ISSN 00167029, Geochemistry International, 2010, Vol. 48, No. 12, pp. 1220–1236. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2010.

Original Russian Text © S.M. Aleksandrov, 2010, published in Geokhimiya, 2010, Vol. 48, No. 12, pp. 1302–1319.

Skarn–Greisen Deposits of the Lost River and Mount Ear Ore Field,
Seward Peninsula, Alaska, United States
S. M. Aleksandrov
Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences,
ul. Kosygina 19, Moscow, 119991 Russia;
email: aleksandrov@geokhi.ru
Received March 12, 2009

Abstract—The boron, tin, tungsten, beryllium, and fluorite deposits of the York Range, Seward Peninsula,
represent the continuation of the Asian segment of the Pacific ore belt and are globally conjugate with the
Verkhoyan–Chukotka ore province of Northeastern Russia. They are localized in the alteration aureoles of
dolomites and limestones of the Paleozoic Port Clarence Formation at the contact with the Mesozoic leuco
cratic granites and genetically belong to the magnesian–skan ore formation. Oregenerating process devel
oped in marbles, skarns, and greisens under hypabyssal conditions in several stages and was accompanied by
sequential formation of polymineral assemblages. Early mineralization is represented by magnetite in pro
grade pyroxene skarns after dolomites. Postmagmatic ore stage is represented by formation of endogenous
borates, including their tinbearing Mg–Fe species, in the magnesian skarns, superposition of calcareous
skarn assemblages containing calcium borates, borosilicates, and scheelite, formation of cassiterite and wol
rframite in the greisenized granites, and precipitation of sulfides, chrysoberyl, and fluorite. The mineral com
position of the rocks and ores was formed under the influence of Fbearing hydrothermal solutions, which
caused the presence of fluorine in borates, rockforming silicates, and the replacement of calcite by fluorite.
Boron, tin, beryllium, and fluorine participate at all the stages of endogenous process, but the mineral modes
of their occurrence are varied, which is confirmed by data on their chemical composition. The results of
studying the skarns and ores of the Alaska deposits are of great applied and scientific significance, and can be
used for study of skarngreisen deposits localized at the contacts of carbonate rocks with granite intrusions of
the Pacific ore belt and other world’s regions.
DOI: 10.1134/S0016702910120062

INTRODUCTION burite, and vesuvian (containing up to 6% В2О3) in meta

In terms of reserves of cassiterite ores, the skarn–gre
isen boron, tin, tungsten, beryllium, and fluorite deposits
of the York Range, the Seward Peninsula, and Northwest
ern Alaska are the largest deposits in the United States.
Globally, they represent the continuation of the Asian
segment of the Pacific ore belt and are spatially related to
the Verkhoyan–Chukotka ore provinces of Northeast
Russia [1].
In the York Range, the placer and bedrock cassiterite
deposits in the greisenized granite dikes of the Lost River
were found at the turn of 19th–20th centuries [2–4]. The
ore deposits of the Brooks and Ear mounts, Lost River
Mine, Tin Creek, and Cape Prince of Wales (Tin City set
tlement, eastern part of the Cape granite massif, south of
the Wales settlement) are localized in the alteration aure
oles of the carbonate rocks (dolomites and limestones) of
the Paleozoic Port Clarence Formation in contacts with
Mesozoic granite intrusions (Fig. 1).
The studies of Knopf [4] showed that the skarns of the
Brooks and Ear mounts, in addition to cassiterite, contain
tinbearing magnesium–iron borates, hulsite and
paigeites, whose composition was studied by Schaller [5].
Among other identified boron minerals are tourmaline in
the greisenized granites and skarns, as well as axinite, dan
somatites. Greisens developed after granites contain cas
siterite ores with wolframite, while skarns of the region
bear scheelite. Tin sulfides from the Bessie–Maple Pros
pect are represented by stannine.
The largest tin deposit of the Seward Peninsula and
United States is the Lost River Mine (Fig. 1) [6–13],
where greisenized postskarn aplite dikes were worked out
for cassiterite and wolframite during world wars [4]. At
present, the mining of the tinbearing placers is periodi
cally resumed in the areas of Tin City (Mt. Cape).
The study of the Lost River ore field showed that its
ores contain not only tin and tungsten but also significant
amounts of fluorite [5–10]. Sainsbury also found beryl
lium ores in the region (Camp Creek, Cassiterite Creek,
and Tin Creek prospects) [12, 13].
Sulfides in the skarns and greisens of the Seward Pen
insula are known on the Brooks and Ear mounts, in the
Tin Creek prospect, and in the western part of the Lost
River basin (Bessie and Maple), where they are repre
sented by stannine, galena, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, and
pyrrhotite [4].
According to Sainsbury, the reserves of the bedrock
cassiterite lodes at the Lost River Mine account for 2600 t
with 1.3% Sn, 15450 t with more than 1% tin, and 18700 t

1220
 SKARN–GREISEN DEPOSITS OF THE LOST RIVER AND MOUNT EAR ORE FIELD 1221

(d)
N

ver
t Ri
M in
К S К
II К К
К К К
К
К К К
К III К
К К К
К К К К К
К К К К
I К К
(b) Windfeld К
(a)
ea
ch ee S Mt. Ear К К
Ch uc k IV К К
Schishmarev I.;
К
Bering Strait

Diomid Mt. Brooks К

Islands (c) Mint
Wales
Po
River Symbols
rt
Cl
are
Read Prospect К Lo
nc
e d Paigeite 1 6 st R
Gu
lf Prospect
Yo
iv e
К r К К
Th

rk 2 7
Te

Ra
Lost R

К К К К
eB

lle

ng
e
; r

ek

3 8 К К К
e ri

re

Nome
eC
iver
ng

К
erit

К
рLost River
ssit

4 9
Se

К К
1 3
a

Ca

Lost River Mine k К К

2 4 Cree 5 10 К К
Tin
0 25 50 Mile Bessie and 0 1 Mile 0 0.1 0.20.3 km К К
Maple
К К

Fig. 1. Geological scheme of the contact aureoles of the Brooks and Ear mounts and deposits of the Seward Peninsula, Alaska, United
States (according to data of Bureau of Geological Survey of Alaska and the author’s data).Schemes: (a) Seward Peninsula (symbols:
(1) granites, (2) sandy shales, (3) dolomites, (4) tundra); (b) Mt. Ear; (c) Lost River ore field; (b) Mt. Brooks (symbols: (1) shales, (2) cal
careous marbles, (3) dolomites of the Port Clarence Formation, (4) biotite granites, (5) porphyritic granites, (6) periclase marbles,
(7) magnesian calciphyres with borates, (8) calcite–pyroxene–vesuvian–garnet skarns, (9) Quaternary deposits, and (10) occurrences:
(I) magnesian (kotoite, pertzevite) and magnesium–iron borates, (II) hulsite, (III) vonsenite (Read prospect), (IV) paigeite and norden
skioldine).

with 0.2–0.75% tin at their total resources of 1 million alterations of skarns of the York Range and Ear Mount as
tons. They are associated with wolframite (in greisens) host rocks were studied insufficiently, while the main
and scheelite (in skarns) mineralization (<0.6% WO3). attention was focused on the greisenized granites and
The resources of the beryllium ores consisting of chryso dikes of the Lost River Mine and Tin City with economic
beryl are estimated at 2 million tons at 0.2% Be and higher grade concentrations of cassiterite and wolframite.
with allowance for lowgrade ores (0.04–0.07% Be and The factual material was collected by the author from
up to 0.3% Sn). While developing the deposits, it is ratio the skarn–ore deposits of the York Range, Alaska, in 1973
nal to extract from ores not only cassiterite but also other and 1979.
types of minerals, including fluorite. Our study was aimed at revealing genetic sequence of
Data of Knopf [4] on the mineralogy of metasomatites the evolution of magnesian and superimposed calcareous
from the York Range deposits indicate the wide develop skarns and formation of diverse types of mineralization in
ment of magnesian silicates (forsterite, humites, phlogo them, as well as deciphering greisen processes in granites,
pite, and pyroxenes), which replace carbonate rocks in metasomatites, and carbonate rocks of the Seward Penin
the contact aureoles of the granite massifs. He also identi sula. We considered geochemical features of skarn and ore
fied salite, actinolite, vesuvian, and garnet in the skarns of formation in the metasomatites and evolutionary changes
the Brooks and Ear mounts, Lost River Mine, and Tin in mineral modes of occurrence of boron, fluorine, tin,
Creek Prospect. Chemical compositions of hulsite, tungsten, beryllium, and other elements [14–17].
paigeite, topaz, and zinnwaldite were determined in [4, It was shown that the deposits of the York Range are
5]. As to the all deposits of the Seward Peninsula [2−13], related to the prograde metasomatic alteration of dolo
note that the genesis, composition, and postmagmatic mites and their calcitebearing types in to the magnesian

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1222 ALEKSANDROV
skarns at the contact aureoles of the Brooks, Ear, Cape,
and Tin Creek granite intrusions, and Lost River stock. All
types of mineralization in the region are postmagmatic
and localized in the calciphyres and skarns, as well as in
the superimposed calcareous assemblages and greisens
containing sulfides, beryllium ores, and fluorite. We stud
ied the composition of skarns and their ore potential,
including occurrences of the borate, tin, and other types
of mineralization at the Seward Peninsula [14–17].
GENESIS OF MAGNESIAN SKARNS
In the Lost River basin and Ear and Cape mounts
(Fig. 1), the Paleozoic Port Clarence Formation is repre
sented by dolomitic, calcdolomitic, and calcareous mar
bles intercalated with schists [4, 8]. Carbonate sequences
are marbleized and intruded by biotite granites, with mag
nesian skarns formed at prograde (magmatic) stage of
metasomatism in their outercontacts [14–18]. Synge
netic metasomatites were found only in the eastern
flank of the Cape Mount massif, where calcitic marbles
at the contact with the intrusion were replaced by pla
gioclase fringe. Similar processes were noted in the con
tacts of the Chybagalakh granite massif of the Selenny
akh Range in Yakutia [15, p. 65].
Granite Intrusions and Temperature Regime
of their Formation
Nine multiphase hypabyssal intrusions of biotite gran
ites are known in the northwest of the Seward Peninsula
[3–13, 15, 18–20]. It is supposed that at depth they are
merged into a single batholith. This follows from data of
Sainsbury, who found xenoliths of coarsegrained granites
in the lamprophyre dikes in the Rapid River area [10].
The K–Ar age of the granite intrusions accounts for
77–80 Ma, which corresponds to the Late Cretaceous
[19, 20]. In this respect, they are similar to the granite
intrusions of the Verkhoyan–Chukotka area of Russia,
where their emplacement in the Paleozoic dolomitic
sequences was also accompanied by the formation of the
magnesian skarns with superimposed postmagmatic
borate, boron–tin, cassiterite, scheelite, and beryllium
mineralization in them [14–17].
Biotite granites in the western part of the Seward Pen
insula are characterized by high SiO2 content: from 72.7
to 77.1 wt % SiO2 in the Cape Massif, from 72.8 to 73.3%
on Mt. Brooks, from 74 to 76.5% in the Tin Creek area,
from 75.3 to 76.1% in the Lost River stock [10, 19], and
from 70.3 to 75.8% on Mt. Ear [20] (Table 1).
These data make it possible to estimate the thermal
regime of the granitic magmas using the Smith diagram
[21], which is based on the direct correlation between
melting temperature of dry intrusive rocks (from pegma
tites to gabbros) and their SiO2 content [22, 23]. Calcula
tion showed that the temperature of highly siliceous melts
of the Seward Peninsula intrusions varied from 810 to
GEOCHEMISTRY INTERNATIONAL
700°С (Table 1, Fig. 2), at temperature difference (ΔТ)
equal 110°С.
It should be noted that the comparable data on solidi
fication temperatures of volatilebearing (B and F) gra
nitic melts were obtained by Swenson and coauthors
[20]. The crystallization temperatures of the melts are
estimated at 740°С for the early porphyritic granites of
Mount Ear (using biotite geothermomemeter), and less
than 650°С for the late finegrained and highlysiliceous
granites (using plagioclase–orthoclase geothermometer);
ΔТ = 90°С.
Presented data correspond to the temperature condi
tions of the formation of aureoles of early magnesian
skarns of prograde (magmatic) stage at the contacts with
granitic melts. No signs of magmatic replacement of mag
nesian skarns were identified by us in the outercontacts of
the granites of Brooks, Ear, and Cape mounts and Tin
area Creek prospect.
The latest magmatic activity in the region is docu
mented by the dikes of pyroxene–biotite–plagioclase
lamprophyres. According to data of Sainsbury [10], their
composition is characterized by 45 wt % SiO2, 13–15%
Al2O3, 7–10% MgO and CaO, 1–3% Na2O, and up to
2.5% K2O, which defines the melt temperature at 1300°С.
Mineral Composition of Magnesian–Skarn Bodies
The magnesian skarns from each studied object of the
Seward Peninsula are characterized by peculiar mineral
ogy and morphology, which are determined by Mg num
ber of replaced carbonate rocks and the influence of dis
junctive tectonics in response to the emplacement of the
intrusions.
Skarn aureoles of the Brooks, Ear, and Cape mounts
and Tin Creek prospect in the immediate contacts with
granites show ubiquitous zoning conformable to the
intrusion contacts. In contrast, in the zones of intense tec
tonic brecciation of carbonate rocks from the intrusion
roof, they compose both nearcontact and telescoped
stringerstockwork bodies vertically rising for hundreds of
meters. The degree of saturation of host rocks in skarn
veins above the Lost River granitic stock reaches from 50
to 30 vol % and subsequently decreases (Fig. 3). In the
dolomitic marbles intercalated with schists, the skarn
veins are also zoned and show rhythmicallybanded struc
ture (Fig. 4), but schists reveal only fluidconductive
channels.
On Mt. Brooks (Fig, 1), the infiltration magnesian
skarns replace dolomites and their calcitebearing variet
ies, and their total thickness exceeds 100–150 m. The
replacement of dolomites by rhythmicallybanded peri
clase marbles in the outercontact aureole (Fig. 5) marks
the hypabyssal nature of metasomatites and their affilia
tion to the periclase facies [17]. Inward, this zone grades
into spinel–forsterite calciphyres, spinel–diopside calci
phyres or skarns, and rarely, plagioclase–pyroxene near
Vol. 48 No. 12 2010
 SKARN–GREISEN DEPOSITS OF THE LOST RIVER AND MOUNT EAR ORE FIELD 1223

Table 1. Composition of granites from the Seward Peninsula, Alaska, United States, wt % [19, 20]

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

SiO2 72.71 74.17 77.08 72.76 73.51 73.30 75.28 75.73 74.07 71.35 75.45
TiO2 0.30 0.28 0.02 0.33 0.28 0.27 0.03 0.02 0.27 0.21 0.03
Al2O3 14.27 13.06 13.73 13.39 13.51 13.34 13.02 13.63 13.38 12.84 13.26
Fe2O3 0.28 0.22 0.00 0.35 0.96 0.69 0.14 0.24 1.21 0.59 0.13
FeO 1.66 1.53 0.26 1.62 1.28 1.15 0.78 0.56 0.75 1.30 0.78
MgO 0.31 0.40 0.02 0.28 0.17 0.28 0.13 0.19 0.27 0.28 0.02
CaO 1.13 1.13 0.28 1.16 0.85 0.71 0.57 0.63 0.70 1.02 0.61
MnO 0.06 0.06 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.11 0.05 0.04 0.04
Na2O 2.92 3.12 4.28 3.12 3.22 3.22 3.28 3.47 3.15 2.88 3.56
K2O 5.31 4.82 4.15 5.46 5.53 5.56 4.45 4.70 5.56 4.97 4.46
P2O5 0.16 0.10 0.05 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.03 0.00 0.08 0.09 0.02
Cl 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05 – 0.10 – –
F 0.18 0.21 0.02 0.24 0.28 0.18 0.30 0.55 0.51 – –
CO2 0.06 0.22 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.18 0.07 0.02 – –
H2O+ 0.64 0.40 0.24 0.40 0.60 0.46 0.64 1.17 0.19 – –
H2O– 0.20 0.28 0.10 0.28 0.21 0.17 0.71 – 0.05 – –
L.O.I – – – – – – – – – 0.95 0.58
Σtot 100.19 100.01 100.25 99.60 99.96 99.55 99.56 101.07 100.36 98.52 98.94
–O=F 0.08 0.09 0.01 0.11 0.12 0.08 0.13 0.23 0.15 – –
Σcorr 100.11 99.92 100.24 99.49 99.84 99.47 99.43 100.84 100.21 98.52 98.94
T°C 765 730 665 765 745 715 710 695 735 690 695
Q 32.58 35.22 35.68 31.40 31.71 32.17 39.03 – 32.94 35.35 30.08
Ort 31.41 28.59 24.48 32.52 32.80 33.09 26.64 – 32.95 30.10 27.08
Ab 24.73 26.42 36.16 26.17 27.35 27.07 28.11 – 26.74 24.98 37.91
An 2.97 2.10 0.76 3.37 1.45 1.50 – – 2.83 4.58 2.99
Fs 2.44 2.29 0.46 2.23 1.19 1.20 1.32 – 0.03 1.67 1.21
Note: Granites: (1) porphyritic, (2) inequigranular, (3) aplites, Mt. Cape, (4) equigranular, (5, 6) porphyritic, Mt. Brooks; (7, 8) equigranular
[19], Lost River Mine; (9) equigranular, Tin Creek stock; (10) inequigranular, and (11) equigranular [20], Mt. Ear. T°C calculated
temperature of granitic melt. Mineral composition of granites (in wt %): Q—quartz; Ort—orthoclase, Ab—albite, An—anorthite,
and Fs—mafic minerals.

skarn metasomatites at the contacts with intrusion. Spinel
with from 2 to 10 mol % FeAl2O4 contains up to 2.5 wt %
ZnO (Table 2).
The magnesian skarns of Ear Mount are known only
in the northern part of the intrusive massif (area of Wind
feld shaft) and have insignificant thickness (Fig. 1). Their
aureole is made up of rhythmically banded spinel–mag
netite–pyroxene skarns and forsterite calciphyres (with
chondrodite), while periclase marbles are absent.
The postmagmatic overprint of magnesian skarns by
calcskarn associations is expressed in the subsequent
development of silicates in them: salite, actinolite, vesu
vian, and garnet after pyroxene, containing paigeite. The
latter is replaced by rhombic vonsenite and previously
unknown here nordenskioldine (±magnetite). Magnetite
contains fine dissemination of late cassiterite. Axinite
rocks with cassiterite, datolite, and fluorite (Windfeld
shaft) are locally developed at the contacts of granites with
schists, while greisenized pyroxene skarns and granites
contain tourmaline, mica (including zinnwaldite) and
fluorite.
On Mt. Cape, the outercontact aureole of the intru
sion is made up of pyroxene skarns and humite (after for
sterite) calciphyres, with no periclase marbles. This area is

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1224 ALEKSANDROV

T melt, °С
1500
Dunite

1400

Lamprophyre
1300
Gabbro
1200

1100 Diorite

Quartz diorite
1000
Granodiorite
900
Granite
800 Pegmatite
ΔT °C
700
Granites of the
Seward Peninsula

40 50 60 70 SiO2, wt %
Fig. 2. Temperatures of granite and lamprophyre melts (according to data of Smith [21]).

characterized by intense replacement of diopside by salite
and tremolite in skarns and greisenization of intrusive
rocks with formation of cassiterite in quartz–tourma
line–muscovite greisens after granites and tourmaline in
the metasomatites.
In the Tin Creek prospect, the magnesian skarns after
dolomites are rimmed by coarsegrained calcites and rep
resented by rhythmically banded magnetite–spinel–
diopside rocks (Fig. 6). They are in immediate contact
with leucocratic granites and cut by aplite veins, which
indicates their formation at the prograde (magmatic)
stage of dolomite replacement.
Note that the calcareous rocks of the Seward Penin
sula show no subsequent replacement by wollastonite,
hedenbergite, ilvaite, andradite, and quartz, which is
typomorphic of postmagmatic calcareous skarns [16, 17].
Structure of Metasomatites
The replacement of marbles of the York Range by
magnesian skarns and postskarn mineral assemblages
occurred under thermodynamically disequilibrium con
ditions [24]. This follows from almost ubiquitous develop
ment of rhythmically banded structures in all types of
metasomatites (Figs. 4–6). They are made up of repeated
nonintersecting morphologically intricate monomineral
bands, which take their origin from contact with intrusive
rocks or from tectonic fissures in marbles. Such structures
result from subsequent competitive reactions between
oversaturated endogenous fluids and carbonate rocks. It
was shown [24] that the higher rate of chemical reactions
of mineral formation compared to the rate of influx of
oversaturated hydrothermal fluids into replaced rocks is a
necessary condition for formation of rhythmic zoning.
Rhythmically banded magnetite–pyroxene skarns in
the Tin Creek prospect were found by Knopf [4]. He also
noted that these skarns are structurally and mineralogi
cally similar to those from the Pitkäranta ore field in Kare
lia, which were described for the first time by Trustedt [25]
and served as a basis for the substantiation of Liesegang’s
theory on the role of diffusion in geology [26].
At the deposits of the Seward Peninsula, these struc
tures were found not only in the skarns of the Lost River
basin and Mt. Ear but also in the framing periclase mar
bles and boronbearing calciphyres at the Crystal Creek
(east tributary of the Lost River) and Mint River (Mt.
Brooks) watershed. The rhythmicallybanded structures
are also observed in the beryllium ores of Lost River Mine,

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 SKARN–GREISEN DEPOSITS OF THE LOST RIVER AND MOUNT EAR ORE FIELD 1225

(a)
N

ke
di
ll

k
Be 9

ee
S a

Cr
Id

ite
3

t er
Ca

s si
ssi

Ca
te
rit
ed
1 ik
e
5
4
8

2
A B
2

Symbols:
1 – Carbonate rocks
2 – granites and greisens after them
3 – aplite dikes
Stringerstockwork zones of
greisenized skarns of
diverse degree of saturation
4 – 30–50 vol %
5 – 30–25 vol %
6 7 6 – 25–10 vol %
7 – less than vol %
8 – breccia zone
9 – tectonic disruptions
100 m

(b) B 1
A
9
Cassiterite Creek
5
2 4
7

100 m
3

Fig. 3. Geological scheme of the Lost River deposit (according to Sainsburry [10]). (a) plan, (b) vertical section across line A–B.

Cassiterite Creek (Fig. 7), Camp Creek, Tin Creek, and the all stages of the prograde and retrograde mineral for
Rapid River [12]. mation. The rhythmicallybanded structures of the rocks
Thus, at the deposits of the Seward Peninsula, the are inherited or reproduced during precipitation of post
thermodynamically disequilibrium regime preserved at magmatic rockforming and ore minerals.

GEOCHEMISTRY INTERNATIONAL Vol. 48 No. 12 2010

1226 ALEKSANDROV

1 cm 1 cm

Fig. 4. Veins of rhythmically banded magnetitebearing pyrox

ene skarns with newly formed vesuvian, garnet, tourmaline,
and fluorite in the humite calciphyres (light part). Lost River, Fig. 5. Rhythmicallybanded periclase marble. Mt. Brooks,
sample AC0997. sample AC0246.

POSTMAGMATIC MINERAL tous brucitization of periclase marbles with the preserva

AND ORE FORMATION
Retrograde processes significantly affect the mineral
composition of all types of metasomatites and nearcon
tact granites. On Mt. Brooks, this is expressed in ubiqui
tion of relicts of periclase (Table 2). A gradual increase of
F content in the hydrothermal solutions leads to the
replacement of spinel by phlogopite (Table 3), clintonite,
and clinochlore in marbles, while forsterite in calciphyres
is replaced by Fbearing minerals of humite series

Table 2. Composition of minerals from the magnesian skarns of Mt. Brooks, wt %

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SiO2 0.03 0.00 0.04 0.05 0.03 53.40 53.47 0.04 0.06 43.13
TiO2 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.28 0.06 0.08 63.83 0.04 0.00
SnO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.08 0.00 0.05 0.06 0.10 0.00
Al2O3 0.00 0.02 0.09 68.27 59.87 0.92 0.98 0.01 0.03 36.72
MgO 21.14 1.60 72.23 25.23 25.02 16.11 16.22 20.14 0.08 0.00
FeO 0.29 0.02 0.48 2.01 10.83 2.85 2.96 15.01 91.82 0.00
MnO – – 0.07 0.05 0.15 0.09 0.07 – 0.21 0.00
ZnO – – – – 2.03 – – – 0.00 –
CaO 29.61 54.03 0.05 0.14 0.05 25.01 – 0.02 0.04 19.81
Na2O – – – – – 0.14 0.13 – – –
B2O3 – – 1.41 0.00 – – – – – –
F 0.05 0.00 0.08 0.03 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 – –
H2Ocorr – – 25.29 – – – – – – –
CO2 calc 47.76 43.87 0.02 – – – – – – –
Σtot 98.92 99.54 99.74 95.84 98.47 98.58 99.65 99.11 92.38 99.66
–O=F 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 – –
Σcorr 98.90 99.54 99.72 95.83 98.42 98.58 99.65 99.11 92.38 99.66
Note: (1) dolomite, (2) calcite, (3) partially brucitized periclase, (4) spinel, (5) Znbearing spinel, (6, 7) diopside, (8) geikielite, (9) magne
tite, and (10) anorthite. Minerals (Tables 1–5) were analyzed by M.A. Troneva (Central Chemical Laboratory, Vernadsky Institute of
Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences) on a Camebax and SX100 Cameca microprobe (France) at
accelerating voltage of 15 kV and beam current of 30 nA. Diopside, olivine, fluorite, and other minerals were used as standards, and
danburite monocrystal was used as standard for boron determination. Crystal chemical formulas of the minerals are listed in text.

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 SKARN–GREISEN DEPOSITS OF THE LOST RIVER AND MOUNT EAR ORE FIELD 1227

10 cm 5 cm

Fig. 6. Rhythmicallybanded spinel–magnetite–pyrox

ene skarn with newly formed vesuvian. Tin Creek, sample Fig. 7. Rhythmically banded veins of chrysoberyl with relics of
AC0655. replaced marble. Lost River, sample AC0955.

nMg2SiO4 ⋅ Mg(F,OH)2 represented by clinohumite,
chondrodite, and norbergite (Table 3).
This process is syngenetic with development of intense
borate mineralization in the Mt. Brooks aureole. Our
studies showed that the borate mineralization is repre
sented by endogenous magnesium borates, previously
unknown in Alaska, which replace dolomites in marbles
and calciphyres: abundant kotoite Mg3[BO3]2 and rarer
suanite Mg2B2O5 [27, 28] (Table 3).
Kotoite marbles contain Mg–Fe borates: rhombic
magnesioludwigite and monoclinic magnesiohulsite of
variable composition with a common formula
6+
(Mg,Fe2+)2{Fe3+,Al,Sn4+Ti4+ Mg ) 0.5 }[BO3]O2 (Table 4).
They show the isovalent substitution of Mg and Fe2+ and
heterovalent substitution of Fe3+ for Al, Sn, and Ti [29].
They associate with humitegroup minerals and
borates that are new for this region of Alaska: pertsevite

Table 3. Composition of magnesium silicates and borates in the metasomatites of Mt. Brooks, wt %
Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SiO2 41.02 37.34 35.79 33.95 29.15 43.81 0.00 0.04 0.42 12.56
TiO2 0.00 1.09 0.07 0.29 0.11 0.19 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.00
SnO2 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00
Al2O3 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.00 12.89 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00
MgO 50.87 56.54 59.11 58.31 58.65 24.18 53.77 63.27 64.40 61.32
FeO 8.01 1.98 0.79 0.94 0.22 0.79 1.39 0.18 0.30 2.27
MnO – – 0.10 – 0.02 0.01 0.50 0.01 – 0.17
CaO 0.20 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.20 0.00 0.01 0.09 0.00 0.00
Na2O – – – – – 0.66 – – – –
K2O – – – – – 9.99 – – – –
B2O3 – – 1.09 – – 0.32 42.20 36.48 27.60 15.97
F 0.05 3.43 4.80 6.06 20.11 4.62 0.00 0.00 0.11 6.71
H2O – 0.93 – 2.91 – 4.41 – 0.00 7.20 3.45
Σtot 100.18 101.43 101.91 102.53 108.46 101.87 100.15 100.08 100.03 102.45
–O=F 0.02 1.44 2.02 2.55 8.77 1.94 0.00 0.00 0.04 2.82
Σcorr 100.16 99.99 99.89 99.98 99.69 99.93 100.15 100.08 99.99 99.63
Note: (1) chrysolite, (2) clinohumite, (3) humite, (4) chondrodite, (5) norbergite, (6) phlogopite, (7) suanite, (8) kotoite, (9) hydrated
kotoite, and (10) highSi pertzevite.

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1228 ALEKSANDROV

Table 4. Composition of tinbearing magnesium–iron and calcium borates, wt %

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SiO2 – – – 0.07 0.04 0.10 0.13 0.26 0.11 0.66
TiO2 1.01 11.43 4.94 0.07 0.18 0.10 0.10 0.29 0.17 0.00
SnO2 1.92 11.92 21.34 1.72 0.95 12.65 7.71 5.68 51.28 52.63
Al2O3 11.68 0.83 1.09 1.97 0.41 0.69 0.11 0.10 0.05 0.04
MgO 44.19 51.72 48.47 23.35 2.09 16.83 7.17 1.82 0.00 0.00
FeO 22.33 6.36 6.32 55.92 77.45 51.12 65.21 73.45 0.35 0.21
MnO – – – 0.42 1.05 1.18 1.56 1.10 0.05 0.06
CaO – – – – – – – – 20.11 21.48
B2O3 18.94 18.59 17.72 15.88 13.02 14.31 13.17 12.91 24.52 24.89
Σtot 100.07 100.85 99.88 99.33 95.19 96.98 95.16 95.61 97.60 99.97
Note: (1) magnesioludwigite with high aluminum content, (2) the same, hightitanium; (3) the same, hightin [29]; (4) ludwigite [28],
Mt. Brooks; (5) vonsenite [27], Mt. Ear; (6) hulsite [27]; (7) paigeite [27], Mt. Brooks, (8) the same [27], Mt. Ear; and (9) nordenski
oldine containing 1.01% ZrO2, Mt. Ear, (10) the same, Mt. Brooks.

Table 5. Composition of rockforming calcskarn minerals, wt %

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SiO2 52.89 40.20 35.52 37.89 37.36 38.59 36.97 30.14 30.96 51.78
TiO2 0.06 0.01 0.00 0.53 0.20 0.42 0.00 35.91 23.69 0.04
SnO2 0.05 0.03 0.04 1.19 1.04 0.04 0.10 1.54 3.41 0.00
Al2O3 0.45 13.08 15.32 10.10 4.95 17.64 20.62 2.39 9.43 0.03
MgO 13.50 15.53 2.26 4.49 0.19 0.14 0.10 0.02 0.03 0.00
FeO 7.90 13.63 5.68 26.69 21.08 6.12 5.10 0.05 0.63 0.73
MnO 0.05 0.48 0.97 0.57 0.49 0.17 15.69 0.00 0.04 0.27
CaO 24.41 0.00 33.73 10.89 33.19 35.57 19.41 29.09 28.40 46.41
Na2O 0.22 0.06 0.09 – – – 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.08
K2O 0.01 10.56 0.01 – – – 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02
B2O3 0.21 0.00 0.94 1.14 – 0.00 1.14 – 0.00 0.00
F 0.11 3.15 1.83 0.51 – 0.00 0.28 0.54 4.57 0.05
H2O – 4.32 4.30 6.09 – – – – 0.53 –
Σtot 99.86 101.05 100.69 100.09 98.50 98.69 99.34 99.73 101.69 98.41
–O=F 0.05 1.32 0.77 0.21 – – 0.12 0.23 1.92 0.02
Σcorr 99.81 99.73 99.92 99.88 98.50 98.69 99.22 99.50 99.77 99.39
Note: (1) salite, (2) ferriphlogopite, (3) vesuvian, (4) actinolite, Mt. Ear, (5) andradite, Mt. Brooks, (6) grossular, Mt. Ear, (7) grossular, Lost
River Mine, (8) titanite, Mt. Brooks, (9) the same, Mt. Ear; and (10) wollastonite, Mt. Ear.

Mg2{[BO3](F,OH)}1 – x[SiO4]x (Table 3) after kotoite and
fluoborite Mg3[BO3](F,OH)3 [30, 31]. In terms of content
of Fbearing component (from 30 to 95 mol %), the latter
reaches nocherite Mg3[BO3]F3 in association with norb
ergite in calciphyres with fluorite, but lack sellaite MgF2,
which is typical of other skarngreisen manifestations of
fluoborates [30].
In the spinel–pyroxene calciphyres of Mt. Brooks, the
postmagmatic minerals are represented by phlogopite and
superimposed calcskarn assemblages consisting of clin
tonite, salite, and vesuvian (Table 5). They are syngenetic
with borates: hulsite and paigeite of increasing and high
Fe mole fraction at variable tin content [27, 28].
Albearing garnets of the andradite–grossular series
associated with highFe hulsite (paigeite) were formed
later (Table 4). The tin content in the paigeite gradually
decreases with decrease of Mg content in it and associated
silicates: salites, vesuvians, actinolites, tourmalines, and
garnets.

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 SKARN–GREISEN DEPOSITS OF THE LOST RIVER AND MOUNT EAR ORE FIELD 1229

Table 6. Composition of boroaluminosilicates and borosilicates, wt %

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SiO2 43.08 41.74 35.71 36.20 36.05 31.94 35.92 34.25 48.90 36.74
TiO2 0.00 0.03 0.39 0.13 0.10 0.68 0.15 0.02 0.01 0.02
SnO2 0.17 0.02 0.10 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.00 0.07
Al2O3 17.32 17.47 25.90 28.82 27.46 30.43 29.87 31.78 0.01 0.02
MgO 1.34 0.94 10.22 12.39 10.03 0.04 7.61 5.54 0.00 0.00
FeO 9.40 4.93 10.18 3.09 7.32 18.65 8.09 9.16 0.02 0.15
MnO 1.07 6.01 0.05 0.02 0.08 0.18 0.31 0.35 0.00 0.01
CaO 19.34 19.47 4.42 2.15 2.61 1.08 0.48 1.02 22.77 34.96
Na2O 0.02 0.02 1.42 1.38 1.61 2.15 2.71 2.48 0.02 0.02
K2O 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00
B2O3 6.57 6.66 8.41 7.72 8.07 12.14 10.76 12.99 28.30 22.31
F 0.10 0.00 1.49 1.19 1.12 0.34 1.16 0.16 0.00 0.00
Σtot 98.40 97.30 98.29 93.15 94.45 97.72 97.17 97.85 99.87 94.30
–O=F 0.04 0.00 0.35 0.50 0.48 0.14 0.49 0.07 0.00 0.00
Σcorr 98.36 97.30 97.94 92.65 94.06 97.58 96.68 97.78 99.87 94.30
Note: (1) axinite, Mt. Ear; (2) the same, Mt. Brooks; (3) tourmaline (uvite), Mt. Ear; (4, 5) tourmaline (dravite), Mt. Brooks; (6) tourmaline
(schorl), Mt. Brooks, (7, 8) tourmaline (dravite), Lost River Mine, (9) Danburite, Mt. Brooks, and (10) datolite, Mt. Ear.

The replacement products of paigeite are rhombic
2+
highFe vonsenite Fe 2 Fe3+[BO3]O2, nordenskioldine
CaSn[BO3]2 (Table 4) [15, 28], and cassiterite, which
inherit tin from Mg–Fe borates, in the presence of mag
netite and fluorite. Such associations with scheelite were
found in the skarns of Brooks and Ear mounts [28].
The formation of wollastonite accompanied by subse
quent development of danburite and tinbearing titanite
after skarns in the immediate contacts with granites
accomplishes the replacement of magnesian skarns by cal
careous assemblages. In addition, the altered schists of the
Ear and Brooks mounts often contain axinite. The com
position of axinite from Mt. Brooks corresponds to the
formula (Ca2.0Fe0.5Mn0.3Mg0.2)3Al2[BO3][Si4O12](OH)
(Table 6).
An increase of acidity in the Fbearing hydrothermal
solutions resulted in the development of tourmaline–
albite greisens with Kfeldspar relicts after granites, as well
as quartz–topaz–muscovite metasomatites with zin
nwalidte (Table 7), rutile, and titanite (Table 5). Adjacent
skarns contain cuspidine (Table 7).
Acid stage is completed by local formation of iron ars
enide (loellingite) and sulfides (stannine, chalcopyrite,
pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite, and bou
langerite) (Table 8) in the magnetitebearing metasoma
tites of Mt. Brooks (Read Prospect in the head waters of
the Crystal Creek), Mt. Ear (Windfeld Mine), and Lost
River (Bessie and Maple prospect) [4, 32].
The late alkaline stage in the aureole of Mt. Brooks
was responsible for the hydration of early magnesian
borates with formation of szaibelyite Mg2B2O5 ⋅ H2O
after suanite and replacement of magnesiohulsite
Mg2(Sn0.5Mg0.5)3+[BO3]O2 by schoenfliesite MgSn(OH)6
[33]. Our data showed that this stannate contains ferrous
iron (approximately 5 mol % natanite Fe2+Sn(OH)6) and
an insignificant isomorphic admixture of wickmanite
MnSn(OH)6 and burtite СaSn(OH)6.
Mineralogically, the metasomatic aureoles of the Tin
Creek, Rapid River, and Lost River Mine strongly differ
from those of the Brooks and Ear mounts. In particular,
the host rocks of the Tin Creek leucocratic granites and
apical part of the Lost River stringer stockwork do not
contain periclase marbles and endogenous borates.
Skarns rimmed by humite calciphyres and consisting
mainly of pyroxene (+spinel and magnetite) rhythmi
cally–banded rocks were noted in the Lost River. In Tin
Creek, they grade into coarsegrained calcite and are
ubiquitously replaced by salite, vesuvian, and, more rarely,
garnet, in the presence of tourmaline (Tables 5 and 6) and
fluorite.
In the Tin Creek prospect, Sainsbury [10] noted cas
siterite and beryllium minerals: danalite (Fe,
Mn,Zn)4Be2[SiO4]2S, chrysoberyl BeAl2O4, and others.
Danalite associates with magnetite and sulfides, while
chrysoberyl composes rhythmicallybanded stringers,
which are conformable to the fluidconductive fissures in
skarns (Fig. 7). In this area, we also found structurally sim
ilar metasomatites consisted of ankerite after dolomites.
In the Rapid River thrust fault and along the Camp
Creek (southern part of the York Range), silicate metaso

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Table 7. Composition of minerals from greisenized skarns and granites, wt %

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SiO2 31.78 32.65 31.95 0.84 64.18 30.00 46.80 33.28 70.18 32.52
TiO2 0.02 0.00 0.00 97.81 0.00 0.00 – 0.04 0.02 0.01
SnO2 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.16 0.00 0.00 – 0.01 0.01 0.10
Al2O3 54.83 55.00 54.69 0.28 18.09 47.43 24.50 37.86 20.32 0.04
MgO 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.15 – 6.85 0.03 0.20
FeO 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.17 0.02 0.44 6.80 1.48 0.03 0.21
MnO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.10 1.38 0.28 0.00 –
CaO 0.00 0.06 0.03 0.43 0.06 10.21 0.24 4.25 0.09 58.98
Na2O 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.85 3.62 1.73 1.17 8.45 –
K2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 15.37 0.06 9.20 4.30 0.11 –
B2O3 – – – – 0.22 0.00 – – 0.26 0.00
F 22.33 16.52 20.65 0.00 0.27 0.51 8.63 2.61 0.07 13.98
H2O – – – – – – 0.88 – – –
Σtot 109.04 104.29 107.39 99.72 99.14 92.53 103.89 92.13 99.57 106.04
–O=F 9.37 6.94 8.67 0.00 0.11 0.21 3.63 1.10 0.03 5.87
Σcorr 99.67 97.35 98.72 99.72 99.03 92.32 100.26 91.01 99.54 100.17
Note: (1) topaz, Lost River, (2) the same, Mt. Brooks, (3) the same, Bessie and Maple Prospect, (4) rutile, Mt. Brooks, (5) muscovite,
Mt. Brooks, (6) margarite, Lost River; (7) zinnwaldite with 3.73% Li2O [4], Lost River; (8) ephesite, Lost River, (9) albite, Mt. Brooks,
and (10) cuspidine, Mt. Brooks.

Table 8. Composition of sulfides from the deposits of the Seward Peninsula, wt %

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fe 3.54 4.07 1.68 1.48 0.00 0.19 33.03 11.94 29.91 30.38
Cu 29.33 26.48 0.34 0.82 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.02 34.85 0.00
Sn 26.83 28.68 0.14 0.33 0.15 0.80 0.03 0.01 0.12 0.05
Zn 10.86 10.43 63.36 62.65 0.04 0.02 0.00 54.49 0.28 0.01
Cd – – – – – – 0.00 0.52 0.00 0.01
Pb 0.00 0.36 0.03 0.03 86.15 54.39 – – – –
Ag – – – – – – 0.00 0.04 0.18 0.05
As – – – – – – 47.90 0.04 0.10 66.79
Sb – – – – – 26.19 0.13 0.00 0.02 0.03
S 28.65 29.83 33.90 33.25 13.07 17.96 18.21 33.03 34.27 2.51
Σtot 99.21 99.85 99.45 98.56 99.46 99.56 99.30 100.09 99.73 99.80
Note: (1, 2) stannine, (3, 4) sphalerite, (5) galena, (6) boulangerite, Bessie and Maple area; (7) arsenopyrite, (8) sphalerite, (9) chalcopyrite,
and (10) loellingite, Mt. Brooks, Read area.

matites are not exposed, but stringerstockwork bodies
with chrysoberyl and fluorite were found in marbles
[13]. Rocks with cassiterite, galena, and sphalerite dis
semination were recovered beneath these bodies by
drilling (Fig. 8).
The Lost River Mine (Cassiterite Creek and Camp
Creek areas) is characterized by the development of
highly greisenized skarns. The latter mainly occur as
stringers above granite stocks and in the brecciation zone
of carbonate roof, which was intruded by late alaskite
dikes (Fig. 3). Nearcontact and rising bodies of rhythmi
callybanded stringer–stockwork metasomatites show a
primitive zoning [16, 17] and compose a dense network of
stringers in marbles. Spinel–magnetite–pyroxene rocks,
which are replaced by garnet, tourmaline, and fluorite and
surrounded by humite calciphyres and marbles, are devel
oped near granite contact and along fluidconductive fis
sures.
In the exposures along Cassiterite Creek and in the
cores of Lost River Mine, the superimposed calcskarn

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 SKARN–GREISEN DEPOSITS OF THE LOST RIVER AND MOUNT EAR ORE FIELD
N
Cam Creek
3
1 2
100 4
0 100
0 0m
Fig. 8. Geological scheme of the beryllium ore lode. Camp Creek (according to data of Sainsburry [13]).
Symbols: (1) carbonate rocks of the Port Clarence Formation, (2) tectonic disturbances, (3) main ore zone, and (4) ore zone with low
beryllium content.
assemblages are made up of salite, vesuvian, and garnet.
Their subsequent greisenization is expressed in the
appearance of variable to significant amounts of tourma
line (uvite) after silicates, as well as calcite and fluorite.
Cassiterite is scarce. Nordenskioldine was established as
the late borate.
Tourmalines are the widest spread boroaluminosili
cates of greisenized metasomatites and granites of the
Seward Peninsula [34]. Depending on the composition of
host rocks, they show variations in Fe mole fraction (max
imal in schorl), Mg mole fraction (high in dravites), and
contents of not only sodium but also calcium and magne
sium (in uvites) at steadily low F content (Table 6).
In the albitized granites of Mt. Brooks (Mint River
basin), tourmalines are represented by schorl (0.2–
0.3 wt % MgO, 18–19% FeO, 0.5–1% CaO, approxi
mately 2% Na2O, and from 8 to 10.5% В2О3) in associa
tion with quartz, micas, and rutile. Tourmalines from
adjacent skarns show increase in dravite component:
4.5–8 wt % MgO, 8.5–12% FeO, 1.52% CaO, 1.5–2%
Na2O, and 6.5–10.6% B2O3.
In the stringerstockwork aureole of the Lost River
deposit, the tourmalines associate with magnetite, garnet,
ferriphlogopite, calcite, and fluorite. They contain
approximately 5.5% MgO, 9.5–10% FeO, 1.5–2.5 %
CaO, 2–2.5% Na2O, and from 7 to 9% В2О3, which indi
cates the presence of dravite and uvite end members.
The highest uvite contents are observed in the tourma
lines from the fluoritebearing salite–vesuvian skarns on
Mt. Ear. They contain > 10 wt % MgO, > 4% CaO, from
8 to 10% FeO, 1.4% Na2O, and from 8 to 12% В2О3,
whereas tourmaline in the granites from Mt. Ear [20] is
represented by schorl. Greisenized granites of Mt. Cape
(Tin City) typically contain schorl, while pyroxene skarns
comprise uvite associated with cassiterite.
Greisens of different composition are observed in the
dikes of leucocratic granites and adjacent carbonate rocks
GEOCHEMISTRY INTERNATIONAL Vol. 48 No. 12
1231
400
1
200
2
200 m
of the Lost River deposit. Metasomatites developed after
granites are represented by fluoritebearing quartz–
topaz–mica rocks. Their micas in composition corre
spond to muscovite and zinnwaldite [4]. Greisens after
carbonate rocks lack quartz, while mica corresponds to
margarite CaAl2(Al2Si2)O10(OH)2 and/or ephesite
NaLiAl2(Al2Si2)O10(OH)2 (Table 7), often accompanied
by chrysoberyl.
Topaz greisens (Table 7) are also known in the Bessie
and Mapple prospect (the right bank of the Lost River,
against the Tin Creek mouth). They are spatially associ
ated with stannine–galena–sphalerite ores (Table 8).
Mineralization in the greisenized dikes is represented
by cassiterite, wolframite, and, rarely, late scheelite
(Table 9). Wolframite crystals are zoned, with cores con
sisting of ferberite and rims represented by wolframite and
even hubnerite (from 85 to 6 mol % FeWO4) (Fig. 9).
Wolframites contain isomorphic admixture of tantalum
and niobium (Table 9). Scheelite is abundant in the
postmagmatically altered magnesian skarns of the
Brooks and Ear mounts, where it replaces pyroxenes
(diopside and salite) and associates with ferriphlogo
pite, actinolite, and calcite.
Beryllium Mineralization of the Lost River Basin
Raremetal metasomatites were found by Sainsbury
[9] in the Tin Creek, Cassiterite Creek, Camp Creek, and
Rapid River areas. Beryllium minerals are represented by
danalite in the magnetitebearing skarns and chrysoberyl
in marbles. In addition, the mica–quartz greisens contain
phenakite Be2SiO4, beryl Be3Al2Si6O18, euclase
BeAlSiO4(OH), and bertrandite Be4Si2O7(OH)2 [13].
Chrysoberyl [35] contains 77.45–77.67 wt % Аl2O3,
0.07–0.18% MgO, 0.05–0.14% FeO, and 0.05% SiO2,
which implies the presence of 22% BeO. The mineral is
associated with fluorite, corundum, and diaspore, being
2010
1232 ALEKSANDROV

Table 9. Composition of cassiterite, wolframite, and scheelite from the greisens of the Lost River Mine, wt %
Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7* 8 9 10
WO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 74.27 75.42 75.46 74.83 75.46 75.92 78.91
SiO2 0.18 0.21 0.18 0.08 0.04 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.04 0.05
TiO2 0.15 0.04 0.01 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.06 0.04
SnO2 99.34 98.75 99.31 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.00
Al2O3 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
MgO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.04
FeO 0.12 0.22 0.18 19.23 13.93 11.36 7.11 2.84 1.58 0.25
MnO 0.05 0.00 0.00 4.74 8.37 12.38 15.91 20.27 21.39 0.18
CaO 0.04 0.43 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 20.15
F 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.11 0.16 0.33 0.11 0.12 0.11 0.83
Σtot 99.92 99.75 99.92 98.60 98.03 99.73 99.39 98.93 99.19 100.44
–O=F 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.07 0.14 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.35
Σcorr 99.92 99.73 99.92 98.55 97.96 99.59 99.34 98.88 99.14 100.09
FeWO4, % – – – 80 62 47 31 12 7 –
Note: Note: (1–3) cassiterite, (4, 5) ferberite, (6–8) wolframite, (9) hubnerite, and (10) scheelite. * wolframite (Fe0.31Mn0.69)WO4, contain
ing 0.42 wt % Nb2O5 and 0.71% Ta2O5

distributed along the periphery of aureoles of intense post In the Lost River valley, the largescale chrysoberyl
skarn tourmalinization of stringer–stockwork metasoma mineralization [13] in the carbonate rocks having variable
tites and in the host marbles (Fig. 7). It composes numer Mg number is traced from Camp Creek to Tin Creek and
ous rhythmicallybanded stringers tens of centimeters Bessie and Maple Prospect and, further, along the Rapid
thick, which are intersected by late quartz veins. River fault in the marbles intruded by a lamprophyre dike.
In the Rapid River fault, it is represented by stockwork in
the dolomitized marbles with zebrarock structures,
which are typical of the Mississippi Valleytype lead–zinc
deposits.
MnWO4, mol %
Presented data indicate that the retrograde mineral
100
formation in the magnesian skarns occurred under
Hubnerite decreasing temperatures of hydrothermal solutions and
can be subdivided into the following stages: early alkaline,
80 acid, late alkaline, and neutral, which are characterized by
subsequent evolution of typomorphic ore associations.
Alterations spanned all rock types, both metasomatites
and granites, but its intensity significantly varies at the dif
60 ferent deposits of the region.
Wolframite
At the early alkaline stage, the change of mineral com
position of the prograde magnesian skarns under the
40 influence of Fbearing solutions leads to the formation of
borate mineralization and syngenetic humites and phlo
gopite, while the nearcontact granites are subjected to
albitization. Subsequent decrease in fluid alkalinity is
20 accompanied by the replacement of pyroxene skarns by
Ferberite calcareous assemblages including aluminoborosilicates
(axinite and tourmaline) and borosilicates (danburite).
The acid stage caused the greisenization of silicate
0 20 40 60 80 100 rocks (including granites): replacement of skarn alumino
FeWO4, mol % silicates by tourmaline and formation of fluorite in meta
somatites and marbles. This is accompanied by the pre
Fig. 9. Composition of wolframites from the cassiteritebear cipitation of cassiterite and wolframite in association with
ing greisens after Lost River granites. topaz and micas in altered aplite dikes. The stage is

GEOCHEMISTRY INTERNATIONAL Vol. 48 No. 12 2010

 SKARN–GREISEN DEPOSITS OF THE LOST RIVER AND MOUNT EAR ORE FIELD
accomplished by the formation of arsenides (loellingite)
and diverse sulfides against increasing alkalinity of solu
tions.
The late alkaline stage at the skarn deposits of the York
Range consists in the hysterogenous change of rock
forming silicates and magnesium and magnesium–iron
tinbearing borates accompanied by precipitation of sza
beyleite and magnesium stannates, datolites, beryllium
minerals, diaspore, and even gangue quartz.
At the final neutral stage, silicates and borates are sub
jected to local carbonatization, while calcareous marbles
are subject to dolomitization.
CONCLUSIONS
Presented data on the skarn–greisen deposits of the
Lost River basin and Brooks, Ear, and Cape mounts (York
Range, Seward Peninsula, Alaska) demonstrate a com
plex genetic sequence of conjugate evolutionary processes
of skarn and ore formation in this region of United States.
Its metallogeny is allied to that of the skarn deposits of tin,
boron, tungsten, lithium, beryllium, and fluorine, which
are localized in the carbonate rocks at the contacts with
intrusions of leucocratic granites. Many of them belong to
the magnesian–skarn ore formation and confined to the
Asian branch of the global Pacific ore belt, being known
on the territory of Russia, China, Southeastern Asia, and
Australia (Tasmania I.) [1, 14, 16, 17, 35–37].
The study of the Lost River ore field revealed direct
geochemical relation between formation of magnesian
skarns and emplacement of granite intrusions in carbon
ate rocks. The wide distribution of dolomites in the Port
Clarence Formation defined the formation of the near
contact skarns and their stringer–stockwork bodies at all
the studied deposits. It was shown that early metasoma
tites serve as protolith for subsequent formation of practi
cally all mineral types of endogenous ores, whose Mg
number explains the absence of rockforming quartz in
them. The exception is topaz–quartz–micaceous greis
ens with cassiterite and wolframite formed after granites
and late stringers of quartz in calcareous marbles.
Fluorinebearing (including greisen) associations are
developed also after skarns of region. They commonly
contain endogenous borates of different composition,
tourmaline, topaz, micas, and fluorite. This allows the
evolutionary inheritance of endogenous petro and ore
genesis to be determined on the basis of common view
point and mineral features of host metasomatites.
Hypabyssal magnesian skarns were formed at the con
tacts of dolomites with granite melts, which follows from
the absence of endoskarns after intrusive rocks. Optimal
temperature regime of the formation of skarn zoning in
the immediate contact with melts was calculated to be
760–660°С, which is sufficient to form zones of periclase
marbles after dolomites and does not exclude the forma
tion of syngenetic stringer–stockwork bodies.
GEOCHEMISTRY INTERNATIONAL Vol. 48 No. 12
1233
The skarnification of brecciated carbonate rocks in the
roof of the intrusion in the Lost River Mine resulted in the
formation of stringer–stockwork metasomatites at lower
temperatures, which, however, were sufficiently high to
produce primitive zoning in magnesian metasomatites
after dolomite. The latter is represented by pyroxene
(±magnetite and spinel) skarns surrounded by calci
phyres, which are adjacent to marbles. Each of the zones
preserves Mg : Ca ratio of their carbonate precursor [17].
It was shown that the rhythmicallybanded metaso
matites of prograde stage and their postmagmatic types
are almost ubiquitously distributed over the Seward pen
insula. Their genesis was controlled by thermodynami
cally disequilibrium conditions of formation. Rhythms
are produced by conjugate competitive chemical reac
tions between oversaturated endogenous fluids and mar
bles. The higher rate of reactions of their formation rela
tive to the rate of solution supplied into replaced rocks is a
necessary condition for selforganization of minerals.
The aureoles of magnesian skarns in the immediate
contacts with intrusions are subsequently composed of
zones of periclase marbles, spinel–forsterite calciphyres,
and nearcontact spinel–diopside skarns. The presence of
variable amounts of calcite in the latter is caused by the
differences in Mg number of replaced carbonate rocks of
the Port Clarence Formation. Nearskarn anorthite–
pyroxene rocks are locally observed at the contact with
granites on the Mt. Brooks and Tin Creek area. Earlier
mineralization is represented by magnetite in the rhyth
micallybanded spinel–pyroxene skarns of the Lost River
and Tin Creek area, which is marked by the presence of
injections of leucocratic aplites in them.
The differences in Mg number of carbonate rocks are
expressed in the mineral composition of metasomatites.
In particular, in the eastern contact of the granite intru
sion of Mt. Cape, skarns after dolomites are made up of
diopside (±spinel) and forsterite–humite calciphyres,
while calcite marbles in contacts with granites are
replaced by anorthite.
Postmagmatic processes change the composition of
magnesian skarns formed at magmatic stage. At all depos
its of the Seward Peninsula, this process is provided by
the influence of fluorine, boron, and tinbearing hydro
thermal solutions, which is reflected in the presence of
these elements in the subsequently forming endogenous
minerals.
Early alkaline stage in calciphyres and skarns consists
in the replacement of spinel by ferriphlogopte and corun
dophyllite with F content from 6.8 to 3.4 wt %. In calci
phyres of all the studied deposits, forsterite is ubiquitously
converted in humites nMg2SiO4 ⋅ Mg(F,OH)2: clinohu
mite, humite, chondrodite, and norbergite.
This process is syngenetic with development of borate
mineralization in the marbles and dolomitebearing cal
ciphyres of Mt. Brooks. Besides magnesium–iron borates
previously established by Knopf (rhombic ludwigites and
2010
1234 ALEKSANDROV
monoclinic hulsite and paigeite), we identified magnesi
oludwigite and its highFe analogue—vonsenite. Their
chemical composition can be totally expressed as (Mg,
6+
Fe2+)2{Fe3+,Al,(Sn4+Ti4+Mg ) 0.5 }[BO3]O2, which dem
onstrates the complex isomorphism in these minerals
[27–29, 36].
2+
The content of Fe 2 Fe3+[BO3]O2 endmember in
them widely varies between 0 and 99 mol %. In highMg
ludwigites (Table 4), the extreme contents of
4+ 6+ 4+ 6+
Mg2(Mg,Ti ) 0.5 [BO3]O2 and Mg2(Mg Sn ) 0.5 [BO3]O2
could exceed 55 mol %, while Mg2Al[BO3]O2 accounts for
up to 45 mol %, replacing threevalent iron in
Mg2Fe3+[BO3]O2 [29, 36].
Monoclinic hulsites and paigeites (Mg,
Fe2+)2{0.5Sn4+(Mg,Fe2+)}6+,Fe3+}[BO3]O2 also have vari
able Fe mole fraction and tin content, up to the complete
absence of Fe3+. This can be exemplified by aluminomag
nesiohulsite [29, 37] from kotoite marbles of Mt. Brooks.
2+
Formula of the borate (Mg1.59 Fe 0.31 Mn0.01)1.91{0.5(Sn4+ +
6+
Mg ) 0.45 Al0.60)}1.05[BO3]O2 containing 38.78 wt % MgO,
0.21% MnO, 11.76% FeO, 15.47% Al2O3, 17.23% SnO2,
0.05% TiO2, and 16.47% B2O3, in total 99.97%, indicates
the complete substitution of Fe3+ for Al and halfsum
(Sn4+ + Mg)6+ and partial substitution of Mg for Fe2+.
It was found that marbles and calciphyres contain
borates previously unknown on Alaska: suanite Mg2B2O5,
kotoite Mg3[BO3]2 [27, 38], and its hydrated species
Mg3{[BO3]2x[(OH)3]x} [31, 39, p. 197]. They are
associated with newly formed pertsevite
Mg2{[BO3](F,OH)}1 –x [SiО4]x [31] containing variable
amounts of silica and fluorine, and fluoborite
Mg3[BO3](F,OH)3), with variable F content, reaching
nocherite composition Mg3[BO3]F3 [30] in the metaso
matites with norbergite and fluorite. Suanite is intensely
replaced by scaybelyite Mg2B2O5 ⋅ H2O [27, 28]. In addi
tion, calcium and tin borate, nordenskioldine
CaSn[BO3]2, was identified in the paigeitebearing
salite–vesuvian–garnet rocks with fluorite from the Read
Prospect, Mt. Brooks [15, 28]. The same mineral is also
formed after paigeite in the calcareous assemblages of Mt.
Ear together with vonsenite, cassiterite, magnetite, and
fluorite. Other deposits of the Lost River basin lack
borates but often contain rare manifestations of boroalu
minosilicates (axinite and more abundant tourmalines)
and borosilicates (danburite and datolite).
Postmagmatic alterations of pyroxenebearing meta
somatites resulted in the development of ferriphlogopite
and clintonite and predominant subsequent replacement
of diopside and fassaite by salite, vesuvian, andradite–
grossular garnet, and, more rarely, wollastonite. The latter
is replaced by danburite CaB2[SiO4]2, tinbearing titanite
GEOCHEMISTRY INTERNATIONAL
Ca(Ti,Sn)SiO5 containing aluminum and fluorine [40],
and cuspidine.
It was shown that the calcskarn replacement of
spinel–pyroxene skarns is accompanied by magnesium
migration toward forsterite calciphyres. This is expressed
in the composition of humitegroup minerals having
higher Mg content due to the presence of Mg(F,OH)2
component. Hence, calcium minerals were developed
after diopside and fassaite syngenetically with humites in
calciphyres.
The participation of boronbearing hydrothermal
solutions in this process determines the partial consump
tion of magnesium and the appearance of tinbearing
moderateFe hulsites in association with vesuvian and
higherFe paigeite together with garnet.
An increasing role of Ca in the mineral formation is
emphasized by the development of garnets after salite and
vesuvian and their association with scheelite. This is syn
genetic with the replacement of monoclinic paigeite by its
highFe rhombic analogue, vonsenite, with low content
of isomorphic Sn, together with nordenskioldine and
magnetite, which takes place in the Bbearing metasoma
tites of the Brooks and Ear mounts. The formation of
danburite after wollastonite (and late datolite) was also
stimulated by the absence of magnesium in the initial sili
cate, as locally observed formation of Mn–Fe axinite after
calcareous schists of the Port Clarence Formation in the
Brooks and Ear mounts.
The early stage of postmagmatic alteration of the near
contact intrusive rocks produces albitization of feldspars,
which predetermines the migration of potassium repre
senting the active component of fluorine, boron, and
tinbearing hydrothermal solutions. The presence of fluo
rine in the solutions of increasing acidity during greiseni
zation of metasomatites and adjacent intrusive rocks is
documented by the tourmalinization and fluoritization of
replaced skarns.
Greisens after granites of Mt. Cape and postskarn,
preore aplite dikes of the Cassiterite Creek are made up
of topaz, micas (muscovite and zinnwaldite), and fluorite.
Precisely these rocks accumulated cassiterite, whose color
varies from light yellow to black (Tin City) or dark brown
(Lost River), wolframite, and late scheelite. The compo
sition of wolframite from the altered aplites of the Cas
siterite dike at the Lost River deposit varies from ferberite
to hubnerite and contains tantalum and niobium (up to
less than 1 wt % (Table 9).
Sulfide mineralization at the studied deposits of
Seward Peninsula is represented by pyrrhotite–chalcopy
rite–sphalerite dissemination of variable intensity (Mt.
Ear as well as Read prospect on Mt. Brooks) and local for
mation of isostannine, galena, boulangerite, and chal
cosine (Bessie and Maple prospects) [17, 32]. Sulfides
contain thin dissemination of native gold. Gold was found
in pyrrhotite (0.15 wt %) and galena (up to 0.15%) on Mt.
Brooks and in pyrrhotite (0.08%), pyrite (up to 0.42%),
Vol. 48 No. 12 2010
 SKARN–GREISEN DEPOSITS OF THE LOST RIVER AND MOUNT EAR ORE FIELD
chalcopyrite (from 0.05 to 0.38%), and galena (0.11% Au)
at the Bessie and Maple Prospect [41].
Hydrothermal mineral formation in the dolomitic and
calcitic marbles and in the adjacent metasomatites is
accomplished by the formation of rhythmicallybanded
stringer–stockwork masses of chrysoberyl, margarite,
diaspore, and fluorite. The most striking manifestations of
this process are observed at the Lost River deposit (Cas
siterite Creek area), where these rocks are cut by quartz
stringers, as well as in the dolomitized rocks with “zebra
rock” structures in the Rapid River tectonic zone (Camp
Creek area and others). The chrysoberyl stringers were
noted in the rhythmicallybanded skarns of the Tin Creek
area [4].
The Lost River ores contain spinellides of com
plex composition (wt %): 0.91 SiO2 6.08 SnO2, 0.35
TiO2, 61.54 Al2O3, 3.61 MgO, 6.44 FeO, 1.19%
MnO, and 2.91% ZnO, 0.42 CaO, and 0.44 F at sum
of 83.89%. Assuming the presence of 14.76% BeO, they
presumably represent epitaxitic intergrowths of chryso
beryl, taaffeite, and nigerite [39], whose total composition
corresponds to the formula (Be0.86Mg0.07Zn0.05Mn0.02)
3+
(Al1.76 Fe 0.12 Sn0.06Ti0.01Mg0.07)2.02O4.
The late alkaline stage on Mt. Brooks manifests itself
in the szaibelyitization of suanite, as well as in the
replacement of magnesiohulsite by schoenfliesite
2+
(Mg0.89 Fe 0.05 Mn0.02Ca0.02)0.98Sn(OH)6 with the pres
ence of 5% natanite FeSn(OH)6, 2% wickmanite
MnSn(OH)6, and 2% burtite CaSn(OH)6. Its composi
tion: 61.49 wt % SnO2, 4.57% MgO, 1.66% FeO, 0.66%
MnO, and 0.42% CaO. With allowance for 21.2% H2O,
sum of components equals 100%. Burtite formed after
nordenskioldine was found on the Brooks and Ear
mounts. Szaibelyite and stannates are formed by hydra
tion of borates [30, 31, 39]. Hydrothermal stage is com
pleted by argillic alteration of aluminosilicates and late
dolomitization of calcareous marbles.
Exogenic processes cause oxidation of sulfides, least
resistant among which are pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite,
which are replaced by iron and copper hydroxides. In
general, as it takes place in other polar and highmoun
tainous regions, the Seward Peninsula is characterized by
intense physical weathering of the rocks and ores at insig
nificant role of chemical supergene alteration. The denu
dation of the orebearing rocks predetermines the ubiqui
tous development of cassiterite placers, locally with ele
vated gold content, in this region of Alaska.
It should be noted that the studied deposits of the Lost
River ore field and the Cape and Ear mounts contain all
types of tin mineralization: from quartz–cassiterite, sili
cate–cassiterite, and stannoborate to sulfide–cassiterite
and stannate ores.
Presented geochemical data on skarn and ore forma
tion significantly supplemented data on species diversity
and chemical composition of mineral modes of occur
GEOCHEMISTRY INTERNATIONAL Vol. 48 No. 12
1235
rence of boron, tin, tungsten, sulfur, beryllium, fluorine
and petrogenic elements at the Seward Peninsula.
Their genetic analogue at the adjacent East Chukotka
is the hypabyssal Iten’urgen deposit [14–17], which is
ascribed to the magnesian–skarn ore formation and
localized at the contacts of the Mesozoic (Cretaceous)
biotite granites (71.4 wt % SiO2) with Paleozoic dolo
mites. The outercontact aureole of metasomatic transfor
mation of the Paleozoic dolomites consists of subsequent
zones of periclase marbles, forsterite calciphyres, and
magnetitebearing pyroxene skarns having rhythmically
banded structure. Calciphyres and skarns are postmag
matically replaced by humites and phlogopite, calcareous
assemblages, and fluoriterich greisens. Zones of marbles
and calciphyres contain kotoite, pertsevite, and flu
oborite, associated with tinbearing Mg–Fe borates (lud
wigite and hulsite), while calciphyres and magnetite–
pyroxene skarns contain scheelite, cassiterite, fluorite,
and beryllium mineralization, which confirms their
geochemical similarity with the York Range deposits.
The results of study of the Alaska deposits are of scien
tific and practical significance for geochemical predicting
and search for the considered types of mineralization.
They can be used for studying the genesis and mineral
composition of skarn–greisen ores of the Pacific ore belt,
East Transbaikalia region, Central Asia, Karelia, and
other world regions, which are localized in the contact
alteration aureoles of carbonate rocks intruded by highSi
granites.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to M.A. Troneva (Central Laboratory,
Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical
Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences), who carried
out the microprobe analysis of minerals.
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