Endogenic

Processes
I. Earth`s Internal Heat
-fuels the planet’s dynamic processes including plate movements, earthquakes, and
volcanism.
-This heat is produced by residual heat (extraterrestrial impacts and gravitational
contraction) and radiogenic heat.

Residual Heat
1. Extraterrestrial Impacts
-The great amount of kinetic energy from the formation of the Earth through the rotation
of cloud is produced by the moving objects which were then converted to heat energy.

2. Gravitational Contraction
-Collapsed clouds occur because accretion of more materials led to an increase in the
Gravitational attraction causing the contraction of Earth into a smaller volume which will
then enable them to spin faster.
-The compaction resulted in the conversion of gravitational energy into heat energy.

3. Radiogenic Heat
-Unstable elements undergo radioactive decay to attain a more stable form. The process
of radioactive decay produces heat as a byproduct.
-The young Earth had more of these unstable elements producing greater amount of
energy compared to today’s radioactive decay.
-At present, this process mostly occurs at the mantle, which is enriched in radioactive
isotopes.
-Heat from the core is transferred from the interior to the surface mainly through
Convection.

Earth’s thermal budget

-is the measure of the amount of heat that is released at the surface and produced in the
interior.
-ensure that absorbed solar radiation is balanced to the radiated ones.
-ensures that the average temperature on Earth remains stable and that life continues to
exist.

- 30% of the solar energy that reaches the surface of Earth is reflected back to space by
the clouds, atmosphere and light-colored areas.
-The remaining 70% of the solar energy is absorbed by the atmosphere, land, and
oceans. The absorbed energy drives wind and ocean currents.

-All this solar energy absorbed by the atmosphere, air, land, and oceans must be
radiated back to space.
-Therefore, energy in should always equal to energy out.

II. Magmatism: How Magma is formed

Magma
-is defined as molten rock material produced by partial melting of the mantle and crust.
Formation of Magma
1. Temperature
-This increase in temperature will obviously induce melting.
a. Geothermal gradient
-Rate of increase in temperature with depth

2. Pressure
-Magma forms when there are decreased in pressure and constant temperature.
-This kind of melting is termed as decompression melting.
-It usually occurs in an area where hot mantle rock rises to shallower depths on Earth
such as mantle plumes, beneath rifts and beneath mid ocean ridges

3. Volatiles
-are substances that evaporate easily and can exist in gaseous form in the surface of
Earth.
-When volatiles mix with hot mantle rock, magma forms.
-As a result, rock's melting temperature decreases when more volatiles are introduced.

Magmas may reach the surface or stay inside magma chambers.

Magma chambers
-have sizes ranging from one kilometer up to several tens of kilometers.
Lava
-Once magma extrudes onto the surface.

Magmatism
-occurs along plate boundaries or margins and sometimes within the plate.
-Cracks on Earth's crust are the result of these plate boundaries.
-Hot mantle rock penetrates the crust and becomes magma.
Plate boundaries
1. Convergent plate boundaries
-are settings where two plates move towards each other.
 - can be oceanic crust to oceanic crust, oceanic crust to continental crust, or continental
crust to continental crust.
-As these plates collide, magma formation, earthquakes or mountain building were
formed.
2. Divergent boundaries
- Plates move away from each other.
- As the plates move apart, thin, fractured rocks formed.
-provide a means for the hot mantle to reach the surface so as a result, volcanic activity
occurs.
3. Transform boundaries
-are those where plates slide past one another connecting the other two boundaries.
-As a result, earthquakes occur.

Classification of Magma
1. Tholeiitic magmas or tholeiites,
-are produced by large degree of melting.
-In settings where plates diverge, tholeiites form as mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB).
-subduction zones can also produce tholeiites.
-These magmas make up the bulk of ocean floor, about 70% of Earth’s crust.

2. Calc-alkaline basalts
-form along convergent plate boundaries above subduction zones.
-They are silica saturated and are of higher potassium content compared to tholeiitic
magmas.

3. Alkaline basalts
-form from smaller degree of partial melting, which results in alkali-rich and silica
depleted magma of diverse compositions.

4. Carbonatites
-are the only magmas that are not produced by silicate source rock.
-They are enriched in carbonate minerals like dolomite and calcite.
III. Volcanoes and Volcanism
Volcanism
-is the process where magma rises to the surface of Earth as lava.
-volcanism is a constructive process as seen in Earth’s early history.
-destructive event as it could damage infrastructures, cause injuries and short-term
climate change.
-Volcanism also takes place in the nearby terrestrial planets
-In our planet, volcanism occurs in hotspots, rifting and subduction zones.
Volcano
-is a hill or mountain where lava, pyroclastic materials, and gases erupt. It can form
along plate boundaries or within the plate.

Formation of Volcano
1. Divergent plate boundaries
-volcanism manifests as ridges or fissures where products of decompression melting
erupt.
2. Convergent plate boundaries
-host large number of volcanoes.
-Lava flows and pyroclastic materials make up these volcanoes.
-Subduction melting forms volcanic or island arcs.
a.Volcanic or Island arcs
- elongated chains of volcanoes following the shape of the trench.
3. Intraplate volcanism
-These volcanoes are situated within the plate far from a divergent or convergent
boundary.
- It is believed that a hot mantle plume is the source of magma.

Lava flows
-move slowly and follow low areas.
-Upper surfaces which are exposed to air cool faster than the remaining part of the melt
to form lava tube.
-If a part of the tube collapses, the actively flowing lava is exposed forming a skylight.
Classification of Lava Flows
1. Pahoehoe
-has a smooth and ropy surface.
2. aa
-has jagged and angular corners.

Columnar joints
-may also be formed from lava flows.
-They have distinctive pattern of columns bounded by fractures.
Lava that solidifies forms Volcanic Rocks
1. Basalt
2. Andesite
3. Rhyolite
4. Obsidian
5. Pumice
6. Scoria

IV. Plutonism
James Hutton
- His theory of Plutonism was recognized in the 18th century.
Plutonism
- states that rocks were formed from heat-driven processes.
- This heat comes from the interior of Earth.
- Processes are constant and slow.

-proposed that granites are intrusive igneous rocks.

- observed that granites cut across sediment layers, thus, granite must have been
injected into country rock making it younger than the sediments.
Neptunist Theory of the Origin of Granites
- opposed by Plutonism.
- states that these rocks are the oldest precipitates from a primordial sea.
Plutonic rocks
-Rocks that formed in the interior of Earth.
Volcanic rocks
-Rocks which form on the crust.

Classification of Plutons
Plutons
-As magma rises to the crust, it can displace the host or country rock to form this
structures.
1. Discordant structures
-are those that cut across existing structures.
a. Dike
-is an igneous body that cuts across bedding surfaces or other structures of the country
rock.

2. Concordant bodies
-are those that are injected parallel to features in the country rock such as sedimentary
beds.
a. Sills
-are nearly horizontal igneous bodies that form when magma exploits weak spots
between the sedimentary beds or other structures.

Batholiths
-are by far the largest intrusive igneous bodies
Stocks
-smaller plutons.