Science Reviewer ( 1St quarterly examination)

• Plate- large pieces of the upper few hundred kilometers of earth that move more or less as a single unit. 100 - 200 km Thick.
• Tectonic - large scale processes affecting the structure of the earth's crust.
• Plate tectonics - a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a result of earths subterranean moments.
7 MAJOR PLATES
1. Noth American Plate
2. South American Plate
3. Pacific Plate
4. Antartic Plate
5. African Plate
6. Indo - Australian Plate
7. Eurasian Plate

8 SECONDARY PLATES
1. Arabian Plate
2. Caribbean Pice
3. Cocos PIcte
4. Indian Plate
5. Juan De fuca Plate
6. Philippine Plate
7. Scotia Plate
8. Sometimes Nazca Plate

Eartn is generally composed of 58 crustal plate.

 Tectonic plate (also called lithosheric plate) - a massive, irreqularly shaped slab of solid rock, gencrally composed of
both continental and oceanic lithosphere.
 Continent - large continuous mass of land conventionally regarded as a collective region:
INTERNAL STRUCTURE and COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH
Crust - Hard a rigid; it's the earth's outermost and thinnest layer, 5 km thick under the oceans and averaging 20 miles (30km) tmick
under the continent.
2 types of Crust
Oceanic Crust
 extending 5-10km beneath the ocean floor.
 basalt rocks, silicate, a magnesium (Sima)
 formed at mid ocean ridges.
Continental Crust
 composed of granite, aluminum, silicate. (sial)
 30km thick
Mantle - it is the thickest layer and it is about 2, 900 km thick,
 This dense layer made of not, semisolid rock is located directly below the crust.
 made up of ferro-magnesium, silicate rocks, a silicate minerals
 heat a pressure generally increase with depth.
DIVIDED INTO SEVERAL LAYERS
Upper Mantle -often recognized as distinct regions in Earth’s interior: The lithosphere and the asthenosphere.
Transition Zone - rocks do not melt or disintegrate. Rocks become much, much more dense
 It prevents large exchanges of material between the upper a lower mantle.
Lower Mantle - extends from about 660km to about 2,700km beneath the Earth's surface.
 hotter & denser than the upper mantle & transition zone
 much less ductile.
 the heat usually corresponds to softening rocks, intense pressure keeps the lower mantle solid.
D Double - Prime (D') - beneath the lower mantle is a shallow region called D' or "'d doble-prime”
Earths Core - Very hot, very dense center of our planet. The ball-shaped core bencoth the cool, brittle crust and the mostly-solid
mantle.
Inner core - an extremely hot solid sphere..
 Made up of nickle and iron.
 the depth is 3,200-3,960 miles below the surface and about 750 miles in diameter
Outer core - the only liguid layer of the earth.
 made up of melted metals nickel a iron.
 the depth is 1,400 miles thick.

THE BOUNDARIES BETWEEN THE LAYERS OF THE EARTH

Lithosphere - solid outer section of the earth
 It includes the crust as well as the underlying cool, dense, a rigid Upper part of mantle.
Asthenosphere - soft, weak upper portion of the mantle where the lithosphere plate float and more around.
Mohorovicie discontinuity - also known as mono. It is the interface between crust and mantle.
Gutemburg discontinuity - marks the boundary between the mantle of the outercore.

Earthquakes are not randomly distributed over the earth's surface, they tend to be concentrated in narrow zones, some are
located near the edges of the continents, some are in the mid continents, while others are in the ocean.
Volcanoes are not randomly distributed, majority of them are found along edges of some continents particularly in the western
coast of north and south americu, east and southern asia.
• Himalayas - great mountain system of asia.
• Sierra Madre - "backbone of Luzon
Mountain ranges are not randomly distributed, they are also found along the edges.

EARTHQUAKE
Dare forms of wave energy that are transmitted through pedrock. The point within the earth along the geological faults where an
earthquake Originctes Is called hypocenter (focus). The point on the earthis surface directly abore the focus is called the epicenter.
4 TYPES OF AN EARTHQUAKE
Tectonic Earthquake it is the common type, it hoppens when the shifting of Farth's plates driven by the sudden release of energy
wilhin some limited regions of the rocks of the earth.
Volcanic Earthquake - it is coused by ertner the interjection or withdrawal of magma in response to the changes of in pressure in
the rock where magma has experienced stress
Collapse Earthquake - caused by seismic waves produced from the
Explosion Earthquake- a groundshaking resulted from the detonationof chemicals or nudear devices.
PHIVOLCS - Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
Seismic Waves - an elastic waves in the earth produced by an earthquake or other means
Seismology - scientific study of eartnquakes and propagation of seismic wave
Selsmologist - who studies the sudden and violent mo elements of the earth's plates.
Seismometer - an Instrument used to detect and record earthquakes.
Seismogroph - instruments used to record the motion of the ground during on earthquake.
Seismogram - recording of the ground shaking at the specific location of the instrument

BODY WAVES
PRIMARY WAVE ( P-WAVE)
o mores by compressing and expanding (push-pull motion) the materials as it travels.
o these waves can pass through sollds, liguids, and gases.
o vibrate in the same direction as wave motion.
o wares hare the grechest velocity (Gekm/see) and are the first to reach the seis mogroph tations.
SECONDARY WAVE (S-WAVE)
o travel through material by shearing it or changing is shope in the direction perpendiculor to the direction of travel.
o It only pass through on solds.
o travel through Earth slower (3.5 km/sec.) and are the second to reach the seismograph stations
SURFACE WAVES
o It do not travel throuch earth, but instead travel along poths nearly parallel to the surface of earth.
o they travel slower than S wares
1: Love Wave (A. E. H Love) - Augustus Edward H. love
o it cause horizontal shearing of the around.
o Vibrate in a perpendicular direction.
o the most destructive and cause the most damage.
2. Rayleigh Wave (John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh)
* It can cause both horizontal (side to side) d vertical (up d down) morement within the around.
riorate in a rolling motion in the same direction as ware motion- to Responsible for an even greater devastation, during an
earthquake
LOCATING THE FPICENTER
o Focus - source of an earthquake
o Epicenter- point on the surface of Farth directly above the focus.
o We need seismogram reading from dileast 3 different seismograph stations and a trave)-time graph.
Step 1: 3 Selsmogram Records
Step 2: Compute the time difference
D= TF x 100km/8s
Step 3: Use Triangulation to Pin Point the Epicenter.
Arrival time: +
Origin time: -

VOLCANOES- Are landforms controlled by the geological process that forms them and continually acts on them after their
formation. Aboul 95% of the world's volcanoes are located near the boundaries of the tectonic plates while the remaining 5% are
thought to be associated with mantle plumes and hot spots.
Mantle plumes-are areas where heat or rocks in the mantle are rising toward earth's surface.

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Hot spots- locations on farth's surface that nave experienced active volcanic activities for a long period of time.
Active - expected to erup in the near future.
Dormant volcanoes (POTENTIALLY ATIVE) - not currently erupting but nare erupted within recordable mstory and are expected
To erupt again in the future.
Extinct volcanoes (INACTIVE) - considered as dead and ore not expected to erupt in the future.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
CINDER CONE VOLCANO
o Simplest
o Most common type of volcano.
o Has a cone shape.
o 100 to 400 meters high.
COMPOSITE VOLCANO:
STRATOVOLCANO
o Tall conical mountain
o Composed of an alemating layer of lava Frow.
o 100 - 3500meters high.
SHIELD VOLCANO
o Huge
o Gertly sloped volcano
o Exclusively erupt basaltic lava
o high as 9000 meters

TECTONIC LANDFORMS
Mountains: Orogenesis and Deformation.
o Folding
o Faulting
o Fractures
Major Mountain Ranges
o Himalayan Mountains
o Rocky Mountains
o Appolachion Mountains
o Andes Mountains
Orogenesis
 the process of mountain building, occurs when two tectonic plates collide - either. forcing material upwards to form
mountain pelts such as the Alps or timalajas Or causing ore plate to be suhducted below the other, senutting mourtam
choins such as the Andes.
Deformation
 Processes deform or alter the earth’s crust by extreme stress or pressure in the crust and mantle. It occurs along plane
margins from plate tectonic movements.
Folding - Occurs when rocks are compressed such that the lavers buckle and fold:
Faulting - Occurs when rocks fracture under the accumulation of extreme / stress created by compression and extensional forces.
FOUR BASIC TYPES
 Normal: rocks above the foul plane, or hanging wall, more down relative to the rocks below the fault plane, or footwall.
 Reverse: mores up relative to the footuall
 Strike- slip: rocks on citner side of a nearly vertical fault plane mare nor
 Oblique
MOUNTAIN RANGES are the results in the collision between two continental plates. It is the result of so,veezing el folding of rock
materials in converging plates.
TSUNAMI also called seismic sea wave or tidal wave, catastrophic orcan mate, usvally carsed py a submarine carlnguoke, an
underwater or coastal landslide,or a volcanic eruption.
ROCESSES ALONG PLATE BOUNDARIES
Normal, Reverse, Transverse —> geologic fault
GEOMORPHOLOGY —>
study of landforms and processes that shape them.
MT. RUSH MORE
formed due to the collision of plates
Roosewelt, Washinaton, Jefferson, Lincoln.
NINJIMA (NOV. 21,2013)
due to volcanic eruption.
rising of molten materials from the lithospnere.
Process- series of action

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CONVERGENT
OCEANIC - CONTINENTAL
Ist: Oceanic - continental collide
2nd: oceanic subducts and will form a trench and subduction zone
3rd: Change in temperature (hot)
4th: Molten materials will rise
5th: resulting to the formation of volcanic arc
OCEANIC - OCEANIC
1st: Oceanic - oceanic collide
2nd: denser, older crust subducts and will form trenches and subduction zone
3rd Change in temperature
4th: Molten materials will rise.
5th: volcanic Island will form in the
CONTINENTAL - CONTINENTAL
1st: Continental - continental collide
2nd: Lithosphere will be destroyed and fractured rd: folded mountains and fracture will form
DIVERGENT
OCEANIC PLATES CONTINENTAL
Ist: 2 plates divide/ move away
2nd: molten materials will rise from the mantic plume
3rd: Will form mid- ocean ridges (for oceanic crust) —> rift valley – (for continental crust) molten materials will become new crust.
TRANSFORM
Ocean - oceanic fracture
Land – fault —> can create strong earthquake

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

1: CONTINENTAL - CONTINENTAL CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
 folding of litnosphere, fracture, mountains are formed.
2: OCEANIC-OCEANIC CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
 subduction zone, ocean trench volcanic islands are formed.
3: OCEANIC CONTINENTAL CONVERGENT BONDARIES
 subduction zones , ocean trench , volcanic arc
4. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES (OCEANIC PLATE)
 seofloor spreading, high heat flow volcanism earthquake
 mid - ocean ridge (rift valley)
5: DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES ( CONTINENTAL CRUST)
 rift valley
6: TRANSFORM BOUNDARY
 Oceanic fractures (large valleys or trenches)

LANDFORMS ALONG PLATE BOUNDARIES

A. CONVERGENT (DESTRUCTIVE )
o The Andes (South America)
o Himalayas (Asia)
o Caribbean Islands (Caribbean sea)
B. DIVERGENT (CONSTRUCTIVE)
o Mid- Atlantic Ridge ( Atlantic Ocean)
o Red sea (East Africa)
C. TRANSFORM (CONSERVATIVE)
 San Andreas Faut (Nortn America)
D: NO PLATE MARGIN - has a hotspot= the place where there's a rising of molten materials.
 Hawaiian Islands
PLATE BOUNDARIES
o edges where 2 plates meet.
o Where mad geologic activities (volcanoes, cartinguates, and mountain building) take place
o lines at the edges of Iithosphere pieces.
LITHOSPHERE
o made up or plates where continents and ocean floor rest.
TECTONIC PLATES
o more away, toward, or past one onother
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARY
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
 move apart
CONSTRUCTIVE PLATE BOUNDARY
When 2 plates separate, the magma from the mantle rises forming a new crust.
CHARACTERIZED BY: Tensionall stress producing long rifts, normal fault, basaltic volcanism.
marked by: MID - OCEAN RIDGE -Charactersistic of an ocean-spreading center
Responsible for seafloor spreading.
AVERAGE OF SPREADING » average: 2cm per year (25km per million year) the mid- atlantic ridge.
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY

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  more toward each other
DESTRUCTIVE PLATE BOUNDARY - the existing crusts are broken and deformed w/o producing a new one
TYPES:
A.OCEANIC - OCEANIC CONVERGENCE two oceanic plates converge -> denser plate is pushed under the lighter one.
TRENCH -> is formed —> lining them are volcanoes formed under the ocean.
B. OCEANIC - CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE
- leading edge of one plate - oceanic crust, the other one is continental crust
SUBDUCTION -> denser oceanie plate moves under the continental plate
C- CONTINENTAL – CONTINENTAL two continental plates collide, neither is pushed under
CONTINENTAL PLATES - low densit have the tendency to rise and collide weach other= the crust buckles, fractures, and shrinks.
TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARY
- 2 plates slide horizontally past on another
- neitner creates nor destroys = CONSERVATIVE
PLATE BOUNDARY
- vertical and parallel to the direction of movement.

SEAFLOOR SPREADING
o now crust is created when scotloor moves apart
o new magma continuously rises up to fill the space
SUBDUCTION ZONE
o where the cominental and oceanie plate colde, forcing the oceanic plate under less dense continental plate.
RIFT VALLEY
 linear -shaped lowland between Sereral highlands/ mountain ranges crected by the action of a geologic rift/fault
MID OCEAN RIDGE
o on underwater mountain sustem
o consists of various mountains linted in chains, typically hoving a valley known as rift along its spine
CONTINENTAL COLLISION
 a rarration of subduction
 subduction zone is destroyed, mountains produced, and 1. continents sutured together.
VOLCANIC ARC
 chain of volcanoes Formed above a subductina plate, positioned in On are shape
VOLCANIC ISLAND ARC
 offshore volcanoes from island.