Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103

Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz Islands, South Atlantic: Isotopic

(Sr, Nd, Pb) and trace element constraints on plume related
magmatism
W. Siebel a,*, R. Becchio b, d, F. Volker c, M.A.F. Hansen e, J. Viramonte d,
R.B. Trumbull a, G. Haase a, M. Zimmer a
a
GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Telegrafenberg, Potsdam D-14473, Germany
b
Fachgebiet Petrologie, Technische UniversitaÈt Berlin, Strasse des 17 Juni, 135, Berlin D-10623, Germany
c
Institut fuÈr Geowissenschaften und LithosphaÈrenforschung, Senckenbergstr. 3, Giessen D-35390, Germany
d
Universidad Nacional de Salta, Avenida Bolivia 5150, Salta 4400, Argentina
e
Geology Course, Univ. do Vale do Rio dos Sinos-UNISINOS, Av. Unisinos 950 Novo Campus, SaÄo Leopoldo 93022-000, Brazil
Accepted 30 November 1999

Abstract

Highly alkaline silica undersaturated lavas erupted at Trindade Island over its 5 Ma geologic history and comprise primitive
nephelinites-basanites and more evolved nepheline-bearing phonolitic rocks. Nephelinites-basanites and phonolitic rocks are
thought to be genetically related via crystal fractionation, as indicated by the very limited range in Sr, Nd and Pb isotope ratios,
systematically increasing contents of incompatible trace elements from primitive to evolved rock types, and similar variation in
chemical composition of the major phenocryst phases (clinopyroxene, amphibole, feldspar) in all rock types. Tb/Yb ratios of the
primitive lavas are high (2.6±4.1) and silica contents are low (39.8±42.9 wt.% SiO2), indicating that the melts were generated at
deep mantle depths (0150 km), within the garnet lherzolite stability ®eld.
Non-radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr (0.70377±0.70421) and radiogenic 143Nd/144Nd (0.512752±0.512837) values show that the Trindade
and MartõÂ n Vaz rocks are derived from moderately depleted sources relative to bulk-earth. The lavas have moderate radiogenic
206
Pb/204Pb ratios of 19.00±19.33, 207Pb/204Pb of 15.56±15.60, and 208Pb/204Pb of 38.89±39.34; they plot close to the Northern
Hemisphere Reference Lines (NHRL). The narrow range of Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopic compositions in the Trindade and MartõÂ n
Vaz lavas suggests either that the source region was homogeneous (similar to the common mantle components FOZO and ``C''),
or that melts from a heterogeneous three-component mantle source, involving HIMU, enriched mantle EM I, and depleted N-
type MORB, were well mixed before eruption.
Late Cretaceous to Present volcanism ranging from interior Brazil towards Trindade is thought to record the passage of the
South American plate over the Trindade mantle plume (e.g., O'Connor and Duncan, 1990). Comparison with published data
from other ma®c rocks along the suggested plume track shows that Trindade isotopic compositions match those of transitional
basalts from the Late Cretaceous Poxoreu igneous province (inland Brazil) and the Eocene Abrolhos platform (Brazilian
Atlantic margin). Simple batch-melting considerations indicate that the degree of melting has decreased from Poxoreu through
Abrolhos to Trindade. These estimates might suggest a diminishing thermal input of the Trindade mantle plume through
time. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Resumen

Las erupciones de lavas subsaturadas en sõÂ lice fuertemente alcalinas estaÂn integradas tanto por unidades primitivas de

* Corresponding Author, present address: Dr. Wolfgang Siebel, Lehrstuhl fuÈr Geochemie, Eberhard-Karls-UniversitaÈt TuÈbingen, Wilhelm-
strasse 56, TuÈbingen D-72074 Germany. Tel: 49-7071-29-74991. Fax: 49-7071-295-713.
E-mail address: wolfgang.siebel@uni-tuebingen.de (W. Siebel).

0895-9811/00/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 9 5 - 9 8 1 1 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 1 5 - 8
80 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103

basanitas-nefelinitas como por otras maÂs evolucionadas de tipo fonolõÂ ticas con nefelino. Estas han tenido lugar durante los
ultimos 5 Ma, durante la historia geoloÂgica de las Islas Trindade y MartõÂ n Vaz. Las nefelinitas-basanitas y fonolitas estaÂn
geneÂticamente relacionadas mediante un proceso de cristalizacioÂn fraccionada, indicado por: un rango muy estrecho de sus
relaciones isotoÂpicas de Sr, Nd y Pb, un sistemaÂtico incremento en el contenido de elementos trazas incompatibles desde las
unidades primitivas a las maÂs evolucionadas, y por una variacioÂn similar en las composiciones quõÂ micas de las fases de
fenocristales mayoritarios (clinopiroxenos, an®boles, feldespatos) en todos los tipos de rocas estudiadas. Las relaciones de Tb/
Yb en las lavas primitivas son altas (2.6±4.1), los contenidos de silice son bajos (39.8±42.9 wt.% SiO2), indicando que la
generacioÂn del magma ocurrio en el manto (0150 km de profundidad), en el campo de estabilidad de las lerzolitas granatõ feras.
Las relaciones no radiogeÂnicas de 87Sr/86Sr (0.70377±0.70421) y las radiogeÂnicas de 143Nd/144Nd (0.512752±0.512837)
muestran que las rocas de Trindade y MartõÂ n Vaz han sido derivadas a partir de una fuente, moderadamente empobrecida, en
relacioÂn a los valores medios de la tierra. Las lavas tienen relaciones moderadas de 206Pb/204Pb (19.00±19.33), 207Pb/204Pb
(15.56±15.60) y 208Pb/204Pb (38.89±39.34) radiogeÂnico, que se aproximan a la lõÂ nea de referencia del hemisferio Norte (NHRL).
El estrecho rango de composiciones isotoÂpicas de Sr, Nd y Pb en las lavas de Trindade y MartõÂ n Vaz suguieren que la regioÂn de
origen pudo haber sido tanto una fuente homogenea (similar a los componentes de un manto comuÂn tipo FOZO y ``C'') o
magmas provenientes de una fuente manteÂlica heterogenea, integrada por HIMU, manto enriquecido (EM I) y empobrecido (N-
type MORB), los cuales se habraÂn mezclado õÂ ntimamente antes de la erupcioÂn.
El volcanismo ocurrido desde el CretaÂcico hasta el presente, desde el interior del continente brasilero hacia la Isla Trindade,
registra posiblemente el pasaje de la placa Sudamericana encima de la pluma manteÂlica de Trindade (e.g., O'Connor and
Duncan, 1990). La comparacioÂn con datos publicados de otras rocas ma®cas a lo largo de la supuesta trayectoria de la pluma,
muestra que la composicioÂn isotoÂpica de la Isla Trindade estaÂn entre los basaltos transicionales del CretaÂcico tardõÂ o de la
provincia magmaÂtica de Poxoreu y los de la plataforma eocena de Abrolhos (margen AtlaÂntico de Brasil). El modelo de fusioÂn
parcial en equilibrio indica que el grado de fusioÂn parcial decrecio desde Poxoreau a traveÂs de Abrohlos hacia Trindade. Esta
estimacioÂn sugiere una disminucioÂn del impacto teÂrmico de la pluma manteÂlica de Trindade a traveÂs del tiempo. 7 2000 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction distributed around the northeastern margin of the

Trindade Island (8 km2) is a volcanic edi®ce at
20830 'S and 29820'W in the western South Atlantic
Ocean, some 1100 km from the Brazilian mainland and
01200 km north of the Rio Grande Rise (Fig. 1). The
island rises 5600 m above the surrounding ocean ¯oor
and 600 m above sea level. The MartõÂ n Vaz archipe-
lago (1 km2), which is located about 70 km east of
Trindade, ascends about 5175 m from the ocean ¯oor
and 175 m above sea level. Both islands form the east-
ernmost part of a seamount chain (Trindade-Columbia
or Trindade-VitoÂria seamounts) that extends towards
the coast of Brazil. These seamounts formed from 40±
50 Ma to the Present as a series of (sub-)aerial volca-
noes. The so-called Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz plume has
been invoked as the source for the Trindade-Columbia
seamounts, which are thought to have formed in re-
sponse to the westward migration of the South Ameri-
can plate over the plume (e.g., Herz, 1977; Duncan,
1981; Hartnady and Le Roex, 1985; O'Connor and
Duncan, 1990; Toyoda et al., 1994; Gibson et al.,
1995, 1997). The present-day plate motion relative to
the hot-spot reference frame is 2 cm/yr (Crough et al.,
1980). Available hotspot reconstruction suggests that
carbonatites (Toyoda et al., 1994), kimberlites (Crough
et al., 1980), and alkaline rocks on the Brazil main-
land, which range in age mainly between 87 and 54
Ma, are also associated with the impact of the Trin-
dade-MartõÂ n Vaz mantle plume. The alkaline rocks are
Parana sedimentary basin and comprise the Poxoreu,
Alto ParanaõÂ ba, IporaÂ, and Serra do Mar Provinces
(Gibson et al., 1995, 1997; Thompson et al., 1998).
Gibson et al. (1995) have argued that Late Cretaceous
alkaline magmatism was the expression of the starting
plume head at 80 Ma, whereas the Trindade-Columbia
seamount chain (40±50 Ma to the Present) is the ex-
pression of a plume tail. There is some dispute about
the exact onset of plume activity. New age data on
rocks in the Alto ParanaõÂ ba and Serra do Mar Pro-
vinces favour commencement of magmatism at about
80±90 Ma (Gibson et al., 1995; Thompson et al., 1998)
and cast doubt on the signi®cance of ages ranging up
to 120 Ma (Crough et al., 1980). According to Gibson
et al. (1995), magmatism ceased between 80 and 50
Ma, while the SaÄo Francisco craton passed over the
plume. However, Thompson et al. (1998) proposed
that, during this period, plume material was de¯ected
southward towards the thinner lithosphere of the Bra-
zilian continental margin where it produced magmas
of the Serra do Mar igneous complex (85±55 Ma). The
52±42 Ma Abrolhos platform, situated close to the
continent-ocean boundary, is o€set from the Trindade-
Columbia seamount chain by about 200 km to the
north but is thought to be part of the hotspot trail
(O'Connor and Duncan, 1990).
Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz form the eastermost and
youngest part of the Trindade-Columbia seamount
chain. Almeida (1961) and Oversby (1971) presented
 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103 81

some major element analyses of a variety of rock types
from Trindade. Weaver (1990) gave trace element ana-
lyses for a compositional range of common rock types.
This study has shown that the lavas comprise one of
the most undersaturated associations found on ocean
islands. An early Pb isotope study of Trindade was
carried out on ®ve samples by Oversby (1971). There
were no Sr and Nd isotope data available, with the
exception of three nephelinite analyses from Trindade
given in Halliday et al. (1992). Full coverage of the
Trindade lavas has been hampered, thus far, by the
lack of detailed data sets in which all analysis were

Fig. 1. (A) Geological map of Trindade, modi®ed after Almeida (1961), with sample locations; (B) location map of Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz
with other South Atlantic Ocean islands and volcanic provinces on the Brazil mainland; (C) schematic stratigraphic column indicating di€erent
successions from which Trindade samples were collected.
82 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103
carried out on the same samples and the samples could
be related to the geological pro®le or to dated units. In
this study, we present major and trace element geo-
chemistry, mineral chemistry, and whole-rock isotopic
data for a suite of nine samples from the main litho-
logical types on Trindade Island and two samples
from MartõÂ n Vaz Island. Our aim is to put constraints
on the geochemical evolution of the magmas and to
furnish new insight on the nature of the mantle sources
below Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz. The data also serve
as a basis for comparison with other regions along the
predicted hotspot trail situated at the transition from
oceanic to continental lithosphere (coastal Brazil) and
in cratonic lithosphere (interior Brazil).
2. Geological setting
The geology of Trindade Island has been reviewed
elsewhere (Almeida, 1961; Mitchell-ThomeÂ, 1970) and
only a brief outline is given here. Almeida (1961)
described ®ve consecutive units within the eruptive
sequence of Trindade: (1) the widespread Trindade
complex, (2) the Desejado sequence, (3) the Morro
Vermelho formation, (4) the Valado formation, and
(5) the late-stage ParedaÄo volcano. All units belong to
alkaline magma series and consist of a variety of erup-
tive rocks, including pyroclastic deposits, lava ¯ows of
nephelinite, basanite, or ankaratrite (analcite-bearing
nepheline basalt), and plugs and domes of nepheline-
bearing phonolite. K-Ar results (Cordani, 1970; Han-
sen et al., 1998) show that the subaerial parts of the
rocks were emplaced within a period from 5 Ma (Trin-
dade complex) to the Present (ParedaÄo volcano). How-
ever, the unequivocal relationship between the mapped
subdivisions and their absolute ages has yet to be
established and should be an important aim for future
work.
Petrographic information on rock types from
MartõÂ n Vaz was not available prior to our study.
Samples (hauÈynite, ankaratrite) were collected, with-
out descriptions, by the Brazilian Navy (Mitchell-
ThomeÂ, 1970). A hauÈynite was dated at 0.7 Ma
(Cordani 1970, cited in Herz's Table 5, 1977). An
ankaratrite sample was dated at 61 and 85 Ma.
Whether these unrealistically old ages are due to
excess argon or to sample misidenti®cation remains
an open question (comp. Herz, 1977). A new K-Ar
whole-rock analysis on a MartõÂ n Vaz phonolite
(sample 10773; Hansen et al., 1998) yields a Qua-
ternary age of 1.120.5 Ma.
Samples investigated in this work were collected
from surface outcrops during visits to the islands of
Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz in 1992 and 1993. From a
total of 60 samples, 9 samples from Trindade and 2
samples from MartõÂ n Vaz were selected for geochem-
ical and isotopic analyses. With the exception of the
Morro Vermelho formation, the samples from Trin-
dade represent all stratigraphic units de®ned by
Almeida (1961).
Rocks of the Trindade complex form the oldest and
most heterogeneous island outcrops (Fig. 1A and 1C).
This complex, which is the most widely distributed, is
composed of pyroclastic rocks, lava ¯ows, and subvol-
canic rocks. Pyroclastic rocks predominate and are
intruded by large phonolitic plugs and dikes of various
compositions. The phonolitic plugs form spectacular
needles, columns, and pinnacles. Samples 10767 (only
microprobe analyses), 10769, 10770, and 10771 were
taken from phonolitic plugs in the eastern part of the
island in which the pyroclastic sequence is deeply
eroded. Sample Hit-4 is a phonolitic dike whereas
sample 10764 represents a basanite dike, both of which
were emplaced parallel to the coast at Praia dos Cabri-
tos at the northwestern edge of the island.
The Desejado sequence consists of nephelinitic and
basanitic lava ¯ows and phonolitic lava domes and
¯ows, both intercalated with pyroclastic deposits of
similar composition (Fig. 1A and 1C). Part of the
pyroclastic sequence can be interpreted as surge de-
posits, ignimbrites, and collapse breccia. Owing to
their high resistance to erosion, the lava ¯ows of the
Desejado sequence form the most elevated points in
the central part of the island. Some of the basanite
¯ows are characterized by abundant inclusions, which
probably represent early segregations of the magma
chamber. Sample 10761 was collected from a in-
clusion-free segment of a lava ¯ow. Samples 10754 and
10759 were taken from granular-textured inclusions
(about 10 cm in size) entrained within this basanite
¯ow. Sample 10754 was investigated only by micro-
probe analyses.
The Morro Vermelho formation comprises a mono-
genetic sequence of nephelinite ¯ows and correspond-
ing pyroclastic rocks (Fig. 1A and 1C). This sequence
is thought to have accumulated in an erosional de-
pression that was formed within the Trindade complex
and the Desejado sequence.
The Valado formation is restricted to the area
around Ponta do Valado and comprises pyroclastic
deposits intercalated with various basanitic lava ¯ows
(Fig. 1A and 1C). Sample 10763 is from a basanite
¯ow from this unit.
ParedaÄo volcano, at the southeastern tip of the
island, is a remnant of strombolian eruptive center
which represents the most recent period of volcanic ac-
tivity on Trindade (Fig. 1A and 1C). The volcano is
partly eroded by the ocean on its eastern side. It con-
sists of lava ¯ows and pyroclastic rocks, both of which
comprise olivine-nephelinites and nepheline-basalts.
Sample 10745 is a pillow lava taken from the northern-
most part of ParedaÄo volcano.
 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103
The island of MartõÂ n Vaz presents a succession of
lava ¯ows, dikes, and phonolitic plugs interbedded
with pyroclastic rocks, which mainly comprise lapilli
tu€s. Martõ n Vaz sample 10774 is a basanite with poi-
kilitic texture which was taken from a small succession
of lava ¯ows. The second MartõÂ n Vaz sample, 10773,
was taken from a phonolite plug.
3. Analytical techniques
Mineral data were acquired by a CAMECA CAME-
BAX Microbeam electron microprobe at the Technical
University of Berlin (TU Berlin). A 15 kV accelerating
voltage was used with 13.5 to 21 nA sample current.
Natural and synthetic minerals were used as standards.
Matrix correction was performed using the X-Mas-Pap
program (Pouchou and Pichoir, 1988). Whole-rock
data for major elements (except Mn) and Cr were
acquired by X-ray ¯uorescence (XRF) on glass fusion
beads; Ba, Co, Mn, Rb, Sr, V, Zn, and Zr were deter-
mined on pressed powder beads. XRF-data were
obtained at TU Berlin with a Philips PW 1404 auto-
matic X-ray spectrometer. International and internal
reference samples were used for calibration. Ferrous
iron, CO2, H2O, and S were measured at Giessen Uni-
versity. Data for ferrous iron were obtained by manga-
nometric titration, H2O contents were measured with a
modi®ed Karl-Fischer-technique using sample powders
dried at 1058C immediately before heating to 12008C
in a nitrogen atmosphere. CO2 was analysed coulome-
trically after combustion in oxygen atmosphere at
12008C. Sulfur contents were determined with an IR
spectrometer after sample combustion under oxygen at
ca. 14508C. Estimated analytical uncertainty, based on
reference materials run as unknowns over the course
of this study, are <5% for FeO and <10% for H2O,
CO2, and S.
Abundances of Cs, Cu, Ga, Hf, Li, Nb, Ni, Pb, Sc,
Ta, Th, and U were determined by Inductively
Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) at the
GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam (GFZ) using a VG
Plasma Quad PQ2+. Relative standard deviation is less
than 22% for each analysis, and analytical accuracy is
better than 210% for each element. Rare Earth El-
ement abundances (REE) and Y were analyzed by
ICP-OES (Optical Emission Spectroscopy) with a Var-
ian Liberty 200 at the GFZ. Following sample fusion
with Na2O2, the REE were chromatographically separ-
ated and concentrated according to the procedure
described by Zuleger and Erzinger (1988). Analytical
accuracy is tested to be better than 10%.
All isotopic measurements were made on unspiked
whole-rock powders at the GFZ. Samples were dis-
solved by conventional digestion methods using con-
centrated HF-HCl-HNO mixtures (10:3:1) in 15 ml
83
Savillex screw-top Te¯on beakers. Pb, Sr, and Nd were
separated by means of standard anion (Pb) and cation
(Sr) exchange techniques (exchange resigns for Pb: Bio
Rad AG1-X8, 100±200 mesh; Sr: Bio Rad AW 50 W-
X8, 100±200 mesh; Nd: HDEHP-coated Te¯on pow-
der). Pb, Sr, and Nd isotopic ratios were determined
on a Finnigan MAT 262 multicollector mass spec-
trometer (equipped with seven Faraday collectors) in
static mode. Pb composition was measured on single
Re-®laments using a special silicagel-H3PO4 emitter
(Gerstenberger and Haase, 1997). Measurements were
made on 0100±500 ng loads; data acquisition was at
temperatures between 1180 and 12108C. A correction
factor of 0.08% per mass unit for instrumental mass
fractionation was applied to all Pb analyses, using
NBS SRM 981 as reference standard; 2s reproducibil-
ity of the 208Pb/206Pb, 207Pb/206Pb, and 204Pb/206Pb
ratios of NBS SRM 981 standard was better than
0.1%. Sr and Nd samples were loaded with phosphoric
acid (1 mol and 0.1 mol, respectively) on Ta ®laments;
the measurements were performed using the single ®la-
ment mode for Sr and double ®lament mode for Nd.
In-run precision (2sm) of the 87Sr/86Sr and
143
Nd/144Nd ratios ranges from 0.001% to 0.002%.
87
The Sr/86Sr ratios were normalized to
86
Sr/ Sr=0.1194 and the 143Nd/144Nd ratios to
88
146
Nd/144Nd=0.7219. Repeated measurements of the
NBS 987 Sr standard and the La Jolla Nd standard
gave average values of 0.710266 and 0.511910, respect-
ively; the measured 87Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd ratios
were further adjusted to the NBS 987 reference value
of 0.710248 and the La Jolla reference value of
0.511858. Total procedural blanks were 30±50 pg for
Pb, 100±200 pg for Sr, and <50 pg for Nd. Given the
young ages of the samples (<5 Ma), in situ decay of
Rb, Sm, U, and Th was insigni®cant and no age cor-
rections of the isotopic ratios were applied.
4. Petrography
The investigated samples from Trindade and MartõÂ n
Vaz can be subdivided into primitive (ol-nephelinites,
basanites) and evolved rocks (nepheline-bearing tephri-
phonolites, phonolites). Detailed petrographic descrip-
tion of the full spectrum of rock types from Trindade
can be found in Almeida (1961).
The nephelinites (such as sample 10745) from Pare-
daÄo volcano generally are porphyritic and micropor-
phyritic with olivine phenocrysts. Phlogopite occurs
very rarely as a phenocryst phase. Most rocks display
aphyric or glomeroporphyric textures. The olivine phe-
nocrysts range from euhedral to subhedral and show a
wide range in grain size, giving the rock a seriate tex-
ture. The matrix is composed of clinopyroxene, nephe-
line, 2 leucite, biotite, and glass. Some of the olivine
84 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103

10761 Pheno Core

phenocrysts are subhedral to rounded whereas others
are altered or embayed. Most olivines are rimmed by
microlitic pyroxenes and biotite and have inclusions of

Basanite
biotite. Opaque minerals (magnetite, titaniferous mag-

40.37

17.02
42.11
0.01
0.02

0.15
0.33

0.81
100.01
netite, and other oxides) are abundant as small pheno-
crysts and in the matrix.
The basanites (10761, 10763, dike 10764) show var-

10745 Xeno Core

ious textures ranging from porphyritic to weakly por-
phyritic, microporphyritic and, in some cases, aphyric.
Euhedral or subhedral pyroxene is the main pheno-
cryst phase, followed by amphibole and olivine. The

36.66

30.73
29.54

98.36
0.07
0.62

0.46
0.28

0.63
phenocrysts are embedded in a trachytic-textured
matrix consisting of K-feldspar, pyroxene, biotite, and
glass. Larger phenocrysts of feldspar and nepheline

10745 Xeno Core

can be found locally and are partly absorbed by the
matrix.
Basanite sample 10774 from MartõÂ n Vaz has a por-

0.05
0.12

0.46
0.30

0.65
37.30

29.56
30.74

98.53
phyritic texture with phenocrysts of nepheline, opaque
minerals, and plagioclase (labradorite), and microphe-
nocrysts of olivine. The groundmass consists of pale
brownish pyroxenes and scarce laths of plagioclase.

10745 Xeno Core

Samples 10754 and 10759 are interpreted as segre-
gations of an earlier magma chamber that were
trapped by basanite lava ¯ows and thus are referred to

39.20

20.56
38.54

98.73
0.04
0.06

0.18
0.16

0.77
as cognate inclusions. They consist of large crystals of
phlogopite, clinopyroxene, and amphibole. The pre-
sence of phlogopite and amphibole attests to high con-
10745 Matrix Core

centrations of volatiles in the magma. The cognate

inclusions are characterized by abundant euhedral
sphene. Apatite is another important phase that occurs
either in the groundmass or as inclusions in the other
39.30

17.59
41.06

98.65
0.06
0.06

0.22
0.37

0.80
minerals. In some cognate inclusions, apatite and
sphene can make up 10±20 vol.% of the rock. Fresh
anorthoclase, if present, is restricted to the interstices
10745 Xeno Rim

between the ma®c minerals together with minor

amounts of glass.
Tephriphonolites (10769) and phonolites (10767,
10770, 10771, Hit-4) of the Trindade complex and the
40.34

15.20
42.85

98.97
0.04
0.05

0.18
0.31

0.83

phonolite sample 10773 from MartõÂ n Vaz are strongly

porphyritic rocks, with phenocrysts of sanidine, nephe-
line, leucite, and clinopyroxene. Sanidine and nephe-
10745 Xeno Core

line are the most abundant constituents of the

phonolites and occur mainly as euhedral phenocrysts.
Representative olivine analyses from Trindadea

(xeno=xenocrystal; pheno=phenocrystal).

Amphiboles are present only in tephriphonolite 10769

40.53

14.72
43.71

99.49
0.03
0.04

0.20
0.26

0.84

and in phonolite 10773. The crystals are strongly cor-

roded at the rims and surrounded by aggregates of
TiO2-rich opaque minerals. The trachytic-textured
groundmass is composed of clinopyroxene, microlitic
10745 Xeno Core
Ol-Nephelinite

sanidine, and glass. Numerous crystals of euhedral

sphene and apatite are present in these rocks. Cracks
in the sanidines are ®lled by analcite.
0.03
0.07

0.14
0.23

0.84
40.40

14.37
43.94

99.18

MartõÂ n Vaz phonolite 10773 displays a trachytic tex-

ture with crystals of sanidine and leucite. Locally,
hornblende is replaced by biotite and the feldspar phe-
Table 1

Sample

nocrysts are replaced by analcite. The main alteration

Al2O3

Total
MnO
MgO
TiO2

CaO
SiO2

FeO

a
Fo

products are carbonates.

Table 2
Representative clinopyroxene analyses from Trindadea

Ol-Nephelinite Basanite Tephriphonolite Phonolite Cognate Inclusion

Sample 10745 10745 10745 10761 10761 10761 10769 10769 10767 10767 10767 10759 10759 10759
Matrix Matrix Matrix Pheno Matrix Pheno Rim Pheno Pheno Rim Xeno Core Matrix Matrix Pheno Pheno Rim Pheno Rim
Core Rim Rim Core Core Core Core Rim Core

SiO2 47.82 47.41 46.89 49.02 46.24 49.09 49.07 47.01 48.69 50.27 50.03 47.97 47.51 50.98
TiO2 3.61 4.02 4.41 1.21 3.26 2.93 1.07 1.91 1.99 0.82 0.85 2.86 2.94 0.95
Al2O3 4.91 5.48 5.25 4.39 7.55 4.58 3.83 5.36 5.12 3.18 2.91 6.83 6.38 3.28
FeO 6.66 6.86 7.28 13.54 7.54 7.15 13.53 12.00 9.74 13.06 13.32 6.80 9.10 12.37
MgO 13.39 12.59 11.88 7.33 12.00 13.37 8.14 9.06 10.30 8.74 8.25 12.54 10.93 9.30
CaO 20.55 23.43 22.78 21.05 21.84 22.31 21.69 22.23 22.00 20.68 20.58 22.73 20.95 20.81
Na2O 0.58 0.51 0.91 1.80 0.69 0.63 1.77 1.52 1.43 2.03 2.04 0.80 1.37 2.15
MnO 0.13 0.11 0.12 0.43 0.16 0.12 0.69 0.42 0.34 0.70 0.63 0.05 0.23 0.34
Total 97.66 100.40 99.52 98.79 99.28 100.18 99.79 99.50 99.59 99.49 98.61 100.58 99.41 100.16
Wo 41.68 48.21 48.17 45.37 45.35 42.67 48.08 47.81 46.12 46.34 46.68 44.21 43.47 46.13
En 45.62 41.19 40.45 28.76 43.20 44.47 30.57 35.08 38.13 32.58 30.86 44.96 41.27 34.06
Fe 12.70 10.60 11.38 25.87 11.45 12.86 21.35 17.11 15.75 21.08 22.46 10.83 15.26 19.81

a
(xeno=xenocrystal; pheno=phenocrystal).

Table 3
Representative analyses of pargasite (Par) and kaersutite (Kaer) from Trindadea

Basanite Tephriphonolite Cognate Inclusion

Sample 10761 10761 10761 10769 Par 10769 Par 10769 Par 10769 10769 10769 10754 Par 10754 Par 10754 Par 10759 Par 10759
Kaer Kaer Kaer Xeno Core Xeno Rim Xeno Rim Kaer Xeno Kaer Xeno Kaer Xeno Core Rim Rim Core Kaer Core
Pheno Pheno Rim Pheno Rim Core Core Rim
Core
W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103

Na2O 2.38 2.73 2.40 2.37 2.45 2.40 2.27 2.23 2.13 2.64 2.69 2.98 2.88 2.77
K2O 1.98 1.34 2.05 2.17 2.24 2.30 2.04 2.10 1.95 1.90 1.89 1.84 1.77 1.81
CaO 12.27 11.76 12.08 11.43 11.09 10.97 11.85 12.12 12.14 11.29 11.40 10.47 10.69 11.35
SiO2 40.24 43.23 39.58 37.67 38.67 38.23 38.93 38.52 38.54 39.27 40.04 39.90 39.75 38.71
Al2O3 12.36 10.18 12.65 12.31 12.08 12.13 12.55 12.48 12.41 11.98 11.70 11.09 11.78 12.92
TiO2 5.90 6.41 6.25 3.90 3.35 3.00 5.62 5.77 5.84 3.07 3.22 3.28 3.82 5.71
FeO 10.42 9.11 10.92 16.27 19.15 19.63 12.39 11.24 10.84 16.29 15.33 18.99 18.08 11.89
MgO 12.73 13.41 12.34 8.48 7.47 6.71 11.17 11.76 12.17 9.49 9.69 7.95 8.38 11.19
MnO 0.10 0.14 0.13 0.41 0.51 0.63 0.21 0.17 0.11 0.25 0.29 0.29 0.36 0.18
Total 98.37 98.30 98.40 95.02 97.01 96.00 97.04 96.37 96.12 96.18 96.24 96.80 97.51 96.53

a
(xeno=xenocrystal; pheno=phenocrystal).
85
86 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103

10759 Rim
5. Geochemistry

3.94
0.54

0.02

2.60
8.64

67.14
20.14

0.37

22.49
74.91
100.80
Cognate Inclusion

10759 Core 5.1. Mineral chemistry

4.06 Four primitive and two evolved rock samples were

0.70

0.19

3.71
7.30

67.22
19.68

0.37
99.51
25.80
70.49
chosen for chemical analyses of the main mineral
phases. The composition of olivine, clinopyroxene,
10767 Matrix

amphibole, and feldspar is depicted in Tables 1±4 and

0.06

0.08

0.31
3.54
11.59

65.32
18.86

0.40
99.85
68.07
31.63
Figs. 2±4.
Olivine (Table 1) from the basanite (10761) has very
10767 Pheno Rim

restricted, magnesium-rich composition (Fo82 to Fo79)

whereas in olivine from the nephelinite (10745) a larger
range from Fo84 to Fo63 was found.
11.35

66.41
18.16

99.53
69.20
30.68
0.02

0.00

0.12
3.31

0.28

Clinopyroxene (Fig. 2, Table 2) is the typical pyrox-

ene present in all investigated samples. Pyroxene phe-
10767 Pheno Core

nocrysts from the basanite sample (10761) are zoned,

with olive-green FeO-rich cores (Wo46En29Fs25) and
Phonolite

12.01

66.49
18.49

70.10
29.72
100.55
0.04
3.35

0.00

0.18
0.16

colourless or pale brown rims with more MgO-rich

compositions (Wo45En43Fs12). Other phenocrysts
within this sample are homogeneous, showing inter-
10769 Pheno Rim

mediate compositions (Wo45En36Fs19). The microlitic

matrix pyroxenes of the basanite are Mg-rich
64.04
19.59

97.31
60.38
39.16
9.20
3.93

0.08

0.06

0.46
0.41

(Wo43En44Fs13) Ð i.e., similar to the rim composition

of the phenocrysts. In the nephelinite sample (10745),
10769 Pheno Core
Tephriphonolite

pyroxene is present only in the matrix, intimately inter-

grown with leucite and nepheline. Its composition is
similar to the groundmass pyroxenes of the basanite.
3.04

0.14

0.04
11.35

63.48
19.40

0.18

0.74
97.62
70.53
28.73

The cognate inclusions (10754, 10759) contain large

zoned clinopyroxene crystals. Zoning in the pyroxenes
10761 Matrix

is commonly irregular or oscillatory. In those cases

3.41

0.40

0.12

1.97
11.70

65.89
18.84

0.30

67.94
30.09
100.66

where zoning is regular, it is inverse to that observed

in the basanite, with rims enriched in ferrosilite com-
10761 Matrix

ponent (Wo47En35Fs19) and cores of Wo44En45Fs11.

Small clinopyroxenes have uniform intermediate com-
100.16
4.91
8.99
1.11

0.24
64.66
19.87

0.38

5.37
51.71
42.91

positions Wo47En40Fs13. While there is some overlap

in the clinopyroxene compositions between the evolved
10761 Pheno Rim

basanite 10761 and the tephriphonolite 10769, the pho-

nolite 10767 has more Fe-rich clinopyroxenes (Fig. 2).
10.54

65.14
19.50

59.78
36.93
100.68
4.29

0.69

0.19
0.32

3.28

Amphibole (Fig. 3, Table 3) is an important mineral

phase in the cognate inclusions and tephriphonolites
but is scarce in the basanites and absent in the nepheli-
10761 Pheno Core

nites and phonolites (except for sample 10773). In

Representative feldspar analyses from Trindadea

sample 10759 (cognate inclusion) and in the tephripho-

101.77
5.09
9.64
0.13

0.00
0.16

0.62
67.72
19.04

55.14
44.24

nolite 10769, two di€erent Ca-rich amphibole varieties

were identi®ed. One is a ferroan pargasite (Ti < 0.5
10761 Pheno Core

per formulae unit, p.f.u.) the other is a kaersutite (Ti

> 0.5 p.f.u.). In sample 10754 (cognate inclusion), the
only amphibole phase detected is a ferroan pargasite.
6.81
4.80
1.87

0.10
0.26

9.41
64.34
20.58

98.77
28.71
61.88

Within the tephriphonolite, the pargasitic hornblende

(pheno=phenocrystal).

is zoned with an iron-enrichment at its rim. Some of

10761 Pheno Core

these pargasites occur as ragged crystals and may be

completely resorbed by opaque mineral aggregates. In
Basanite

the basanite, the amphiboles have kaersutitic compo-

6.60
1.13
6.10

0.20
0.54

6.93
58.36
23.47

96.41

61.59
31.48

sitions.
Table 4

The majority of the studied feldspars belongs to the

Sample

Al2O3
Na2O

Total
TiO2
CaO
K2O

SiO2

FeO

alkali-feldspar group (Fig. 4, Table 4). In the cognate

Ab
An
Or
 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103
inclusions, feldspar composition is restricted to
anorthoclase, which is a minor interstitial mineral and
sometimes contains ma®c and titaniferous minerals as
inclusions. Within the basanite, fresh feldspars (i.e.,
sanidines with Ab30±44An2±0.6Or67±53) are mainly
restricted to the matrix. Most of the phenocrysts are
strongly corroded at their rims, displaying rounded
forms. In some phenocrysts, zones of microperthites
were identi®ed, which vary in composition between
anorthoclase (Ab48±61An19±7Or32±30) and sanidine. One
analysis in basanite turned out as a plagioclase of
andesine composition (Ab62An31Or7). Sanidine is an
important phenocryst phase in the tephriphonolites
and phonolites; it is characterized by relatively homo-
geneous composition between Ab29±36 An0.1±0.7 and
Or62±71. The groundmass sanidines (microlites) have
the same composition.
Sphene is generally enriched in Al and Fe. Both el-
ements can reach 1±2 wt.%. The mineral has low bire-
fringence compared to normal sphene and has a pale
appearance.
Large biotite crystals of phlogopitic composition are
present only in the cognate inclusions. Trace amounts
of phlogopite occur within the basanites and nepheli-
nites. Almeida (1961) and Greenwood (1998) reported
the presence of Ti-rich biotites also in phonolites and
in a lamprophyre dike from Trindade. The cognate in-
clusions contain abundant fresh biotites, brown in col-
our, which include apatite, sphene, and minor feldspar.
These biotites are enriched in iron compared to bio-
tites from the basanite and nephelinite samples. In the
latter, biotite occurs as microphenocrysts in the matrix
Fig. 2. Chemical composition of clinopyroxene in Trindade lavas.
87
or as inclusions in other minerals. These grains are
reddish, partly altered, and enriched in Ti (01 p.f.u.)
compared to biotites from the cognate inclusions.
5.2. Whole-rock composition
Major and trace element data are given in Tables 5a
and 5b. All rocks are ne-normative or, as for the pho-
nolites 10770 and 10771, contain normative nosean
and acmite. From Fig. 5, which also includes all pub-
lished data from Trindade rocks, it can be seen that
two compositions predominate: (1) nephelinites and
basanites, and (2) phonolitic rocks. Note the compo-
sitional break (Daly Gap) between primitive (i.e.,
nephelinites, basanites) and evolved samples (tephri-
phonolites, phonolites) and the scarcity of intermediate
compositions like tephrites and phonotephrites. Taken
the fairly large number of samples as representative,
this compositional gap appears to be real and may
re¯ect density ®ltration (Thompson, 1972). This mech-
anism implies storage of basic magmas at deeper levels
where they underwent fractional crystallization until
their densities were reduced to regain buoyancy for
further ascent as evolved magmas.
The two compositional groups are characterized by
large di€erences in major and trace element concen-
trations. The phonolitic rocks are clearly distinguished
from the nephelinites-basanites by their higher concen-
trations of incompatible elements (Al, Na, K, Ba, Rb,
and Sr) and lower Fe, Mg, Ca, P, Co, Cr, Ni, Sc, Ti,
V, Y, and middle REE concentrations. Sample 10759
(cognate inclusion) shows the highest P2O5 and TiO2
88 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103

Fig. 3. Compositional variation of amphibole in Trindade lavas. Classi®cation according to Leake (1978). Symbols as in Fig. 2.

Fig. 4. Compositional variation of feldspar in Trindade lavas (Ab=albite, An=anorthite, Or=orthoclase). Symbols as in Fig. 2.
Table 5a
Major element abundances in samples from Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz (samples 10774 and 10773)

Sample No. 10745 10764 10763 10761 Hit-4 10770 10771 10769 10759 10774 10773
Rock Type Ol-Neph Basanite Basanite Basanite Phonolite Phonolite Phonolite Teph-Phon Cogn Incl Basanite Phonolite
Occurrence Flow/Sheet Dike Flow/Sheet Flow/Sheet Dike Dome/Plug Dome/Plug Dome/Plug in 10761 Flow Plug

SiO2 (wt.%) 39.9 41.6 42.7 42.9 51.9 52.0 52.5 52.7 37.7 39.8 51.9
TiO2 5.04 3.96 3.99 4.19 0.97 0.85 0.82 0.99 5.14 4.67 0.39
Al2O3 10.3 13.2 14.8 14.3 20.6 21.1 21.3 20.4 10.8 11.4 20.5
Fe2O3a 14.9 12.4 12.2 12.7 4.43 4.20 4.14 4.59 16.6 14.2 3.42
MnO 0.13 0.15 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.18 0.15 0.17
MgO 12.3 8.29 4.63 5.65 0.89 0.51 0.48 1.31 8.26 9.32 0.39
CaO 10.7 9.79 10.1 9.96 3.49 2.67 2.65 3.52 13.4 11.7 1.79
Na2O 2.94 2.88 4.21 3.52 7.57 8.84 8.82 5.22 2.00 3.18 8.20
K2O 2.68 2.70 2.35 1.66 6.17 6.65 6.65 6.38 2.01 0.56 5.28
P2O5 0.71 0.83 1.35 1.01 0.22 0.16 0.16 6.24 2.01 1.70 0.50
H2O 0.33 2.53 2.23 2.52 1.79 0.87 0.90 2.51 1.48 1.92 4.79
CO2 0.09 0.24 0.64 0.16 0.21 0.13 0.14 0.11 0.14 0.33 0.43
Total 100.0 98.60 99.28 98.58 98.35 98.08 98.62 98.05 99.61 98.96 99.02
FeO 9.37 6.52 5.48 5.11 1.62 1.25 1.35 1.61 8.21 8.63 0.97
Mg]b 61.95 56.88 43.00 46.93 28.45 19.38 18.67 36.10 49.68 56.44 18.42

a
All Fe as Fe2O3.
b
Mg]=Mg/Mg+Fe2 (cation ratio).
W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103
89
 90
Table 5b
Trace element abundances in samples from Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz (samples 10774 and 10773)

Sample No. 10745 10764 10763 10761 Hit-4 10770 10771 10769 10759 10774 10773
Rock Type Ol-Neph Basanite Basanite Basanite Phonolite Phonolite Phonolite Teph-Phon Cogn Incl Basanite Phonolite
Occurrence Flow/Sheet Dike Flow/Sheet Flow/Sheet Dike Dome/Plug Dome/Plug Dome/Plug in 10761 Flow Plug

Ba (ppm) 886 780 1001 887 1290 1129 1215 1125 801 584 710
Co 63 47 24 27 6 6 9 4.6 42 60 2.2
Cr 489 180 15 74 n.d.a n.d. 13 16 118 285 n.d.
Cs 0.63 0.98 1.6 4.7 2.2 2.5 2.5 2.0 0.54 1.5 3.1
Cu 67 57 39 52 6.5 5.7 5.7 6.8 69 50 8.2
Ga 19 25 28 25 32 33 33 32 24 24 42
Hf 5.7 11 12 11 16 15 16 13 11 10 22
Li 5.8 9.4 12 13 15 13 13 18 7.1 9.9 21
Nb 52 97 154 132 148 149 150 114 87 117 153
Ni 235 134 19 45 3.8 3.6 3.1 2.5 75 163 8.2
Pb 2.5 5.9 7.1 4.6 9.7 10 11 15 3.7 5.6 27
Rb 67 54 55 51 148 129 133 176 47 15 121
S 270 1380 1500 < 100 290 370 350 < 100 190 1550 1880
Sc 23 21 13 17 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.5 22 23 0.68
Sn 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.1 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.6 3.2 3.1 1.9
Sr 768 1127 1589 1471 2128 1816 1950 1978 1329 1201 1234
Ta 3.4 5.2 8.6 8.3 6.1 5.6 5.6 3.9 5.5 6.4 2.9
Th 4.9 9.8 12 8.7 17 17 17 18 6.7 11 42
U 1.1 3.1 9.2 2.9 8.9 11.2 11.7 1.3 2.6 2.4 13
V 372 297 225 252 58 47 48 71 378 341 49
Y 22 31 42 36 26 25 24 22 45 38 26
Zn 96 129 127 104 116 101 108 122 177 142 173
Zr 213 515 513 452 989 858 925 762 454 470 1426
La 49 76 135 94 109 105 104 93 107 103 117
Ce 104 152 252 189 181 170 167 145 230 205 170
Pr 13 18 28 22 17 15 15 13 28 24 13
Nd 54 68 135 86 53 49 48 43 116 93 38
Sm 11 12 19 16 8.3 7.6 7.4 7.1 23 18 5.8
Eu 3.2 3.8 5.4 4.7 2.4 2.2 2.1 2.0 6.4 5.0 1.6
W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103

Gd 8.7 11 15 13 6.7 6.2 5.9 6.0 18 14 4.9

Tb 1.3 1.4 2.2 1.7 0.99 0.88 0.93 0.78 2.6 2.1 0.83
Dy 5.8 7.3 10 8.8 5.2 4.7 4.7 4.2 11 9.4 4.3
Ho 0.95 1.3 1.8 1.6 1.2 1.1 1.1 0.92 1.9 1.6 n.d.
Er 2.0 3.0 3.9 3.6 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.2 4.0 3.5 2.9
Tm 0.27 0.39 0.50 0.45 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.48 0.44 n.d.
Yb 1.5 2.4 3.3 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.3 2.8 2.7 3.2
Lu 0.21 0.33 0.43 0.37 0.40 0.38 0.38 0.34 0.39 0.35 0.50

a
(n.d.=not detected).
 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103
concentration, re¯ecting the presence of apatite and
sphene. MartõÂ n Vaz basanite 10774 is depleted in K2O
(0.56 wt.%) and Rb (15 ppm) relative to the other
nephelinites-basanites (1.7±2.7 wt.% K2O, 47±67 ppm
Rb) and to average OIB (ocean island basalt; Sun,
1980).
Among the incompatible high ®eld-strength elements
(HFSE), Zr and Nb show a clear enrichment in the
phonolitic rocks; Zr is twice as abundant in the phono-
litic rocks as in the nephelinites-basanites. As a conse-
quence, the Zr/Nb ratios are distinct by as much as
3.3±5.3 (nephelinites-basanites) vs. 5.8±6.7 (phonolitic
rocks). Other HFSE ratios like Nb/Ta vary between 15
and 19 in the nephelinites-basanites, which is similar to
the chondritic value of about 17.5 (Green, 1995),
whereas the phonolitic rocks have substantially higher
Nb/Ta values (between 24±29) and extreme values of
about 53 (sample 10773).
Fig. 6 shows the normalized element abundances of
the nephelinites-basanites and the phonolitic rocks
compared with average MORB (mid-ocean ridge
basalt) and OIB. The Trindade lavas display more
enriched element patterns than average OIB. Normal-
ized element abundances for MartõÂ n Vaz basanite
10774 are essentially similar to those of the primitive
Trindade lavas but include large negative Rb and K
anomalies. Compared to the basanites, all phonolitic
samples are characterized by large troughs at Ti and
Fig. 5. Wt.% Na2O+K2O versus wt.% SiO2 (TAS) diagram with subdivisions from Le Maitre (1989). Two clusters of rock types (encircled) pre-
dominate Ð basanites/nephelinites and phonolitic rocks and few rocks have intermediate compositions. Literature data from Almeida (1961),
Oversby (1971), and Weaver (1990).
91
Sc. Trindade tephriphonolite 10769 has a strongly frac-
tionated Th/U ratio (13.8) and displays very low U
concentration relative to the other samples and to
average OIB. Pb isotope data (208Pb/206Pb and
208
Pb/207Pb ratios, see below) are inconsistent with
long-term high Th/U ratios in this sample. Thus, the
high Th/U ratio must be a relatively young feature. A
possible reason for decoupling of U from Th is mobi-
lity of U during alteration or hydrothermal scavenging
of U.
Fig. 7 shows normalized REE patterns of samples
from Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz. All rocks are enriched
in light REE, with (La/Yb)N between 21 and 28 (basa-
nites/nephelinites) and 027 (phonolitic rocks). Nepheli-
nites and basanites display variation in relative
abundances of REEs but have a more or less parallel
pattern. Average total REE abundances of our basa-
nite samples are slightly higher than those given in
Weaver (1990). Given the ®nite number of samples
investigated in both studies, it is not certain whether
this di€erence has arisen accidentally. The phonolitic
rocks show steep L(light)REE to M(middle)REE and
essentially ¯at M(middle)REE to H(heavy)REE pat-
terns.
5.3. Pb, Sr, and Nd isotope compositions
The isotopic compositions of all investigated Trin-
92 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103

D8/4

Uncertainties (in parentheses) are 22s within-run precision and refer to the last digit(s) of the previous column. DNd values calculated after Zindler et al. (1982); D7/4 and D8/4 values calcu-
dade-MartõÂ n Vaz samples vary within restricted ranges

31
29
35
33
35
29
31
27
36
33

32
35
(Table 6). The new Pb data and additional ones
reported by Oversby (1971) and Halliday et al. (1992)
are characterized by moderate radiogenic ratios that

2.2
1.2
1.4
0.8
1.5
ÿ0.1
0.2
ÿ1.2
0.9
0.9

1.6
1.3
D7/4
form positive trends of small extent in plots of
207
Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb versus 206Pb/204Pb (Fig. 8).
Among the new data points, ol-nephelinite 10745

22s

(12)
(16)

(25)
(25)
(17)

(14)
(9)
(4)

(17)
(9)
(5)

(8)
shows the least enriched Pb isotope ratios
(206Pb/204Pb=19.00, 207Pb/204Pb=15.56, 208Pb/204Pb=
38.89) whereas MartõÂ n Vaz phonolite 10773 is the
most enriched sample (206Pb/204Pb=19.33,

Pb/204Pb
207 204 208 204
Pb/ Pb=15.60, Pb/ Pb=39.34). Oversby

38.924
38.888
39.239
39.140
39.199
39.221
39.172
39.116
39.165
39.203

39.252
39.340
(1971) reported small di€erences in Pb isotopic compo-

208
sition among three phonolites and two basic rocks
from Trindade, the former having somewhat less
radiogenic Pb compositions. She related this hetero-

22s
geneity to di€erent mantle sources. However, in our

(4)
(5)
(3)
(2)
(8)
(7)
(5)
(2)
(2)
(4)

(3)
(5)
study most of the ma®c rocks are closely similar to the
phonolites in Pb isotopic composition. The same is

Pb/204Pb

15.574
15.563
15.591
15.578
15.588
15.579
15.576
15.561
15.578
15.584

15.596
15.599
207
22s

(3)
(4)
(2)
(1)
(8)
(7)
(5)
(2)
(1)
(3)

(3)
(4)
Pb/204Pb

19.012
19.004
19.241
19.179
19.209
19.274
19.220
19.208
19.170
19.228

19.276
19.325
206
DNd

ÿ3.5

ÿ3.9
ÿ5.4
ÿ8.8
ÿ4.0
ÿ5.1
ÿ5.3
ÿ2.6
ÿ2.2

ÿ2.9
3.7
Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopic composition of lavas from Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaza

22s

(11)
(13)
(6)

(7)
(7)
(8)
(7)

(6)
(5)

(5)
(7)

lated after Hart (1984). For element concentrations, see Table 1.

Nd/144Nd

0.512837

0.512784
0.512774
0.512752
0.512787
0.512762
0.512777
0.512799
0.512815

0.512788
0.512785
143
22s

(10)

(12)
(8)

(9)
(8)

(11)
(8)

(8)

(8)
(8)

(8)
0.703766

0.703896
0.703898
0.703828
0.703860
0.703961
0.703861
0.703915
0.703837

0.703907
0.704207
Sr/86Sr

Fig. 6. Concentration ratios with respect to mantle pyrolite (McDo-

87

nough and Sun, 1995) for basanites and nephelinites and phonolitic
MartõÂ n Vaz

rocks from Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz. Average N-type MORB from
Trindade

Hofmann (1988), OIB from Sun and McDonough (1989). Element

Table 6

Sample

10745
10745
10764
10763
10761

10770
10771
10769
10759

10774
10773

sequence according to decreasing concentration in the continental

Hit-4

crust (comp. Hofmann, 1988).

 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103
true with respect to their Sr and Nd isotope compo-
sition (Fig. 9).
As shown in Fig. 8, all samples from Trindade-
MartõÂ n Vaz plot along the Northern Hemisphere
Reference Line (NHRL) as de®ned by Hart (1984),
with D7/4Pb between ÿ1.2 and +2.2 and D8/4Pb
between 29 and 36 (D7/4Pb and D8/4Pb are de®ned
as the deviation of the 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb
ratios from the NHRL). Thus, these samples show
non-DUPAL characteristics (Dupre and AlleÁgre,
1983). This is in accord with the unradiogenic 87Sr/86Sr
ratios (Hart, 1988 de®nes DUPAL as D8/4Pb > 60
and 87Sr/86Sr > 0.705).
The samples from Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz cluster
tighly in the upper left quadrant of the Nd-Sr corre-
lation diagram (Fig. 9) and are in good agreement
with the three nephelinite analyses from Trindade
reported by Halliday et al. (1992). MartõÂ n Vaz phono-
lite 10773 has a slighly more radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr ratio
of 0.7042 compared to the other Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz
samples, which have 87Sr/86Sr ratios < 0.7040. Overall,
Fig. 7. REE distribution patterns for basanites and nephelinites and phonolitic rocks from Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz. Chondrite concentrations
for normalization from Nakamura (1974).
93
the Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz samples have Pb, Sr, and Nd
isotope ratios that plot close to the ®eld of FOZO and
``C'' (Fig. 9). FOZO and ``C'' are de®ned by the points
of convergence of isotopic arrays, in three-dimensional
diagrams, for di€erent OIB and MORB populations,
respectively (Hart et al., 1992; Hauri et al., 1994;
Hanan and Graham, 1996).
6. Discussion
6.1. Relationship between the nephelinites-basanites and
phonolites
Evolution from basanite to phonolite on Trindade
was ascribed by Weaver (1990) to crystal fractionation
with sphene as an important minor fractionating
phase. Sphene has been identi®ed as a crystallizing
mineral, and the depletion of Ti in the phonolites
(Fig. 6) is consistent with the view that this mineral
was involved in fractionation during magma di€eren-
94 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103

tiation. Crystallization of sphene could also e€ectively
produce a concave-downward REE pattern of the pho-
nolites (Fig. 7) because this mineral predominantly
extracts the MREE from a coexisting melt (Green and
Pearson, 1986). The enrichment of the HFSE, Zr, and
Nb in the phonolites and their elevated Zr/Nb and Zr/
Hf ratios compared to the ma®c rocks is another argu-
ment for the fractionation of sphene because, in alka-
line melts, the distribution coecient between sphene
and melt is smaller for Zr than for Nb and Hf (comp.
Weaver, 1990, Table 4). Considerable fractionation of
Nb from Ta is also expected during fractionation of
sphene, as this mineral extracts Ta in a silica-undersa-
turated alkaline melt more e€ectively than Nb, result-
ing in a progressive increase in the Nb/Ta ratio in the
residual melt (Wol€, 1984). The high Nb/Ta ratios in
the phonolites compared to the chondritic values
found in the basanites are considered to represent the
e€ect of sphene fractionation.
The general lack of isotopic di€erences between the
ma®c rocks and the phonolites re¯ects fractionation of
the magmas without signi®cant contamination by an
isotopically distinct component Ð i.e., altered oceanic
crust or mantle lithosphere. Thus, the geochemical and
isotopic data are consistent with the view that mag-
matic evolution was dominantly controlled by frac-
tional crystallization.
The observation that the Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz

Fig. 8. Plots of 208Pb/204Pb and 207Pb/204Pb against 206Pb/204Pb for Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz lavas. Insets show detailed variation of Pb isotopes
for samples investigated in this study. Samples are closely aligned along the Northern Hemisphere Reference Line (NHRL). Additional data for
Abrolhos (Fodor et al., 1989) and Fernando de Noronha (Gerlach et al., 1987) plotted as ®elds. Abrolhos composition at 45 Ma was estimated
from measured isotope ratios and Pb element concentrations of average OIB (Sun, 1980). Proposed mantle components are plotted for reference:
N-type MORB (White et al., 1987); EM I, EM II, and HIMU (Hart, 1988); FOZO (Hauri et al., 1994); and ``C'' ®elds (Hanan and Graham,
1996).
 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103 95

lavas display more enriched element patterns than
average OIB (Fig. 6) probably re¯ects their lower
degrees of partial melting compared to OIB. Weaver
(1990) reported marked compositional di€erences
between nephelinites and basanites from Trindade Ð
i.e, higher trace-element and REE abundances in the
nephelinites compared to the basanites. That author
related both rock types to a common source by di€er-
ent degrees of melting (nephelinites < basanites) and
di€erent degrees of crystal fractionation (basanites <
nephelinites). In contrast, our nephelinite sample 10745
is characterized by somewhat lower total REE abun-
dances compared to the basanites (Fig. 7). Given that
the REEs behave incompatibly during crystal fraction-
ation of a primitive melt, a higher degree of fraction-
ation in the basanites relative to the nephelinite could
explain this relationship. Such an explanation is also
consistent with the higher SiO2 and lower Mg] of the
basanites (Table 5a).
MartõÂ n Vaz phonolite 10773 has lower contents of
incompatible elements like K, Ba, Rb, and Sr com-
pared to the Trindade phonolites, which might indicate
smaller degrees of fractionational crystallization or
higher degree of partial melting. The elevated Zr, Hf,
U, Th, and Pb concentrations of this sample are prob-
ably due to minor amounts of cumulate zircon. The
presence of zircon is also indicated by the relative
enrichment in HREE concentration (Fig. 7). As men-
tioned above, MartõÂ n Vaz basanite 10774 is depleted in
K2O and Rb relative the other basanites. This might
re¯ect source characteristics (presence of a residual K-
and Rb-bearing phase like phlogopite; see also Green-
wood et al., 1999) or it might be due to surface altera-
tion. We argue for the latter case, as sample 10774 has
an enhanced Ba/Rb ratio of 39 whereas other lavas
from Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz (sample 10773) have
Ba/Rb ratios between 6 and 18. Ba/Rb ratios > 20 are
thought to re¯ect alteration (Hofmann and White,
1983). The phonolite sample 10773 from MartõÂ n Vaz
also shows some mineralogical evidence for alteration
(i.e., feldspar replaced by analcite and secondary car-
bonates), and alteration is also indicated by the high
water content of 4.8 wt.% (Table 5a). Thus, the elev-
ated 87Sr/86Sr ratio of sample 10773 relative to the
other investigated samples may be related to mass
transfer from South Atlantic seawater (average
87
Sr/86Sr around 0.709). As average seawater has a
very high Sr/Nd elemental ratio (02  106; compilation
of Krauskopf and Bird, 1995), the impact on Nd iso-
tope ratios would be much smaller; indeed, Nd ratios
of samples 10773 and 10774 are almost identical and
plot in the center of the Trindade ®eld. Thus, in our
opinion, the elevated Sr isotope ratio in MartõÂ n Vaz
sample 10773 does not re¯ect mantle source character-
istics but is due to seawater alteration.

Fig. 9. Nd-Sr isotope correlation plot for Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz lavas and other localities lying along the postulated Trindade hotspot track
(see Fig. 1). Inset shows detailed variation of Sr and Nd isotopes for samples investigated in this study. Data sources: Abrolhos, Fodor et al.
(1989); Alto ParanaõÂ ba, Gibson et al. (1995); Poxoreu, Gibson et al. (1997); Serra do Mar, Thompson et al. (1998). Abrolhos composition at 45
Ma was estimated from present day isotope ratios and Sr and Nd element concentrations. Data for Fernando de Noronha (not on Trindade
track) are shown for comparison (Gerlach et al., 1987). Reference for mantle end-members are given in Fig. 8. Reference line for samples that de-
®ne the low-Nd (LoNd) array taken from Hart et al. (1986).
96 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103
6.2. Depth of melt production
In oceanic environments, fractionation between the
REE can be used as a sensitive indicator of mantle
processes. The transition from spinel lherzolite to gar-
net lherzolite in the mantle is generally assumed to
occur between 60 and 80 km depth (Ellam, 1992). The
very di€erent partitioning of REEs into garnet and
spinel can therefore be used to constrain the depth of
melting. Trace element ratios like Ce/Yb and Sm/Yb,
as well as Tb/Yb and Sm/Nd, are signi®cantly fractio-
nated from each other during partial melting in the
presence of residual garnet. These ratios are less
a€ected by the degree of partial melting. The less
evolved Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz samples display high
(Tb/Yb)N (2.6±3.8) and low (Sm/Nd)N (0.54±0.63).
These compositional features indicate REE partition-
ing controlled by residual garnet, and hence melt gen-
eration is assumed to have taken place within the
stability ®eld of garnet lherzolite at depths of more
than 80 km. Additional evidence for crystallization
conditions comes from the composition of the clino-
pyroxenes. The green Fe-rich clinopyroxene cores
found in the basanites might indicate a high pressure
di€erentiation trend (see, for example, Duda and
Schmincke, 1985; Haase and Devey, 1994).
The nephelinite-basanite samples have SiO2 contents
of 39.8±42.9 wt.% (excluding cognate inclusion 10761
with SiO2 of 37.7 wt.%), which is lower than upper
mantle lherzolite and primitive mantle estimates of
044±46% (Maalùe and Aoki, 1977; Hofmann, 1988).
The SiO2 content of these samples corresponds to a
high average melting pressure of 5.1 GPa (51 kbar)
according to the equation P(GPa)=23.22±0.438 SiO2
of Haase (1996). This implies melting of the mantle
source at a depth of 0150 km. A relatively deep source
region for the Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz melts is also
compatible with the inferred local lithospheric thick-
ness versus age relationship. Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz
Islands are situated far from the Mid-Atlantic spread-
ing center in an area of mature (070 Ma) oceanic
lithosphere (comp. Halliday et al., 1992; Haase, 1996;
calculated from magnetic anomalies). Oceanic litho-
sphere with an age equal to or older than 70 Ma has
obtained a thickness of about 120 km (Ellam, 1992).
Based on the pressure estimates given above, the locus
of magma segregation (major zone of partial melting)
below Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz is therefore estimated
to be well within the asthenospheric mantle, some
30 km beneath the base of the lithosphere.
6.3. Contributing mantle sources
As outlined below, the trace element patterns of the
Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz rocks cannot be reasonably de-
rived from primitive mantle or MORB mantle compo-
sitions alone. This suggests some element transfer
processes in the mantle prior to melting. Based on Pb
isotope composition, Halliday et al. (1992) concluded,
that the source region for the Trindade lavas had
undergone enrichment of U relative to Pb during for-
mation of the local oceanic lithosphere at about 70
Ma. From this, the in¯uence of the lithospheric mantle
might be invoked for the generation of the Trindade
melts. The Sr, Nd, and Pb isotope data arrays (Figs.
7±10) give further evidence for involvement of an
enriched mantle component. The Pb isotope compo-
sition (Fig. 8) can also be explained in terms of mixing
between a radiogenic Pb component with isotopic
characteristics similar to HIMU (high U/Pb), which is
commonly assumed to represent recycled oceanic crust,
and a less radiogenic Pb component which could be
either depleted asthenospheric mantle (DM) similar to
an N-type MORB source (average normal mid-ocean
ridge basalt) or an enriched mantle component (EM),
or a mixture of both (for speci®cation of mantle com-
ponents, see Hart, 1988). Some extreme HIMU islands
like St. Helena, Tubuaii, and Mangai have negative
D8/4 values, whereas others like the Canary Islands or
the Azores have not. Thus, simple mixing between St.
Helena- or Tubuaii-type HIMU and a less radiogenic
N-MORB component is not supported by the high
208
Pb/204Pb at a given 206Pb/204Pb ratio of Trindade-
MartõÂ n Vaz lavas (Fig. 8), but our data set does not
exclude mixing relations between unradiogenic Pb
reservoirs and Azores- or Canary-type sources.
In the 143Nd/144Nd versus 87Sr/86Sr diagram, Trin-
dade-MartõÂ n Vaz samples fall between enriched and
depleted source reservoirs (Fig. 9). 87Sr/86Sr ratios of
the lavas are slightly higher than in N-type MORB
and plot between HIMU and EM I while 143Nd/144Nd
ratios are lower than in N-type MORB and close to
HIMU. The Sr-Nd diagram cannot discriminate
between a HIMU and an N-type MORB source as
both sources are depleted with respect to Trindade. On
the basis of the 87Sr/86Sr versus 206Pb/204Pb plot
(Fig. 10) the Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz data may be
explained in terms of a two reservoir model Ð i.e.,
mixing of HIMU and EM I. The in¯uence of a
depleted source appears minor on the basis of this dia-
gram. From the 143Nd/144Nd versus 206Pb/204Pb re-
lationship (Fig. 10) the lavas lie between the HIMU
and EM I but show some in¯uence of a depleted man-
tle source with N-type MORB characteristics. In order
to discriminate between the enriched mantle com-
ponents EM I and EM II, samples are plotted in terms
of deviation in Nd isotope ratio from the mantle plane
against Pb isotopic composition according to Hart et
al. (1986). The Trindade-MarõÂ n Vaz samples fan out
from the mantle plane towards EM I composition
(Fig. 11). This observation raises the possibility that
Trindade source material was in¯uenced by an EM I-
 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103 97

like source material by mixing of two or more chemi-
cally distinct components or by contamination en
route to the surface.
The isotope composition of the Trindade-MartõÂ n
Vaz lavas suggests that the source reservoir might
involve both enriched and depleted mantle com-
ponents; a HIMU component with the characteristics
of recycled oceanic crust, an enriched mantle com-
ponent similar to EM I, and probably a depleted asth-
enospheric mantle component of N-type MORB.
However, the existence of three di€erent components
in the Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz source reservoir, which
were mixed before or during ascent, remains equivocal,
particularly in light of recently published data which
has lead to the de®nition of further mantle com-
ponents FOZO (Hart et al., 1992; Hauri et al., 1994),
``C'' (Hanan and Graham, 1996), and PHEM (unde-
gassed helium mantle; Farley et al., 1992). If we con-
sider these components as hypothetical mantle end-
members, then Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz samples lie close
to FOZO and ``C'' (Figs. 8±10). PHEM was estab-
lished by extension of Sr-He and Pb-He arrays and
de®nes a high 3He/4He component (Farley et al. 1992).
However, the lack of He isotope data from the Trin-
dade and MartõÂ n Vaz lavas impairs a more detailed
comparison with PHEM. Mantle material with the iso-
topic features of FOZO and ``C'' is common to many
plumes worldwide and, as such, is thought to represent
the composition of the lower mantle reservoir. Some
authors (Hart et al., 1992; Hauri et al., 1994; Hanan

Fig. 10. 87Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd versus 206Pb/204Pb diagrams for Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz lavas. Insets show detailed variation of Sr, Nd,
and Pb isotopes for samples investigated in this study. Field for Abrolhos was calculated for an age of 45 Ma. References for mantle end-mem-
bers are given in Fig. 8.
98 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103

and Graham, 1996) assumed that this material is
entrained by plumes raising from the boundary
between the upper and lower mantle or from the core-
mantle boundary.
6.4. Relationship to other Brazilian alkaline rocks
The plume currently situated below the islands of
Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz is thought to have been re-
sponsible for the Late Cretaceous and Eocene magma-
tism on the Brazil mainland and shelf region (Cordani,
1970; Herz, 1977; Duncan, 1981; O'Connor and Dun-
can, 1990). Detailed data for such plume related mag-
matism is available from the 52±42 Ma Abrolhos
platform (Fodor et al., 1989) and the Cretaceous alka-
line provinces of Poxoreu, Alto ParanaõÂ ba, and Serra
do Mar on the Brazilian mainland (Gibson et al.,
1995, 1997; Thompson et al., 1998); the reader is
referred to these studies for further details. In this sec-
tion compositional features of these provinces are dis-
cussed which are relevant to the evolution of the
proposed Trindade plume.
All of the suites are alkaline, comprising highly alka-
line (Trindade, Fernando de Noronha), mildy alkaline
(Abrolhos, Poxoreu), highly alkaline to potassic (Serra
do Mar), and alkaline to highly potassic (Alto Para-
naõÂ ba) rocks. Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz data cover essen-
tially the same range of isotope composition (Figs. 8±
10) as those from Fernando de Noronha (Gerlach et
al., 1987), an ocean island 1500 km to the north of the
Trindade-Columbia seamount chain, and for the
Abrolhos platform at the Brazilian coast (Fodor et al.,
1989). The lavas of these three regions are character-
ized by somewhat more radiogenic Pb isotopic compo-
sition than average N-type MORB as de®ned by
White et al. (1987) and plot close to the mantle com-
ponents FOZO and ``C''. Di€erences between these lo-
calities can be illustrated by use of the Sm/Nd versus
Ce/Y plot (Fig. 12). Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz and Fer-
nando de Noronha lavas are depleted in Y and Sm
relative to Ce and Nd when compared to Abrolhos.
The low Ce/Y ratios of the Abrolhos lavas might
re¯ect (a) high degrees of partial melting resulting in
almost complete melting of garnet, or (b) lack of gar-
net in the source of the Abrolhos basalts. The age of
the lithosphere during production of the Abrolhos
basalts was 030 Ma, therefore its thickness was signi®-
cantly lower than that beneath Trindade. Therefore,
we argue that the Abrolhos basalts were produced
from the same mantle source as Trindade but below a
thinner lithosphere at lower pressure and depth within
the spinel-lherzolite ®eld.
Among the rocks from the Poxoreu igneous pro-
vince, only the three transitional basalts approach
the isotopic signatures of Trindade (Gibson et al.,
1997). These samples are in some other aspects
similar to the Trindade samples and seem to have
experienced little crustal contamination en route to
the surface. Strong argument for an OIB-like source
for the Poxoreu transitional basalts are based on
the Sr-Nd systematics (Fig. 9). Sr-Nd isotopic data
for the basaltic trachyandesites from Poxoreu devi-
ate from the Trindade ®eld in the direction of
increased 87Sr/86Sr and decreased 143Nd/144Nd and
form a hyperbolic mixing array with local upper conti-
nental crust (Gibson et al., 1997). The three transi-
tional Poxoreu basalts are clearly distinct from the
Trindade lavas with respect to certain trace element

Fig. 11. Assessment of mantle sources in terms of DNd versus 206Pb/204Pb and 87Sr/86Sr systematics for Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz lavas. DNd in-
dicates parts per 105 deviation in 143Nd/144Nd from the mantle plane of Zindler et al. (1982). Data for Abrolhos (based on estimated initial
ratios) (Fodor et al., 1989) and Fernando de Noronha (Gerlach et al., 1987) are plotted as ®elds. N-type MORB (White et al., 1987) and EM I,
EM II, and HIMU (Hart, 1988) are plotted for reference. Reference line for samples that de®ne the low-Nd (LoNd) array is taken from Hart et
al. (1986).
 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103
ratios (e.g., Ce/Y, Sm/Nd). Gibson et al. (1995) argued
that melting below Poxoreu occurred at relatively shal-
low depths of im 80±100 km in the mantle. Shallow
melting either in the transition zone from garnet to
spinel lherzolite or in the spinel lherzolite ®eld is sup-
ported by the lack of a strong garnet signature (i.e.,
low Ce/Y ratios) in the rocks (Fig. 12).
A clearly distinct source component is required to
explain the isotopic characteristics of the Alto Para-
naõÂ ba province. Alto ParanaõÂ ba rocks are strongly
potassic (K2O/Na2O > 1) compared to the other rocks
and show the highest enrichment of incompatible el-
ements. They have low Nd and elevated Sr ratios and
extremely high Ce/Y ratios (Figs. 9 and 12). None of
these features is commonly observed in oceanic island
basalts, and this fact has been the basis for a model
invoking mobilization of enriched (metasomatized)
sub-continental lithosphere rather than convective
mantle in the generation of the Alto ParanaõÂ ba mag-
mas (Gibson et al., 1995).
The Serra do Mar rocks (Thompson et al., 1998)
have high Ce/Y ratios and low Sm/Nd ratios which
fall in the same range as the data from Trindade
(Fig. 12), consistent with their derivation by relatively
small degrees of partial melting in the stability ®eld of
garnet lherzolite. As pointed out by Thompson et al.
(1998), these rocks are closely similar to OIBs in terms
of other major and trace element composition. How-
ever, their Sr- and Nd-isotopic signatures plot between
Fig. 12. Sm/Nd versus Ce/Y ratios for rocks produced along the Trindade mantle plume track and from Fernando de Novonha. Data for Pox-
oreu taken from Gibson et al. (1995); Abrolhos from Fodor et al. (1989); Serra do Mar from Thompson et al. (1998); and Alto ParanaõÂ ba from
Gibson et al. (1995), as well as data for Fernando de Noronha taken from Weaver (1990). The dashed line is drawn to illustrate the in¯uence of
garnet in the source (comp. Ellam, 1992).
99
Trindade and Alto ParanaõÂ ba (Fig. 9) indicating the
stronger in¯uence of an enriched source.
The concentrations of incompatible trace element in
intraplate oceanic basalts can provide critical clues for
the relative degree of partial melting, in particular
when comparing rocks from di€erent localities with
similar isotopic composition which might be related to
a common mantle source as suggested for Trindade,
Abrolhos, and Poxoreu. The most useful trace el-
ements in this respect are extremely incompatible el-
ements, such as Th, Nb, and La. These elements have
very low concentrations in sea water and are largely
una€ected by seawater interaction or secondary altera-
tion. Assumptions of Th, Nb, and La concentrations
in primitive (undi€erentiated) melts which are based
on Th, Nb, Ta, and La versus Mg] plots can be esti-
mated as follows: Poxoreu with Th 2.5 ppm, Nb 20
ppm, La 15 ppm; Abrolhos with Th not analysed, Nb
30 ppm, La 20 ppm; Trindade (own and literature
data) with Th 7 ppm, Nb 85 ppm, La 70 ppm (Nb and
La=mean for samples with Mg] > 50). Considering
that melt extraction from the mantle occurs at small
melt fractions, we regard simple batch melting as an
appropriate model for the melting process (Shaw,
1970; Wood and Fraser, 1977). Bulk (solid/liquid) par-
tition coecients for Th, Nb, and La are based on the
compilation of Jones (1995) and the following values
were used: 0.001 for Th, 0.002 for Nb and >0.005 for
La.
The composition of the mantle source region is
100 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103
based upon the following observation. It is clear from
trace element and isotope data (Figs. 6±10) that the
Trindade rocks are not derived from MORB-like
sources. Sr and Nd isotope compositions of Trindade,
Abrolhos, and Poxoreu transitional basalts plot close
to bulk-earth values. Therefore it can be argued that
incompatible trace element concentrations are in the
range of average bulk-earth (PRIMA). Taking into
account a possible enrichment of the source, we chose
source concentrations between 1  PRIMA and 2 
PRIMA. Calculations based on this range of source
compositions yield reasonable results. Data for Th,
Nb, and La tend to converge towards 1.5  PRIMA
Ð i.e., yielding similar F-values (where F is the frac-
tion of melt produced from the source). Therefore, we
have chosen a likely source composition of 1.5 
PRIMA for a compilation of F-values, in order to
compare the degrees of partial melting in Poxoreu,
Abrolhos, and Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz.
Th Nb La Avg F-Value
Poxoreu transitional 0.050 0.052 0.064 0.055
basalts
Abrolhos platform n/a 0.034 0.047 0.040
Trindade, MartõÂ n Vaz 0.017 0.011 0.010 0.013
Based on these assumptions, the highest degrees of
melting are found for the Poxoreu transitional basalts
(between 5.0 and 6.4%, mean 5.5%). Basalts from the
Abrolhos platform formed at lower melt fractions (3.4
and 4.7%, mean 4.0%), and very low melt fractions
were calculated for Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz (between
1.0 and 1.7%, mean 1.3%). For the volcanic ®elds of
the Serra do Mar Province, melting degrees of about
1% are derived except for the Mendanha sub-province
which gives a value of about 2%. These values are
close to the estimates of Thompson et al. (1998), who
interpret the Serra do Mar lavas as a whole as 0.1 to
1% melts from a lherzolite mantle.
Like Trindade, the island of Fernando de Noronha
(Fig. 1B) is a well documented example of undersatu-
rated alkaline magmatism in the southwestern Atlantic
Ocean (Gunn and Watkins, 1976; Gerlach et al., 1987;
Weaver, 1990; Fodor et al. 1998). The isotope compo-
sitions of the Trindade rocks compare well with those
of lavas from Fernando de Noronha, and the two
islands may therefore be related to melt contributions
from a common mantle component. However, there
are minor di€erences between these islands (Fig. 11).
Whereas Trindade samples have negative DNd values,
falling below the mantle plane and therefore showing
some characteristic of EM I, samples from Fernando
de Noronha lie above the mantle plane, as does EM
II. The focusing of the data points below and above
the mantle plane provides evidence that both islands
were indeed fed by two distinct sources. Clearly, more
geochronological and isotope data on samples from
the Fernando de Noronha line are needed to clarify
the relationships between these two neighbouring hot-
spot tracks.
7. Constraints on the evolution of the Trindade plume
Assuming a uniform source, modelling of the incom-
patible trace elements Th, Nb, and La demonstrates
that the degree of partial melting decreased from Pox-
oreu through Abrolhos towards the islands of Trin-
dade and MartõÂ n Vaz. The degree of partial melting in
plumes is predicted to decrease as a function of the
thickness of the lithosphere or mechanical boundary
layer (Watson and McKenzie, 1991). We believe that
this is not, in the ®rst place, due to variations in the
plume source itself; instead we suggest that it is related
to the relative westward movement of the South Amer-
ican plate and re¯ects the passage of very di€erent
lithospheric segments over the rising Trindade plume.
In a ®rst stage, the plume heat hit the heterogeneous
Brazilian continental lithosphere. We suggest that,
during the early stages of magmatic activity, channel-
ling towards thinner and weaker segments of the litho-
sphere allowed plume material to rise into shallow
levels. This resulted in high degrees of partial melting
at lower pressures. Poxoreu transitional basalts were
formed during these stages. Following Gibson et al.
(1995), the Proterozoic mobile belt (the BrasõÂ lia Belt)
may have acted as a thinspot relative to the adjacent
SaÄo Francisco craton, allowing greater upwelling and
melting of the asthenosphere. At a second stage, as
South America moved towards the west, the SaÄo Fran-
cisco craton passed over the plume and volcanism was
de¯ected to the south (Thompson et al., 1998). During
the Early Tertiary, after further westward migration of
South America, the plume was able to melt through
stretched continental and young oceanic (030 Ma)
lithosphere to create the Trindade-Columbia seamount
chain. During the Late Tertiary, the plume encoun-
tered progressively older (70 Ma) and thus thicker and
stronger oceanic lithosphere. As a consequence, plume
material could no longer rise to high levels and the
geotherm approached the dry solidus. We propose that
this resulted in smaller degrees of partial melting at
greater depth in the case of Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz.
In terms of major elements, these melts become more
undersaturated (basanites, nephelinites). In terms of
trace elements, the melts show stronger enrichment of
highly incompatible elements and increasing residual
garnet signatures.
 W. Siebel et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13 (2000) 79±103
Plume-related magmatism is often accompanied by
regional uplift of the sea¯oor caused by material ¯ow
in the asthenosphere away from the plume (Sleep,
1990). However, there is no elevated ocean ¯oor topo-
graphy associated with the proposed Trindade hotspot
track, as expected if the plate had migrated across an
active plume. This could be evidence for a small plume
(see also Monnereau and Cazenave, 1990), lower tem-
peratures prevailing in the lithosphere, or reduced
asthenospheric density (Sleep, 1990). SiO2-rich intra-
plate melts erupt on ocean islands that are believed to
lie above relatively strong mantle plumes, such as
Hawaii. The Trindade melts are highly silica de®cient
magmas. With this in mind, one might suggest that the
Trindade-Columbia seamount chain is the product of
a rather ``weak'' mantle plume. It seems likely to us
that the melts have formed either in the distal part of
a deep plume source or in a weakening plume tail
(comp. Gibson et al., 1995; Greenwood et al., 1999).
8. Concluding remarks
Lavas from the Islands of Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz
are situated on mature (70 Ma) oceanic crust and form
an alkaline volcanic suite that shows an evolution
from parental nephelinites and basanites to derivative
phonolites. Although some isotopic heterogeneity
between the basic and the phonolitic magmas were
reported in an earlier study (Oversby, 1971), our data
in general show that the di€erent rock types overlap in
isotopic composition. The systematic variation in
major end trace element concentrations observed
between the nephelinites-basanites and the phonolites
are interpreted to be the result of fractional crystalliza-
tion involving sphene as an important mineral phase.
The isotopic composition of Trindade-MartõÂ n Vaz
lavas re¯ects the involvement of oceanic lithosphere
(ancient slab component with moderately high
206
Pb/204Pb), an enriched mantle component and, to a
minor extent, a depleted component. In terms of man-
tle domains, the source reservoir might be envisaged as
a mixture between HIMU, EM I, and N-type MORB.
Alternatively, a homogeneous mantle reservoir similar
to the components recently termed FOZO and ``C'' is
consistent with the isotope data set, suggesting that the
Trindade hotspot could have been fed by plume ma-
terial rising from the lower mantle.
Comparison with published data from other regions
along the Trindade hotspot track (Abrolhos, Poxoreu,
Alto ParanaõÂ ba, Serra do Mar) shows that this track
can be explained by a conventional plume model.
Incompatible element concentrations are lower in Pox-
oreu and Abrolhos than in Trindade. Given a rela-
tively homogeneous isotopic composition, this could
re¯ect di€erent degrees of partial melting of a common
101
plume source. Trindade lavas show a strong residual
garnet signature (i.e., steep REE pattern with high Ce/
Yb, Ce/Y, Sm/Yb, Nd/Sm, and Tb/Yb ratios). This in-
dicates that the melts were generated in the stability
®eld of garnet lherzolite. Abrolhos and Poxoreu origi-
nated from the same mantle source as Trindade lavas
but at lower pressures, higher degrees of melting, and
with di€erent residual mineralogies, as they have
di€erent major and trace element ratios. Alto Para-
naõÂ ba and, to minor extent, Serra do Mar lavas, both
situated on Palaeozoic and older continental crust, are
distinct from the other provinces along the hotspot
track and these di€erences are best explained in terms
of mixing of an OIB source similar to that found
below Trindade and a trace-element enriched subconti-
nental mantle source.
Acknowledgements
Visit to the Islands of Trindade and MartõÂ n Vaz was
made possible by the Brazilian Navy and funded by
the Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos and the
Universidad National de Salta. The authors are par-
ticularly grateful to R. Dominguez, F. Galbert, I. I.
Leipnitz, E. Kramer, K. Koch, A. Meixner, I. Petrino-
vic, C. Schulz, F. L. Troian, and the members of the
Brazilian Navy for their technical help. We thank G.
Franz, J. Erzinger, K. Haase, S. HoÈlzl, and H. Miller
for critically reading the manuscript.
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