Earth and Planetary Science Letters 309 (2011) 324–336

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Earth and Planetary Science Letters

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e p s l

An integrative geologic, geochronologic and geochemical study of Gorgona Island,

Colombia: Implications for the formation of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province
Lina Serrano a, 1, Luca Ferrari a,⁎, Margarita López Martínez b, Chiara Maria Petrone c, Carlos Jaramillo d
a
Centro de Geociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus Juriquilla, Blvd. Juriquilla 3001, Querétaro, Qro., 76230, Mexico
b
Laboratorio de Geocronología, Centro de Investigación Científica y Educación Superior de Ensenada, Ensenada, B.C., 22860, Mexico
c
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, CB2 3EQ, Cambridge, United Kingdom
d
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Edificio Tupper-401, Balboa, Ancon, Panama, República de Panama

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The genesis of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP) has been associated to the melting of the Galapagos
Received 24 January 2011 plume head at ~90 Ma or to the interaction between the plume and the Caribbean slab window. Gorgona Island,
Received in revised form 7 July 2011 offshore western Colombia, is an accreted fragment of the CLIP and its highly heterogeneous igneous suite,
Accepted 11 July 2011
ranging from enriched basalts to depleted komatiites and picrites, was assumed to have formed at ~89 Ma from
Available online 3 August 2011
different part of the plume. Here we present new geologic, geochronologic and geochemical data of Gorgona with
Editor: R.W. Carlson significant implications for the formation of the CLIP. A new set of 40Ar–39Ar ages documents a magmatic activity
spanning the whole Late Cretaceous (98.7 ± 7.7 to 64.4± 5 Ma) followed by a shallower, picritic pyroclastic
Keywords: eruption in the Paleocene. Trace element and isotope geochemistry confirm the existence of an enriched (EDMM:
Gorgona Island La/SmN ≥1 and εNdi of 5.7 to 7.8) and a depleted (DMM: La/SmN b 1 and εNdi of 9.5 to 11.3) mantle sources. A
Caribbean Large Igneous Province progressive increase in the degree of melting and melt extraction with time occurred in both groups. Petrologic
geochronology modeling indicates that low but variable degrees of wet melting (b 5%) of an EDMM can produce the LREE-
Galapagos hotspot enriched rocks. Higher degree of melting (N 10%) of a mixed DMM + EDMM (40 to 60%) may reproduce the more
slab window
depleted rocks with temperatures in the range of ambient mantle in absence of plumes. Our results contradict the
notion that the CLIP formed by melting of a plume head at ~90 Ma. Multiple magmatic pulses over several tens of
Ma in small areas like Gorgona, also recognized in other CLIP areas, suggest a long period of diffuse magmatism
without a clear pattern of migration. The age span of this magmatism is broadly concurrent with the Caribbean
slab window. During this time span the Farallon oceanic lithosphere (later becoming the Caribbean plate)
advanced eastward ~1500 km, overriding the astenosphere feeding the proto-Caribbean spreading ridge. This
hotter mantle flowed westward into, and mixed with, the opening mantle wedge, promoting increasing melting
with time. The fortuitous occurrence of a plume passing through the slab gap area cannot be excluded but not
required to produce the observed composition and degree of melting.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Oceanic plateaus are the most voluminous large igneous provinces
on Earth and usually considered the result of short-lived (few Ma)
periods of intense submarine volcanism marking the arrival of mantle
plumes at the base of the lithosphere (Kerr and Mahoney, 2007). This
major pulse of volcanism should be followed by a volcanic chain with
ages decreasing away from the site of the plume head impact. One
such event is postulated to have formed most of the Caribbean plateau
at ~90 Ma, when the Galapagos plume head impacted the Farallon
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: linaserranod@hotmail.com (L. Serrano),
luca@geociencias.unam.mx (L. Ferrari), marlopez@cicese.mx (M.L. Martínez),
cmp57@cam.ac.uk (C.M. Petrone), jaramilloC@si.edu (C. Jaramillo).
1
Present address: Dipartimento di Geoscienze, Padua University, Via Gradenigo 6,
35131 Padova, Italy.
plate (Duncan and Hargraves, 1984; Hastie and Kerr, 2010; Sinton
et al., 1998; Storey et al., 1991). At present, the remnants of the
Caribbean plateau form the irregularly thickened and locally de-
formed oceanic crust of the Caribbean Sea (Mauffret and Leroy, 1997;
Driscoll and Diebold, 1998) as well as several highly deformed
fragments obducted in northern South America, Central America and
the Antilles (Fig. 1), collectively defined as the Caribbean Large
Igneous Province (CLIP).
The island of Gorgona, offshore western Colombia, is one of the less
deformed and last accreted pieces of the Caribbean plateau. Widely
known for its ultramafic sequence that includes one of the few world
occurrences of Mesozoic komatiites (Echeverría, 1980), Gorgona
rocks are among the most thoroughly studied from a geochemical
and isotopic point of view (see review in Kerr, 2005). By contrast,
geologic and geochronologic studies are scarce and the entire Gorgona
suite has been considered roughly concurrent with the initial
volcanism of the Caribbean plateau based on a three-step plateau

0012-821X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.07.011
 L. Serrano et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 309 (2011) 324–336 325

Fig. 1. Geodynamics of the Caribbean region showing the location of mafic and ultramafic rocks of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP) (light gray with dashed yellow
contour). The CLIP is formed by the irregularly thickened oceanic crust of the Caribbean Sea (Mauffret and Leroy, 1997) dated at DSDP sites (yellow circles) and Beata Ridge (BR) and
by accreted mafic and ultramafic terranes in Hispaniola, Aruba, Cracao, Costa Rica and northern South America whose ages (in Ma) are given next to each location (from Sinton et al.,
1997; Sinton et al., 1998, 2000; Révillon et al., 2000; Kerr et al., 1997, 2002 and Kerr et al., 2004; Hauff et al., 2000b; Hoernle et al., 2002; Lissinna, 2005, Wright and Wyld, 2011, and
this work). Northern Costa Rica includes: Nicoya, Herradura, Tortugal, Golfito and Burica.

age of 87.9 ± 2.1 Ma and a three-point isochron of 86.1 ± 6.1 Ma of
basaltic lavas (Sinton et al., 1998). Previous studies showed that
Gorgona rocks are heterogeneous, with slightly enriched to strongly
depleted varieties and a relatively large spread in isotope values
(Dupré and Echeverria, 1984; Echeverría, 1980; Hauff et al., 2000a;
Kerr et al., 1997; Revillon et al., 2002; Thompson et al., 2003). The
trace element and isotope geochemistry of most rocks is similar to
MORB and the first model for its formation was in fact related to an
oceanic ridge (Dieterich et al., 1981). On the other hand, high volatile
contents (H2O, B, Cl) in olivine melt inclusions (Kamenetsky et al.,
2010) indicate a hydrated mantle source, possibly related to
subduction fluids. However, over the past two decades Gorgona has
been associated to a hotspot and, given the only available age, all the
rock varieties were assumed to have formed at roughly the same time
(~89 Ma) within a complex, compositionally and thermally hetero-
geneous mantle plume (e.g. Kerr, 2005). Despite three decades of
studies the tectonic setting and the petrogenesis of Gorgona are still
not completely understood. Clearly, a better stratigraphic and
geochronologic control of Gorgona geology is critical to solve what
has been termed the “petrologic enigma” of the island (Kerr, 2005)
and its implication for the formation of the CLIP.
In this paper we present an integrative geologic, geochronologic
and geochemical study of Gorgona rocks. The core of our study is a
new set of 40Ar– 39Ar ages for Gorgona Island and the Bolivar
Ultramafic Complex of the Western Cordillera. The latter represents
one of the few exposures of the CLIP intrusive complexes and was
chosen for comparison with the intrusive complex of the island. Our
results, which are consistent with field geologic relations, greatly
expand the age range of the magmatic activity and, coupled with new
geochemical and Sr and Nd isotope data, allow to assess the petrologic
evolution of the Gorgona suite. We then discuss these new data in the
frame of the previous models for the formation of the CLIP.
2. Age and tectonic setting of the Colombian CLIP fragments
The highly deformed belt west of the Romeral suture in Colombia
(Fig. 2) is composed by mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks as well as
marine sediments that are considered part of the CLIP based on its
geochemical affinity and gravimetric and magnetic signature (Cediel
et al., 2003; Kerr et al., 1996). These rocks are affected by large scale
folds, thrust, and right-lateral faults developed during the oblique
convergence between the Caribbean plateau and the northwestern
margin of South America. Although differing in details, regional plate
reconstructions indicate that the accretion process was accomplished
by a progressive docking of discrete slivers of the CLIP from the end of
Cretaceous through the Cenozoic (Cediel et al., 2003; Kennan and
Pindell, 2009; Pindell et al., 2006). In this process the slivers now
forming the Western Cordillera (Dagua-Piñon terrane) were the first
to be accreted, followed by the Gorgona and later the Baudó ones
(Figs. 1 and 2) (Cediel et al., 2003; Kennan and Pindell, 2009).
Multichannel seismic profiles northeast and southwest of Gorgona
show that the island is part of a series of NNE trending axial basement
bulge formed in Late Eocene times (Cediel et al., 2010; Marcallou and
Collot, 2008) (Fig. 2), likely the time of accretion. This basement
structure is partly disrupted by Miocene right lateral transtensional
faulting and is bounded by the Garrapatas and Buenaventura fault
zones (Figs. 1 and 2), whose offshore traces are inferred from seismic,
gravimetric, and magnetic data (Cediel et al., 2003, 2010). The two
fault zones show both right-lateral and reverse motion and bound the
Gorgona terrane, an elongated strike–slip horse separating the
326 L. Serrano et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 309 (2011) 324–336
Fig. 2. a) Tectonic map of southwestern Colombia showing the Gorgona and adjacent
terranes. Gorgona is presently part of a Cretaceous basement forearc bulge similar to
the Outer Basement High (OBH) and Middle Ridge (MR) described to the south by
Marcallou and Collot (2008). BUC = Bolivar Ultramafic Complex. b) Geologic
interpretation of a seismic line passing north of Gorgona (redrawn from Cediel et al.,
2010) showing the basement structural high disrupted by right lateral transtensional
faulting.
Western Cordillera terrane from the Serranía del Baudó terrane
(Figs. 1 and 2). The Garrapatas fault zone continues to the NE into the
San Juan basin (Fig. 1 and 2), where over 7000 m of sediments were
deposited since the Late Oligocene (Cediel et al., 2010). The
deformation observed in the San Juan basin indicates that the Baudó
terrane accretion has been accomplished by the end of Miocene
(Cediel et al., 2010).
Because of the intense deformation, pervasive weathering and
low grade metamorphism the accreted fragment of the CLIP in
Colombia proved difficult to date. Available 40Ar– 39Ar ages are
restricted to three samples from Serranía del Baudó in the range ~ 73–
76 Ma and samples from four sites in the eastern side of the Western
Cordillera dated at ~ 89–96 Ma (Kerr et al., 1997, 2002, Kerr et al.,
2004). These ages are broadly consistent with those obtained for the
submerged part of the Caribbean plateau where igneous rocks were
dated at ~ 94–90 Ma at DSDP Site 150 and 146 and ~ 81 Ma at ODP site
1001 (Sinton et al., 1998, 2000), and between ~ 81 and ~ 75 Ma at
Beata Ridge (Revillon et al., 2002) (Fig. 1).
3. Sampling and methodology
During three field campaigns we revised the geology of the island
and collected a large suite of fresh samples from all the geologic units.
Additional sampling was conducted in the Western Cordillera in an
effort to sample the intrusive part of the CLIP. After a petrographic
study the best samples were crushed and the least altered fragments
were selected for geochronology and geochemistry. Representative
pictures of field geology (Fig. A1) and of dated rocks (Fig. A2) are
provided in the Electronic Supplementary Material.
The 40Ar– 39Ar analyses were performed at the Geochronology
Laboratory of the Departmento de Geología, CICESE, Baja California,
Mexico. With the exception of samples GOR 28 and CORW 9, all
samples were step-heated and the argon isotopes were analyzed in
two different mass spectrometers. One set of experiments was done
on less than 0.1 mg of sample using a laser as a heat source and a
VG5400 mass spectrometer. To insure that the argon was released
from a homogeneous phase, a second set of experiments was
conducted with a temperature controlled Ta furnace on line with a
MS 10 mass spectrometer. In order to compensate for the lower
sensitivity of the MS 10 mass spectrometer aliquots of 0.5 to 1.0 g
were used for these experiments. All technical details and results of
the experiments are reported in the Electronic Supplementary
Material.
Major elements were analyzed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) at
Instituto de Geología, UNAM, according to the procedures outlined in
Lozano-Santa Cruz et al. (1995). Trace elements were obtained by
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) using a Thermo
Series XII instrument at Centro de Geociencias, UNAM, Querétaro, Mexico.
Sr and Nd isotope ratios were determined on whole rock at the
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universitá degli Studi di Firenze,
using a Thermofinnigan Triton-Ti® mass spectrometer equipped with
nine Faraday cups in a dynamic mode. Analytical procedures are given in
Avanzinelli et al. (2005). Further details of procedures and measurements
are given in the Electronic Supplementary Material.
4. Results
4.1. Geology
Dense pluvial forest and deep lateritic soil cover most of the island
so that rock units can be observed along the coast but are rarely
exposed in the interior. Fig. 3 shows our revision of the original
geologic mapping of Echeverría (1980) and the main sampling and
observation sites. Peridotites and dunite were reported to form the
axial core of the island by Echeverría (1980) who was able to map the
island when large parts of the forest had been cleared. At present
these ultramafic rocks may be only seen in a few small outcrops in the
uppermost part of the island. Serpentinized cumulate peridotites
were observed along a major NNE striking fault zone in contact with
lavas at 205 m asl in the upper part of a stream west of the Park
facilities toward Cerro La Trinidad (Fig. 3). According to the mapping
of Echeverría (1980) the peridotites are surrounded by massive
gabbros although the relations with the other units are rarely
observed. Massive poikilitic gabbros were observed to lie below
komatiitic lavas in the upper part of the Pizarro stream (site 28, Fig. 3).
A microgabbroic sill was also observed at site GOR 15–2 in the
northeastern part of the island (Fig. 3; Fig. A1a). In the rest of the
island gabbros are seen in blocks, metric to decimetric in size, along
the northwestern coast and near La Azufrada (Fig. 3). These areas
correspond to large rockfall fan from the upper part of the island.
Extrusive rocks are dominated by picro-basalts (MgO = 6–10 wt.%)
and, to a lesser extent, komatiitic and picritic lavas (MgO = 16–20 wt.
%)(Fig. A1b). The relations among these rock units are almost always
obscured, but in a few cases the komatiites were observed
interspersed with the basalts, as it is also suggested by the frequent
occurrence of the two lithologies in adjacent outcrops. In the southern
part of Gorgona and at the small Gorgonilla Island, basaltic and
komatiitic lavas are covered by a younger unit made of picritic
(MgO = 22–23 wt.%) tuff breccias with hyaloclastitic texture (Fig. 3;
Fig. A1c). Described in detail by Echeverría and Aitken (1986), this
pyroclastic deposit represents a change to a shallower environment in
the submarine eruptive activity forming the island. The breccias are
tilted to the south and covered in angular unconformity by different
packages of marine sedimentary rocks. The oldest ones are steeply
tilted (Fig. A1d) arenaceous limestones and siliceous shales interca-
lated with volcanic glass and ash levels in the southernmost part of
Gorgonilla that were assigned to the Late Eocene by Gansser (1950).
Other sedimentary rocks exposed in the southern part of Gorgona are
siliceous sandstone and silty shale (Fig. A1e) for which a maximum
age can be deduced from the scarce pollen recovered from samples
GOR 30, 34 (fallen blocks along the coast), and 44 (in situ), which was
processed by the standard method of Traverse (2007). The
 L. Serrano et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 309 (2011) 324–336
Fig. 3. Geology of Gorgona Island with location of dated samples and sites discussed in the text. Inset show stereograms of stratigraphic and structural data. Note different dipping for
volcanic and sedimentary rocks.
assemblage was composed by Psilatriletes (ferns), Mauritiides
franciscoi franciscoi (palm), Spirosyncolpites spiralis (angiosperm),
Monoporopollenites annulatus (Poacea), Trilites sp. (ferns), Retipolle-
nites sp., Echitriletes sp. (ferns), Laevigatosporites sp. (ferns),
Baculatisporites sp. (ferns), the dinoflagellate Lingulodinium, and
reworked material including the Cretaceous dinoflagellate Dinogym-
nium. An age not older than Eocene can be deduced by the co-
occurrence of M. franciscoi, S. spiralis, and M. annulatus (Jaramillo et al.,
2009; Muller et al., 1987).
4.2. Geochronology
The two sets of geochronology experiments were generally compa-
rable and produced eight reliable ages for basalts and gabbros. The
results are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 4 and combine the experiments
performed with both mass spectrometers. The relevant 40Ar–39Ar data
for all the experiments of each sample are presented in Table 3 of the
Electronic Supplementary Material, together with a detailed discussion of
each age.
The oldest age at Gorgona was obtained from a poikilitic gabbro
(GOR 28) that forms the axial intrusive core of the island sampled in the
Pizarro stream (Fig. 3). Mafic minerals were completely altered but we
were able to separate a small amount of plagioclase that could be
analyzed in a few steps only. An isochron age of 98.7± 7.7 Ma, is well
defined by five data points (MSWD= 0.3, see Fig. 4a). Four are from the
327
step heating experiments and one from a one-step laser fusion. Sample
GOR 20 is a basaltic lava exposed on the western side of the island. The
rock is holocrystalline with olivine and orthopyroxene crystals with
plagioclase inclusions defining a subophitic and poikilitic texture. Two
experiments conducted in the temperature controlled Ta-furnace
yielded comparable results (Fig. 4b). Our best estimate for this sample
is taken from the well defined plateau age of 85.7 ± 1.6 Ma (84.6% of
39
Ar released; MSWD = 0.35 for n = 4). This age is in agreement within
1σ errors with the only available 40Ar– 39Ar age for Gorgona (87.9 ±
2.1 Ma; Sinton et al., 1998), although a direct comparison is precluded
since the exact location of the previously dated samples was not
provided. Sample GOR 15 comes from an olivine basalt flow in the
northeastern part of the island. The rock is hypocrystalline characterized
by anhedral olivine intergrowth with plagioclase (andesine). The two
laser step-heating experiments yield comparable results (Fig. 4c). The
75.3± 1.2 Ma age, was calculated from the weighted mean of five
consecutive fractions which represent 77.5% of the 39Ar released with
a MSWD= 1.5. This age is indistinguishable from the isochron age of
76.4± 1.4 Ma calculated with the combined fractions of two experi-
ments (MSWD = 1.1 for n = 12). At the same location we sampled a
microgabbro that intruded below the GOR 15 basalt (Fig. A1a). The rock
has an equigranular texture dominated by subhedral olivine and fine
plagioclase crystals. Reproducible results were obtained in the four step-
heating experiments, two with the laser using only a few rock fragments
and two with the temperature controlled Ta-furnace, where bulk
328 L. Serrano et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 309 (2011) 324–336
Table 1
40
Summary of Ar–39Ar ages.
Sample Rock Material dated Lat. N
GOR 28 Gabbro plg 2.984159°
GOR 20 Basalt wr 2.978139°
GOR 15 Olivine basalt wr 2.996299°
GOR 15-2 Micro gabbro wr 2.996299°
GOR 8 Basalt wr 3.000970°
GOR 43 Komatiitic basalt wr 2.939246°
CORW 10 Gabbro wr + plg
CORW 9 Gabbro amph
Preferred age in bold, complete data for all the experiments performed is given in the Electronic Supplementary Data.
The equations presented in York et al., 2004 were used to calculate the straight line parameters. All errors are 1 σ.
a
Initial (40Ar/36Ar) calculated from the intercept of the best straight line defined with the data in the (36Ar/40Ar) vs. (39Ar/40Ar) correlation diagram.
b
Goodness of fit of the best straight line and number of points used.
samples of 0.5 and 1.0 g were analyzed. Our best age estimate of 69.5 ±
1.9 Ma (Fig. 4d) for this microgabbro comes from the plateau age, which
was obtained from the weighted mean of the last three fractions of the
laser step-heating experiment (76.5% of 39Ar; MSWD = 0.9). Sample
GOR 8 is a basalt sampled at the northern tip of the island. It is a
hypocrystalline rock with fine hypidiomorphic clinopyroxene (augite),
subhedral plagioclase and anhedral olivine. Two laser step-heating
experiments yield comparable results (Fig. 4e). The last six fractions of
the second experiment were used to calculate a plateau age of 69.6 ±
1.6 Ma (73.4% of 39Ar; MSWD = 1.2), which we consider our best
estimate for this basalt. Finally, we dated a sample from a basaltic
komatiite flow at the northeastern part of the small Gorgonilla Island
(GOR 43)(Fig. 3). These rocks are overlain by the picritic breccias and
arenaceous sediments in the southern part of the island. This basaltic
komatiite has very low K content so that very little 40Ar radiogenic had
accumulated. An experiment conducted in the MS 10 mass spectrom-
eter, using a 1.02 g sample yielded measurable argon. A plateau age of
64± 5 Ma (see Fig. 4f) was calculated with three fractions released
above 900 °C, these represent 82.6% of the 39Ar released (MSWD = 0.9).
Given the stratigraphic relations, the 64± 5 Ma age can be taken as the
maximum age for the picritic breccias, whereas their minimum age is set
by the overlain sediments.
In addition to the Gorgona igneous suite we dated the Bolivar
Ultramafic Complex (BUC) located in the Western Cordillera (Nivia,
1996) (Fig. 2). The BUC represents the largest exposure of the
intrusive complex of the CLIP thus a comparison with the intrusive
bodies exposed at Gorgona would be worthwhile. The complex is
located about 100 km north of Cali along the eastern edge of the
Western Cordillera (Fig. 2). A 40Ar– 39Ar age of 90.5 ± 0.9 was
previously reported by Kerr et al. (2004) for a weighted mean of
four different samples whereas Villagomez (2010) report U–Pb zircon
ages of 94.0 ± 2.4 and 95.5 ± 1.0 Ma. Our sample CORW10 is an
isotropic gabbro rich in labradorite collected 2.5 km southwest of
Bolivar village. An experiment performed with 1.0 g of bulk sample
with the MS 10 mass spectrometer yielded a well defined plateau of
98.4 ± 2.4 Ma (Fig. 4g). The three fractions used to calculate the
plateau age represent 88.6% of the 39Ar released between 1100 and
1350 °C, with a MSWD = 0.25 for the weighted mean. This age is in
agreement within the errors with two of the 40Ar– 39Ar ages obtained
by Kerr et al. (2004) and with the U–Pb zircon ages of Villagomez
(2010). We also dated the secondary amphibole that substitute
piroxene and plagioclase in an isotropic gabbro sampled near the
village of Robledo (COR W 09). The laser step-heating experiment
(Fig. 4h) displays a flat age spectrum, from which we calculate a
plateau age of 74 ± 5 Ma. The weighted mean of the four fractions
used to calculate the plateau age has a MSWD = 0.18 and represents
94.9% of the 39Ar released. Because the fractions that define the
plateau age cluster in one point in the 36Ar/ 40Ar vs. 39Ar/ 40Ar diagram,
they cannot be used to calculate an isochron age and we take the
plateau age 74 ± 5 Ma, as our best estimate for the age of this
Long. W Plateau age (Ma) Isochron age (Ma) (40Ar/36Ar)ia MSWD/nb
78.172642° 98.7 ± 7.7 372 ± 24 0.3/5
78.189946° 85.7 ± 1.6 88.1 ± 1.6 292 ± 1 0.6/9
78.167160° 75.3 ± 1.2 76.4 ± 1.4 293 ± 2 1.1/12
78.167160° 69.5 ± 1.9 73.7 ± 3.1 290 ± 3 0.4/7
78.166582° 69.6 ± 1.6 68.6 ± 2.3 296 ± 2 0.7/14
78.210901° 64 ± 5 60 ± 12 301 ± 7 14/5
98.4 ± 2.4 99.5 ± 2.7 290 ± 9 1.1/5
74 ± 5
amphibole. As noted by Nivia (1996)amphibolitization is a common
feature of the BUC gabbros. Our age could thus be representative of a
regional episode of alteration that may be related to the initial
collision and accretion of the Caribbean plateau to the Colombian
margin (~75–65 Ma, Vallejo et al., 2009).
Our new ages expand the age range of the Gorgona suite to over
34 Ma, with the oldest age indistinguishable from that obtained from
the BUC. The oldest ages are comparable to those reported from
samples in the Western Cordillera (Kerr et al., 1997, 2002 and Kerr et
al., 2004), the DSDP leg 15, Haiti and Curaçao (Sinton et al., 1998),
whereas the younger Gorgona ages are similar to those obtained from
the Serranía del Baudó, along the Colombian coast NE of Gorgona
(Kerr et al., 1997), at the Azuero Peninsula in southwestern Panamá
(Hoernle et al., 2002; Lissinna, 2005) and those from samples
recovered in situ from the Caribbean plateau at Beata Ridge (Mauffret
et al., 2001; Révillon et al., 2000) (Fig. 1).
4.3. Tectonics
The spatial distribution of the rock units on the Gorgona island
depicts a faulted anticline structure with an axial zone exposing the
intrusive complexes and the flanks made by the extrusive succession
(Fig. 3). The fold axis trends NNE and is moderately dipping to the
SSW. This broad structure is partly disrupted by reverse oblique and
normal brittle faulting, which affect more intensely the southwestern
side of the island. Normal faults cut the southern part of the island so
that the youngest rocks (breccias and sediments) are exposed there. A
normal fault appears also to cut the northern tip of the island, as
peridotite and gabbros do not outcrop around Boca el Horno (Fig. 3),
where the youngest ages of basaltic lavas were obtained instead (see
previous section). Gorgonilla island and the NNE trending submarine
ridge continuing to the south may represent a second fold or a
continuation of the Gorgona faulted anticline (Figs. 2 and 3). A NNE
trending, WNW dipping reverse or oblique fault zone is inferred to
pass through the Tasca strait (Fig. 3) as rocks on both sides of the strait
display pervasive faulting and fracturing (Fig. A1f). Although nowhere
kinematic indicators such slickensides are preserved most of these
faults are inferred to result from contractile oblique deformation
based on dip, drag structures and rotation of blocks in the fault gouge.
At Gorgona lava flows dip dominantly toward the west whereas
sediment beds dip broadly to the south (Fig. 3, inset) indicating
different phases of deformation. In particular, sedimentary rocks
attributed to the Eocene in the southern part of Gorgonilla (Gansser,
1950) are strongly tilted to the SSW (50° to 80°, Fig. A1d). By contrast
sediments in the southernmost part of Gorgona are only slightly tilted
(5° to 10°) and are not faulted (Fig. 3; Fig. A1e).
These field observations broadly agree with the interpretation of the
seismic profiles in the Tumaco basin south of Gorgona (Marcallou and
Collot, 2008) and in proximity of the island (Cediel et al., 2010) (Fig. 2).
They show an angular unconformity between the Cretaceous igneous
 a) b) c) d)

L. Serrano et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 309 (2011) 324–336
e) f) g) h)

Fig. 4. Age spectra and 36Ar/40Ar vs. 39Ar/40Ar correlation diagrams for basalts and gabbros from Gorgona and Gorgonilla islands and the Western Cordillera of Colombia. With the exception of gabbro GOR 28, all the samples yielded reliable
plateau ages. In the age spectra, the weighted mean of the fractions close to the arrow, were used to calculate the plateau age. For sample CORW 9 the data did not constrain a straight line to calculate a reliable isochron age. All errors are 1
sigma. Preferred age is highlighted in bold typeface.

329
330 L. Serrano et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 309 (2011) 324–336

basement and the first sedimentary unit, dated at the Oligocene, and samples. Tb/YbN is well above 1 for all the samples except GOR 13 and
thought to be deposited once this part of the CLIP had been accreted to GOR 40, implying melting within the garnet stability field for all rocks
the continental mainland. We consider that the formation of the NNE older than the picrites. La/Sm, La/Yb and Ce/Sm are proxies for degree of
trending Gorgona anticline was related to the accretion process, which melting: the higher these ratios, the lower the degree of melting. The
likely occurred during the early Eocene, prior to the deposition of the Nb/Zr ratio is moderately affected by partial melting as garnet is left in
oldest sedimentary rocks exposed in the southern part of Gorgonilla, as the residue. The low values observed for the youngest unit suggest
the latter dip in a different direction than the lavas. The southward progressive melt extraction and increasing degree of melting with time
tilting of the fold axis and deformation of this older sedimentary as confirmed by the correlation between La/Yb vs. Nb/Zr and Ce/Sm vs.
succession may have occurred as a result of an episode of right-lateral Ce (Fig. 6a, b). This is particularly evident for the LREE-enriched group.
transpression associated with the development of the Garrapatas fault Although the youngest rocks of the LREE-depleted group show the
zone and the accretion of the Serranía del Baudó to the NE (Fig. 2) in the lowest La/Yb and Nb/Zr ratios pointing to high degree of melting, this
Miocene. Additional Late Miocene to Pliocene transtensional or secular variation is less evident in this group.
extensional faulting observed in seismic lines passing only few km to Initial Sr and Nd isotope ratios (Table 2) are shown in Fig. 6c. LREE-
the north and to the south of the island (Fig. 2) may be responsible for depleted rocks have higher εNdi (9.46–11.34) than the LREE-enriched
the remaining brittle faulting affecting the Gorgona fold. group (εNdi 5.68–7.80) and mostly fall in the field of Gorgona
komatiites reported in Kerr (2005) and close to the EPR MORB field.
4.4. Geochemistry The anomalous high 87Sr/ 86Sri value of the youngest rock (GOR 13
picrite) might be due to secondary seawater alteration. A secular
Previous works have reported a high compositional heterogeneity in variation is shown by the LREE-enriched group also in isotope ratios as
Gorgona rocks, which were nevertheless assumed to have originated at εNdi increases from the older rock (GOR 20, 89.6 Ma) to the youngest
the same time. Our new ages and stratigraphic constraints allow for the (GOR 8, 69.6 Ma) at the same or slightly decreasing 87Sr/ 86Sri ratios.
first time to recognize secular patterns of variation in the geochemistry The oldest and less radiogenic rock of the LREE-enriched group shows
of Gorgona rocks. Fig. 5 shows the trace- and rare-earth-element pattern isotope composition similar to enriched-basalt, suggesting the
of our samples (Table 2, Electronic Supplementary Material) compared presence of an enriched mantle source component. The less
with previously published data. A two-fold subdivision can be put radiogenic composition of LREE-depleted rocks suggests the involve-
forward on the basis of depletion in LREE and in incompatible elements. ment of a DMM (Depleted MORB Mantle) source in their genesis.
Indeed, a LREE-enriched (La/SmN N1) group and a LREE-depleted (La/ These two groups of rocks (i.e. LREE-depleted and LREE-enriched)
SmN b1) group are clearly recognizable. Basalts and gabbros are found in also having distinct εNdi confirm the existence of two mantle
both groups; komatiites and picrites are mostly in the LREE-depleted components (e.g. Hauff et al., 2000a; Revillon et al., 2002): a depleted
group with the exception of GOR 26, which is a LREE-enriched komatiite. source having εNd of ~+10 and an enriched source with εNd of ~+6.
While the LREE-depleted group has slightly older starting age in respect The secular variation shown by the LREE-enriched younger rocks
with the LREE-enriched group (98.7 ± 7.7 Ma vs. 85.7 ± 1.6 Ma), the toward the less radiogenic composition of LREE-depleted rock also
more LREE-depleted samples are the younger ones in both groups claims for a possible mixing of enriched and depleted mantle sources.
indicating that depletion in LREE and incompatible elements increases Nd isotopic system is insignificantly affected by seafloor alteration
with decreasing age. The La/SmN and La/YbN values decrease in time, and metamorphism in contrast to the Sr isotopic system, thus the
from 1.45 to 2.56 respectively for the LREE-enriched GOR 20 to 0.94 and variability in the initial values of Nd isotope ratios shown by Gorgona
0.99 for GOR 8. Similarly these values decrease from 0.30 to 0.28 for the rocks can only be explained by the presence of a heterogeneous
oldest LREE-depleted GOR 28 to 0.14 and 0.06 for GOR 13 and GOR 40 mantle in which the two components interact and mix together. At
picrites, which are also the lowest among the whole set of analyzed the same time, the good correlation between ( 143Nd/ 144Nd)i and the

100
Primitive mantle normalized

GOR 28, Gabbro - 98.7 ± 7.7 Ma

GOR 20, Basalt - 85.7 ± 1.6 Ma

10
X X X
X X X X X X X X X GOR 15, Olivine basalt - 75.3 ± 1.2 Ma
* * * * X* X* X* X* X
X X X
*X+
*+ *+ *+ *+ + + + + + + + + *+
X
*X * + GOR 15-2, Gabbro - 69.5 ± 1.9 Ma
+ + + *
+ + + *
1 * X+
X *
+
*+ +* * * * X GOR 08, Basalt - 69.6 ± 1.6 Ma

GOR 43, Basaltic komatiite - 64 ± 5 Ma

0.1 GOR 13, Picrites, <64 >56 Ma

GOR 40, Picrites, <64 >56 Ma

0.01 GOR 03, Komatiite

Cs Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta La Ce Pb Pr Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Y Lu GOR 09, Gabbro

100 GOR 11, Basalt

GOR 16, Komatiite
Chondrite normalized

X X
GOR 17, Komatiite
X X X X X X X X X X X
10 *+ *+ *+ *+ *+ *+ *+
*+ *+ *+ *
+ *+ GOR 18, Basalt

*+ *+ GOR 21, Basalt

GOR 22, Basalt
1
GOR 26, Komatiite
GOR 36, Basalt
GOR 42, Basaltic komatiite
0.1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu

Fig. 5. Trace and rare element patterns for new samples from Gorgona. Primitive Mantle from Sun and McDonough (1989); chondrite from Sun and McDonough (1989). Gray area
represents the field of data from the literature (from compilation in Kerr, 2005).
 L. Serrano et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 309 (2011) 324–336 331

0.18
a 98.4
0.16 REC
MORB
0.14 OIB
74 Ma 85.7 Ma
0.12

Nb/Zr
0.10
69.5
64
0.08
UC
75.3
0.06 69.6
0.04
DMM LREE-depleted
0.02 98.7 LREE-enriched

<>
64 56
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 10 20
La/Yb

16
b UC

6 OIB

5 85.7
Ce/Sm

64 69.6
4 69.5
75.3
98.4 MORB
3
74
2
DMM LREE-depleted
1 98.7 LREE-enriched
<64>56
0
0 5 10 15 60 90
Ce

12
c Isotope values at 89 Ma
11
EPR Komatite
MORB >56<64
10

9
Gabbro
εNdi

Picrite
8 Dunite 69.6
CLIP
69.5 75.3
7

85.7
6
E-Basalt
5
OJP LREE-depleted
LREE-enriched

4
0.7020 0.7025 0.7030 0.7035 0.7040 0.7045 0.7050 0.7055 0.7060
87
Sr/86Sri

Fig. 6. (a) Nb/Zr vs. La/Yb, (b) Ce/Sm vs. Ce and (c) εNdi vs.87Sr/86Sri diagrams for Gorgona rocks. New Ar–Ar ages and relative age for GOR13 samples are also shown. Hypothetical
end-members are from Condie (1993), Sun and McDonough (1989) and Workman and Hart (2005). Open diamonds are COR W samples. MORB (Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt), OIB
(Ocean Islands Basalts), DMM (Depleted MORB Mantle), UC (upper crust: continental crust), REC (Recycled component), OJP (Ontong Java Plateau). Fields in c are from Kerr (2005).

proxies of melting (i.e., Ce/Sm, Fig. 7a) clearly points to variable
degree of partial melting affecting the heterogeneous (enriched–
depleted) mantle source. We test this model quantitatively and the
results are shown in Fig. 7. Mantle source compositions have been
recalculated at 89 and 55 Ma to show the time-integrated Nd isotope
variability of DMM, EDMM (Enriched DMM), recycled MORB and
recycled MORB + lower continental crust (Stracke and Bourdon,
2009; Workman and Hart, 2005) over the N34 my life-time of
Gorgona magmatism (Fig. 7a). A simple mixing model has been
applied in order to model quantitatively the isotope and trace
elements composition of the mixed EDMM-DMM mantle source.
Partial melting trace elements variability (Ce/Sm, Zr/Nb, Fig. 7a and b)
has been modeled through the fractional melting equation of
Langmuir et al. (1992) using partition coefficients for garnet and
spinel lherzolite eventually under hydrous condition (~H2O 1 wt.%)
from Johnston and Schwab (2004), Gaetani (2004) and McDade et al.
(2003). Different degrees of melting modeled (F = 1.5, 4.4, 7.2, 12.5
and 20%) correspond to variable mantle temperatures (T = 1300,
1330, 1345, 1360 and 1390 °C respectively) according to the used
clinopyroxene partition coefficients (Johnston and Schwab, 2004).
The model clearly shows the effect of fractional melting over a
heterogeneous mantle source. Low degree of melting (b2%) of the
EDMM garnet lherzolite mantle component is able to reproduce the
oldest and most enriched composition of the LREE-enriched group.
Higher degree of melting of a mixed EDMM + DMM (~70% EDMM +
30% DMM) will match the younger less radiogenic and less enriched
composition of the LREE-enriched group. Nd isotope compositions of
the LREE-depleted group claim for a larger proportion of the DMM
332 L. Serrano et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 309 (2011) 324–336

LREE-depleted hotspot at ~90 Ma (Hastie and Kerr, 2010 and references therein).
0.5133 a LREE-enriched This model, mostly based on geochemical and petrologic arguments,
0.5132 revealed problematic when compared with plate tectonic reconstruc-
0.5131 tions. In fact, if fixed in a mantle reference frame, the Galapagos
0.5130 hotspot would have been located about 1000 km west of the CLIP site
69.5-75.3Ma
50% (Meschede, 1998; Pindell et al., 2006). On the other hand, plate
Nd/144Ndi

0.5129
30% tectonic reconstructions indicate that the Caribbean plateau formed to
0.5128
85.7Ma the west of a slab window produced by the intersection of the proto-
0.5127 20% 12.5% FM 1.5% Caribbean spreading ridge with the Great Caribbean Arc during the
143

0.5126 1390 C 1360 C 1300 C Cretaceous, which was therefore suggested as an alternative mech-
0.5125 anism for the generation of the CLIP (Pindell et al., 2006). More
0.5124
recently, Pindell and Kennan (2009) incorporate the motion of the
Galapagos hotspot relative to the indo-atlantic reference frame
0.5123
(Wessel and Kroenke, 2008) plus “a subjective correction” following
1 2 3 4 5 the plume deviation model of Steinberger (2002) and noted that in
Ce/Sm
this way part of the CLIP would overlap the possible location of the
Galapagos hotspot and of the Caribbean slab window (Fig. 8). Their
revised hybrid model, suggest that a deep mantle plume would
55 Ma 89 Ma fortuitously arrived at the base of the Farallon lithosphere passing
80
b DMM
through the slab gap. We now evaluate these models in light of the
To picrites EDMM new results for Gorgona considering three set of constraints:
12.5
R MORB geodynamic setting deduced by plate reconstructions, timing of
60 4.4
magmatic activity, and geochemical composition of volcanism.
Zr/Nb

R MORB
98.7Ma 1300 C +LCC
40
1.5
20 1300 C
1330 C
1300 C
20
1300 C
1390 C
1390 C 69.5-75.3Ma
1390 C
1 2 3 4 5 6
Ce/Sm
Fig. 7. (a) 143Nd/144Ndi vs. Ce/Sm and (b) Zr/Nb vs. Ce/Sm diagrams for Gorgona
showing the results of the proposed petrogenetic model. New Ar–Ar ages (in Ma) of
Gorgona rocks are also shown. Open diamonds are COR W samples. Compositions of
hypothetical end-members mantle sources as follows: depleted MORB mantle (DMM)
and enriched DMM (EDMM): Stracke and Bourdon (2009) and Workman and Hart
(2005); recycled MORB (R MORB) and recycled MORB + lower continental crust (R
MORB + LCC): Stracke and Bourdon, (2009). The mixing between the EDMM and DMM
mantle sources is shown as black line with bars (in a) indicating the percentage of
mixing of DMM and EDMM (10% to 50%). In (a) the effect of fractional melting on the
Ce/Sm ratios is shown as a horizontal line with vertical bar at different degree of
melting (FM: 1.5%; 12.5% and 20%) assuming the fractional melting of a garnet
lherzolite [ol(olivine) 0.53 + gr(garnet) 0.50 + cpx(clinopyroxene) 0.38 + opx(ortho-
pyroxene) 0.04] with trace element contents and isotope compositions of the mixed
EDMM + DMM mantle sources. The effect of different degrees of fractional melting on
the variability of Zr/Nb and Ce/Sm ratios is shown in (b) for the two end-members
mantle sources composition EDMM (solid lines) and DMM (dashed lines) assuming
two different mineralogy: garnet lherzolite (black lines) with the same mineral
proportion as above and spinel lherzolite (gray lines) assuming the following minerals
proportions: ol 0.5 + cpx 0.35 + opx 0.35 + sp (spinel) 0.03. Vertical bars indicate
different melting proportions (1.5, 4.4, 7.2 (only on the gray line), 12.5 and 20%).
Potential mantle melting temperatures (Johnston and Schwab, 2004) are also shown
(1300–1390 °C). See text for more details.
5.2. Geodynamic setting during the formation of the CLIP
The large set of geologic and geophysical data accumulated in the
past decade on the Caribbean region allowed a refined reconstruction
of the geodynamic setting during the Cretaceous. Plate kinematics
indicate that NW–SE divergence between the Americas began to
85.7Ma produce oceanic crust by the end of Jurassic in the Colombian
Marginal Seaway (Pindell and Kennan, 2009), separating the
continental crusts of the Chortis Block and Colombia (Fig. 8a). Timing
of arc magmatism and HP-LT metamorphic belts in the eastern
Caribbean realm also indicate that the onset of SW-dipping subduc-
tion has occurred at 135–130 Ma at the site of the former inter-
American transform and that a steady-state subduction zone
producing the Great Caribbean Arc was in place by about 120–
115 Ma (Pindell et al., 2011)(Fig. 8b). Relative motion between North
and South America with at least a component of divergence continued
until ~ 66 Ma (Pindell et al., 2006; Somoza and Zafferana, 2008).
Therefore a proto-Caribbean spreading ridge must have intersected
the Great Caribbean Arc between ~ 115 and 66 Ma, with the
unavoidable consequence of the formation of a slab window in the
region to the west. During this time span the Farallon oceanic
lithosphere (later becoming the Caribbean plate) advanced toward
the east–northeast by 1500 km (Pindell et al., 2006, 2011), overriding
the asthenosphere feeding the proto-Caribbean spreading ridge,
which, in turn, would flow westward into the mantle wedge of the
retreating Great Caribbean subduction zone through the slab window.
5.3. Timing of formation of the CLIP

component in the mixed mantle source (~40% EDMM + 60% DMM).
Variable but higher degrees of fractional melting (F N 10%) of this
garnet or eventually spinel lherzolite mantle source will match Nd-
isotopic and trace elements composition shown by LREE-depleted
group.
5. Discussion
5.1. The Galapagos plume and the Caribbean slab window in the
formation of the CLIP
The formation of the Caribbean plateau has been traditionally
linked to the impact of a mantle plume located at the Galapagos
The time distribution of available CLIP ages, including our new
Gorgona and BUC ages, is shown in Fig. 9. It shows a long period of
igneous activity spanning the whole Late Cretaceous, with peaks at
74–76, 80–82, and 88–90 Ma in decreasing order of importance Even
older, Early Cretaceous ages, have been reported for the CLIP in Costa
Rica (Hauff et al., 2000b; Hoernle et al., 2004) and Curaçao (Wright
and Wyld, 2011) and led Hoernle et al. (2004) to suggest that the CLIP
formed during a 70 Ma period spanning the whole Cretaceous. A
straightforward interpretation of these data indicates that the concept
of the Caribbean plateau as an igneous unit mostly formed at the
initial impact of a plume is now untenable. A prolonged period of
igneous activity over several tens of Ma is not consistent with a short,
voluminous outburst of magmatism from a plume head at ~ 91–89 Ma
 L. Serrano et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 309 (2011) 324–336 333

North America 141 Ma North America 130 Ma

Plate Plate

Chortis Chortis

PCSR PCSR

Int South America

er- Plate South America
tra Ame Plate
nsf rica
orm n

84 Ma

North America
10° N Farallon Chortis Plate
Plate
Proto-Caribbean
Great
Caribbean spreading ridge
Arc
Present thickened
oceanic crust
0° (Caribbean plateau)
SLAB
GAP
ion
sit
Present position e po s HS
ibl go
of Galapagos HS ss pa
Po Gala
of
10° S WC
Gor
Bau South America
Plate

20° S 0 500 1000 km

90° W 80° W 70° W 60° W 50° W

Fig. 8. Simplified tectonic maps of the Caribbean region at 141 Ma (a), 130 Ma (b) (redrawn from Pindell et al., 2011) and 84 Ma (c)(modified from Pindell and Kennan, 2009)
showing the creation and evolution of the Caribbean slab window. After the initiation of southwestern subduction at the site of the former inter-American transform a portion of the
Farallon plate moved to the ENE ~ 1500 km overriding the region occupied by the Proto-Caribbean spreading center. The Caribbean plateau formed over the region formerly
underlain by the ascending mantle that then flowed into the slab gap. Serranía del Baudó (Bau), Gorgona (Gor), and Western Cordillera (WC) are envisioned as the southern part of
the Caribbean plateau that were progressively accreted to northern South America in Campanian, Eocene, and Miocene, respectively (see text). Star denote arc magmatism.

Ages of the Caribbean LIP as proposed by Sinton et al. (1998) and reiterated until recent times
8
(e.g. Kerr, 2005; Hastie and Kerr, 2010). Hoernle et al. (2004)
7 proposed that the CLIP could be the result of the accumulation of
Number of ages

6 intraplate volcanic structures produced by a pulsing Galapagos

5 hotspot. However, the geographic distribution of ages in the CLIP
does not point to a definite pattern of migration (Fig. 1) as it would be
4
expected if magmatism would be the result of the passage of the
3 Farallon plate over a stationary, or slowly moving, hotspot. Particu-
2 larly, the persistence of magmatic activity at the small Gorgona Island,
1 which is only 12 km 2, is at odds with the model of a volcanic chain
with ages decreasing away from the initial impact site of a plume
60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 head. The distribution of ages rather suggests a long period of pulsing
Ages (Ma) magmatism in areas over 1000 km apart (Fig. 1). A diffuse and
irregular magmatism is also consistent with the crustal structure of
Caribbean in situ Curaçao Azuero the Caribbean plateau. Seismic profiles show that CLIP magmatism
Hispaniola Gorgona Nicoya added a very variable amount but no more than 10 km of igneous
Serrania de Baudó W Cordillera Colombia material to the original crust of the Farallon plate (Mauffret and Leroy,
1997) making the Caribbean plateau thinner and more irregular than
Fig. 9. Distribution of available ages for the CLIP according to sources in Fig. 1. Early
Cretaceous ages reported for Costa Rica (Hauff et al., 2000b; Hoernle et al., 2002) and
other oceanic plateaus, a feature that also explains its widespread
Curaçao (Wright and Wyld, 2011) not shown. CLIP ages are distributed throughout the internal deformation (Mauffret and Leroy, 1997; Driscoll and Diebold,
Late Cretaceous with relative peaks at 74–76, 80–82, and 88–90 Ma. 1998).
334 L. Serrano et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 309 (2011) 324–336
5.4. Geochemistry and isotope constraints
The isotope and trace element compositions of Gorgona rocks, the
secular variation and the correlation of initial Nd-isotope ratios with
trace element proxies of melting, can be explained by variable degree
of fractional melting affecting a heterogeneous mantle. Our data and
modeling (Fig. 7) show the presence of an EDMM and a DMMM
source which mix in time at variable degree, giving the variable Nd-
isotope composition observed for the Gorgona rocks. Low but variable
degrees of melting (max 4–5%) of the EDMM mantle source produce
the LREE-enriched group. Subsequent higher degree of melting
(N10%) of a mixed mantle source with prevalence of the more
depleted DMM component (the higher F the more DMM melts) will
originate the LREE-depleted group. Effect of variable degrees of
fractional melting will produce the variable depletion in incompatible
elements shown by the LREE-depleted rocks.
The increasing degree of melting with time observed at Gorgona
does not fit a classic plume model, as the temperature in a plume is
expected to decrease after the initial impact, producing lower degrees
of melting. This is particularly important as another argument for the
existence of a mantle plume has been the high temperature
presumably needed to produce the high Mg rocks found at Gorgona.
However, the only dated komatiite basalt (GOR 43) and the picrites,
which have the highest MgO content, were emplaced over 30 Ma after
the beginning of the Gorgona igneous activity. Our modeling indicates
temperatures of ~ 1300–1390 °C (Fig. 7) positively correlated with
partial melting degrees and secular variation eventually suggesting
higher degree of melting from a hotter mantle source with time.
5.5. The origin of the CLIP in a slab window setting: with or without
plume?
Given the problems posed by a classic plume head model for the
formation of Gorgona and the CLIP highlighted in the previous
sections we analyze here the possibility that an oceanic slab window
setting alone may be responsible for this magmatism. In the
Cretaceous tectonic setting of the Caribbean region the eastward
advance of the Great Caribbean arc implies an eastward retreating
subduction zone that, in turn, is expected to produce a westward
counterflow of Proto-Caribbean (Atlantic) asthenosphere through the
roughly triangular-shaped area of the slab window (Fig. 9). This
relatively dry and hot asthenosphere will thus mix with a wet mantle
wedge enhancing its melting. In this model melting may occur in an
area wider than that of the slab gap because the asthenosphere is
expected to flow toroidally around the sides of the window (and these
locations may be prone to higher degree of melting as they are richer
in fluids). The melting will continue for as long as the oceanic ridge is
active (~70–66 Ma) and the degree of melting will likely increase as
the slab window enlarges. Decompression melting of a heterogeneous
and partly wet mantle within this tectonic setting may explain the
prolonged period of diffuse magmatism at Gorgona and other parts of
the CLIP as well as the increasing degree of melting with time.
The existence of an enriched and a depleted mantle source at
Gorgona has been referred to different parts of a plume recycling
altered upper oceanic crust and lower oceanic crust or oceanic
lithospheric mantle, respectively (Hauff et al., 2000a). More recent
studies have shown that the oceanic upper mantle is highly
heterogeneous (e.g. Anderson, 2006; Helffrich, 2006; Harvey et al.,
2006) with both highly depleted and highly enriched domains
(O'Reilly et al., 2009; Anderson, 2010) that need not to be related to
deep mantle plumes but may be the result of lithospheric delamina-
tion or removal of deep continental roots (Lustrino, 2005; O'Reilly
et al., 2009) and ancient episodes of mantle melting (Simon et al.,
2008). We speculate that the EDMM can be associated to fragments of
refertilized lithospheric roots removed during the Atlantic rifting
(O'Reilly et al., 2009) while the DMM may reside in ancient fragments
present in the Pacific mantle. The Caribbean slab window evolution
depicted in Section 5.2 would have allowed the mixing of the Farallon
(Pacific) and proto-Caribbean (Atlantic) mantle domains.
While the Cretaceous Caribbean slab window is a requirement of plate
tectonics the fortuitous arrival of a mantle plume in the Caribbean area
would be only needed if the Gorgona high Mg melts are proved to be
produced in a mantle hotter than an oceanic slab window. Estimates of
mantle potential temperature for Gorgona komatiites and picrites are
1550 and 1600 °C, respectively, under dry conditions (Herzberg et al.,
2007). Similar potential temperatures were estimated by Hastie and Kerr
(2010) for the most primitive rocks of Curaçao. However, under hydrous
conditions, as expected in an opening mantle wedge and confirmed by
Gorgona olivine melt inclusions (Kamenetsky et al., 2010) and geochem-
istry of the Bolivar Ultramafic Complex (Kerr et al., 2004), the temperature
of formation of komatiites may be as low as ~1300–1500 C° (Inoue et al.,
2000; Parman et al., 2001). In fact, Kamenetsky et al. (2010) calculated an
initial crystallization temperature of 1330–1340 C° for Gorgona koma-
tiites, which matches the range of temperature obtained in our petrologic
modeling to reproduce the Gorgona suite (1300 to 1390 °C; Fig. 7). These
values are well within the ambient mantle potential temperature in
absence of plumes (Lee et al., 2009; Presnall and Gudfinnsson, 2011).
Therefore, even if the coincidental occurrence of a mantle plume hitting
the slab gap area cannot be excluded, it is probably not required to
produce the observed composition and degree of melting. Three
dimensional thermal numerical modeling constrained by geodynamic
reconstructions may quantitatively confirm the possibility of formation of
the CLIP igneous suite, and particularly the Gorgona komatiites and
picrites, in an oceanic slab window setting. Nevertheless, we have shown
that the thermal and geochemical consequences of the Cretaceous
Caribbean slab window are consistent with the formation of the CLIP.
Supplementary materials related to this article can be found online
at doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.07.011.
Acknowledgments
The research was funded by grant UNAM-PAPIIT IN114508 (to LF)
and by the CICESE Geochronology Laboratory (MLM). LSD was
supported by a M.Sc. scholarship from Instituto Panamericano de
Geografía e Historia. V. Kamenetsky, EPSL editor R. Carlson and an
anonymous reviewer provided important criticism and suggestions
that greatly improve the final manuscript. We thank J. Pindell for
useful discussions and the review of an earlier version of the
manuscript. We also thank M. A. García and A. S. Rosas for assistence
with the 40Ar– 39Ar experiments, A. Gómez-Tuena and O. Pérez for
supervising ICP-MS geochemistry, S. Tommasini and E. Braschi for
help in measuring Sr and Nd isotopes. G. Serrano, P. de Greiff, R. López
and the Gorgona Natural Park guides are greatly acknowledged for
their assistance during the fieldwork. We acknowledge Parques
Nacionales Naturales de Colombia for granting the access to Gorgona
island and collecting samples between 2006 and 2009.
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