak.
-Bergschrund (German), Rimaye (French) � at head of glacier crack opens - as ice
moves out in summer but no new snow to replace it. It acts as obstacle for
climbers.
On bends or slope,more crevasses are formed.
Bergschrunds are cracks that appear between the moving ice of a glacier and the
non-moving, or stagnant, ice of a mountain or cliff
A crevasse is a deep, wedge-shaped opening in a moving mass of ice called a
glacier.
-U �Shaped Trough � It wears away the sides as it moves, it scratches the rocks,
removes debris and surface soil � has wide and flat floor. Floor is deepened and
interlocking spurs are blunted to form truncated spurs. Loch Ness and Lake
Ullswater as trough lakes or FingerLakes. Finger Lakes lie in former river valleys
carved
into U-shaped trough
-Hanging Valleys � Main valley is eroded faster than tributary valleys. Ice form
tributary hangs above main valley. Form head of water to generate HEP.
-Rock Basins and Rock Steps � Glacier erodes the rock basin and rock basins filled
by lakesare formed. Steep rocks due to different degree of resistance to glacial
erosion and where tributary joins main valley additional weight of ice in main
valley cuts deeper into valley floor to form steps.
-Moraines � rock pieces carried by glaciers � it can be lateral moraine(that is
fall on the side of glacier,mainly screes),medial moraine(when two glacier converge
there inside lateral morains unite to form MM) or medialmoraines.

Landforms of Glaciated Lowlands:

-Depositional mainly brought by valley glaciers (leaves eroded material in
restricted areas)and
continental ice shelves/sheets are more widespread that 1/3rd of Europe and North
America formed by Glacial and glacio-fluvial landforms
-Roche Moutonnees � resistant residual hummock. Upstream smooth by abrasion and
downstream rough by plucking & is steeper.
Seen in both highland and lowland
-Crag & Tail � made of hardrock with steep slope on upstream & protects soft
leeward slopefrom being worn away by ice. Example, Castle rock in Edinburgh,
Scotland
-Boulder Clay & Glacial Till � Unsorted glacial deposits spreading into sheets and
not mounds forming featureless and monotonous landform
-Erratics � boulders transported by ice that came with advancing sheets of ice but
when ice melted, they were left stranded. They are made of different material than
that region.
-Perched block is a large block of local or far-travelled rock which has been left
by a melting glacier on top of a moraine or roche moutonn�e.
seen in both highland and lowland
-Drumlins � Oval, elongated whale back hummocks composed of boulder clay with
elongation in direction of ice flow. Steeper at onset side and taper off at leeward
end.
Also known as baskets of egg topography,where drumlin are dominant drainage are
poor.
-Eskers � long, narrow sinuous ridge of porous sand and gravel which marks sites of
sub-glacial melt-water streams.Since made of porous sand it cannot support trees
(but in Finland form tree-covered ridge between lakes)
-Terminal Moraines � Example, Baltic Heights in North European Plain
-Outwash Plains � fluvio-glacial deposits washed from terminal moraines by streams
and channels of stagnant ice mass. Kames are small hillocks that might cover the
plains. With continuous glacial melting, kame delta collapses onto the land
surface forming "kame and kettle" topography.

Impact on Human:
-In mountains of Scandinavia � top soils are removed by ice-sheet and glacier
leaving them bare of vegetation. Has thin soils incapable of agriculture
-Animal migration type farming seen in transhumance(the action or practice of
moving livestock from one grazing ground to another in a seasonal cycle)
-Sandy and gravel outwash plains in North Germany
-Marshy boulder clay in Central Ireland
-Barren ice-scoured surface of Canadian and Baltic Shields are infertile
-Erratics in Canada obstruct farming
-When lakes are eliminated, old glacial lake beds with rich alluvium support heavy
cropping
-Great Lakes of USA formed by former glaciation act as waterways
-In areas of dominant drumlins, drainage is poor
-In outwash plains, eskers and kames excavated to provide sand and gravel for
construction.Purest sand to make moulds for metal castings
-Scandinavia, Switzerland and Canada � where coal is little available, stream and
waterfall from hanging valleys used to harness HEP & in industries
-Skiing, mountain climbing and sight-seeing

Arid or Desert Landforms:

-1/5th world is desert (rocky, stony or sandy)
-Deserts which are absolutely barren are true deserts
-Confined between 15D and 30D north & south of equator
-Lie on Western part of continents where Trade winds are offshore � bathed by cold
currents with desiccating effect (moisture is not condensed into precipitation) �
examples � Sahara,Arabian, Thar, Iranian, Kalahari, Namib, Atacama, Great
Australian Desert
-Continental Interior � Mid latitudes - Gobi and Turkestan � have extreme
temperatures

Types of Desert:
-Hamada (Rocky Desert): Stretch of bare rocks, sand and dust � bare and sterile �
Sahara Desert
-Reg (Stony Desert): Extensive sheets of angular pebbles which the winds are not
able to blow off � more accessible with camels. Called serir in Libya & Egypt
-Erg (Sandy Desert): ripples of sand dunes � Calanscio Sand Sea in Libya. Called
koum in Turkestan
-Badlands:hills are eroded by rainstorms into gullies and ravines,Painted Desert of
Arizona (SE of Grand Canyon of Colorado River)
-Mountain Desert: Found on highland,platue and mountain range,Steep slopes are cut
by wadis & action offrost has carved irregular edges � Tibesti Mountain & Ahaggar
Mountains in Sahara Desert

Mechanism of Arid Erosion:

-Insufficient rainfall (less than 5 inch) � irregular
-High temperature
-Rapid rate of evaporation
-Sub-aerial denudation by weathering, wind action and water
-Intense heating in day and cooling in night � creates stress in weakened rocks
-Peeling off the outer thin layers of rock � onion peeling or exfoliation
-Water gets into cracks and freezes � it expands by 10% volume � create fragments
that accumulate as screes � rocks become teeth of wind erosion
-Winds are more efficient in arid areas
-Deflation � lifting and blowing away of loose material from ground by wind.Fine
dust will bere moved from origin and deposited far away � lowering of land surface
�
creates deflation hollows (Qattara Depression in Sahara � 450 ft BSL)
-Rock surface is scratched and polished by wind; more effective at rock base where
wind can carry high amount of material (Telegraph poles in desert are covered by
metal
for footor two above ground)
-Attrition � particles roll against one another and rounded into millet seed sand

Erosional Landforms in Desert:

-Rock Pedestals or Mushroom Rocks: wears away softer material and grooves and
hollowsare cut. Rock pillar will be further eroded near the base where friction is
greatest � undercutting produces mushroom rock or gour in Sahara
-Zeugen: tabular � soft rock below hard rock � creates ridge and furrow landscape.
Joints open by mechanical weathering � stand at 10 to 100 feet above sunken
furrows.
Abrasion lowers zeugen and widens furrows
zeugen are formed by abrasion(when pebbles grind along a rock platform)
-Yardangs: Vertical bands in direction of prevailing winds. It excavates softer
rocks into narrow corridors � found in Atacama in Chile & interior deserts of
Central
Asia
Yardangs are formed by deflation( erosion by wind of loose material)
-Mesas and Buttes: Mesa (Spanish word meaning table) is flat mass with resistant
top and steep sides. Hard mass resists denudation by wind and water � in Arizona or
fault blocks (TableMountain of Cape Town, South Africa). Mesas may be reduced to
buttes by continued erosion.These are separated by canyons
-Inselberg (Island Mountain): Isolated residual hill rising abruptly from level
ground �steep slopes and rounded tops � north Nigeria, Western Australia & Kalahari
Desert
-Ventifacts or Dreikanter (3 surfaces): pebbles faceted by sand blasting � polished
and resemble Brazil nuts. If wind direction changes, another facet is developed
with
sharp edges.Form smooth mosaic region covered by rock fragments.
-Deflation Hollows: Formation of small depression and minor faulting can initiate
depression;eddying action of oncoming winds will wear off weaker rocks until water
table is reached. This will form oasis or swamps. For example, Faiyum Depression
in Egypt is 130 ft BSL. Formation of Great Dust Bowl in USA

Depositional Landforms in Desert:

-Dust grains can travel as far as 2,300 miles before getting deposited
-Dust from Sahara fall as blood rains in Italy or Switzerland glaciers
-Dust settles in Hwang Ho Basin from Gobi Desert to several hundred feet depth
-Coarse and heavy grains remain static and form dunes based on size of particle,
wind velocity, location and nature of surface where they are transported, presence
or
absence of water and vegetation
Major features of wind depsition:
-Dunes: Hills of sands by accumulation and wind movement � it can be active or live
versus inactive or fixed rooted with vegetation � common in ergs desert � can be of

many shapes,Two type of common dunes

1)Barchans (crescent or moon shaped) � individual or group � common in Turkestan
or Sahara. Accumulation of sand at obstacle like grass patch or rock heap � occur
transversely to wind � horns thin out and become lower in direction of wind due
to frictional retardation around edges.
Windward side � convex and gentle sloping � sand is driven up on this side
Leeward side � concave and steep � sand slips down the leeward side
Advancement can be from 25 to 50 feet a year
Long rooted sand holding trees and grass are planted to check advancement of
dunes and prevent fertile land from devastation. Many can coalesce into single line
of
irregular ridge.
2)Seifs (Longitudinal dunes): seif means sword � long narrow ridges parallel to
the direction of prevailing winds.Sahara desert, south of Qattara Depression; Thar
and
West Australian Desert
-Loess: Fine dust blown beyond the desert limits is deposited on neighboring lands
� fine loam,rich in lime, coherent and porous; water sinks and surface gets dry;
streams have deep cut through loess and badland topography may develop � NW China,
Hwang Ho basin (250,000square miles with depth of 200 to 500 feet) and called as
Hwangtu (yellow earth) � originally comes from village in Alsace, France. Called
as limon in Germany, France and Belgium (windborne). In Mid West USA � derived from
ice sheets and called as adobe.

Landforms by Action of Water in Deserts:

-Rainfall � 5 to 10 inches with thunderstorms, torrential downpours
-Light vegetation like soft rock, can lead to flash floods during torrential
-Loose gravels are swept down the hill � cut gullies and ravines forming badland
topography
-Liquid material in flash floods makes flow liquid mud
-Mass of debris at foot of hill � alluvial cone or fan or dry delta � evaporation
by hot sun and downward percolation into ground made mounds of debris
-Desert streams are fed by melting snow of distant mountains outside desert as
exotic streams(called chebka in Algeria)
-Outflowing rivers from upland are short and intermittent,they drain into lower
depression.
-Drainage is internal � water sometimes does not disappear and temporary lake is
formed �high percent of salts
-Lakes and alluvial plains are formed � playas, Salinas and salars in USA & Mexico;
shotts in N. Africa
-Floor of depression is made of two features:bajada and pediment
1)Bajada � depositional feature of alluvial material by intermittent streams
2)Pediment � erosional plain at base of mountain scraps

Limestone and Chalk Landform:

-Sedimentary rocks of organic, origin from coral and shell accumulation
-In pure state,limestone is made of calcite or CaCO3 or calcium carbonate
-But where magnesium is also present called dolomite.
-Limestone is soluble in rain water and with CO2 from air forms weak acid
-Also called karst topography that contain large stretch of limestone � Karst
district in Yugoslavia

Features of karst region:

-Karst region is bleak(colourless) landscape,Broken by precipitous slopes
Absence of surface drainage (most surface water is underground)
-Streams on other rocks flow for short distance and then go underground & surface
is dry
-Limestone are well jointed
-Rainwater finds the way through these cracks
-Stream Cut their way along joint and fissure,when Water penetrates base of
limestone and meets non-porous rocks it remerges on surface as spring or resurgence
-Cracks enlarge into trenches caled limestone pavements
-Enlarged joints called grikes(joints widened by chemical weathering)
-Rectangular blocks called clints
-Small depression on surface by rainwater � swallow holes
-Where rainwater sinks into limestone at point of weakness � sink holes (example,
GapingGhyll in Yorkshire) � these grow by solvent action
-When water sunks into limestone it etches out caverns(cave). When roof collapses
limestone gorgeas Cheddar Gorge is formed
-Swallow holes consolidate to form large hole � Doline
-Dolines merge to form � uvala (miles along with clayey soil)
-Yugoslavia � large depressions of hundred square miles called polje due to
faulting (during rainyseason floor near water table become temporary lakes while
drier areas
are fertile & supportlarge villages)
-Stalactites � from top or roofs and are downward pinnacles that are sharp,slender.
Calcium carbonate is carried in solution, when water evaporates calcium carbonate
solidifies.
-Stalagmites � from base � shorter, fatter and rounded
-Stalactite and Stalagmite join to form pillars

Limestone Regions:
-The most stretch of limestone occure in Yugoslavia,
-Britain,USA,Mexico,

Human Activity in Karst Regions:

-Mainly barren and Thin soil
-High porosity of rocks and Surface drainage is absent so Vegetative growth is
difficult
-Poor grass and short turf
-In tropical areas � luxuriant growth with heavy rain throughout year)
-Scattered settlemen and Sparse population
-Lead occurs along with limestone

Chalk:
-Landform of chalk are different from limestone
-Little or no surface drainage
-Valleys once contained water are now dry and called coombes
-Low rounded hills in S & SE England where they Called Downs in N. France
-Covered with short turfs & woodland,used for pasture and sometime for arable
farming.
-Friable rocks � so swallow holes and under-ground cave don�t develop

Lakes:
-Hollows of land where water accumulates � vary in size, shape, depth and mode of
formation
-Caspian Sea (760 miles long; 3215 ft deep & area of 143,550 square miles � bigger
than Malaysia)
-Can be temporary or permanent
-Fresh water lakes � Lake Geneva, Lake Poyang(China), Great Lakes of America
-Inland drainage � region of low precipitation and intense evaporation � high
salinity like Dead Sea (250 parts per thousand); Great Salt Lake in Utah,USA
-Low salinity � Black Sea with less that 17ppt,which received many rivers
-Desert � lakes known as playas
-Lakes dry up in regions of unreliable rainfall
-In hot desert � lake disappear by evaporation, percolation and outflow

Formation of Lakes:
1)Tectonic Lakes:
warping, sagging, bending and fracturing � lake Titicaca (in intermontane plateau
of Andes located in Bolivia and peru)
highest lake in world; Caspian Sea (largest lake � 5 times larger than Lake
Superior)
CS is located in Kazakhstan,Turkmenistan,Iran,Azerbaijan,Russia(TARIK).
2)Rift Valley Lakes:
faulting and sinking of land between faults & water collects in trough �East
African rift Valley (Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya and Ethiopia �
extending along Red Sea to Israel and Jordan) � includes Lake Tanganyika (world�s
deepest lake), Malawi,Edward, Rudolf, Albert and Dead Sea (world�s lowest lake �
1286 BSL)
Lake malawi located in Tanzania,Malawi and mozambique(MTM)
Lake victoria located in Tanjania,Uganda and Kenya(KUT),Largest lake in africa
lake tanganyika is located in Burundi,Democratic Republic of the
CongoZambia,Tanzania(BDZT),world's longest freshwater lake and world�s deepest lake
Dead sea located in Jordan and Israel.Lowest lake
3)Glaciation:
Cirque Lakes or Tarn Lakes. Ribbon lakes like Lake Ulls water � long and deep
Kettle Lakes:melting of stagnant ice in outwash plain� irregular and uneven
morainic surface � meres of Shropshire in England and Orkney in Scotland
Rock-Hollow Lakes � formed by ice scouring when ice sheets scoop the surface �
found in Finland (country known as Soumi or land of lakes by Finns with more than
35,000 lakes).
Lakes formed by morainic damming of valleys - morainic debris when water
accumulates behind the barrier (both lateral and terminal moraines) � Lake
Windermere of
Lake Districtin England.
Lakes by Deposition of glacial drifts � in lowland with drumlins that is poor
drainage landscap create water logge and form lake in County Down in Northern
Ireland
4)Formed by Volcanic Activity
Crater and Caldera Lakes � volcanic explosion of top cone of volcano � can be
enlarged into caldera � Crater Lake, USA; Lake Toba in North Sumatra & Lake Avernus
near
Naples
Lava Blocked Lake � in volcanic areas it solidifies as Israel forming Sea of
Galilee(inland elongated lake)
By subsidence of Volcanic Land surface � shallow depression as Myvatn of Iceland
5)Formed by Erosion
Karst lakes � solvent action of rain water on limestone carves out solution
hollows � these are clogged with debris � collapse of limestone roofs � long narrow
lakes
as Lac deChaillexon in Jura Mountains
Large depresion called Polje don�t have surface outlet and contain lakes � during
wet period cover floor by water and shrinkin during dry periods � Lake Scutari in
Yugoslavia
Solution is important in "rock salt",usefull in salt mining � meres of Cheshire,
England
Wind deflated lakes - in desert create playas and salt lakes � Qattara Depression
in Egypt;Great Basin in Utah, USA
6)Formed by Deposition
Due to river deposits � ox bow lakes in flood plains of Mississippi, USA and Rio
Grande,Mexico
Due to Marine deposits � isolate lagoons along coast by building spits and bars �
in deltas ofNile and Ganga.-
In East Germany and Poland these are called haffs. Strong on-shore winds push
coastal sand dunes landwards and enclose as marshy lagoons � in Landes of SW
France.
Due to Landslide, Scree and Avalanches � barrier lakes which are short lived due
to loose fragments that pile across valleys. Lake Gormire in Yorkshire blocked by
 landslides andFfynnon Frech on Snowdon blocked by screes
7)Formed by Human or Biological Activities:
Man made lakes � artificial lakes by concrete dam and reservoir � Lake Mead above
Hooverdam on Colorado River, USA
Made by Animals - beavers � Beaver lake in yellow Stone National park, USA
Ornamental lakes � Lake Gardens in Kuala Lumpur, Taiping lakes
Mining lakes � tin mining created many lakes in West Malaysia

Lakes and Man:

-Means of communication: Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterways in USA � arteries
ofcommerce.
-Marie Canal or Soo Canal between Lake Huron and Superior is greater than combined
annual tonnage of Suez and Panama Canals
-Economic and Industrial development: early settlements and town sites, industries,
rawmaterial and fuels are handled by HOMES (in USA); Yangtze basin with
industrial development of Wuhan (Wuchang, Hanyang and Hankow)
-Water Storage: Domestic water supplies like Britain Lake Thirlmere supplies to
Manchester,Okhla Reservoir to Delhi.Veterna, Vihar and Tulsi lakes to Bombay.
-HEP Generation
-Abu Bakar Dam of Cameron Highlands supplies to central west Malaysia. Aswan Dam on
Nile & Lloyd Barrage on Indus at Sukkur suffers from similar defects
-Agricultural Defects: thick fertile alluvium will be formed
-Regulating River Flows: Steady flow of river is maintained by absorbing excess
water in rainyseason. Poyang and Tung Ting on Yangtze Kiang, Tonle Sap on Mekong,
Lake
Constance onupper Rhine
-Artificial reservoirs on Hoover Dam on Colorado River and also Bhakra Nangal on
SutlejRivers
-Moderation and Climate: Water in lakes cools the air in summer by absorbing heat
andwarms in winter by releasing heat
-Lake Peninsula has grapes and fruit farming. Large lakes like Lake Michigan and
Caspian Seaexert influence on cloudiness of the region
-Source of Food: protein by fresh water fish
-Sources of Minerals: high salinity like common salt. Borax is mined in salt lakes
of MojaveDesert. Gypsum in Cheshire & potash in Stassfurt near Berlin

Coastal Landforms:
The Action of waves, tides and currents:
-On calm days wind are slight and wave do little damage to shorelind,During storms
wave reach there gretest magnitude.
-Average pressure of Atlantic waves is 600 lb per square foot in summer and treble
in winter
-During storms pressure is more than 6000 lb per square foot
-Tides extend line of erosion into zone of erosion � this zone is between low water
level and high water level
-Tides are usually generated at the deep oceanic regions while waves are usually
seen at shallower areas of the sea.
-Currents move eroded debris and deposit it as silt, sand and gravels

Mechanism of Marine Erosion:

-Waves � surges swell forward � become higher and swifter
-Normal wave � 20 feet high (height between crest and trough) & 400 feet long
(wavelength �distance between two crest)
-Near shallow waters � speed is reduced & waves are refracted against alignment of
coast
-Waves curl over and a break is called as breakers (shallow water when it is less
than theheight of waves). Water rushes up the beach against land and is called as
swash, when retreats it is called as backwash.
-Undertow(Off-shore drift) that flows near bottom away from shore � exerts a
pulling effect which is dangerous to sea bathers
-Corrasion � waves against cliffs
-Attrition � fragments collide against one another
-Hydraulic Action � waves splash against coast and enter joints. When waves
retreat, air expands
-Solvent Action on limestone coast � On calcium carbonate sets up chemical changes
in rocks by sea water � limited to limestone coasts
-Rate of erosion depends on:Nature of rocks,Amount of rocks exposed to sea,Effect
of tides

Erosional Landforms:
-Soft rock worn back into inlets,coves or bays
-Hardrock persist as headland,promontories or caps
-Cliffs and Wave cut platforms: Cliff is steep rock facing the adjoining coast.
Rate of recession depend on geological structure (stratification, jointing and
resistance to wave attack). If it deep landward, cliff will be more resistant to
land erosion. Example, English Channel cliffs (includingBeachy Head),At base of
cliff there is notch which gradually undermines the cliff so that is
collaspe.Eroded material are deposited on offshore terrace.
-Caves, Arch, Stack and Stump: caves at Flamborough Head,Caves unite to form
arch,Arch collapse as pillar stack,Finally stump remains just visible above sea
level
-Geos and Gloups: Waves splash against roof of cave when compressed air is trapped
inside.Water forces out as gloup (gurgling water) or blow hole (Holborn head in
Caithness Scotland),Roof collapses and creek develops as geos (Wife geo, near
Duncansby Head, Scotland)

Depositional Landforms:
-Beaches: sand and gravels that are loosened from land are deposited. Eroded
material is transported. Longshore drift comes obliquely to the coast carries
material
along shore in direction of dominant wind. Backwash removes material and deposits
it on off-shore terrace.Silt and mud are deposited in shallow waters
-Coarse material at top of beach and fine material closer to sea. On smooth
lowlands, beaches continue for miles � east coast of West Malaysia but in uplands
it
descends suddenly
-Spits and Bars: material pile up into ridges or embankment of shingle forming spit
� one side attached to land (Calshot Spit, Southampton water, England or Kelantan
coast). These can be curved into hook or recurve spit. When formed across mouth of
river it is called bar (Chesilbeach in Dorset, England link Isle of Portland with
mainland and enclose lagoon Fleet),Tombolo: Connecting bar that joins two landmass
-Marine Dunes and Dune Belts: coastal sand forms dunes and dune belts large enough
to engulf farms, rocks etc. Common in Landes, SW France; Belgium, Denmark,
Netherlands.
Toarrest migration of dunes, marram grass and pines are planted

Types of Coasts:
Coastline of Submergence:
-Sinking of land or rising of sea. Includes � Ria, Fiord, estuarine and Dalmatian
or longitudinal coasts
1)Ria Coast:
-During Ice Age, water was locked up as ice. Warm climate melted ice, water
levelrose and sea level rose. Mountains run at right angle to sea � transverse or
discordant to coast. Rise in sea level submerges the lower part of valleys. Long
narrow inlets are formed.They differ from fiords as they are not glaciated and
depth
increases seawards. Seen inAtlantic coast of NW France, NW Spain, SW Ireland,
Devon and Cornwall. Rias are backed by highlands and support commercial ports by
deep
water and offer sheltered anchorage. Usedfor fishing ports and naval bases such as
Plymouth and Brest.
2)Fjord Coast:
Submerged U Shaped glacial trough. Have steep walls rising from sea with branches
joining main inlet at right angles. Due to high intensity of erosion,
fiords are deep for great distances inland but there are shallow sections called
as threshold with numerous islands. Confined to higher latitudes of temperate
regions
which were once glaciated(Norway, Alaska, British Columbia, S. Chile, South Island
of New Zealand). Have mountainous background with poor accessibility and attract
few settlements. Agricultureonly in deltaic fans. Fishing or market centers are
Trondheim
3)Dalmatian Coast:
longitudinal coast where mountain runs parallel or concordant to coast.Name from
Dalmatia, Yugoslavia along Adriatic Sea � long narrow inlets with islands parallel
to
coast. Common in Pacific coast � west coast of North and South America. It is
mountainous and hinder communication inland � has deep sheltered harbors with no
ports.
For example, San Francisco.
4)Estuarine Coast:
In submerged lowlands, mouth of rivers are drowned so that funnel shape destuarine
are formed. If entrance is not silted, they make site for ports
(London, Hamburg,Buenos Aires). Modern dredges help keep the port open all the
time.

Coastline of Emergence:
-Due to uplift of land or fall in sea level. These are less common.Represented as
uplifted lowland coast or emergent upland coast
1)Uplifted Lowland Coast:
-smooth, gentle coastal lowland. Offshore waters are shallow with lagoons, salt
marshes and mud flats. If deposits are sandy and gravelly, beaches and marinedunes
are
formed. Ports on former coast become inland towns. Example, SE USA, W.Finland, E.
Sweden, coastal Argentina south of Rio de la Plata
2)Emergent Upland Coast:
-Faulting leads to uprising � raised beach beyond reach of waves,No wave cut
platform Though still it can have arches, stacks etc.Emergent upland coast is
straight
with steep cliff and depper off-shore water,Found in Scotland, western coast of
Deccan in India, westernArabian coast facing Red Sea

Islands and Coral Reefs :

Continental Island:
-formerly part of mainland and now detached � due to land subsidence or rise in sea
level
These can occur as:
1)Individual Island:
-Occur outside continent and associated to mainland like Newfoundland(separated
from mainland by Strait of Belle Isle); Madagascar by Mozambique Channel;Ceylon by
Palk
Strait; Tasmania by Bass Strait and Formosa by Formosa strait
2)Archipelago or Island Group:
-British Isles, Balearic Island of Mediterranean and AegeanSea
3)Festoons or Island Arcs:
-In Loop around edge or mainland � East Indies, Aleutian Island,Ryukyu Is., Kurile
Island and island arcs in Pacific Coast

Oceanic Islands:
-Small and lie in oceans, flora and fauna is unrelated to continents;Galapagos
Island have unique species of animals; sparsely populated
1)Volcanic Islands:
-island as topmost part of cone of volcano � some are extinct. Mauna Loa inHawaii
which is 13,680 ft ASL.
-Atlantic Ocean: Azores, Ascension, St. Helena, Madeira and Canary Islands
-Indian Ocean: Mauritius and Reunion
-Antarctica Ocean: South Sandwich Island, Bouvet Island
2)Coral Islands:
-These are lower and emerge above water level
-Pacific Ocean: Marshall Islands, Gilbert and Ellice Islands
-Atlantic Ocean: Bermuda Island
-Indian Ocean: Laccadives and Maldives

Coral Reefs:
-Coral animal such as coral polyps,calcareous algae secrete calcium carbonate from
there cell
-Polyps are most abundant amongst all coral animals
-When polyp die, skeleton are cemented into coralline limestone
-Non reef building species � called precious coral of Pacific Ocean & Red coral of
Mediterranean Sea
-Survive best in warmer tropical seas
-Water temperature must not be below 68F or 20D
-Not flourish in cold currents due to upwelling of cold waters from depth that
cools the warmwater surface,thats why coral reef are absent in western paet of
continent.
-Most corals are found in Pacific and Indian Ocean
-Depth of water should not exceed 30 fathoms or 180 feet as beyond it sunlight is
too faint.Shallow water of less than 100 feet is ideal
-Water should be saltish and free from sediments - corals are best developed on
seaward sideof reef � abundant supply of clear oxygenated water
-Pacific and indian ocean is best for coral formation

Types of Coral Reefs:

1)Fringing Reefs:
- Lies close to coast and extend outwards from mainland � separated byshallow
lagoon � widest when fringing protruding(above water) headland but absent when
facing
mouth of stream
2)Barrier Reefs: Separated by wider and deeper channel � partially submerged � has
narrow gaps at several places to allow water � useful for shipping. Great Barrier
Reef off the coast of Queensland, Australia (1200 miles long separated from coast
by 100 miles wide in places andover 200 feet deep)
3)Atolls: Circular and enclose shallow lagoon without any land in center and broken
in few place � on inside palm and coconut trees might grow (thrive well in brackish
waters) � Suvadiva in Maldives, west of Ceylon have 40 miles across lagoons. Also
provide airbase for trans-Pacific aircraft

Origin of Coral Reefs:

1)Subsidence Theory by Charles Darwin
- After his voyage to Pacific Islands in 1842
- All corals began as fringing around island or extinct volcano. Due to
downwrapping of earth,island�s subsided. Growth was vigorous at outer edge and reef
widened
- Submergence of land led to formation of atolls with circular lagoon which is
shallow because sadiment of island.
2)Glacial Control Theory by R.A. Daly
-In 1910 during visit to Mauna Kea in Hawaii
-Developed relation between glaciation and development of coral reefs
-At Ice Ages peak, water was too cold for coral growth to take place. With absence
of coral barrier, marine erosion was able to attack and lower islands. With warmer
climate, water that locked up in ice sheets melted.
-Rise in sea level, lower islands were submerged � here coral started to grow
upwards. Atolls were formed.
-Recent boring evidences favor Daly�s evidence of sea level change and consequent
erosion of islands. Deepest boring reveal basaltic rocks which correspond to
subsided
islands byDarwin.

The Oceans:
-Oceans: 70% or 140 million square miles area is comprised by oceans � source of
food and tides for power
-Challenger was the 1st successful worldwide deep sea expedition
-Most famous International Oceanographic Research Center is International Council
for Exploration of Sea with its headquarters in Copenhagen
-Older echo-sounding techniques have been replaced by radar sounding and electrical
echo devices to find depth and map relief of oceans. Also grog-men equipped with
breathing apparatus are involved
-To measure current flow � use of propellers, vanes and pendulum is done

Relief of Oceans:
1)Continental Shelf:
- Seaward extension of continent from shoreline marked by 100 fathom/600 feet
isobaths (contours marking depth Bellow sea level) � shallow platform
with width varying greatly. Inmountain areas of Rockies and Andes, it may be
absent. Angle of slope is least when continent shelf is widest. Most common
gradient is
1 in 500. It is regarded as part ofcontinent submerged due to rise in sea level.
- Shallowness enables sunlight to penetrate through the water and encourage growth
of plants� rich in plankton and are richest fishing grounds in world � Grand banks
off Newfoundland,North Sea and Sunda Shelf
- Limited depth and gentle slope keep out cold under current and increase height of
tides(might hinder shipping). Greatest seaports like Southampton, London, Hamburg,
Rotterdam, Hong Kong are on continental shelves

2)Continental Slope:
-Abrupt gradient
-The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
-The continental slope boundary indicates the end of the continents
-The seaward edge of the continental slope loses gradient at this depth and gives
rise to continental rise.

3)Deep Sea Plain:

-Lies 2-3 miles BSL and cover 2/3rd of ocean floor. Once thought featureless,it has
plateau, ridges, trenches and basins in midst of oceans � Azores and Ascension
Island
-Ocean Deeps: Long narrow trench to a depth of 5000 fathoms or 30,000 feet. Found
close to continents in Pacific Ocean (greatest is Mariana Trench near Guam Island
around 36,000feet deep). Others are Mindanao Deep, Tonga Trench & Japanese Trench
in Pacific Ocean

Ocean Deposits:
Slow sedimentation process where eroded particles slowly filter through oceanic
water and settle inlayers
1)Muds: Terrigenous deposits from land, deposited on continental shelf � blue,
green or redmud depending on chemical content
2)Oozes: Pelagic deposits form oceans � shelly and skeletal remains of marine
microorganisms with calcium or silica � have fine flour like texture
3)Clays: Mainly as red clay in deeper oceans due to accumulation of volcanic dust

Salinity:
-NaCl or common salt form 77%
-Other salts include magnesium, calcium, potassium
-Due to free movement, salts remain remarkably constant in all oceans and even at
greatdepths � but degree of concentration varies � expressed as salinity (degree of
saltness inwater)
-Isohalines � lines joining places of equal degree of salinity
-Average salinity is 35.2 parts per thousand
-Baltic Sea (dilution of fresh water) � salinity is 7 parts per thousansd
-Red Sea � much surface evaporation and fewer rivers � salinity is 39 parts per
thousand
-Caspian Sea � enclosed sea with salinity at 180 & for Dead Sea it is around 250.
Highest forLake Van (Asia Minor) at 330. With high density in Lake Van and Dead Sea
it is impossible tosink (beginner swimmers find it easier to float)
Salinity is affected by:
-Rate of evaporation: High pressure belts of trade wind desert between �High
salinity caused by high temperature and low humidity. Temperate oceans have low
salinity
due to lower evaporation & temperature
-Fresh water is added by precipitation, streams and icebergs � salinity is low in
equatorial region due to heavy rainfall and high relative humidity. Baltic, Arctic
and
Antarctic watershave low salinity due to colder climate and little evaporation �
as water is added by meltingof icebergs & rivers (Ob, Lena, Yenisey and Mackenzie)
-Degree of water mixing by currents: Water does not mix freely with ocean waters in
enclosedseas and salinity is high � current freely flows and salinity is at 35
parts per thousand orlower & free mixing of water

Temperature of Oceans:
-average annual range of temperature of ocean water is -12�C in open ocean.
-Mean annual temperature decreases from 21 D to 12 D at 45D N and S.
-reaching to freezing point at poles
-Cold current as Labrador current reduces surface water temperature making port of
eastern canada full of ice at 45D N. Warm current likeNorth Atlantic Drift raises
the
temperature � making Norwegian coast ice free year round at 70D N
-Highest water temperature are seen in tropics � Red Sea with 29D to 37D.
-Warmer summer � Parts of ice that breaks off as icebergs and lower surface
temperature ofsurrounding ice free seas
-Temperature varies vertically and decreases for first 200 fathoms/360 meter at
rate of 1F or every 100fathoms.
In Ocean deep below 2000 fathoms/3600 meter, water is uniformly cold.
-80% ocean waters have temperature 35F to 45F.

Movements of Ocean Currents:

-Circulate in regular pattern. Warm current flow from equatorial region to poles.
-Cold Currents flow from Polar Regions equatorwards and have low surface
temperature
-Planetary Winds: Trade winds which move equatorial waters polewards and westwards
andwarm eastern coast of continents. Florida current & Gulf Stream Drift to warm
southern andeastern coast of USA. South Equatorial Current warms eastern coast of
Brazil as warmBrazilian current. Planetary winds have dominant influence on flow of
 ocean currents �strongest evidence of prevailing winds on current flow is seen in
North Indian Ocean
-Westerlies in temperate are less reliable than trade Winds � result in north-
easterly flow ofwater in north hemisphere, so Gulf Stream is driven to Western
Europe.
Earth�s Rotation: It deflects freely moving objects including ocean currents to
right. In northhemisphere it is clockwise (Gulf Stream and Canaries Current) while
in
south hemisphere itis anti-clockwise (Brazilian current and West Wind drift)
Land: tip of south Chile diverts West wind Drift northward as Peruvian current.
Shoulder ofBrazil at Cape Sao Roque divides west flowing equatorial current into
Cayenne current whichflows north westwards and Brazilian Current which flows south
� westwards

Equatorial Currents:
- The steady Tradewinds in the region constantly drifts two streams of water from
east to west starting from the west coast of Africa.
These two currents are called North Equatorial current and South Equatorial
current.
At the shoulder of north-east Brazil, the protruding land mass splits the South
Equatorial Current into Cayenne current which flows along the Guiana Coast and the-
Brazilian Current which flows southwards along the coast of Brazil.
Between the two equatorial currents, is the east-ward flowing equatorial
counter current.
Since these currents are near the equator, all of them are warm currents.

North Atlantic Ocean:

Cayenne Current
- In the North Atlantic Ocean, the Cayenne current is joined and reinforced by
the North Equatorial Current.
This current heads north-westwards as a large mass of equatorial water into the
Caribbean sea.
This current is further split into two currents: The Florida current and The
Gulf Stream.
All of these currents are warm currents.
1)Florida Current
- One part of the Cayenne current enters the Gulf of Mexico and emerges from the
Florida Strait between Florida and Cuba.
This is called Florida Current.
2)Gulf Stream
- Another part of the Cayenne current heads northwards east of the Antilles as
the Gulf Stream.
The Gulf stream is one of the strongest ocean currents.

North Atlantic Drift:

- The Gulf Stream is deflected eastwards under the combined influence of the
Westerlies and the rotation of the Earth.
This reached Europe as the North Atlantic Drift.
Since this drift carries warm equatorial water into the high latitudes of
Europe, it keeps the coasts of North Sea frost free facilitating suitable
conditions for
ports.
From the North Atlantic, the drift fans out into three directions: eastwards to
Britain, northwards to the Arctic, and southwards along the Iberian coast, as the
Canaries current
1)Canaries Current
It flows southwards along the coasts of Europe and Africa, to finally merge
with the North Equatorial Current.
Since it receives water from the polar regions, it is a cold current.
-The flow of all the above currents completes a clockwise circulation in the North
Atlantic Ocean. Apart from the clockwise circulation of the currents, there are
other
currents that flow into the North Atlantic Ocean from the Arctic region like the
Labrador current and Irminger Current under the influence of the Polar Easterlies.

1)Labrador Current
This current drifts south-eastwards between West Greenland and Baffin Island of
Canada.
This current meets the warm Gulf Stream off Newfoundland of Canada.
2)Irminger Current
It is also called East Greenland Current.
It flows between Iceland and Greenland and cools the North Atlantic Drift at
the point of Convergence.

Sargossa Sea:
- It is an area in the middle of the North Atlantic ocean formed by the currents
flowing in the clockwise direction.
A large amount of floating sea-weed gathers in this region.
It is the only sea on the Earth without a coastline.
- It is bounded on by :
west by the Gulf Stream;
north by the North Atlantic Current;
east by the Canary Current; and
south by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current.

Grand Banks off Newfoundland:

- We know that the regions of a confluence of warm and cold currents are regions
conducive to the growth of microorganisms and phytoplankton.
These regions form excellent breeding grounds for marine organisms like fish.
The Grand Banks off Newfoundland, Canada are formed when the warm Gulf Stream
meets the cold Labrador Current.
This region is one the richest fishing grounds on Earth.

Cronology of current in north atlantic as clock-wise:

-Trade wind:North Equatorial current and South Equatorial current.
-South Equatorial Current into Cayenne current(North) and Brazilian Current which
flows southwards along the coast of Brazil.
-Cayenne current joint North Equatorial Current.split into two currents: The
Florida current and The Gulf Stream
-Gulf Stream is deflected eastwards and reached Europe as the North Atlantic Drift
-North Atlantic Drift into three: eastwards to Britain,northwards to the
Arctic,outhwards along the Iberian coast, as the Canaries current.
-Canaries current merge with the North Equatorial Current.

South Atlantic Ocean

-South Atlantic ocean flows in a similar pattern as the North Atlantic OCean but in
the counter-clockwise direction. The phenomenon of middle gyre or Sargossa Sea is
not so distinctive in the mid-South Atlantic.

Brazilian Current:
- It is formed by the split in the South Equatorial Current at the Cape Sao Roque
in Northeast Brazil and hence is a warm current.
It travels southwards along the coast of Brazil.
Under the influence of Westerlies and the rotation of the earth, it propels
eastwards to merge with West Wind Drift calles the South Atlantic Current.

South Atlantic Current and Benguela Current

- On traversing westwards, the current is diverted northwards by the landmass of
Africa.
It is called Benguela current flowing along the west coast of Africa in the
northward direction.
Benguela current brings the cold polar waters from the West Wind drift into the
tropical latitudes.
Both these currents are cold waters.

-The Benguela current surges equator wards in the north-westerly direction to merge
with South Equatorial current thus completing the anti-clockwise circulation of the
South Atlantic Ocean.

Cronology of current in south atlantic as anti-clockwise:

-Brazilian Current - propels eastwards to africa - merge with West Wind Drift
called the South Atlantic Current.
-South Atlantic Current diverted northwards as Benguela Current

Pacific Ocean Currents:

-Pacific Ocean Currents includes various cold and warm current which moves
clockwise circulation in Northen Pacific Ocean and Anticlockwise circulation in
South-
Pacific Ocean thereby influencing the climatic pattern in the coastal regions. The
currents are mentioned below
North Equatorial Current (Warm)
South Equatorial Current (Warm)
Counter Equatorial Current (Warm)
Kuroshio System (Warm)
North Pacific Drift (Warm)
Oyashio Current (Cold)
California Current (Cold)
Peruvian or Humboldt Current (Cold)
East Australia Current (Warm)

Equatorial Currents:
- These start on the west coast of Central America and under the influence of the
prevailing trade winds traverse east to west.
Due to larger expanse of the Pacific ocean and absence of any obstructing
landmass, the volume of water in the Equatorial Pacific currents is much larger
than that of the Equatorial Atlantic currents.

Equatorial Counter Current

- Due to the convergence of a large mass of water from the equatorial currents in
the western Pacific near Indonesia and Australia, there is piling up water due to
which the sea level rises by a few centimetres.
This creates an equatorial Countercurrent between the North Pacific and South
Pacific Current.
This current flows from West to East.
-Since all the above currents originate and flow near the equator, they are warm
currents.

Current system in North pacific

Kuroshio Current:
- The North Equatorial Current under the influence of the North-east Tradewinds
flows off the coasts of Philippines and Formosa as the Kuroshio current in the East
China Sea.
This is also known as Kuru Siwo or Japan Current.
Most of it lies in the subtropical high-pressure belt and is under the
influence of the westerlies.
Since it carries the equatorial waters, it is a Warm current.
North Pacific Drift
- The warm waters of the Kuroshio current are carried polewards as the North
Pacific Drift.
This current keeps the ports of Alaska ice-free in winter.
This current splits into two: The Alaskan current and the California Current.

Alaskan Current:
- This results from the northward diversion of the North Pacific Drift.
This current is relatively warm compared to the surrounding waters of the
region.
It flows along the coast of British Columbia and Alaskan Panhandle.

Californian Current:
- The south branch of the North Pacific Drift flows as the cold Californian
current along the coast of Western U.S.A and joins the North Equatorial Current.
This completes the clockwise circulation of the currents in the Northern
Pacific.
This cold current is one of the reasons for the dry conditions along the West
coast of the USA and the state of California.

Oyashio Current:
- Also known as Oya Siwo, Okhotsk or the Kurile current is a cold subarctic
current flowing from the Bering Strait.
It flows southwards in a counter-clockwise direction and joins the Kuroshio
current off the Japanese island of Hokkaido.
Since this region forms the convergence of warm and cold water currents, it has
ecological and economic significance to Japan.

North Pacific Gyres

- The Northen Pacific Gyres include the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre and North
Pacific Subpolar Gyre.
The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre is one of the largest ecosystems on the
Earth, with phytoplankton and marine organisms.
It is surrounded by:
Kurushio current on the West,
North Pacific Drift on the North,
California current on the East and
North Equatorial Current on the South.
The North Pacific Subpolar Gyre is composed of the north-flowing Alaskan
current and Aleutian current also known as Sub-arctic current and the south-flowing
Oyoshio current.
The North Pacific Drift separates the North Pacific Subtropical and Subpolar
Gyres.

Cronology of Current system in North pacific :

-Kuroshio Current flow off from Philippines and Formosa - carry northward as North
Pacific Drift.
-NAD splits into two: The Alaskan current(northward diversion) and the California
Current(south branch).

Current system in South pacific :

East Australian Current
- The South Equatorial current flows from east to west in the Southern Hemisphere
and on reaching the landmass of Australia and under the influence of South-East,
Tradewinds flows southwards called the East Australian Current.
As this carries the Equatorial waters into temperate regions, it is a warm
current.
South Pacific Current:
- The East Australian current turns eastwards towards New Zealand under the
influence of Westerlies in the Tasman Sea.
It then merges with the West Wind Drift or the Antarctic Circumpolar Current as
the South Pacific Current.

Peruvian Current:
- The South Pacific Current is obstructed by the tip of Southern Chile and flows
northwards as the Peruvian current.
This is also known as the Humboldt Current.
Since it brings waters of the West wind Drift it is a cold current.
The cold water chills any winds that blow on-shore so that Chilean and Peruvian
coast are practically rainless.
The Peruvian current eventually links up with the South Equatorial Current
completing the anti-clockwise circulation in the South Pacific Ocean.

Cronology of Current system in south pacific :

-East Australian Current - merges with South Pacific Current - obstructed by the
tip of Southern Chile and flows northwards as the Peruvian current.

Indian Ocean Currents:

Currents in the Indian Ocean include the following:
- The North East Monsoon Drift
The South West Monsoon Drift
North Equatorial Current (Warm)
South Equatorial Current (Warm)
Somali Current (Cold)
Mozambique Current (Warm)
Madagascar Current (Warm)
Agulhas Current (Warm)
West Australian Current (Cold)

-The circulation currents of Indian Ocean is different from the Pacific and the
Atlantic Ocean. The Indian Ocean is surrounded by huge landmass of Eurasia in the
north
and is only half the ocean. Hence the circulation in the South Indian Ocean is
similar to the other two oceans while the circulation in the North Indian Ocean is
completely different. The monsoon winds also play a peculiar role in the reversal
of the direction of currents in the North Indian Ocean.

The North Indian Ocean Circulation:

-The currents in the North Indian Ocean are affected by the landmass of Eurasia and
the monsoon winds. Hence there is a change in the direction of the currents from
season to season in response to the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons.
Summer Circulation
- The North Equatorial current and counter equatorial current is absent in
summer.
Due to the influence of south-west monsoon and the absence of north-east
tradewinds, a strong current flows from west to east in the summer season.
The South-West monsoon Drift originates is summer and from June to September,
the North Equatorial current is replaced by an easterly movement of water.
Thus the circulation of currents is in a clockwise direction.
Somali current is also formed in summer by the eastward movement of water
caused by the South-West monsoon Drift. It flows from the 'Horn of Africa' in the -
north-east of Africa. It is a cold current and due to the region of upwelling,
Somali and its neighbouring countries are arid.
Winter Circulation
- North Equatorial current is formed in winter under the influence of North-east
tradewinds.
 It originates from the south of Indonesia and flows from east to west towards
the south of Srilanka.
The North-East Monsoon Drift is also formed in winter starting from December
when the North-East monsoon causes a westwards and southwards drift along the
eastern-
coasts of India and along the Arabian coast.
This generates an anti-clockwise circulation in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
Bengal.

Southern Indian Ocean:

-The circulation in South Indian Ocean is continuous unlike North Indian Ocean and
is not affected by the change of seasons.
-South Equatorial Current: The South East Tradewinds originate the South Equatorial
Current. It flows from east to west and is a warm current. The flow of this current
is strengthened by the South Pacific Equatorial current through Indonesia.
-Equatorial Counter Current: At the equator, there is upwelling in winter due to
North and South Equatorial currents and this causes the generation of c.
-The South Equatorial current splits into two branches by the Madagascar Island:
The Madagascar current and the Mozambique current.
-These flow along the east of Madagascar and east of Mozambique respectively to
converge at the Cape of Agulhas. Henceforth this current is known as Agulhas
current.
-All the three currents are warm currents.
-The Agulhas current joined by the West Wind Drift or the Antarctic Circumpolar
Current and is deviated to its justify by the landmass of Australia.

-Cronology in Southern Indian Ocean:South Equatorial Current - split into

Madagascar current and the Mozambique current - Converge to Agulhas current -
joined by the West Wind Drift - form West Australian current

The Antarctic Circumpolar Current or the West wind Drift:

- This is a dominant circulation in the Southern Ocean.
It flows from West to East in a clockwise direction around the Antartic.
The current is circumpolar due to the lack of any landmass connecting with
Antarctica.
The Antarctic convergence where the cold waters of the Antarctic meet the warm
waters of the sub-antarctic is the region of upwelling nutrients.
This form excellent regions for the growth of phytoplankton with associated
copepods and krill, and resultant foodchains supporting fish, whales, seals,
penguins,
albatrosses, and a wealth of other species.
Falkland Current:
- A small branch of West wind drift flows between the coast of Argentina and
Falkland islands and is called Falkland current.
This is a cold current due to polar waters of West wind drift.

Weather:
-Weather: Casual remark about atmospheric condition at certain place and time �
never static and cannot be generalized
-Climate: Average condition of atmosphere over a period of time around 35 years �
systematic observation,recording and processing
-Degree of variability differs from latitude to latitude � climate of British Isles
is highly variable while that of Egypt is static
-Direction of winds controlled the trading routes
-Death rates are high in tropics and low in deserts as germs are transmitted easily
in tropics due to high humidity
-Isohyets � lines joining places of equal rainfall
-Pressure: Air is made of gases and has weight. Pressure is measured by barometer
invented by Galileo and assisted by Torricelli in 1643 � long glass tube sealed at
upper end and open at lower end in mercury � variation is balanced by column of
mercury in glass tube
-Isobars � lines joining places of equal pressure
-Isotherms = line joining places with same temperature
-Absolute humidity � actual amount of water that is present in the air as grams per
cubicmeter
-Relative humidity � ratio between actual amount of water vapor and total amount
the air can hold at given temperature expressed as percentage
Saturated air is 100% RH � temperature is said to be at dew point
High RH � air is moist and low RH � air is dry
Hygrometer measures RH
-Anemometer � speed of wind with 3-4 semi-circular cups
-Isohels � lines joining places of equal sunshine

Classification of Clouds:
High Clouds:
-Cirrus (Ci) or feathery at 20-40,000 feet ASL
-Cirrocumulus (Cc) � globular mass as ripples in mackerel sky
-Cirrostratus (Cs) � white sheet or veil with milky sky and sun and moon shines by
halo

Medium Clouds � Alto at 7- 20,000 feet ASL:

-Altocumulus (Alt-Cu) � wooly bumpy clouds in layers as waves in blue sky � fine
weather
-Altostratus (Alt �St) � denser, greyish watery look � fibrous and striated
structure

Low Clouds � Below 7,000 ft ASL and mainly stratus or sheet

-Stratocumulus (St-Cu) � rough bumpy with waves more than Alt-Cu � more
contrastbetween bright and shaded part
-Stratus (St) � very low cloud � grey and thick, dull weather with light drizzle
-Nimbostratus (Ni-St) � dark dull colored, layered cloud or rain cloud � brings
continuousrain, snow and sleet

Clouds with vertical extent � no definite height (2 to 30,000 feet)

-Cumulus (Cu) � vertical cloud with rounded top and horizontal base � humid
tropical regionwith uprising convectional currents � fair weather cloud
-Cumulonimbus (Cu-Ni) � overgrown cumulus cloud � black and white globular mass
�cauliflower top that spreads out like anvil � seen in tropical afternoons as
thunderclouds �convectional rains with lightning and thunder

Other Elements of Pertaining to Visibility:

1)Haze: Due to smoke and dust in industrial area due to unequal refraction of light
in air of different density in lower atmosphere � used in connection with reduction
of visibility in low humidity regions (<75%) - haze�is present if visibility is
less than 2000 meters.
2)Mist: Condensation of water vapor in air forms drops of water to float about
forming clouds at ground level � reduces visibility to about 1000 meters, occurs in
wet
air with RH >75%
3)Fog: Water condensing on dust and other particles like smoke from houses or
factories �occurs in lowers strata as dense ground cloud, visibility <1000 meters �
Black
County &North England � smoky fog as smog with visibility < 200 meter
Fogs that occur on hills are called hill fogs � common in morning and disperse
when sunrises
Temperate areas � hot days and clear nights � fog may result from cooling of land
surface by radiation
 Radiation fog or land fog � lower layers of air are chilled and water vapor in
atmosphere is condensed
Sea fog � When cooling surface is over the sea or when a damp air stream is
brought in contactwith cold current as off Newfoundland � some sea fogs are light
and
shallow and mast of sea can be seen protruding above them
Fogs are more common over sea than land and most prevalent over coastal areas
Dry interiors witness mist or haze
Dense fogs in high and mid latitude rather than tropics
-fog reduces it to less than one kilometer (0.6 miles), while mist can reduce
visibility to between 1 and 2 kilometers
-less Visibility:Haze < Mist < Fog

Climate:
-Atmosphere: Made of gases and vapor and receive incoming solar
radiation/energy(insolation)
-Lowest layer where weather is confined is troposphere (for 10Km and temperature
falls with altitude)
-Lower part of atmosphere � 78% N, 21% O, 0.03% CO2, traces of argon, helium and
othergases with variable water content (if atmosphere was dry without water there
would
be no weather)
-Above troposphere we have stratosphere upto 80 Km �cool, cloudless, thin air,
without dust and vapor but has seasonal temperature changes
-Ionosphere � electrically conducting layers, which make short wave radio
transmission possible over long distances
Insolation:
-Sun�s radiation reaching earth is called insolation
-Sun has a surface temperature of more than 5,500 degrees C - radiation is divided
in 3 parts �visible white light (more intense and affect climate), less visible UV
(cause sunburn on skin) and IR rays (penetrate in dust and fog and is used in
photography)
-Of the total radiation � 35% reaches atmosphere and is reflected back to space by
dust,clouds (no role in heating)
-14% absorbed by CO2, water vapor and gases � interception by air makes it
scattered and diffused so that visible rays b/w UV and IR gives rise to blue sky
-51% reaches earth and warms surface
-Earth warms the layer of earth by conduction (nearest layers), convection (heat
asupward movement) and radiation (at night)
-Land gets heated quickly than water. Water is transparent and heat is absorbed
slowly as it is always in motion � it is absorbed over more depth and area � so
rise in
temperature takes more time
-Most heat in land is absorbed by the surface only

Elements of Climate and Factors Affecting Them

1)Temperature
Affects amount of water vapor in air and governs moisture carrying capacity
Decided rate of evaporation and condensation
RH is related to temperature and affects cloud formation and precipitation
2)Latitude:
- Rays are overhead at tropics (short distance and smaller area,high temp); high
latitude have low temperature due to oblique angle and spread in surface area (move
longer distance and is absorbed by clouds, vapor and dust).
3)Altitude: Places near earth surface are warmer than higher up � temperature
decreases withheight and is known as lapse rate (fall of 1�F with every 300 feet
ascent �
usually more in summers around 400 feet while for winters around 280 feet) � more
in day than night and more on elevated highlands than plains
4)Continentality:
- Land is heated more quickly due to higher specific heat of water
5)Ocean Currents and Winds:
- affect temperature by transporting heat and cold � currents.Warm gulf current or
north atlantic drift keep ports in west europe areas ice free.
Cold currents like labrador lower summer temperature in canada when carried
landwards by onshore trade winds
Westerlies that come to Britain and Norway tend to be cool winds in summer and
warm windsin winter & are most valuable in moderating climate
6)Slope, Shelter and Aspect:
Steep slope experience a rapid change in temperature. East west ranges have
higher temperature on south facing sunny slope (good for vine
cultivation) than thenorth facing sheltered slope
Hot day followed by calm night,cloudless night � air cools more rapidly over
higher grounds and may inducecold heavy air to flow down the slope and accumulate
in
valley bottom pushing warm air upwards (temperature would be lower in valley than
above) � reversal of lapse rate and is called as Temperature Inversion or vallay
inversion
7)Natural Vegetation and Soil:
Thick foliage of Amazon cuts incoming insolation andsunlight does not reach
ground. In day trees loose water by evapotranspiration so the air aboveis cooled �
RH
increases and mist and fog may form
Light soil reflect more heat than darker soil which are better absorbers
Dry soil like sand are more sensitive to temperature changes while wet soil
retain moistureand warm up and cool down more slowly

Precipitation:
-If air is cool below dew point � water vapor will condense around dust particles
-If condensation takes place below freezing point it is called as snow (flakes or
ice crystals)
-If moist air ascends to cooler layers, water droplets freezes into ice pellets and
fall as hail � as more and more water droplets accumulate it increases in size
-Ice pellets exist as frozen raindrops, melt and refreeze to form sleet
-If droplets coalesce into larger particles of 0.2mm to 6 mm � rain falls

Types of Rainfall
2)Convectional Rainfall �
- most common due to intense heating during day in summers in tropics � when
surface heated by conduction moisture vapor rises as heated air
expands and becomes lighter � they form cumulonimbus clouds (maximum in
afternoon) � hot rising air holds moisture, which is abundant in areas of high RH.
- As air rises, it cools and at saturation torrential downpour occurs � as rainfall
is intense it is not used for agriculture
2)Orographic rainfall or relief rain
- moist air ascends the mountain barrier � best developed on windward slope where
moisture laden winds come from sea
- Air is compelled to rise and is there by cooled by expansion in higher altitudes
& subsequent decrease in pressure.
- Condensation takes place forming clouds (since caused by relief it is known as
relief rain).
- On descending leeward slope, decrease in altitude increases pressure and
temperature � air is compressed and warmed with drop in RH � leeward side is called
rain
shadow area
3)Cyclonic or Frontal Rain:
- cyclonic activity in temperate region (depression) or tropical region (cyclone) �
by convergence of two different air mass � cold air remains close to ground while
warm air moves up � in ascent pressure decreases, air expands, condensation takes
place and frontal rain occurs

Pressure & Planetary Winds:

Pressure Belts:
-ferrels law of deflection:wind is deflected to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, derived from the application
of the
Coriolis effect to air masses.

-Equatorial low pressure belt or doldrums:

sailors found themselves becalm here � zone of wind convergence
Lies between 10�N and 10�S latitudes.
Width may vary between 5�N and 5�S and 20�N and 20�S.
This belt is characterized by extremely low pressure with calm conditions
This is because of the absence of Surface winds since winds approaching this belt
begin to rise near its margin. Thus, only vertical currents are found.
As the larger part of the low pressure belt passes along the oceans, the winds
obtain huge amount of moisture.
Vertical winds (convection) carrying moisture form cumulonimbus clouds and lead to
thunderstorms (convectional rainfall).
Inspite of high temperatures, cyclones are not formed at the equator because of
�zero� coriolis force.

-Subtropical high pressure belt

air is dry, wind is calm and light � descending air current or divergence and
anticyclones � Horse latitudes
The sub-tropical highs extend from near the tropics to about 35�N and S.
After saturation (complete loss of moisture) at the ITCZ, the air moving away from
equatorial low pressure belt in the upper troposphere becomes dry and cold.
This dry and cold wind subsides at 30�N and S.
So the high pressure along this belt is due to subsidence of air coming from the
equatorial region which descends after becoming heavy.
The high pressure is also due to the blocking effect of air at upper levels
because of the Coriolis force.
The subsiding air is warm and dry, therefore, most of the deserts are present
along this belt, in both hemispheres.
A calm condition (anticyclonic) with feeble winds is created in this high pressure
belt.
The descending air currents feed the winds blowing towards adjoining low pressure
belts.
This belt is frequently invaded by tropical and extra-tropical disturbances.
The corresponding latitudes of sub-tropical high pressure belt are called horse
latitudes.
In early days, the sailing vessels with cargo of horses found it difficult to sail
under calm conditions of this high pressure belt.
They used to throw horses into the sea when fodder ran out. Hence the name horse
latitudes.
From subtropical HP to temperate LP � called Westerlies � called as south
westerlies in NHand north westerlies in SH. More variable in NH but carry warm
waters to
west of temperate lands � warming effect. In SH westerlies blow with more force
and bring rain to west coast of continents � weather is damp and seas are violent
called Roaring forties at 40 Degree, furious fifties at 50 Degree and screaming
sixties at 60 Degree.
Some like Iberia, California, C. Chile, S. Africa and SW Australia receive
westerlies only in winter
In June � overhead sun is over Tropic of Cancer & all belts move . Mediterranean
part of southern continents come under westerlies and receives rain in June (same
happens in SH in December over Tropic of Capricorn)

-temperate low pressure belts:

60 Degree N and S and Arctic and the Antarctic circles (66.5� N and S latitudes).
Owning to low temperatures in these latitudes the sub polar low pressure belts are
not very well pronounced year long.
On long-term mean climatic maps, the sub polar low-pressure belts of the northern
hemisphere are grouped into two centers of atmospheric activity: the Iceland low
and
the Aleutian depression (Aleutian low).
Such belts in the southern hemisphere surround the periphery of Antarctica and are
not as well differentiated.
These are dynamically produced due to
Coriolis Force produced by rotation of the earth on its axis, and.
Ascent of air as a result of convergence of westerlies and polar easterlies.
During winter, because of a high contrast between land and sea, this belt is
broken into two distinct low centers � one in the vicinity of the Aleutian Islands
and
the other between Iceland and Greenland.
During summer, a lesser contrast results in a more developed and regular belt.
The area of contrast between cold and warm air masses produces polar jet streams
which encircles the earth at 60 degrees latitudes and is focused in these low
pressure areas.
Due to a great contrast between the temperatures of the winds from sub-tropical
and polar source regions, extra tropical cyclonic storms or lows� (temperate
cyclones
or frontal cyclones) are produced in this region.

-Polar high-pressure belts:

90 Degree N and S
in north hemisphere it is complicated due to land present there
The air from sub-polar low pressure belts after saturation becomes dry. This dry
air becomes cold while moving towards poles through upper troposphere.
The cold air (heavy) on reaching poles subsides creating a high pressure belt at
the surface of earth.
The lowest temperatures are found over the poles
Polar easterlies blow from polar HP belt to temperate LP belt � extremely cold
(more regular in south)

There are three primary circulation cells on earth known as the Hadley cell, Ferrel
cell, and Polar cell.:
1)Trade winds and Hadley cells:
- begins at the equator with warm, moist air lifted aloft in equatorial low
pressure areas (the Intertropical Convergence Zone, ITCZ) to the tropopause and
carried pole
ward. At about 30�N/S latitude, it descends in a high pressure area.
- Hadley Cells is described to be lying on equator but it follows sun�s zenith
point, or what is termed the �thermal equator�.
- Hawaii is located south of Tropic of Cancer

2)Westerlies and Ferrel cell

- Westerlies are opposite to trade winds and that is why they are also called
antitrade winds.
- in the southern hemisphere, there is more of ocean and less of land in comparison
to the northern hemisphere. Due to this reason, the westerlies blow with much
greater
force in southern hemisphere in comparison to northern hemisphere.
- This also has implications in the Ocean currents. The currents in the Northern
Hemisphere are weaker than those in the Southern Hemisphere due to the differences
in
strength between the Westerlies of each hemisphere.
- Generally, Westerlies are strongest in the winter hemisphere and at times when
the pressure is lower over the poles, while they are weakest in the summer
hemisphere
and when pressures are higher over the poles
- westerlies are also associated with the �extra tropical� cyclones,in the middle
latitudes of the planet there is a convergence of the cold and denser polar winds
and
warm and light westerlies, there are much variation in the weather.

3)Polar Easterlies and Polar cell.

- are more regular in the southern hemisphere in comparison to the northern
hemisphere.
- These polar cold winds converge with the warm easterlies near 60� latitudes and
form the Polar front or Mid Latitude front. This mid-latitude front becomes the
centre
of the origin of the Temperate Cyclones.

Land and Sea Breeze & Monsoons:

-Sea Breeze: Day � land gets heated(LP) - warm air rises up � LP develops � so sea
breeze flows(HP) �speed is stronger in tropical than temperate regions � felt
when stand facing sea
-Land Breeze: Night � land cools(HP) faster than sea � winds blow towards sea(LP) �
fishermen in tropics take advantage of it and sail out with winds & return next
day with incoming seabreeze
-Monsoons: rapid heating in hot summer induces heated air to rise up from innne
land(LP). SW monsoon from ocean(HP) is attracted by LP over land and brings
rainfall.
In winters land is cool(HP) and surrounding seas are warm(LP) � NE
monsoon blows out from land to sea

Fohn Wind or Chinook Wind:

-Dry winds on leeward side of the mountains when descending air becomes compressed
with increasing pressure and temperature
-Fohn winds (hot and dry) � N. Alps, Switzerland in spring � air ascends from
southern slope of Alps than expands and cools.When air descending the from northen
slope
air becomes compressed and warm with increasing pressure and temperature,most of
mosture is lost and warm water reach valley bottom,melts snow and causes avalanches
-Chinook winds (snow eater) � in eastern slopes of Rockies in USA and Canada in
winter �hastens growth of crops and fruits and thaws pastures � can raise
temperature
by 35�F in 15 minutes � means winter is mild

Cyclonic Activities:
-Typhoons � China Sea
-Tropical cyclones � Indian Ocean
-Hurricane � West Indies Island in Caribbean - Calm, rainless center where pressure
is lowe stand called as eye of cyclone & wind speed exceeds 12 on Beaufort scal
-Whirl-wind -Tornado � Guinea Island of West Africa & South USA
-Willy-willies � NW Australia

-Typhoons:
6-20 degree N and S � Mainly July to Oct. Smaller than temperate cyclone with
diameter 50 to 200 miles but have steeper pressure gradient,violent winds,overcast
sky,
 torrential downpour, thunder and lightning

-Tornado:
small violent tropical and sub-tropical cyclone � air spirals at 500 mph and
appear as dark funnel cloud � most frequent in spring � seen in USA and
Mississippi basin

-Cyclones or depressions:
in temperate latitude � with LP in center and isobars are close together.
Depression vary from 150 to 2000 miles and remain stationary
Approach of cyclone � fall in barometric reading, dull sky, oppressive air and
strong winds �wind blow anticlockwise in NH and clockwise in SH
Precipitation due to convergence of warm tropical and cold polar air. Fronts
develop and condensation as rain, snow and sleet

-Anticyclone:
HP in center and isobars are far apart. Pressure gradient is gentle, winds are
light, fine weather, clear skies, calm air, and high temperature in summer
and cold in winter. In winters � cooling leads to thick fog. It blows clockwise in
NH and anticlock wise in SH

-Extratropical cyclone:
Low pressure systems,rotate counterclockwise in NH,precipitation, especially the
stronger and heavier storms.mid-latitude cyclones
Seen in Westerlies and Ferrel cell area
its energy from the horizontal temperature contrasts that exist in the
atmosphere.storm development in the form of frontal systems
tropical cyclones are barotropic in nature, meaning there is constant pressure and
density.
Tropical cyclone winds are derived from the release of energy in the form of
latent heat. Latent heat is energy which is transferred from one substance to
another,
such as evaporation and condensation processes. In the case of a tropical cyclone,
it is due to cloud/rain formation from the warm moist air of the tropics.
Furthermore, Tropical cyclones have their strongest winds near the surface of the
Earth. In contrast, extratropical cyclones have their strongest winds near the
tropopause,tropical cyclone being "warm-core" in the troposphere, whereas extra-
tropical cyclones are "warm-core" in the stratosphere and "cold-core" in the
troposphere.A �warm-core� system refers to a system which is warmer than its
surroundings

*Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate:

-0 to 10 Degree N and S
-Precipitation: 60-100 inch � maximum after equinox & least in solistice,rainfall
double after equinox,this characteristic is not found in any other climate.
-Cyclonic rainfall �convergence of air in Doldrums
-Convectional Rainfall �Afternoon (one afternoon is equal to entire year rainfall
in desert)
-Orographic or relief rainfall
-Relative humidity is high above 80%,making one sticky and uncomfertable.

Vegetation:
-Variety: Evergreen hardwood like mahogany, ebony; small palm trees; climbing
lianas �epiphytic or parasitic plant; ferns, orchids and lalangs,tall grass
-Distinct Layer: thick canopy, struggle for sunlight,ground is rooted with fern and
herbaceous plant that tolerate shade.
-Multiple Species: No pure strand; Malaysia �200 species; commercial exploitation
is hard; hardwood don�t float on water and haulage expensive (so tropical nations
are
timber importers)
-Forest Clearings: lumbering & shifting cultivation �when clearing abandoned less
luxuriant secondary forest called belukar in Mayasia that is less trees and dense
undergrowth

Life & Development:

-Shifting cultivation
-Amazon: Indian Tribes gather wild rubber
-Malasia and indonesia is leading producer of rubber in world.
-Cocoa most extensively cultivated in west africa and gulf of guinea,Ghana and
nigeria.
-Coconut,tea,sugar,coffee,banana,pineapple and sago.

Factors Affecting Development:

-Climate: high heat & humidity; sun-stroke; perspire and lose energy; malaria &
yellow fever
-Bacteria & insect pests: injurious to crops, diseases; plague.as bacteria are more
trasmitted through most air.
-Jungle hinders development: Lalang (tall grass and thick undergroth root)that
choke crops �maintain infrastructure at high cost, Congo and Borneo without modern
communication lines
-Deterioration of tropical soil by wasing through heavy rain.But soil are rich in
nutrient by heavy leaf fall and decomposition of leaves by bacteria and thick
mantle
of humus
-Difficult lumbering & livestock farming:
-have gret potensial of timber but standing is not homogeneous so dificult in
extraction.
-No frogen surface that facilitate water logging
-Hardwood not float in river.

Tropical Monsoon & Tropical Marine Climate:

Tropical Monsoon:
-Seasonal Winds
-On shore wet monsoon �summer
-Off shore dry monsoon �winter
-Monsoon: India, Burma, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, South China, North
Australia
-Maritime:outside the tropical climate,climate is modified by the influence of on-
shore trade wind all year.such as C. America, West Indies, NE Australia,
Philippines,
E. Africa, Madagascar, Guinea & East Brazil

Climate:
-Landmass is heated in summer in N.H. (more than 15�Fthan normal) �Low pressure
develops in Indian mainland & HP in Australia
-Seasonal reversal of winds in winter in NH

Seasons:
-Cool Dry (Oct to Feb),North-east monsoon
-Hot Dry (March to June)
-Rainy (June to Sept),South-west monsoon
-Retreating Monsoon �after mid Sept (NE monsoon),Madras receave half of it yeary
rainfall through retreat monsoon

Climate �Tropical Marine:

On east coast of tropical lands, such as north-east brazil and north-east austrelia
Receive rain from south-east trade winds all year,No dry season
Favorable for habitation
Has severe tropical cyclones,hurricane,typhon

Forest in tropical monsoon:

-Deciduous �dry period & shed leaves
-Tropical soil are mainly latosolic,rapidly leached and easily exhaust with first
crop may be bountfull but subsequent harvest is deteriorate.
-heavy rainfall in tropical marine area such as indian-peninsula,south burma,North
austrelia �forest �open and less luxuriant than equatorial
-Summer �thorny scrub or savanna �scattered tree & tall grass
-Timber: durable hardwood �teak �Burma (3/4th of world production)

Agriculture:
-Dense population �small farms �man is land hungry, high densit
-Wet paddy in high rainfall in lowland & highland and dry paddy in lower rainfall
in irrigated area.
-Lowland Cash Crop such as
1)Can sugar:need high rainfall and high sunshine
2)Jute:Jute
3)Indigo
4)Cotton
-Highland Plantation Crop:
1)Coffee:originated in Ethiopia and arbia,Grown on eastern slope of Bragil(Half
world production)
2)tea:oroginated in china,require Moderate climate and well draine highland
slope,Best region foothills of himalaya.
3)Lumbering
4)Tea in Burma
-Shifting Cultivation

Savanah or sudan climate:

-It has distinct wet and dry seasons. It is a transitional type of climate which
can be found in the region between equatorial rainforests and hot deserts of the
subtropics.

Climate And Vegetation:

-Savana Climate has a distinct dry season which occurs in winter. All the rainfall
in the region is concentrated during the summer. The long dry season causes many
plants to die and streams to dry, which causes migration of animals.

Distribution:
-It is situated within the tropical latitudes on either side of the equator. It is
well developed in Sudan, and hence the name, where there are distinct wet and dry
seasons.
-In the northern hemisphere, this climate is found in Africa (African Sudan, East
Africa), and South America (Llanos grasslands of Orinoco river basin).
-In the southern hemisphere, this climate is spread through South America (Campos
grasslands of the Brazilian Highlands), and Australia (in Northern Australia -
south
of its monsoon strip).

Temperature:
- Monthly temperatures in this region can range between 20 to 32 degrees
centigrade for lowlands, but the range increases as one moves away from the
equator.
Annual average temperature is around 18 degrees centigrade
The highest temperature occurs just before the onset of the rainy season i.e.,
April in the northern hemisphere, and October in the southern hemisphere. June,
when
the summer solstice occurs in the northern hemisphere, does not witness the
highest temperature.
During the rainy season, overcast in the sky leads to drop in the temperatures.
During the hot season, noon temperatures often cross 37 degrees centigrade.
Clear skies lead to rapid radiation loss in the night and even in the hot
season, the temperatures drop to below 10 degrees centigrade. Night frost is a
common
occurrence during this season
Thus, a typical characteristic feature of Savanna climate is the extreme
diurnal range of temperature.

Precipitation
- The region is characterized by a hot, rainy season and cool, dry season.
In the northern hemisphere, the hot and wet season starts in May and continues
until September (e.g., Kano, in Nigeria). The rest of the year is dry and cool.
Kano, which is located at an altitude of over 1500m above mean sea level,
experiences over 80 cm of rainfall which happens mostly in the summer.
In the southern hemisphere, the rainy season begins in October and ends in
March.
The length of the rainy season, as well as the total annual rainfall, decrease
considerably as one moves away from the equator towards the desert fringes.

Winds
- Trade-winds are the prevailing winds of the region which bring rainfall in the
coastal areas. They are easterly winds - flow from east to west, hence the rainfall
is maximum on the east coasts
They are the strongest in summer when the ITCZ is positioned over the hot
desert. They exhaust all the moisture while travelling over the coastal areas and
by the
time they reach the continental interiors, they are relatively dry.
In West Africa, the easterly trade winds blow off-shore bringing dust-laden,
dry winds from the Sahara and reach the coast of Guinea. The local name for this
hot,
dry, dusty wind is Harmattan (meaning 'the doctor').
Harmattan has a disastrous effect on the crops, but it also results in a
cooling effect. It provides some relief from the damp air of Guinea by increasing
the rate
of evaporation.
Trade-winds are the reason for distinct, alternate dry and wet seasons in the
region. In summer, onshore trade winds bring moisture-laden winds causing rainfall.
In winter, the winds are off-shore and keep the weather dry.

Vegetation
- The typical vegetation of this region is tall grass with short trees. The
grassland is also described as 'bush-veld' or 'parkland'.
Tree cover is the highest towards the equator, along with the river banks and
decreases in density and height away from the equator.
The trees are of the deciduous variety i.e., they shed their leaves during the
dry and cool season in order to prevent transpiration losses. Acacia is a typical
example of this variety.
Other types of trees include those with broad trunks which act as water-storage
spaces that help them survive the dry season or drought. E.g., baobabs, bottle
trees etc.
They are hardwood trees, sometimes thorny, which exude gum like the 'gum
arabic'.
The grass found in this region is very tall and coarse, reaching heights of up
to 6-12 feet. Elephant grass, which is the tallest variety of grass, can even reach
 heights of 15 feet.
The grass is compact, with long roots that reach down in search of water.
During the dry season, the grass appears dormant and springs up during the rainy
season.
As one moves towards the desert, the grasslands eventually merge into thorny
scrubs.

Wildlife
- Savanna is home to some of the largest terrestrial animals on this planet.
The two main groups of animals include - herbivores and carnivores.

Economy
- The region has nomadic pastoralists such as the Masai, who are found in Kenya
and Tanzania of Africa. They are dependent on their animal stock for their survival
and lead a primitive lifestyle.
Settled agriculture is also practised by many tribes such as the Hausa, who
have also domesticated animals for their use in crop cultivation
Plantation agriculture which is developed in northern Australia, eastern
Brazil, and in central Africa is indicative of the immense agricultural potential
of this
region. Crops such as cotton, sugarcane, oil palm, groundnuts, coffee, and
tropical fruits are cultivated.
Small amounts of millets, bananas, and vegetables are also cultivated by the
tribes for self-consumption.
However, frequent droughts pose a risk to crop cultivation in the region,
particularly in the long dry season.
In many areas, intense rainfall during the rainy season led to leaching of
topsoil and the nutrients like nitrates, phosphates, and potash. Hence, the soils
have
turned lateritic in many places, incapable of supporting crop cultivation
The grass here is of poor quality and does not favour large-scale animal
ranches which are found in the temperate grasslands. Hence, meat and dairy
production are
poor from this region.
However, some regions have leveraged modern science and technology and have
become leading exporters of meat and dairy products. For instance, Queensland of
Australia.

Hot & Mid-Latitude Deserts:

-Desert regions are characterised by very little rainfall and scanty vegetation.
The length of growing period is limited to a small rainy season. The landscape of
the
region is devoid of trees and animals due to the lack of moisture and food.
They can be of two types:
- hot deserts - like Saharan desert
mid-latitude deserts - like Gobi desert.

Hot deserts - distribution

- Important hot deserts of the world are situated on the western edges of the
continents between latitudes 15 to 30 degrees north and south.
Sahara desert is the largest of hot deserts, covering an area of 3.5 million
square miles. Other prominent hot deserts include the Great Australian Desert,
Arabian
desert, Kalahari desert, Thar desert etc.
Hot deserts are also found in the Americas. In North America, they are known by
the names of Mohave, Sonoran, Californian, and Mexican deserts. They extend between
USA and Mexico. In South America, the Atacama desert, or the Peruvian desert is
located.
Hot deserts - Temperature
- These deserts are some of the hottest places on earth and have high
temperatures all around the year.
They do not have a distinct cold weather season.
The average summer temperatures are always above 30 degrees centigrade.
The hottest temperature to be recorded was in Libya in 1922. The temperatures
rose as high as 57 degrees centigrade.
Cloudless skies, intense insolation, dry air, and a rapid rate of evaporation
are the reasons for such high temperatures.
However, coastal areas of these deserts have a relatively moderate climate due
to the moderating influence of seas. The cooling effect of cold currents also
reduces the mean temperatures experienced in this region.
The interior regions experience extreme temperatures - hot summers and cold
winters.
The diurnal temperature range is very high. Intense solar radiation during the
day coupled with dry air and cloudless skies cause the temperature to rise with the
sun.
However, as soon as the sun sets, the mercury drops below the mean temperature
due to continuous loss of heat by radiation coupled with the absence of cloud cover
that could retain the heat.
The average diurnal range of temperatures is around 14 to 25 degrees
centigrade.
During winter nights, frost is a common occurrence

Hot deserts - Precipitation

- Average annual precipitation in these regions is not more than 25 cm.
Since these deserts are located within the Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts,
also known as the Horse Latitudes, where the air masses are descending, conditions
are
not favourable for the formation of clouds which can cause precipitation.
The prevailing winds in these regions are the Trade Winds which blow off-shore
and do not allow any moisture-laden winds to blow over these regions from the sea.
Westerlies which are on-shore do not blow over the desert regions, reducing the
chances of any precipitation.
The winds that blow over the deserts come from colder regions and their
relative humidity is lowered as they blow over the desert. This reduces the
possibility of
condensation of water vapour, and hence any precipitation.
The relative humidity decreases from 60 percent in the coastal areas to less
than 30 percent in the interiors. This increases the rate of evaporation and
reduces
any chance of precipitation, making these deserts regions of permanent drought.
The cold currents which flow along the west coasts of the continents have a
desiccating effect on these deserts. Any moisture-laden winds blowing from the sea
get
condensed over the cold currents into mist or fog, and only drier winds blow
over the deserts.
However, convectional rainfall occurs in these regions in the form of violent
thunderstorms for shorter durations. These sudden downpours often have disastrous
consequences in the form of landslides.
Atacama desert is the driest region in the world with an annual precipitation
of less than 2 cm.

Mid-Latitude deserts - distribution

- These desert are often situated on plateaux and are a part of continental
interiors.
They include Gobi desert, Turkestan desert, Patagonian desert etc.
In India, Ladakh desert falls under this category.
Mid-latitude deserts - climate
- In many ways, the climatic conditions of these deserts are similar to those of
the hot deserts.
Since these deserts lie at far away locations from the coast or are blocked by
high mountains surrounding them, they are cut off from the moisture-laden winds
blowing from the seas.
Average annual precipitation does not exceed 25 cm.
However, depression may penetrate into these deserts occasionally in Asia,
bringing light rainfall in winters. Convectional rainfall can happen during the
summers.
These regions have a very range of annual temperatures, greater than that of
hot deserts. The reason behind such extreme temperatures is Continentality - a
phenomenon associated with landmasses which are at great distances from the
coast.
Winters experience freezing temperatures and very strong cold winds blow over
these regions. Ice thaws during the summers sometimes causing floods at many places

Desert Vegetation
- All deserts have some form of vegetation such as grass, scrub, weeds, etc.
Though they may not appear green all the time, they lie dormant waiting for the
rains which are irregular.
The most common type of vegetation that is found in both hot and mid-latitude
deserts is the xerophytic or drought-resistant scrub.
Important species of this type include the bulbous cacti, long-rooted wiry
grasses, thorny bushes, and dwarf acacia.
In a few regions where there is abundant groundwater, clusters of date palms
can be found, especially in the hot deserts.
Vegetation that survives in these regions is of a special variety, which is
adapted to intense aridity.
Soils are deficient in humus due to the absence of moisture which slows down
the rate of decomposition of organic matter.
The shrub vegetation found in these deserts have a well-developed system of
long roots which grow in search of groundwater. They have few or no leaves, and
their
foliage is hairy, waxy, or needle-shaped in order to minimise the loss of water
through transpiration.
The seeds of these plants have special mechanisms to protect themselves when
they lie dormant, in the form of thick, tough outer surfaces. As soon as they are
moistened by the rain, they germinate.

Life in the deserts

-Despite their inhospitable conditions, different types of human settlements have
come up in these deserts
- Primitive hunters and gatherers: They are primitive tribes who do not cultivate
any crops, or domesticate any animals. They include the Bushmen of the Kalahari
desert, Bindibu or the Aborigines of Australia.
Nomadic herdsmen: They pursue a livestock economy, wandering through the
deserts along with their herds in search of water and green pastures. They include
Bedouins of Arabia, the Tuaregs of Sahara, the Mongols of Gobi desert.
Settled cultivators: They have survived close to rivers such as the Nile in
Egypt, Indus in Pakistan, Colorado in the USA, and Tigris-Euphrates in Iraq. They
cultivate crops like wheat, barley, sugarcane, fruits and vegetables
Mining settlers: Prominent among these include the gold mines in Australia,
Diamond mines in Kalahari, Copper mines in Chile, Silver mines in Mexico, Oil in
the
Persian Gulf countries.
The warm temperate western margin (Mediterranean Climatic):
-The warm temperate western margin climate or the Mediterranean climate is found
between 30o and 45o North and South of the Equator. This climate is witnessed in
relatively fewer parts of the world and is almost entirely confined to the western
margins of the continental landmasses. The basic cause of this climate is the
seasonal shift of the wind belts.

Distribution
- Central Chile,
California (around San Francisco),
The southwestern tip of Africa (around Cape Town),
Southern Australia (in southern Victoria and Around Adelaide bordering St,
Vincent, and Spencer Gulfs), and south-west Australia (Swanland).

Climate
-The Mediterranean climate is characterized by very distinctive climatic features
with dry, warm summers and wet, cold winters and local winds.
1)Dry, warm summers with off-shore Tradewinds:
- During the summer months, the sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic
of Capricorn.
The belt of the influence of the Westerlies is shifted polewards, and the rain-
bearing tradewinds are likely to be off-shore.
Hence the regions are practically rainless in summers and hence remain dry.
The heat is intense and the days are excessively warm.
In the interiors, prolonged droughts are common. The relative humidity is
generally low.
At night radiation is rapid but frost is rare.
-The summer temperatures are relatively high, and the highest temperatures are
experienced away from the coast in the continental interiors of the Balkan
peninsula,
the Anatolian plateau, and the Mediterranean Middle East.

2)Wet, cold winters with on-shore Westerlies:

- In the winter months, the Westerlies belt shifts equatorward and the
Mediterranean regions are under the influence of on-shore Westerlies.
Hence, these lands receive almost all of their precipitation during the winter
months through cyclone from atlantic ocean.
The rain comes in heavy downpours and only few days with bright sunnyperiod
btwn them, causes floods in the months of September and October in Mediterranean
Europe.
Snow rarely occure in lowland and coastal district,even it does fall on
highland.

3)Bright,sunny weather with hot dry summer and wet mild winter
-The climate features are transitional btwn those of the trade wind hot desert from
south and cool temperate maritime climate from north.
-in summer intense hit is not so sever and in winter climate is mild and cool.
-Sky is almost clouless and sun-shine is always abundunce.
0
Local winds
-The Mediterranean climatic region in Europe experiences many local winds due to
the topography of the region with the Alps in the North, the Sahara desert in the
South, cool air masses from the continental interiors in the East and cyclone from
Atlantic in the west and anti-cyclone from north. These create great differences in
temperature, pressure, and precipitation. The two most important local winds are:
1)Sirocco
- This is a hot, dry and dusty wind.
It originates in the Sahara desert and might occur at any time of the year but
is mostly witnessed during spring.
 Normally it lasts only for a few days.
It blows from the desert interiors of Sahara into the Mediterranean Sea and is
usually associated with the depressions from the Atlantic ocean.
After crossing the Sea, it is slightly cooled by the absorption of water vapour
but is hot enough that it withers vegetation and crops of the region.
Hence it is also called "Blood Rain" because it is carrying the red dust of the
Sahara desert.
Known as chili in Tunisia,Ghibli in libya,leveche in spain,Khamsin in egypt.

2)Mistral
- Mistral is a cold wind from the north.
It rushes down the Rhone valley and its velocity is intensified by the
funnelling effect in the valley between the Alps and the Central Massif[Plateau in
France].
In some extreme cases, the velocity of the wind is so high that trains can be
derailed and trees are uprooted.
In winter, if the Mistral is frequent the temperatures could go below the
freezing point.

Other local winds:

- Bora: Cold north-easterly wind along the Adriatic coast.more violant than
mistral.
Tramontana and Gregale: cold winds in the Mediterranean Sea.

Natural Vegetation
- The vegetation of the region is not luxuriant bcs half the year is dry.
Trees are with small broad leaves and are widely spaced.
The absence of shade is a peculiar feature of this climate and the growth is
almost restricted to autumn and spring.
Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive
evaporation and prolonged droughts.
Vegetation response to climae demand are similar to adjucent desert and savanah
further.
Hence they are generally xerophytic or drought resistant in nature.

Types of Mediterranean vegetation:

1)Evergreen forests-
- They are found only in climatically suitable regions with rainfall over
25inches and are open woodlands with evergreen oaks.
Tree are stunted,with massive trunk,small leaves,wide spreading root in
searh of water.
The cork oaks are used for making wine-bottle corks.
In Australia, the eucalyptus forests replace the evergreen oak.
The giant sequoia or redwood is typical of the Californian trees.
2)Evergreen Coniferous forests
- They include various kinds of pines, firs, cedars and cypresses.
They appear mostly in the cooler highlands and where droughts are not so
severe.
3)Bushes and Shrubs
- This is the most prominent type of Mediterranean vegetation.
The low bushes grow in scattered clumps and are often thorny.
4)Grass
- Since most of the rain comes during the cool season when the growth is slow,
the conditions of this region do not suit grass.
They are generally wiry and bunchy and are not suitable for animal farming.
Thus cattle rearing is not an important occupation in the Mediterranean.

Economic Development:
-The region is important for fruit cultivation, cereal growing, wine-making and
agricultural industries as well as engineering and mining. The region is a net
exporter
of citrus fruits and the net importer of dairy products.
1)Orchard farming
These regions are known as the world's orchard lands.
A wide range of citrus fruits grows in the region. Examples: Sunkist
oranges of California, Jaffa oranges of Israel.
The fruit trees have long roots to draw water from depths during the long
summer months.
The olive tree is probably the most typical of all Mediterranean cultivated
vegetation.
Besides these, many nut trees like chestnuts, walnuts, hazelnuts and
almonds are grown.
Other important fruits are peaches, apricots, pears, cherries, plums and
figs.
2)Crop cultivation
Cereals are the most important crops and wheat is the leading crop followed
by barley.
Though the climatic conditions are not favourable for the extensive
cultivation of wheat, the farmers have utilised the seasonal climatic rhythm to
their best
advantage.
3)Sheep rearing
The mountain pastures with cooler climate support a few sheep, goats and
cattle.
Transhumance is widely practised in the region.
4)Wine production
Viticulture is speciality and tradition of Mediterranean region.
The long, sunny summer allows the grapes to ripen.
Regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea account for three-quarters of the
worlds production of wine.

Warm Temperate Eastern Margin(China type) Climate:

-It is found along the eastern margins of the continents between 20 and 35 N and S
latitude. The climatic features in the region are similar to the monsoonal climate
with rain during the summer and dry weather during winter

Variations of warm temperate eastern margin climate

- China Type: Temperate monsoon or China type found in most parts of China and is
a modified form of monsoonal climate.
Gulf Type: Though less pronounced, the overall climate resembles the China
Type. It is found in the south-eastern parts of the USA bordering the Gulf of
Mexico.
The continental heating during summers induces an inflow of air from the cooler
Atlantic Ocean.
Natal Type: In Southern Hemisphere, this climate is witnessed in New South
Wales, Natal and Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay basin. This is often referred to as Natal
Type
of climate and is influenced by the on-shore Tradewinds all round the year.

Climate
- It is typified by a warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter.
Occasionally, the penetration of cold air from the continental interiors may
bring down the temperature to the freezing point.
The relative humidity is little high in mid-summer but for most of the time,
the climate is pleasantly warm.
Rainfall is more than moderate and ranges between 60 cm to 150 cm and there is
a uniform distribution of temperature throughout the year.
 Rain comes either from convectional sources or as orographic rain in summer, or
from depressions in prolonged showers in winter.
Local storms also occur. Example: typhoons, hurricanes.
The rainfall is adequate for all agricultural purposes and hence the areas are
densely populated.

China Type:
It is the most typical of the warm temperate eastern margin climate.
In summer due to intense heating of the continental interiors of the heart
of Asia including Tibet, a low-pressure system is set in which attracts the
tropical
Pacific air stream.
This is witnessed as the South-East monsoon in the region.
In winter, there is an intense high pressure over Siberia and the
continental polar air stream flows outwards as the North-West Monsoon, bitterly
cold and very
dry.
There is little rain but there is considerable snow.
The region also experiences intense tropical cyclones called typhoons that
originate in the Pacific Ocean and are most frequent in the late summer.
The Gulf Type:
The Gulf-Atlantic regions of the USA experience this type of climate
similar to the China type but with less the monsoonal characteristics.
The warm Gulf stream and the on-shore Tradewinds help bring down the range
of temperatures and there is heavy annual rainfall of around 59 inches.
The amount of rain is increased by thunderstorms in summer and by
hurricanes in September and October.
Due to intense local heating, the region also experiences violent tornadoes
leading to heavy destruction.
Natal Type:
The narrowness of the continents and the dominance of maritime influence
eliminate the monsoonal elements.
The South-East Tradewinds bring about a more even distribution of rainfall
throughout the year.
The annual range of temperature is low and rain comes in prolonged showers

Natural Vegetation
- Due to heavier rainfall, the region supports luxurious vegetation.
There is perennial plant growth and the conditions are well suited to a rich
variety of plant life.
The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees,
similar to the tropical monsoon forests.
In the highlands, are various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses
which are important softwoods.
Eastern Australia - Eucalyptus
South-Eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, north-eastern Argentina - Parana pine,
the quebracho, wild yerba mate trees.
Natal: palm trees

Economic Development
- These regions are the most productive part of the middle latitudes since there
is adequate rainfall, no prolonged drought and the cold season is warm.
This shows that the growing season is almost continuous.
The temperate monsoon regions are the most intensively tilled parts of the
world.

Farming in Monsoon China

- Monsoon China along with southern Japan and other parts of the eastern margin
climate regions accounts for almost a third of the world population.
 It is the world's greatest rice-growing regions and a third of the world's rice
is grown in China.
Monsoon China has ideal conditions for paddy cultivation: a warm climate,
moderately wet throughout the year, and extensive lowlands with moisture-retentive
alluvial soils.
The Chinese practice 'wet-paddy' cultivation and calls for endless hard labour.
Thus the region calls for a huge population.
Farming is usually on a subsistence basis. But progress has been made towards
double and treble cropping which has increased the total rice production.
Sericulture has also been practised in the region but is now on a decline.

Agriculture in the Gulf States

-Agriculture in the Gulf States of USA differs from that of the Monsoon China. Rice
is relatively less important and focus is more on corn, cotton and tobacco.

Corn:
The humid air, the sunny summer and the heavy showers suit the crop well.
The region accounts for more than half of the world's corn production but
exports very less.
Corn is used for fattening animals mostly cattle and pigs.
It gives twice as much food mainly starch per acre when compared to wheat
and other cereals.
Cotton:
It is the most prominent cash crop grown in the region.
The climate is very suitable for the cotton growing with its long, hot
growing season with nearly 200 days being frost free and moderately high
temperatures.
Fine quality cotton also comes from well irrigated dry areas.
The fibre is most vital to the economic well-being of the southerners in
the USA.
It shapes their trade, prosperity and politics.
The most dreaded enemy of the Cotton Belt is the boll-weevil. The pest
multiplies rapidly. The pest is responsible for the westward migration of the
Cotton
Belt.
Tobacco:
It is another important crop of the region and incidentally is also the
native crop of America.
The humid atmosphere, the warmth and well-drained soils enable the
successful growth of tobacco in the Gulf States.
Around half of the tobacco in the international trade comes from this
region.

Crop cultivation in the eastern margins of Southern Hemisphere

- In the coastlands of Natal, cane sugar is the dominant crop
It is followed by cotton and tobacco in the interiors.
Maize is also extensively cultivated for use as food and feed for cattle
rearing.
The extensive natural pastures provide valuable forage for both cattle and
sheep.
In South America rainfall is less, cattle and sheep are reared for meat, wool
and hides.
Mild winters favour animal rearing, as they can be kept out of doors for a long
time.
In Australia, the moist Tradewinds bring heavy rainfall to the coastal
districts and these are thickly wooded.
Giant eucalyptus trees are grown in the region.
The region is chief source of Australia's milk, butter, cheese besides cotton,
cane sugar and maize.
Steppe Climatic Regions:
-The term steppe refers to a region which is a semi-desert(bordering desert) with a
grassland or shrub vegetation. Steppes are intermediate regions, not receiving
enough rainfall to support a forest but are also not as dry as a desert.

Steppe Climate - Temperate Grassland Regions:

-Steppe Climatic region is also known as Temperate Grasslands. These grasslands are
some of the most developed agricultural fields and are termed as grain baskets.
Livestock ranching is another major activity carried out in these areas due to the
availability of natural grasses.

Distribution
- Steppes are found in the continental interiors.
They are usually found in the temperate latitudes and hence come under the
influence of Westerly winds.
Steppes are characterized by vast grasslands which are, by and large, devoid of
trees.
Steppes typically refer to the vast temperate grasslands of Eurasia, which
stretch between the Black Sea coast on the east to the Altai mountains in the west,
covering a length of over 2000 miles.
Steppes are known by their regional names in different parts of the world. They
include,
Prairies - North America
Pustaz - Hungary
Pampas - Argentina and Uruguay
Velds (High Veld) - South Africa and Bush-veld in north africa.
Downs - Australia
Canterbury - New Zealand

Precipitation
- The average annual rainfall over the steppes varies from 25 to 75 cm, depending
upon the region.
The highest rainfall occurs in the spring season, or just prior to the onset of
summers. In the northern hemisphere, it occurs in the months of June and July.
During the winters, Westerlies bring in occasional depressions which often
cause snowfall over these regions. However, the overall precipitation in the
winters is
low, at an average of 25 cm.
In the southern hemisphere, due to a larger influence of maritime weather,
higher rainfall occurs over these regions as compared to their counterparts in the
northern hemisphere.

Temperature
- These regions are under the effect of continentality and hence experience
extremities in temperature.
Summers are warm with the average temperature in the range of 18-20 degrees
centigrade.
Winters are usually cold with occasional snowfall.
The steppes in the northern hemisphere have a very high annual range of
temperatures.
To its contrast, the steppes in the southern hemisphere, due to maritime
influence, have a moderate climate throughout the year.

Winds
- The prevailing winds of these regions are the Westerlies, which are responsible
for precipitation during the winters.
Apart from these, there are many local winds which blow over these regions and
have a significant impact on the local weather.
They are known by various names such as Mistral (France), which is cold dry
wind; Loo (Gangetic plains), Sirocco (Sahara), Foehn (Alps) etc. are warm, dry
winds.
Chinook is a hot, dry local wind blowing over the North American Prairies. It
is a Katabatic wind, descending from the Rocky mountains, and blowing from the
south-west direction.
Since it's a hot wind, it raises the temperature in the region by over 5
degrees centigrade within a short time of 20 minutes.
It is useful for the local agriculture because it melts the snow over the
pastures, making it possible for the animals to graze on them.

Vegetation
- In contrast with the tropical grasslands of savanna, which are interspersed
with trees, temperate grasslands are practically treeless. Also, the grass in these
grasslands is much shorter as compared to that in savanna
However, the grass is fresh and nutritious, unlike the coarse grass found in
the savannas. This is mostly true for the prairies of North America, and also the
Chernozem grasses of Ukraine. The prairie soils are also nutritious black earth
soils.
The grass is lean, thin and scattered.
This makes them ideal for large-scale livestock rearing, also known as
ranching.
The grass growing season is throughout the year, uninterrupted by seasonal
variations in temperature and precipitation
Towards the poleward extension of prairies, there is a transitional zone of
forests in which conifers can be found.
Within the farmlands of steppes, trees are planted around the croplands to
shield them from strong winds.

Economy
- Unlike the savannas which are home to some of the largest terrestrial animals,
steppes do not have much animal diversity.
In the Eurasian steppes, Horses can found riding in the open.
Crop cultivation is extensively practised in these grasslands, especially in
the prairies. This is because of the development of irrigation canals in the last
century.
Mechanized cultivation over large tracts of land is practised, making them one
of the most productive agricultural regions in the world. Prairies are also known
as
the granaries of the world.
Wheat and maize are the prominent crops of the prairies.
Apart from the prairies, the Pampas of Argentina and the Downs of Australia are
also known for extensive wheat cultivation.
Steppes are mostly level grasslands which make ploughing and harvesting a
relatively easy job, aided by machines
Animal rearing or livestock ranching is carried out over thousands of hectares.
The less nutritious tufted grass was replaced by, the more nutritious Lucerne or
alfalfa grass. This aids in the rearing of cattle and sheep on a large-scale.
Hence, they have emerged as the leading regions for animal ranching in the
world.
These grasslands are the largest producers of dairy and other animal products
in the world. Milk, butter, cheese, beef, animal skins etc. are exported to far off
regions aided by easy access to containerized cargo, and refrigerated ships
Nomadic herding is practised in the vast steppes of Eurasia by the natives such
as Kazakhs and Kirghiz who are wandering tribes. Long periods of drought because of
unreliable rains in the continental interiors have made crop cultivation and
settled animal rearing almost impossible in this region.
In some regions where water is available, large-scale collective farming was
introduced by Russia.
Various grassland regions are famous for different kinds of economic
activities. They include,
Prairies - Wheat cultivation, livestock ranching.
Velds - sheep and cattle rearing, maize cultivation
Pustaz - wheat and beet sugar cultivation.
Pampas - wheat cultivation, export of dairy, beef products.
Downs and Canterbury - Wool production from Merino sheep, dairy produc

Cool temperate western margin(British type) climate:

-British type climatic regions are under the permanent influence of the Westerlies
all round the year. These are also regions of high cyclonic activity., typical of
Britain and thus said to experience the British climate. This climate is also
referred to as the cool temperate western margin climate or the North-west European
Maritime Climate.

Distribution:
Northern Hemisphere
- The climatic belt stretches from Britain into North-West Europe, including
northern and western France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, western Norway and
also
north-western Iberia.
In North America, it confines mainly to the coastlands of British Columbia. The
Rockies in North America, prevent the on-shore Westerlies from penetrating far
inland.
Southern Hemisphere
- The climate is experienced in southern Chile, Southern Australia, Tasmania and
most parts of New Zealand, particularly in South Island.
The surrounding large expanses of water in these regions have increased the
maritime nature of the climate.

Climate Characteristics:
- Moderately warm summers and fairly mild winters. Extremes of temperatures are
not likely.
Adequate rainfall throughout the year.

Temperature:
- The mean annual temperature is usually in the range of 5 C - 15 C.
This range is comparatively small for such high latitudes.
Summers are never very warm and winters are abnormally mild with no station
recording below freezing point temperatures.
This is due to the warming effect of the North Atlantic Drift and prevalence of
the South-Westerlies.
Hence, they are some of the most advanced regions of the world.

Precipitation:
- Adequate rainfall throughout the year.
There's tendency towards a slight winter or autumn maximum from cyclonic
sources.
The rain-bearing winds come from the west and hence the western margins have
the heaviest rainfall.
The amount of rainfall decreases as one moves away from the sea, eastwards.

Seasons:
- There are four distinct seasons.
Summers are long and sunny followed by autumn which is a roar of gusty winds.
Winter is the season with cloudy skies, foggy and misty mornings and many rainy
days from the passing depressions.
 This is followed by spring which is the driest and most refreshing season from
the depressing winter and the cycle repeats itself.

Natural Vegetation:
- The natural vegetation of this climatic type is the deciduous forest.
The trees shed their leaves in the cold season. This is an adaptation for
protecting themselves against the winter snow and frost.
Shedding begins in autumn, the fall season and is scattered by the winds.
Some of the common species of temperate hardwood include oak, elm, ash, birch,
beech, hornbeam, and poplar.
In the wetter areas grow willows, alder and aspen.
The deciduous trees occur in pure stands and have great lumbering value from
the commercial point of view.
The sparse undergrowth is useful in logging operations.
The deciduous hardwoods are excellent for both fuel and industrial purposes.
Higher up the mountains in the Scandinavian highlands, the Rockies, the
southern Andes and the Southern Alps of New Zealand, the deciduous trees are
generally
replaced by the conifers which can survive a higher altitude, a lower
temperature and poorer soils.

Economic Development
- In Britain, only 4% of the original forest is left. A very large part of the
deciduous hardwoods has been cleared for fuel, timber or agriculture.
Lumbering in quite profitable in the region for the reasons mentioned above.
Agriculture
-Due to the high density of population, all the cereals, fruits and root crops
grown in the region are used for home consumption and the region is a net importer
of
food crops.
Market Gardening:
Nowhere else is market gardening practised as extensively as in North West
Europe.
The factors that account for this are large urban population and high
densities, highly industrialised nations like Britain, France, Germany.
There is great demand for fresh vegetables, green salads, eggs, meat, milk
and fruits.
Farming is carried out intensively and the yield is high due to soil
fertility and there are maximum cash returns.
Since the crops are perishable, there is a good transport network and the
vegetables and fruits are conveyed at high speeds to urban centres.
Hence the term "truck farming" is often used to describe this kind of
agriculture.
In Australia, high-speed boats ply across the Bass Strait daily from
Tasmania to rush vegetables, tomatoes, apples and beans to most of the large cities
in
mainland Australia.
It is no wonder the Australians nicknamed Tasmania the garden state .
Mixed Farming:
Throughout north-western Europe, farmers practice both arable farming
(cultivation of crops on ploughed land) and pastoral farming (keeping animals on
grass
meadows).
The proportion of crops and animals in the farm at any time depends to a
great extent on the type of soil, the price of the cereals and the demand for
animals
and animal products.
Amongst the cereals, wheat is the most extensively grown, almost entirely
for home consumption. The region is a net importer of wheat.
 The next most important cereal is barley.
It is used in beer-making or whisky distilling and is raised in drier
areas.
The most important animals kept in the mixed farm are cattle.
The climate of this region is ideal for intensive dairying.
New Zealand ranks as one of the world's greatest exporters of dairy
products.
Besides dairying, some cattle are kept as beef cattle.
In Argentina or Australia, meat production is the primary concern.
Sheep rearing:
Sheep are kept both for wool and mutton.
Britain is the home for some of the best-known sheep breeds.
The principal sheep areas are in foothills, well-drained uplands, chalk and
limestone scrap lands and the light and sandy coasts.
Sheep rearing is the chief occupation of New Zealand, with its greatest
concentration in the Canterbury Plain.
It accounts for only 4 percent of the world's sheep population but accounts
for two-thirds of the world's mutton exports and one-sixth of world wool exports.

Industrialization:
- The countries are concerned in the production of machinery, chemicals and
textiles.
Industries are also based on dairy products in Denmark, Netherlands and New
Zealand.
The region is highly industrialised and differs from many others in its
unprecedented industrial advancement.
Britain, France and Germany have significant mineral resources and are heavily
industrialized.
Ruhr region in Germany, Yorkshire, Manchester and Liverpool regions in Britain
are significant for wide-ranging manufacturing industries in the region.

The cool temparate continental(Siberian) climate or Taiga Climate:

-Taiga Climate is also known as Cool Temperate Continental Climate and is popular
by various other names such as Siberian Climate, Boreal Climate. This type of
Climate
is mainly found in the Northern Hemisphere and is absent in the Southern
Hemisphere due to narrow land surface in Southern Hemisphere. Koppen has defined
Taiga
Climatic region as D type in his climatic classification. According to Koppen's
classification, the summer months are warm with temperature more than 10 degrees C
while the winter temperature can be less than 3 degrees C

Coniferous Forest
Distribution:
- It stretches from 50 N to 70 N along a continuous belt across central Canada,
some parts of Scandinavian Europe and most of central and southern Russian.
On the north or polewards it merges into the Arctic tundra of Canada and
Eurasia at around the Arctic circle. Hence this climate is also called "Sub-arctic
climate"
On the south, the climate becomes less severe and merges into the temperate
Steppe climate.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the Siberian climate is absent due to the
narrowness of the continents in the high latitudes.
The strong oceanic influence in the Southern Hemisphere also reduces the
severity of the winter.

Climate
-In Taiga climatic region the summer may be warm or cool while the winter is
bitterly cold due to the strong wind and snowstorm which flow from the continental
polar
and Arctic air mass.
Temperature:
- The climate of these regions is characterized by extremely cold winters of long
duration, with temperatures ranging around - 30 C to - 40 C.
The summers are cool and brief. Spring and autumn are very brief and
transitional periods.
Annual range of temperature is very high, almost 50 C to 60 C.
The coolest place on earth, Verkhoyansk is situated in this climatic region.
With extremely low temperatures for the most part of the year, heavy snowfall
and frosts are common in this region.
Lakes and rivers are frozen and northerly polar winds such as Blizzards of
Canada and Buran of Eurasia blow violently.
Conditions are so extreme that Siberian climatic regions are very sparsely
populated.

Precipitation:
- Maritime influences are nearly absent in the interiors and hence the annual
precipitation is low, generally around 38cm to 63 cm.
It is well distributed throughout the year, with a summer maximum from
convectional rain when the continental interiors are heated.
In winter, the precipitation is in the form of snow.

Natural Vegetation
- The predominant vegetation of this region is evergreen coniferous forests.
Conifers are very well adapted to this region to withstand such inhospitable
climate.
The greatest single band of the coniferous forest is the taiga in Siberia.
Four major species of coniferous forests grow in the region: pine, fir, spruce,
and larch.
The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and North America are the richest
sources of softwood.

Coniferous forests are of huge commercial value due to the following reasons:
- They occur in pure stands and there exist only a few species.
Unlike the equatorial rain forests which are of high density and difficult to
exploit, the coniferous forests occur in uniform heights, grow straight and tall
and
are of moderate density.
Almost all conifers are evergreen. There is no annual replacement of new leaves
as in deciduous trees.
The low annual temperatures with more than half the year below the growing-
point temperature is a huge advantage for the evergreens.
Conifers are conical in shape and with this adaptation, they survive in the
sub-arctic climate.
The sloping branches prevent snow accumulation and offer little grip to the
winds.
Leaves are small, thick, leathery and needle-shaped to check excessive
transpiration.
The undergrowth in the region due to poor podzolized soils which are
excessively leached and acidic.
Since the leaves of the evergreen forests do not fall, they offer little humus
formation and the rate of decomposition of the leathery needles is slow due to low
temperatures.
Also, the absence of direct sunlight and short duration of summer are other
deterrents for sparse undergrowth.
Besides the continental interiors of high latitudes, coniferous forests are
also found in regions of high altitude and reduced temperatures. Example: In the
 Himalayas.

Economic Development
- The coniferous forests regions in the northern hemisphere are little developed.
Most of these forests are still untouched as they are not accessible.
In the more accessible areas of the forests, lumbering is the predominant
occupation.
Few crops survive in the Siberian climates with long, cold winter and frozen
winters.
Hence there is little agriculture in these lands.
Many of the natives like Samoyeds, Yakuts or Siberia and some Canadians are
engaged in hunting, trapping and fishing.

Two major activities of the region are trapping and lumbering.

Trapping
- Many fur-bearing animals inhabit the northern lands of Canada and Eurasia.
In Canada, trappers and hunters armed with modern automatic rifles in the midst
of coniferous forests track down these animals.
Muskat, ermine, mink and silver fox are the most important fur-bearing animals.
Many fur farms have been established in Canada, to ensure regular supply of
furs.
In Siberia, other fur-bearing animals like the squirrels, otters, bears,
sables, lynxes, martens and foxes are trapped.

Lumbering
- This is the most important occupation of the Taiga type of climate.
Trees are felled for many purposes such as saw-milling, paper and pulp
industry, fuel, industrial raw material.
Saw-milling: This processes logs into sawn-timber, plywood, planks, hardboard
and other constructional woods.
Paper and pulp industry: By mechanical and chemical means, timber is pulped to
make wood pulp. This is used as a raw material for papermaking and newsprint.
Fuel: Softwoods are not used as fuel due to its industrial uses. Hardwoods are
burnt as fuel, particularly in the tropical regions. Since this region is covered
with softwoods, less than a quarter of it is used as fuel.
Industrial raw material: Timber has a wide range of industrial uses. Timber is
used for making furniture, matches, wood-carvings, toys, crates and packing cases.

Factors favourable for Lumbering in Siberian Climate:

- Coniferous forests occur in pure stands or homogenous groups and not mixed as
the tropical forests.
This not enhances the commercial value of the felled timber, but also save time
and money.
Lumbering replaces agriculture as in these high latitudes agriculture is highly
unproductive.
In winter the sap of the trees ceases to flow and lumbering is normally carried
out in the winter months.
The snow-covered ground in winters makes logging and haulage relatively
simpler.
The logs and dragged and float on the rivers to the sawmills downstream. This
has greatly helped the lumbering industry in Canada and Sweden. But in Siberia
unfortunately, all the rivers drain polewards into the Arctic Ocean.
Cheap hydro-electricity for driving sawmills is harnessed from the mountainous
uplands of North America and Europe which have greatly assisted the lumbering
industry.

The cool temperate eastern margin(Laurentian):

-The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin climate is also known as the Laurentian climate.
It is the intermediate between the British and Siberian type of climates.

Distribution
- It is found only in two regions and only in the northern hemisphere.
The climate has features of both the continental and the maritime climates.
North American region: One region is north-eastern North America including
eastern Canada, north-east USA, and Newfoundland.
Asiatic region: The other region is the eastern coastlands of Asia, including
North China, eastern Siberia, Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan.
The climate is totally absent in the southern hemisphere because only a small
section of continental landmass extends south of the latitude of 40 S.
The only possible regions are in eastern Patagonia.
But the Southern Andes blocks the Westerlies and the region is subjected to
aridity rather than continentality.
It is a rain-shadow region and its annual precipitation is not more than 10
inches.

Temperature
- The climate of this type has cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers.
Snow falls to quite a depth and winter temperatures may be well below the
freezing point.
Summers are as warm as the tropics and are moderated by the cooling effects of
the off-shore cold currents from the Arctic.

Precipitation
- Rain falls throughout the year.
But there is a distinct summer maximum because the easterly winds from the
oceans bring rainfall.
Two-thirds of the annual precipitation is in summer.
Winters are dry and cold and westerlies blow out from the continental
interiors.

The North American region

- The most remarkable characteristic of this region is the uniformity in annual
precipitation.
This is due to the Atlantic influence and that of the Great Lakes.
The warm Gulf Stream increases the moisture content of easterly winds from the
open Atlantic.
The prevailing Westerlies carry depressions over the Great Lakes towards
eastern regions causing wet conditions, especially in winter.
Convergence of the warm Gulf Stream and the cold Labrador Current near
Newfoundland produces dense mist and fog and gives rise to much precipitation.
It is said that Newfoundland experiences more drizzles than any other part of
the world.
In summer the Westerlies bring fewer depressions and extend their continental
influence to the coast.
Temperatures are high in summer for that latitude and prolonged heat waves
cause discomfort in crowded cities.

The Asiatic region

- In contrast to the North American region, the distribution of precipitation is
less uniform in the Asiatic region.
Winters are very cold and dry while summers are warm and exceptionally wet.
The rainfall regime resembles the tropical monsoon type in India where the
rainfall is concentrated in the three summer months.

The climate in Japan

- The climate of Japan is modified by its insularity and also by the meeting of
warm (Kuroshio)and cold (Oyashio) ocean currents.
 It receives adequate rainfall from both the South-East Monsoon in summer and
the North-West monsoon in winter.
The rainfall is more evenly distributed with two maxima: the Plum rain in June
and the Typhoon Rain in September.

Natural Vegetation
- The predominant vegetation in this climate is cool temperate forests.
The heavy rainfall, the warm summers and the damp air from fogs all favour the
growth of trees.
Forest tend to be coniferous north of the 50 N latitude.
South of this latitude, deciduous forests is seen.

Economic Development
- Lumbering and its associated timber, paper and pulp industries are the most
important economic activities in the region.
Lumbering has always been a major occupation in the sparsely populated Asiatic
region and timber is the chief export item.
The occurrence of trees in almost pure stands and the predominance of only a
handful of species greatly enhance the commercial value of the forests.

Agriculture
- Agriculture is less important due to long and severe winters.
The maritime influence and the heavy rainfall enable the growth of some hardy
crops.
In the North American region, arable farming is not carried out on a large
scale and farmers are mostly engaged in dairy farming and fruit growing.

Fishing
-Fishing is another outstanding economic activity of the Laurentian climatic
regions.
Off Newfoundland:
- This is one of the world's largest fishing grounds, particularly on the Grand
Banks.
The mixing of the warm Gulf Stream and the cold Labrador currents enable the
growth of plankton and microorganisms.
Fish feed on minute marine organisms called plankton present abundantly in the
continental shelves and in shallow waters adjacent to the landmasses.
Fish of all types and sizes breed her and support a thriving industry of not
only Canada and USA, but also Norway, France, Britain, Portugal, Denmark, Russia
and
Japan.
Both pelagic fish(which live near the surface) and the demersal fish (which
live near the bottom) of shallow seas are caught.
Over-fishing is a growing problem and strict measures in fish conservation are
being taken.

Off Japan:
- Another major fishing area of the world in the North-West Pacific surrounding
the islands of Japan.
The mountainous nature of Japan and parts of mainland eastern Asia have drive
people towards fishing.
Hakodate and Kushiro are the major fishing ports and fish are either canned or
preserved for export to neighbouring countries.
The fish waste, fish meal and seaweeds are used as fertilizers in the farms.
Coastal farms submerged in water grow seaweeds for sale as fertilizers,
chemical ingredient and even as food.
Another important aspect of fishing the pearl culture.
Pearl oysters are brought to the surface and the highly prized pearls are
extracted for sale as ornaments.
 Japan's fishing is not limited to its territorial waters but they venture far
and wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the Atlantic waters.

Fishing is a dominant occupation in Japan for the following reasons:

- Japan is not well endowed with natural resources and as much as 80 per cent of
its land is non-agricultural. Hence people have taken up fishing for their
livelihood and it has become their traditional occupation.
Lack of lowlands and pastures means that only a few animals can be kept to
supply meat and other protein food. Fish meat is the primary source of protein in
Japan.
The continental shelves around the Japanese islands are rich in plankton due to
the meeting of warm Kurushio and cold Oyashio currents. These form excellent
breeding grounds for fish.
The indented coastline of Japan provides sheltered fishing ports, calm waters
and safe landing places.
With the progress of industries, fishing has become more scientific, aiming at
heavy hauls, high returns and economy of time, effort and money.
Most of the deep-sea fishing is now highly mechanised. Powered trawlers and
modern refrigeration plants have increased the annual fish yield.

The Arctic and polar climate:Tundra & Ice Caps

-Polar climate has cold climatic conditions all through the year. Koppen classified
Polar Climate as E type in his climatic classification. According to Koppen the
summer temperature in this region is less than 10 degrees. He further divided the
polar climate as Polar Tundra and Polar Ice Caps.

Distribution
Northern Hemisphere
- The polar type of climate is primarily found north of the Arctic Circle in the
northern hemisphere.
The ice-caps are confined to Greenland and to the highlands of the high-
latitude regions where the ground is permanently snow-covered.
The lowlands which are ice-free for a few months have tundra vegetation.
This includes the coastal strip of Greenland, the barren grounds of northern
Canada and Alaska and the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia.

Southern Hemisphere
- In the southern hemisphere, the uninhabited land of Antarctica is the greatest
single stretch of ice-cap where the layers of permanent ice are seen.

Temperature
- A very low mean annual temperature characterizes the tundra or polar
temperature.
Only four months have a temperature above freezing point. The ground remains
frozen for all but four months.
Interiors are much colder than the coastal regions.
Winters are long and very severe, summers are cool and brief.
Beyond the Arctic and the Antarctic circles, there are weeks of continuous
darkness.
Frosts and blizzards that occur are very hazardous to the polar inhabitants.

Precipitation
- Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow, falling in winter and being
drifted by the blizzards.
Convectional rainfall is generally absent because of the low rate of
evaporation and the lack of moisture in the cold polar air.
In summer, there is a maximum and the precipitation is in the form of rain or
sleet.
 Cyclones are felt in the coastal areas and there is a tendency towards a winter
maximum.

Natural vegetation
- In severe environments like that of Tundra, few plants survive.
The greatest inhibiting factor is the lack of heat and energy.
The growing season is for less than three months and there are no trees in the
tundra.
Hence only lowest forms of vegetation are supported like mosses, lichens, and
sedges.
In the more sheltered spots, stunted birches, dwarf willows, and undersized
alders struggle to survive.
In the brief summers when snow melts and the days are warmer and longer, berry
bushes and Arctic flowers bloom.
They are short-lived but they brighten the monotonous polar landscape into
Arctic prairies.

Human Activites
- Human activities in the polar regions are largely confined to the coast.
The high altitude plateaus and mountains are uninhabitable as these are
permanently snow-covered.
The people lead a semi-nomadic life.
Eskimos live in Greenland, northern Canada, and Alaska.
Earlier they lived as hunters, fishers, and food-gatherers but in recent years
they have started settling in permanent huts.
During winter, they live in compact igloos and in summer they pitch portable
tents of skins by the side of streams.
Their food is derived from fish, seals, walruses and polar bears.
In Eurasian tundra, other nomadic tribes like Lapps of northern Finland and
Scandinavia, the Samoyeds of Siberia(from the Ural Mountains and the Yenisey
Basin),
the Yakuts from the Lena basin, the Koryaks and Chuckchi of north-eastern Asia
live.
They wander with their herds of reindeer across the Eurasian tundra where there
are pastures.
In USSR, large farms have been established for raising reindeer and for
breeding fur-bearing animals.

Importance and Recent Development of the Arctic Region

- The Arctic region was once regarded as completely useless to mankind.
But now the economic importance of the region has been recognized.
Because of the discovery of minerals, new settlements have come up in the
region.
New railway lines have been constructed to bring shipments of ores mined to the
major industrial districts.
Ports have been established in the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia. Hence it has
become possible to ship timber and fur from Siberia.

paddy cultivation: a warm climate, moderately wet throughout the year, and
extensive lowlands with moisture-retentive alluvial soils.

Corn:The humid air, the sunny summer and the heavy showers suit the crop well.
Cotton:long, hot growing season with nearly 200 days being frost free and
moderately high temperatures.
Tobacco:The humid atmosphere, the warmth and well-drained soils

Factors that influence soil formation in Indian Conditions:

Parent Material
- The rocks from which soils are formed are called parent materials.
In most of the cases, the parent material determines the colouration, mineral
composition and texture of the soil.
In some cases, the soil formed may or may not have the same physical properties
of the parent rock.
Climatic factors induce chemical changes which also affect physical properties
of the soil.
The surface rocks are exposed to the process of weathering. In this process,
the rocks are converted into fine grains and provide a base for the soil formation.
In Indian Conditions, parent material is generally categorized into:

1)Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks

- They are the Oldest rocks [(pre-Cambrian era)(formed due to solidification of
molten magma about 4billion years ago)].
They form the �Basement Complex� of peninsular India.
They are basically granites, gniesses and schists.
These rocks are rich in ferro-magnetic materials and give rise to red soils on
weathering.
The red colour of these soils is due to the presence of iron oxide.

2)Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks

- They are ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick).
On weathering they give calcareous [containing calcium carbonate; chalky] and
argillaceous [consisting of or containing clay] soils.
The soil is mostly devoid of metalliferous minerals.

3)Gondwana rocks
- These rocks are also sedimentary in nature and they are much younger.
On weathering they give rise to comparatively less mature soils.
The soil is more or less of uniform character but of low fertility.

4)Deccan basalts
- Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the Peninsular India many hundred million
years ago gave rise to Deccan Traps.
Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq
km.
Basalts are rich in titanium, magnetite, aluminium and magnesium.
Consequently the weathering of these rocks has given rise to soils of darker
colour.
That is fertile with high moisture holding capacity and is popularly known as
�regur� or black cotton soil.

5)Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks

- Rocks of extra peninsular (plains and Himalayas) India have given rise to soils
with high porosity.
These soils are generally immature recent and sub recent rocks, result in
alluvial soils on weathering.
Alluvial fertile soils consist of fine silts and clay. These soils have little
relation with the original rocks.
On the other hand, the soils of peninsular plateau are generally coarse-grained
and are closely related to the parent rocks. The peninsular soils are generally
less fertile.

Relief
- The relief is the most important factor for soil formation in places with steep
slopes like the hilly regions, edges of plateaus etc.
Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant and it hinders soil formation.
Example: Chambal ravines, higher reaches of Himalayas where there is minimal or no
forest
 cover (most on the steep southern slopes) etc.
The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally experience deposition and
have deep soils. Example: Indo-Gangetic plain.
The exceptions in the plateau are river basins where the soil layers are
sufficiently deep.

Climate
- Temperature and rainfall are the most important factors in soil formation.
They determine the effectiveness of weathering of the parent material, the
quantity of water seeping through the soil and the type of micro-organisms present
therein.
Two different parent materials may develop the same soil in the same type of
climate. Similarly, the same parent material may produce two different types of
soils
in two different types of climates.
The crystalline granites produce laterite soil in relatively moist parts of the
monsoonal region and non-laterite soil in drier areas.
Hot summer and low rainfall develops black soil as is found in some parts of
Tamil Nadu irrespective of the parent rock.
In Rajasthan, both granite and sandstone give birth to sandy soil under arid
climate.
In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation always exceeds precipitation. There
is little vegetation and the soils badly lack humus content. Hence the soils are
invariably of light colour.
In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid and semi-arid regions, excess of
evaporation makes soils lime accumulating. Hence the soil is pedocal in nature
[Pedocal is a
subdivision of the zonal soil order. It is a class of soil which forms in
semiarid and arid regions. It is rich in calcium carbonate and has low soil organic
matter].
In cold climates of the Himalayan region, the process of vegetation decay is
very slow and the soils are acidic in nature.

In areas of heavy rainfall and high temperature, the soils are red or lateritic.
Why?
- Torrential rainfall during the rainy season washes the upper soil and leaches
the materials into deeper horizon.
During the dry summer season the evaporation exceeds precipitation and through
capillary action iron and aluminium oxides are transported to the surface making
the
soil red.
In areas of alternate wet and dry climate, the leached material which goes deep
down in the horizon is brought up and the blazing sun bakes the top soil so hard
that it resembles a brick. Therefore, this soil is called lateritic which
literally means brick.
capillary:-In hot and dry climate-Evaporation-Salts within the soil come at the
upper layer-Calcium salts-Soil salinity
Leaching:In hot and humid climate-Heavy rainfall-Silica within soil move downward-
Iron and aluminum remain at upper layer-Acidic and reddish soil-Lateritic soil
-In cold and humid climate-Iron and Aluminum move downward-silica at upper
layer-Gray in colour-Podzoilic soil-Low fertility-but good for forestry - lumbering

Natural Vegetation
- Natural vegetation reflects the combined effects of relief and climate.
The formation and development of soil is very much influenced by the growth of
vegetation.
The decayed leaf material adds much needed humus to soil thereby increasing its
fertility.
The densely forested areas contain some of the best soils in India. There is a
close relationship between the vegetation types and soil types in India.

Major Soil Types of India:

- Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be divided into soils of peninsular
India and soils of extra-peninsular India.
The soils of Peninsular India are formed by the decomposition of rocks in situ,
i.e. directly from the underlying rocks.
Soils of Peninsular India are transported and re-deposited to a limited extent
and are known as sedentary soils.
The soils of the Extra-Peninsula are formed due to the depositional work of
rivers and wind. They are very deep. They are often referred to as transported or
azonal soils.

1)Alluvial Soils
- Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt deposited by Indo-Gangetic-
Brahmaputra rivers. In coastal regions some alluvial deposits are formed due to
wave action.
Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent material. Thus the parent material of
these soils is of transported origin.
46 per cent of the total area.
support more than 40% of the India�s population
They are immature and have weak profiles due to their recent origin.
Most of the soil is Sandy and clayey soils are not uncommon.
Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are
present in some regions along the river terraces.
The soil is porous because of its loamy (equal proportion of sand and clay)
nature.
Porosity and texture provide good drainage and other conditions favorable for
agriculture.
These soils are constantly replenished by the recurrent floods.
The proportion of nitrogen is generally low.humus is low
The proportion of Potash, phosphoric acid and alkalies are adequate
The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary within a wide range.
They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains except in few places
where the top layer is covered by desert sand.
They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Cauvery, where they are called deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium)
Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada, Tapi valleys and Northern parts
of Gujarat.
They are mostly flat and regular soils and are best suited for agriculture.
They are best suited to irrigation and respond well to canal and well/tube-well
irrigation.
They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute,
maize, oilseeds, vegetables and fruits.
Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India is divided into newer or
younger khadar and older bhangar soils:
Bhabar:
- The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide running along the Shiwalik foothills. It
is a porous, northern most stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain.
Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit their load along the foothills in
the form of alluvial fans. These alluvial fans (often pebbly soils) have merged
together to build up the bhabar belt.
The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature. The porosity is due to
deposition of huge number of pebbles and rock debris across the alluvial fans.
The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar region because of this
porosity. Therefore, the area is marked by dry river courses except in the rainy
season.
The area is not suitable for agriculture and only big trees with large roots
thrive in this belt.
Terai:
- Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow tract (15-30
km wide) to the south of Bhabar running parallel to it.
The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re-emerge in this belt. It is a
swampy lowland with silty soils.
The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and organic matter but are deficient in
phosphate.
These soils are generally covered by tall grasses and forests but are suitable
for a number of crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute etc..
This thickly forested region provides shelter to a variety of wild life.
Bhangar:
- The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher
than the flood plain (about 30 metres above the flood level).
It is of a more clayey composition and is generally dark colored.
A few metres below the terrace of the bhangar are beds of lime nodules known as
�Kankar�.
Khadar
- The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along the
river banks.
The banks are flooded almost every year and a new layer of alluvium is
deposited with every flood. This makes them the most fertile soils of Ganges.
They are sandy clays and loams, more dry and leached, less calcareous and
carbonaceous (less kankary). A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river flood
almost
every year.

2)Black Soils
- The parent material for most of the black soil are the volcanic rocks that were
formed in the Deccan Plateau (Deccan and the Rajmahal trap).
In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form the parent material. The former are
sufficiently deep while the later are generally shallow.
These are the region of high temperature and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a
soil group typical to the dry and hot regions of the Peninsula.
Characteristics of Black Soils
- A typical black soil is highly argillaceous [Geology (of rocks or sediment)
consisting of or containing clay] with a large clay factor, 62 per cent or more.
In general, black soils of uplands are of low fertility while those in the
valleys are very fertile.
The black soil is highly retentive of moisture. It swells greatly on
accumulating moisture. Strenuous effort is required to work on such soil in rainy
season as it gets very sticky.
In summer, the moisture evaporates, the soil shrinks and is seamed with broad
and deep cracks. The lower layers can still retain moisture. The cracks permits
oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths and the soil has extraordinary
fertility
Colour of Black Soils
- The black colour is due to the presence of a small proportion of titaniferous
magnetite or iron and black constituents of the parent rock.
In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh, the black colour is derived from
crystalline schists and basic gneisses.
Various tints of the black colour such as deep black, medium black, shallow
black , a mixture of red and black may be found in this group of soils.
Chemical Composition of Black Soils:
- Potash is variable (less than 0.5 per cent) and
phosphates, nitrogen and humus are low.
Distribution of Black Soils
- Spread over 16.6 per cent of the total area across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
parts of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
Crops in Black Soils
- These soils are best suited for cotton crop. Hence these soils are called as
regur and black cotton soils.
Other major crops grown on the black soils include wheat, jowar, linseed,
virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower and millets.
Rice and sugarcane are equally important where irrigation facilities are
available.
Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also successfully grown on the
black soils.
This soil has been used for growing a variety of crops for centuries without
adding fertilizers and manures, with little or no evidence of exhaustion.

3)Red Soils
- Red soils along with its minor groups form the largest soil group of India.
The main parent rocks are crystalline and metamorphic rocks like acid
granites, gneisses and quartzites.
Characteristics of Red Soils
- The texture of these soils can vary from sand to clay, the majority being
loams.
On the uplands, the red soils are poor, gravelly, and porous. But in the lower
areas they are rich, deep dark and fertile.
Chemical Composition of Red Soils
- They are acidic mainly due to the nature of the parent rocks. The alkali
content is fair.
They are poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen and humus.
They are fairly rich in potash and potassium.
Distribution of Red Soils
- These soils mostly occur in the regions of low rainfall.
They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km (10.6 per cent) of the total area of the
country.
These soils are spread on almost the whole of Tamil Nadu.
Other regions with red soil include parts of Karnataka, south-east of
Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota
Nagpur
plateau; parts of south Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; Aravalis and the
eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or Marwar Plateau), parts of North-Eastern states.
Crops in Red Soils
- The red soils are mostly loamy and hence cannot retain water like the black
soils.
The red soils, with the proper use of fertilizers and irrigation techniques,
give good yield of cotton, wheat, rice, pulses, millets, tobacco, oil seeds,
potatoes
and fruits.

4)Laterite � Lateritic Soils

- Laterite soils are mostly the end products of weathering.
They are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with
alternate wet and dry periods.
Heavy rainfall promotes leaching (nutrients gets washed away by water) of soil
whereby lime and silica are leached away and a soil rich in oxides of iron and
aluminium compounds is left behind.
�Laterite� means brick in Latin. They harden greatly on loosing moisture.
Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay and more gravel of red
sand-stones.
Chemical composition:
- Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric oxides.
They are very poor in lime, magnesia, potash and nitrogen.
Sometimes, the phosphate content may be high in the form of iron phosphate.
In wetter places, there may be higher content of humus.
Distribution
- Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on the summits of Western Ghats at
1000 to 1500 m above mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan,
Satpuras and Malwa Plateau.
They also occur at lower levels and in valleys in several other parts of the
country.
They are well developed in south Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc. and are
widely scattered in other regions.
Crops:
- Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive leaching.
When manured and irrigated, some laterites are suitable for growing plantation
crops like tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc.
In some areas, these soils support grazing grounds and scrub forests.
Economic value:
- valuable building material.
These soils can be easily cut into cakes but hardens like iron when exposed to
air.
As it is the end-product of weathering, it cannot be weathered much further and
is durable.

5)Forest � Mountain Soils:

- 8.67% of the total land area of India.
They are mainly heterogeneous soils found on the hill slopes covered by
forests.
The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic
deposition of organic matter derived from forests and their character changes with
parent
rocks, ground-configuration and climate.
Consequently, they differ greatly even if they occur in close proximity to one
another
Distribution
- In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valleys, less steep and
north facing slopes
Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern Ghats also.
Chemical properties
- The forest soils are very rich in humus.
They are deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime.
They require good deal of fertilizers for high yields.
Csrops
- They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits in
peninsular forest region.
Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are grown in the Himalayan forest
region.

6)Arid � Desert Soils

- consist of Aeolian sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10 per cent).
4.32% of total area
The presence of sand inhibits soil growth. Desertification of neighboring soils
is common due to intrusion of desert sand under the influence of wind [Aeolian
sand].
Distribution
- Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. The sand
here is blown from the Indus basin and the coast by the prevailing south-west
monsoon winds.
Sandy soils without clay factor are also common in coastal regions of Odisha,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Chemical properties
- They are usually poor in organic matter.
Some desert soils are alkaline with varying degree of soluble salts like
calcium carbonate.
Calcium content increases downwards and the subsoil has ten times more calcium.
The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils.
Nitrogen is originally low but some of it is available in the form of nitrates.
Crops
- Phosphates and nitrates make these soil fertile wherever moisture is available.
There is a possibility of reclaiming these soils if proper irrigation
facilities are available.
In large areas, only the drought resistant and salt tolerant crops such as
barley, cotton, millets, maize and pulses are grown.

7)Saline � Alkaline Soils:

- In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil is impregnated i.e covered with salt
particles
Undecomposed rock fragments, on weathering, give rise to sodium, magnesium and
calcium salts and sulphurous acid.
Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers.
In regions with low water table, the salts percolate into sub soil and in
regions with good drainage, the salts are wasted away by flowing water.
But in places where the drainage system is poor, the water with high salt
concentration becomes stagnant and deposits all the salts in the top soil once the
water
evaporates.
In regions with high sub-soil water table, injurious salts are transferred from
below by the capillary action as a result of evaporation in dry season.
Distribution:
- found in canal irrigated areas and in areas of high sub-soil water table.
Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
Punjab,Rj
Gulf of Khambhat are affected by the sea tides carrying salt-laden deposits.
Coastal regions during storm surges
Capillary action:
- is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of,
and in opposition to, external forces like gravity.
The force behind capillary action is surface tension.

8)Peaty � Marshy Soils

- These are soils with large amount of organic matter and considerable amount of
soluble salts.
The most humid regions have this type of soil.
They are black, heavy and highly acidic.
Distribution
- Kerala.odisha,Tn
Chemical Properties-
- deficient in potash and phosphate.
Crops
- paddy

Chemical Properties of all soil:

Rich
Poor
Alluvial soils, : Potas,Nitrogen(Low),Humus(Low)
phosphat
Black soils, : Potash is variable
phosphates, nitrogen and humus
Red soils, : potash and potassium.
lime, magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen and humus
Laterite and Lateritic soils, : bauxite or ferric oxides,humus(In wet region)
lime, magnesia, potash and nitrogen
 Forest and Mountain soils, : humus.
potash, phosphorus and lime
Arid and Desert soils, : calcium carbonat,phosphate,Nitrogen (Low)
organic matter
Saline and Alkaline soils and :
Peaty and Marshy soils. :
potash and phosphate