@2005Societyof EconomicGeologists,Inc.

Economic Geology lOOth Anniversary Volume

pp. 1097-1136

Metallogenic Provinces in an Evolving Geodynamic Framework

ROBERT KERRICH, t

Departnwnt of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 114 Science Place, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5E2

RICHARD J. GOLDFARB,
U.S. GeologicalSurvey, Box25046,MS964,DenverFederalCenter,Denver,Colorado80225-0046,and
Departnwntof GeologicalSciences,Universityof Colorado,2200 ColoradoAve., CampusBox399, Boulder,Colorado80309

AND JEREMY P. RICHARDS

Departnwnt of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E3

Abstract
Thermal decay of Earth resulted in decreased mantle-plume intensity and temperature and consequently a
gradual reduction of abundant komatiitic basalt ocean plateaus at -2.6 Ga. In the Neoarchean, ocean crust was
-11 km thick at spreading centers, and abundant bimodal arc basalt-dacite magmatic edifices were constructed
at convergent margins. Neoarchean greenstone belt orogenesis stemmed from multiple terrane accretion in
Cordilleran-style external orogens with multiple sutures, where oceanic plateaus captured arcs by jamming
subduction zones, and plateau crust melted to generate high thorium tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite suites.
Archean cratons have a distinctive -250- to 350-km-thick continental lithospheric mantle keel with buoyant re-
fractory properties, resulting from coupling of the buoyant residue of deep plume melting to imbricated
plateau-arc crust. In contrast, Proterozoic and younger continental lithospheric mantle is <ISO km thick,
denser, and less refractory and therefore easily reworked in younger orogens. The supercontinent cycle has op-
erated since -2.8 Ga: Kenorland assembled at -2.7 Ga, Columbia -1.8 Ga, Rodinia -1 Ga, and Pangea -0.3
Ga. Dispersal may have been triggered by superplumes.
Komatiite-hosted Ni deposits are related to plumes, where sulfide saturation resulted from crustal contam-
ination. Base metal-rich volcanic rock-associated massive sulfide (VMS) deposits accumulated on thinned, frac-
tured lithosphere within extensional oceanic suprasubduction environments, or back arcs, which were intruded
by anomalously hot subvolcanic sills; hence, their abundance in the Superior province of Canada (thick conti-
nentallithosphere), contrasting with few in the Yilgarn craton of Australia (thick lithosphere). Orogenic gold
deposits formed in sutures between accreted terranes associated with assembly of Kenorland. Diamonds were
created by reaction of carbonate-rich asthenospheric liquids with continental lithospheric mantle at >240-km
depth, mostly pre-2.7 Ga. They were entrained in kimberlitic to lamproitic melts related to superplume events
at 480, 280, and -100 Ma. Preservation of resulting mineral provinces stems from their location on stable
Archean continental lithospheric mantle.
Decreased plume activity after 2.6 Ga caused sea level to fall, leading to the first extensive passive-margin
sequences, including deposition of phosphorites, iron formations, and hydrocarbons, during dispersal of
Kenorland from 2.4 to 2.2 Ga. Deposits of Cr-Ni-Cu-PGE were generated where plumes impinged on failed
rifts at the transition from thick Archean to thinner Proterozoic continental lithospheric mantle, e.g., the Great
Dyke, Zimbabwe, and later at Norilsk, Russia. Paleoproterozoic orogenic belts, for example, the Trans-Hudson
orogen in North America and the Barramundi orogen in Australia, welded together the new continent of Co-
lumbia. Foreland basins associated with these orogens, containing reductants (graphitic schists) in the base-
ment, led to the formation of unconformity U deposits, with multiple stages of mineralization generated from
diagenetic brines for as much as 600 m.y. after sedimentation. Plume dispersal of Columbia at 1.6 to 1.4 Ga led
to SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits in intracontinental rifts of North America and Australia, extensive belts of Rapakivi
A-type granites on all continents, with associated Sn veins, and Fe oxide-Cu-Au-REE deposits. All were con-
trolled by rifts at the transition from thick to thin continental lithospheric mantle. Plume impingement on Ro-
dinia at -1 Ga formed extensive belts of anorogenic anorthosites and Rapakivi granites in Laurentia and
Baltica, the former hosting Fe-Ti-V deposits. Sedimentary rock-hosted Cu deposits formed in intracontinental
basins from plume dispersal of Rodinia at -800 Ma.
Iron formations and mantle plumes have common time series: Algoman type occur from 3.8 Ga to 40 Ma,
granular iron formations precipitated on the passive margins of Kenorland at -2.4 Ga, Superior-type formed
on the passive margins of Laurentia, and Rapitan iron formations were created in rifts during latter stages of
dispersal of Rodinia at -700 Ma. Accordingly, such deposits are not proxies for the activity of atmospheric 02.
Rich Tertiary placer deposits of Ti-Zr-Hf, located on the passive margins of Australia and Southern Africa, re-
flect multiple cannibalistic cycles from orogens that welded Rodinia and Pangea.
Orogenic Au deposits formed during Cordilleran-type orogens characterized by clockwise pressure-temper-
ature-time paths from -2.7 Ga to the Tertiary; Au-As-W and Hg-Sb deposits reflect the same ore fluids at pro-
gressively shallower levels of terrane sutures. The MVT-type Pb-Zn deposits formed in foreland basins, with

t Corresponding author: e-mail.Robert.kerrich@usask.ca

1097
1098 KERRICH
Phanerozoic Pb-Zn SEDEX ores localized in rifted passive continental margins containing evaporites at low
latitudes. Porphyry Cu and epithermal Au-Ag deposits occur in both intraoceanic and continental margin arcs;
ore fluids were related to slab dehydration, peridotite fusion, and hybridization with upper-plate crust. De-
posits exposedtoday are largely <200 m.y.-old,giventheir lowpreservationpotential in topographicallyele-
vated ranges.
Historical Perspective and Scope
Lindgren (1933) pioneered the concepts of both metallo-
genic provinces and epochs. In the Economic Geology Fifti-
eth Anniversary Volume, Turneaure (1955) synthesized global
metallogenic provinces. He emphasized different classes of
ore deposits, stable versus orogenic settings, lithologie or
magmatic associations of specific metal groupings, and the
role of young mountain belts in preservation potential. Met-
allogenic provinces of different ages were recognized, albeit
with large age uncertainties. Primary depositional setting ver-
sus replacement was, and remains, an issue. Independently,
Bilibin (1968) and Smirnov (1976) documented specific litho-
tectonic and age associations for various classes of metallic
deposits in the former Soviet Union. Other comparative stud-
ies of major ore provinces recognized the evolving crust-man-
tle system as a control on lithological associations, magmatic
style, and types of ore deposits (Pereira and Dixon, 1965;
Stanton, 1972; Hutchinson, 1981). Atlases of the distribution
of metallic deposits by geologic terrane and age were com-
piled by Dixon (1979) and Derry (1980).
Meyer (1981) generated a global database of representative
or type metallic mineral deposits, and their age-lithotectonic
association, in the Economic Geology Seventy-Fifth Anniver-
sary Volume. He formulated the space-time distribution of
metallogenic provinces in terms of two parameters: intervals
of geologic history during which specific classes of metallic
deposits formed, and changes of characteristics within a given
class over the interval when that class formed. Meyer ob-
served that trends of crustal evolution were not contempora-
neous globally but did not cast his reviews in a plate tectonic
context (Meyer, 1981, 1988).
The theory of plate tectonics was established in the 1970s,
supplanting the geosynclinal concept of lithotectonic associa-
tions (Kay, 1951; see Sengor, 1990, for a review). Elements of
the theory included: recognition of ocean-floor spreading
from ages of volcanic islands and transform faults (Wilson,
1965; Hess, 1968) and magnetic domains (Vine and
Matthews, 1963), relative to mid-ocean ridges; exponential
decrease of heat flow orthogonal to spreading centers (Sclater
and Francheteau, 1970); and earthquake distribution at con-
vergent margins (Benioff, 1964). Historical accounts of the
evolution from a static to dynamic worldview are given by
Uyeda (1978) and Allegre (1988).
Initial hypotheses of the relationship between different
classes of ore deposits and their plate tectonic settings were
set out by Rona (1980), Mitchell and Garson (1981), and
Sawkins (1984). These accounted for the distribution of some
ore deposit types in the Phanerozoic. However, there were
limitations: (1) at the time, genetic hypotheses for many types
of ore deposit were predicated on syngenesis; (2) where con-
sensus existed on a syngenetic versus epigenetic origin, the
age of mineralization was not well constrained; (3) epochs, or
secular cycles, of metallogenic provinces were not accounted
ET AL.
for; and (4) extrapolation to the Precambrian met with uncer-
tainties as to tectonic processes during that era. Windley
(1995) compiled a concise list of metallic and nonmetallic re-
sources for each era, documenting their geodynamic and ge-
ologic settings.
It is now generally accepted that plate tectonics operated
from -3.4 Ga, albeit in some early form that likely differs
from today, with intermittently more intense plume activityto
1.9 Ga (Fyfe, 1978; Isley and Abbott, 1999). Archean craton-
scale faults are commensurate with lithospheric plate interac-
tions (Sleep, 1992). In addition, Cenozoic-type convergent
margin arc associations, including the presence of boninites,
Mg andesites, and adakites, in Precambrian supracrustal ter-
ranes require that arc-trench migration occurred (Polat et al.,
2003). An alternative precept of Archean geodynamics is
given by Hamilton (1998).
Advances in geochronology have resolved many of the un-
certainties in the timing of both metal deposits and metallo-
genic provinces. This constraint permits evaluation of func-
tional relationships between lithotectonic associations,
magmatism, pressure-temperature-time (P-T-t) conditions
and fluid compositions, and geodynamic setting, concurrently
resolving the syngenetic issue (e.g., Kerrich and Cassidy,
1994). Based on Meyer's (1981, 1988) compilations of the
space-time distribution of metallogenic provinces, Barley and
Groves (1992) provided insights into the episodic develop-
ment of distinct classes of metallic deposits as a function of the
supercontinent cycle. Geologic processes are intrinsically sto-
chastic, so there is progressive uncertainty in reconstructing
the supercontinent cycle back through the Precambrian. Yet,
this framework confers an elegant account for metallogenic
provinces and their episodicity from 2.7 Ga to the present.
During the last 25 years there have been profound gains in
knowledge as to how plate tectonics operates through time,
stemming from the heuristic approach of geology as a field and
analyticalscience. In addition to development of the concept of
the supercontinent cycle, knowledge has advanced on many
fronts relevant to metal deposits, including: (1) how evolution
of lithospheric mantle controls crustal evolution (Jordan, 1988);
(2) recognition of superfamilies of orogenic belts (Sengor and
Natal'in, 1996); (3) the role of mantle plumes and their inter- 1
action with lithospheric plates (Condie, 2001; Wyman and Ker-
rich, 2002); (4) transitions in both plume and convergent mar-
gin magmatism near the Archean-Proterozoic transition
(Taylor and McLennan, 1995; Isley and Abbott, 1999); (5) de-
velopment of, and processes in, convergent margins (see re-
view by Richards, 2003); (6) characterization of geothermal sys-
tems on land (Elder, 1981) and submarine counterparts, some
of which are activelydepositing sulfide minerals, such as in the
Lau back-arc basin (Ishibashi and Urabe, 1995; Mills and EI-
derfield, 1995); (7) quantification of global geochemical cycles
(Jacobson et al., 2000); (8) seismic tomography (van der Hilst
et al., 1998); (9) precise geochronology (Dalrymple, 1991);and
(10) the fractal, or scale-invariant, nature of many geologic
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
processes, including of metallogenic provinces (Turcotte, 1992;
Weinberg et al., 2004).
Accordingly, in this overview, we reframe the space-time
distribution of ore deposits in terms of four interrelated
processes: (1) lithotectonic associations that develop in a
given geodynamic setting, (2) classes of metallogenic
provinces that develop in those associations, (3) secular varia-
tions of geodynamic environments in the supercontinent-
cycle framework, and (4) secular change of continentallithos-
pheric mantle that influences all of the above.
Evolution of near-surface conditions has also been viewed
as a control on the distribution of some ore deposits through
time, specifically those having elements with redox-sensitive
solubility, such as Fe and U. Two polarized schools of thought
emerged and have persisted. Cloud (1972) proposed a low
pOz in the Archean, with a transition to oxygenation of Earth's
atmosphere-hydrosphere in the Proterozoic, whereas Dim-
roth and Kimberly (1976) advocated Archean atmospheric
pOz close to the present atmospheric level (PAL). More re-
cently, some workers have promoted the early low pOz model
based on mass-independent S isotope fractionation of atmos-
,\ pheric S gases, and a rise of atmospheric oxygen at 2.4 to 2.2
Ga as the redox state of volcanic gases shifted (Farquar et aI.,
2000; Holland, 2002). In contrast, Ohmoto maintained that
pOz was within 50 percent of present atmospheric level by 4
Ga, based on Fe mobility in Archean paleosols and on depo-
sitional mechanisms for iron formation that are akin to those
presently occurring in the Red and Black Seas (Ohmoto,
1997, 2004a,b). Resolution of this issue is not readily
tractable, as many lines of evidence may reflect local condi-
tions, and it is difficult to demonstrate preservation of pri-
mary signatures (e.g., Clout and Simonson, 2005). It is clear
from molecular microfossils that the earliest photosynthesis
in the Paleoarchean was anoxygenic, using bacteriochloro-
phyls, whereas oxygenic photosynthesis by photosystem II, in-
volving cyanobacteria, was established by the Mesoarchean
(Nisbitt, 2002). This review does not further consider the
issue.
/ No modem text on ore deposits addresses recent advances
in geodynamics. Accordingly, we present a brief synthesis of
geodynamic concepts as a framework for discussing mineral
deposits. The divisions between geodynamic settings used
here reflect the preference of the authors. For example, we
explicitly recognize that there is a continuum between domi-
nant plume-lithosphere interaction, where magmatic Ni-Cu-
PGE deposits form; through belts of anorogenic magmatism
that host Fe-Ti-V deposits, in which plume magmas do not
advect to shallow crustal levels; and to continental rifting with
subdued plume activity, which is the setting for Fe oxide-Cu-
Au-REE and sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits. For each
main geodynamic setting, we have selected the best charac-
terized metallogenic provinces for discussion of the role of
geodynamics in the formation of a class, or classes, of mineral
deposit, without necessarily including all deposit subtypes.
Geodynamics
Introduction
Plate tectonics is a kinematic theory according to which the
lithosphere, the upper layer of the Earth including crust and
1099
lithospheric mantle, is divided into a finite number of plates.
The plates are torsionally, but not flexurally, rigid. Plates in-
teract at divergent, convergent, and transform-fault bound-
aries (Fig. 1A), as they migrate across the surface of the Earth
(Isacks et aI., 1968; Cox and Hart, 1986; Sengor, 1990). Plate
motions are the surface reflection of the fundamental process
by which heat is removed from the interior of the Earth.
The oceanic and continental lithospheric plates, also
termed the mechanical boundary layer (Fig. 2A,B), constitute
the translationally mobile upper boundary layer of the three-
dimensional convection cells in the asthenospheric mantle.
The core-mantle boundary (referred to as D", 2,900 km deep)
is the lower boundary layer of the mantle convection cells.
The boundary between upper and lower mantle (D', 670 km)
is defined seismologically and reflects a mineralogical phase
transition. The upper and lower mantle probably convects in-
dependently, albeit with episodic overturn, based on geo-
chemical, heat flow, and seismic evidence (Stein and Hof-
mann, 1994; van der Hilst et aI., 1998; Butler and Peltier,
2002). Heat is removed from the core and mantle to the sur-
face by this convection and by plumes that rise from the core-
mantle boundary, advecting through the convecting lower
and upper mantle to the surface (Davies, 1999). Heat passes
from the convecting asthenospheric mantle through the tor-
sionally rigid lithospheric plates either by conduction or by
advection of magmas. Thermal boundary layers form at the
transition from convecting to convecting or convecting to
conducting domains; they are present at the D" core-mantle
boundary, at the D' upper-lower mantle transition, and be-
tween the base of the lithosphere and top of the convecting
upper mantle, which is also the low-velocity zone (Fig. 2).
Subducting oceanic lithospheric plates penetrate the D'
upper-lower mantle boundary at 670 km, as imaged by seis-
mic tomography, and probably are stored in lithospheric
graveyards at the core-mantle boundary (D"), where they are
sporadically reactivated as mantle plumes. Similarly, an
anomalously hot mantle plume, extending into the lower
mantle, has been imaged beneath the Iceland ocean plateau
(Bijward and Spakman, 1999; Karason and van der Hilst,
2000). Accordingly, there is mass as well as heat exchange be-
tween the upper and lower mantles.
Oceanic and continental lithosphere
Schematic diagrams depicting the tectonic setting of ore
deposits generally stop at the base of the deposit or the crust,
the petrological seismic Mohorovic discontinuity (Moho).
However, the larger context in which mineral concentrations,
i.e., deposits, form should more comprehensively be consid-
ered in a lithosphere-asthenosphere framework that reflects
geodynamic settings. These in turn control the conjunction of
structures, magma reservoirs, fluid reservoirs, basins, and
their interactions (Fig. 2).
Modem oceanic lithosphere has a -6-km-thick basaltic
crust and -30- to 50-km-thick lherzolitic mantle lithosphere
near ridges. The mantle lithosphere thickens to a maximum
of -70 to 100 km as it progressively cools with increasing dis-
tance from the oceanic spreading axis, by accretion of under-
lying asthenosphere (Fig. 2A; Keary and Vine, 1996). Com-
pared to the underlying asthenosphere, oceanic lithosphere
away from ridges is relatively cool, mechanically rigid, and
llOO KERRICH ET AL.

. Archean Cratons
~ Proterozoic Terranes
. Phanerozoic Terranes
B
80
350

310

70 270

230
60
200

180
40 km
160

20 140

120
0

100
-20
80

c -40 40

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

FIG. 1. A. Map of continental and oceanic lithospheric plates. Triangles signifY polarity of subduction, trenches migrate
in the opposite direction as slabs sink approximately vertically. Length of arrows proportional to plate velocity. Red symbols
= Cordilleran superfamily of orogenic belts; green symbols = continent-continent superfamily of orogenic belts. Modified
from Condie (1997). B. Distribution of Archean cratons and Proterozoic and Phanerozoic terranes. After Kusky and Polat
(1999). C. Thickness of continental lithospheric mantle from Artemieva and Mooney (2001).
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK 1101

Oceanic Lithosphere
Ridge
0 50 100 AgeMo
A "mbed,,,
Gmcpl
Kimb,rlite
G""p2
Continental Lithosphere
LIP B
C",t
'::::>' "- MOHO
50 :::::::: Lithospheric Mantle 50

:/L\:< Me,hooioal
Booedo,>
Loy"

100
i
I::: )t~::= :I
l
:,~y~:ctc[~~~~r~~:o~~~~::
150
t Meltmg ""
. I
"-
.:!: 200 Po,""e Upwelliog .:!: 200

250 250

300 Asthenosphere 300

350 350

Oceanic Crust
Archean Proterozoi,
-:c:::::S:::-:-:-
Uppec HowLo""
j Lowec
AAAAAAA

Umbec
VMS
C Ar I Pp 'Mp 'Np'Ph I D
low Lo,", AAA:;::;;::AAAAAAA
j0: Bo,,1 G (io bocko", ood <1.8 Go
acp AAAAA ,epcowbdedioo ,e"iog'l 28.1.8 Go

.
~
> 2.5 Go

C;~ ~ 100
,,<i The Di ,,,e ~
H ~
~
JiU ~
Plogiog "ite
Gobb" .+
+++H++
+++H+
HH+++
[
0I km
~u 200
~
..r::
~
.x
<i LoyecG ,bbco + +++ ++ +
0
:5 300
~
U
Pyco,eoiIe,
Wehdite
." Deoite.
~
0::
Podiform Chromite

~:~. ,~~;- [01 ,oo""g,,1 mocgi", 400

3.5 3.0 25 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

<~'_\-::.: Age (Ga)

Velocity (km/s)
Oceanic Continentol E 5 F
Lithosphere Lithosphere
,
Strength Strength
, We,lem
North Allooli,
MOHO old oceoo
200
Ophiolite Cce,t
Delo,hmeol
We,tem
/\1
MOHO North Ame"cloa
o,liye plole mccgio
I :I
t". 50
Moolle 50
""
".
"-
400

Mootle 600

100 100
800

FIG. 2. A. Cross section through oceanic lithosphere, modified from Keary and Vine (1996). B. Cross section through con-
tinentallithosphere, illustrating the thick, refractory irregular base or keel of the continental lithospheric mantle, distinctive
of Archean cratons. This mantle includes subcreted plateau lithosphere metasomatized by subduction at shallower levels, the
source of Neoarchean and Proterozoic cratonic norites. Deeper levels are the residue of plume melting, buoyantly coupled
to overlying continental lithospheric mantle and crust. Such Archean mantle is refractory and thus is responsible for the high
preservation potential of Archean mineral deposits; this level includes the diamond facies. Translithospheric structures are
focused at the transition to thinner Proterozoic and younger continental lithospheric mantle, controlling the location of
plume-related Ni-Cu-PGE and Fe oxide-Cu-Au-REE deposits. Modified from Nixon and Davies (1987), Artemieva and
Mooney (2001), and Wyman and Kerrich (2002). C. Cross section through oceanic crust, illustrating the location of VMS de-
posits that form in back arcs and podiform Cr deposits generated at intraoceanic suprasubduction zones. Modified from
Keary and Vine (1996). D. Age-thickness relationship of continental lithospheric mantle from velocity structure (after
Artemieva and Mooney, 2001). E. Depth-differential strength relationships of oceanic and continental lithosphere; for
oceanic lithosphere this relationship controls tl1e thickness of obducted ophiolites; for continental lithosphere the minimum
at -35 km controls the thickness of accreted terranes. F. Depth-shear wave velocity relationships of different geodynamic
settings. (E) and (F) modified from Keary and Vine (1996).
1102 KERRICH ET AL.

negatively buoyant (Fig. 2A). For a hotter Archean upper younger terranes. The existence of Archean continental
mantle, greater degrees of melting occurred at spreading cen- lithospheric mantle defines cratons (Figs. 1B,C, 2 B, D, F;
ters (Bickle, 1986). According to calculations of Abbott et al. Artemieva and Mooney, 2001; Plomerova et al., 2002), and it
(1994a), Neoarchean basaltic oceanic crust was -11 km thick, is more buoyant and refractory than mantle lithosphere be-
with a commensurately thicker mantle lithosphere residue neath younger continental regions; its thickness and thermal
depleted in incompatible elements from basalt extraction. structure lead to the preservation of diamonds (Fig. 2B,C).
Consequently, Archean ocean lithosphere would have sub- Archean continental lithospheric mantle is the residue of
ducted at shallower angles from thermal and buoyancy con- deep melting in hot plumes coupled to crust. There is a bi-
siderations. There has been a secular decrease in the temper- modal depth distribution to such mantle at 350 to 300 km and
ature of mantle plumes; accordingly, ocean plateau crust has at 220 to 200 km, with the former characterizing blocks >6 to
also become thinner through time (Fig. 3). 8 X 106km2in area (Artemieva and Mooney, 2001), and with
The continental lithosphere has a 30- to 80-km-thick crustal implications for diamond potential. Younger plumes were less
sector in Archean and younger eons. Continental lithospheric frequent and cooler, so they did not generate refractory
mantle is 250 to 350 km thick under Archean continental residues (Fig. 2; White, 1988; Jordan, 1988; Pollack, 1997;
crust but -150 km thick for Proterozoic and -100 km for Herzberg, 1999; Artemieva and Mooney, 2001). For example,
the continental lithospheric mantle is 190 to 240 km thick in
35 the diamondiferous Magan and Anabar cratons but thins to
A 150 to 180 km for the Proterozoic Olenek province (Griffin et
30 Oceanic Crust Production 400
al., 1999). From studies of xenolith suites, there is a secular
":0 25 -' I/) 300
trend from highly depleted harzburgites in Archean conti-
CI / (J)
;<:
0
20 // i; 200 nentallithospheric mantle, through intermediate depletion in
15 /-/ :E 100 the Proterozoic, to mildly depleted lherzolites in the Phaner-
10 0 zoic. Archean continental lithospheric mantle has a density of
5 /1- 3.36 glcm3, whereas Proterozoic continental lithospheric
0 2 3 4 5 mantle is 3.38 glcm3, marginally less dense than ambient as-
500 thenosphere (Griffin et al., 2003).
B
400 Sea level Archean supracrustal terranes are dominated by bimodal
I/) 300
volcanic arc sequences and postvolcanic tonalite-trond-
(J)
hjemite-granodiorite batholiths, whereas Archean continental
i; 200
lithospheric mantle is refractory harzburgite, with the com-
:E 100
position of the residue of plume melting. This apparent para-
0 dox may be resolved if migrating arcs captured ocean plateaus
0 2 3 4 5
erupted from mantle plumes. Buoyant plateaus jam subduc-
tion zones, generating composite arc-plume crust, and the
1600
C buoyant residue of plume melting couples to the base of the
1550
1500
Potential Shallow Mantle Temperature
/
- crust (Wymanand Kerrich, 2002). Prior to capture and cou-
pling of plume residue, subduction caused metasomatism of
~ 1450 --/-/- peridotitic subarc lithosphere. During subsequent exten-
sional events, and/or plume impingement, metasomatized do-
~ :~~ t ---------------------------------------- mains melted to generate the voluminous noritic magmas
characteristic of Neoarchean to Proterozoic layered igneous
1300 ...L
0 2 3 4 5 complexes in or near Archean cratons (Fig. 2B; Hall and
30 Hughes, 1980). Those magmas are integral to formation of
D Ni-Cu-PGE and Fe-Ti-V deposits. Proterozoic and younger
25 Thickness of Oceanic Crust
plumes were not hot enough to generate refractory residue;
Plateau
///

consequently, Proterozoic and younger continental lithos-

E
~ 20 I- ------------------------- pheric mantle is thinner, denser, and less refractory, such that
crustal terranes are more readily reworked during subsequent
;: ~~~~~~~ ~~::::~~- ::: -- -- -- -- -- - - - - -- -- -- -- --- ~;~~ orogenies (Figs. 1, 2).
5 ...L During collisional orogens in the Proterozoic and Phanero-
0 1 2 3 4 5 zoic, both crust and continental lithospheric mantle thicken,
Age (Go) and part of the latter may delaminate; hot asthenosphere then
FIG. 3. A. Plume intensity through time, simplified from Abbott et al.
flows under thinned lithosphere, creating elevated orogens,
(1994a). Ocean crust production, dashed line. B. Sea level change through as in the Tibetan plateau (Houseman and Molnar, 1997).
time; the first extensive exposure of continents above sea level occurred after During lithosphere thickening under compression, radioac-
the 2.8 to 2.6 Ga plume maxima, followed by development of extensive pas- tive heat weakens the crust, and decoupling of lower crust
sive margin sequences at -2.4 to 2.2 Ga as the supercontinent Kenorland dis- and continental lithospheric mantle may occur at the base of
persed. C. Decrease of potential shallow mantle temperature. D. Decrease
in thickness of ocean crust in response to secular change of shallow mantle
the upper felsic crust (Meissner and Mooney, 1998). High-
temperature (Abbott et al., 1994) and of plateau crust in response to chang- temperature-low-pressure metamorphism and extensional
ing plume temperature. collapse with escape tectonics ensue, in conjunction with
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
asthenospheric and crustal magmatism. Delaminated conti-
nentallithospheric mantle has been imaged by teleseismic to-
mography beneath the Alpine-Himalayan orogen (Schott and
Schmeling, 1998). Delamination is in progress beneath the
Basin and Range province and Tibetan plateau, is interpreted
to have occurred beneath the Puna plateau of northwestern
Argentina (Kay and Kay, 1993), and characterized the late
stages in the development of the Variscan and Grenvillian
continent-continent orogens (Windley, 1995).
The low-velocity zone is the thermal boundary layer be-
tween torsionally rigid lithospheric plates and the convecting
asthenosphere; low S wave velocities result from domains of
partially melted lherzolite, conferring low strength. This zone
is 100 to 200 km thick below ridges where thermal gradients
are high, thinner below normal continental lithosphere, and is
thin to absent beneath Archean continental lithospheric man-
tle where thermal gradients are low (Fig. 2 A, B; Keary and
Vine, 1996).
Characteristics of plate boundaries
Divergent plate boundaries: As oceanic plates separate at
ridges due to far-field extensional forces, decompressional melt-
ing of asthenospheric mantle generates mafic magmas that ac-
crete to the edges of plates to form new crust (Keary and Vine,
1996). Upwelling of asthenospheric upper mantle beneath
ridges is passive, in response to plate separation. In a simplified
cross section, the oceanic lithosphere is composed oflower ul-
tramafic mantle (mantle tectonites, dunites, lherzolites, and
harzburgites) at the base, and mafic crustal rocks (gabbros,
sheeted dike complex, and basalts) at the top, bounded by the
oceanic Moho. The thickness of the lithosphere increases from
zero at ridges to 70 to 100 km at an age of -70 m.y., then main-
tains approximately unifonn thickness, as plates move away
from spreading centers. Commensurately, the depth of the
ocean floor increases with the age of oceanic lithosphere, due to
thennal cooling of the lithosphere associated with thickening
and subsidence (Fig. 2A; Parsons and Sclater, 1977).
Convergent plate boundaries: At convergent margins, the
plate with higher density sinks beneath the lighter plate,
forming a subduction zone, and the leading edge of the over-
riding plate becomes a paired fore arc and magmatic arc.
Where two oceanic plates converge, the older and denser
oceanic plate generally sinks beneath the younger and lighter
one, generating oceanic island arcs, such as the Marianas and
the south Sandwich arcs. Given its higher density, oceanic
lithosphere subducts underneath continental lithosphere to
form a continental magmatic arc, such as the Andean, Suma-
tran, and Japanese arcs.
Convergent margins generally feature the following tec-
tonic elements: (1) a deep marine trench seaward of the fore
arc; (2) a subduction-accretion complex located between the
underriding plate and the fore-arc basin; (3) a fore-arc basin
between the arc axis and the subduction-accretion complex;
(4) a magmatic arc; and (5) an inboard foreland basin-thrust
belt, which undergoes subsidence and sedimentation due to
tectonic loading, tectonic imbrication, and later compression-
driven uplift (Fig. 4). Porphyry Cu deposits form in oceanic
and continental arcs, and most preserved volcanic rock-asso-
ciated massive sulfide deposits form in oceanic arcs or
oceanic or continental back arcs.
1103
Based on relative plate motions, magmatic arcs are divided
into extensional, neutral, and compressional (Dewey, 1980;
Sengor, 1990). Extensional arcs, such as the Marianas, are
characterized by dominantly mafic volcanism, back-arc basin
opening, an ophiolitic fore-arc basement, deep trenches, and
steeply dipping Wadati-Benioff zones. Given its thermally
weak nature, arc lithosphere generally undergoes extension to
form an intra-arc basin or an intra-arc spreading center; the
Lesser Antilles and Taupo arcs are examples of initial stages,
whereas the Lau basin has evolved into a back arc.
Compressional arcs, such as the Central Andes, lie on con-
tinentallithosphere, and are characterized by mainly inter-
mediate to felsic magmatism, back-arc thrusting, continental
fore-arc basement, shallow trenches, and shallow Benioff
zones. Neutral arcs such as the Central American, Sumatran,
and Alaska Range-Aleutian arcs have characteristics interme-
diate between extensional and compressional arcs and usually
have large subduction-accretion complexes and orogen-paral-
lel strike-slip faults (Windley, 1995).
Arc magmatism varies along and across strike. All arc mag-
mas are characterized by variably light rare earth element
(REE) and lithophile element (Cs, Rb, Ba, K, and Pb) earth
element enriched patterns and depletions in Nb, Ta, P, and Ti
(Pearce, 1982; Saunders et aI., 1991; Keleman et al., 2004).
Tholeiitic magmatism is dominant between the fore-arc basin
and arc axis; calc-alkaline magmatism occurs mainly in the
central region of the arc, whereas late alkaline igneous rocks
tend to occur between the arc axis and back-arc region (the
K-h relationship; see Wilson, 1989, for a review). The com-
position of continental crust requires that mafic cumulates
founder under arc crust (Rudnick and Gao, 2004), with space
conservation accommodated by inflowing asthenosphere. Re-
gional metamorphism varies from subgreenschist to eclogite
facies (Fyfe et aI., 1978), and the occurrence of adjacent high-
temperature and/or low-pressure (greenschist) and high-
pressure and/or low-temperature (blueschist) metamorphic
belts is unique to convergent plate boundaries (Ernst, 1975).
The uppermost section of subducting oceanic lithosphere is
prevalently marine turbidites but may include pelagic sedi-
ments, oceanic islands, seamounts, and carbonate platforms.
These are commonly scraped off, deformed, metamorphosed,
and accreted to the base of the overriding plate to form a sub-
duction-accretion complex. Complex interaction between
overriding and subducting plates results in thrusting, folding,
and melange formation within the subduction-accretion com-
plex, with late transpression and associated strike-slip fault-
ing. In arcs characterized by strong coupling between the
overriding and subducting plates, attrition of the fore arc oc-
curs by subduction-erosion (von Huene et al., 2004). Trench
turbidites have a catchment in the upper levels of subduction-
accretion complexes. Plate movement is driven by the nega-
tive buoyancy of subducting slabs, not by mantle convection
(Conrad and Lithgow-Bertelloni, 2002). Stem (2002) has re-
cently reviewed processes in subduction zones.
Transform plate boundaries: Transform, or conservative,
boundaries accommodate the motion from divergent- to con-
vergent-plate boundaries and accommodate translation be-
tween ridge sectors spreading at different rates, as required
by plate motion on a spherical surface (Wilson, 1965). Trans-
form-plate boundaries separating continental lithospheric
1104 KERRICH ET AL.

Intracratonic B Passive Margin c

Life Span (m.y.) A

0.1 10 100 1000
Intracratonic
~
c v; -.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - --

-E g>I Rift 88083-

:s=
~ ~ I Passive
CIa>
Margin m
o~ Foreland D
J ~-I--~~-~~~---------------------------------------------------------------------
Trench
~ Basin Axis
0
~ Trench Slope
0
u..

Forearc 0 cfti...,.:::::::3- 8
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
en
C)
c:
-.;::: u
Intra-arc 0 ~ 8

"i
V) e 9 rifted 8
'8~ 8
_c
c:- Backarc mature
0)"'0 o~ Lithospheric Mantle
C)§ ,...
...~ [ trapped
0) U
> 0
c:CC
0
U
<::
Retro-arc Forland
-----------
88~
om
- -.
t Tectonic Loading

0 . -

[
~-- --~:~-~_~:~~_I_~~~~~~~-~-_:~~~---------------------------
StrikeSlip -EJt> 0 Cayman Trough

rn Mean and 1 SD 0 Active Basin 8 Inactive Basin

Arc Backarc E
- Subduction
Zone - ,,-i
Arc Trench Gap

Ridge
Bock Arc

I ..=__~7
11
~ Trench
Basin ~

Lithospheric Mantle

Lithospheric Mantle

~
,. Descending
Oceanic Lithosphere
, ForearcBasinFill

FIG. 4. A. Life span-geodynamic relationships of sedimentary basins. Modified from Woodcock (2004). Abbreviations: BA
= back are, FA = fore are, FL = foreland, IA = intra-arc, 0 = oceanic, PM = passive margin, R = continental margin rift, RA
= retro-arc, 55 = strike slip, T = trench, T5 = trench slope. (A) after Kyser et al. (2000), (B), (C), and (D) modified from Ross
(2000), (E) a composite from miscellaneous sources and R. Kerrich.
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
blocks are termed transcurrent or continental strike-slip
faults. Examples are the San Andreas fault zone of California,
the North Anatolian strike-slip fault zone in Turkey, and the
Tintina and Denali fault zones of western Canada and Alaska.
Transtensional regions are characterized by normal faulting,
pull-apart basins, and dominantly basaltic volcanism, whereas
transpressional regions feature thrusting, folding, and uplift,
in addition to strike-slip faulting in both cases (Christie-Blick
and Biddle, 1985; Sylvester, 1988).
Supeifamilies of orogens
Cordilleran orogens: Sengor and Natal'in (1996a) classified
orogenic belts into two superfamilies, Cordilleran and conti-
nent-continent. This insight has profound implications for
metallogeny. Cordilleran-type orogens, also referred to as
Turkic or transpressional (Sengor and Natal'in, 1996a), exter-
nal (Murphy and Nance, 1992), or accretionary (Windley,
1995), represent continental growth via the process of terrane
accretion. These sutured tectonostratigraphic terranes are
fragments of juvenile arcs and ocean plateaus, plus marine
sedimentary rocks, tectonically assembled in accretionary
prisms; there is typically little addition or reworking of older
continental crust (Ben-Avraham et aI., 1981). Collision of ter-
ranes occurs dominantly in an oblique manner, with the par-
titioned compressional component responsible for much of
the orogeny. Cordilleran-type orogens are characterized by
both extensive lateral and vertical accretion above a subduct-
ing slab. Where subduction-erosion hinders terrane collision
and thus lateral accretion, Andean-type orogens dominate.
These possess the arc-related porphyry and epithermal de-
posits that also characterize Cordilleran-type orogens but lack
most other, more deeply formed deposit types that are com-
mon throughout the blocks of allochthonous juvenile crust
within such orogens, as described below.
Multiple sutures at terrane boundaries are inherent to
long-lived terrane collison. Sutures commonly serve as sites
for ensuing economic mineralization. Seaward growth of con-
tinental margins, with such sutures defining progressive ter-
rane accretion, tends to be a long-lived process of perhaps
-300 to 400 m.y.; examples include the Cordilleran orogen,
370 Ma to present; Altaid orogen, 610 to 250 Ma; and Pan-
African orogen, 900 to 630 Ma (Burchfiel et al., 1992; Sengor
and Natal'in, 1996a). Depending on the degree of obliquity to
each terrane collision, these sutures behave as thrust and/or
strike-slip faults. In many cases, lateral displacement of ter-
ranes becomes relatively more common late during orogene-
sis or even subsequent to all collision. Such transform conti-
nental margins concentrate juvenile crust, and likely
associated mineral deposits, in restricted regions of an evolv-
ing orogen (Patchett and Chase, 2002). The terranes of the
Altaid orogen underwent thousands of kilometers of left lat-
eral and right lateral movements during the final stages of Pa-
leozoic tectonism in central Asia (Sengor and Natal'in,
1996a). Major shifts from compressional to more translational
regional stress regimes appear conducive to seismic events
and extensive episodes of fluid flow (Sibson et al., 1988; Ker-
rich and Wyman, 1990) and may be important controls on the
development of large orogenic gold provinces in Cordilleran
orogenic belts (e.g., Goldfarb et al., 1991, 2005). Given far-
field compressional regimes superimposed on more localized
n05
transtensional to transpressional zones late during orogenesis,
Cordilleran orogens generally undergo significant oroclinal
bending (e.g., Alaska and the Altaids; Yakubchuk et al., 2002,
2005). These strike-slip regimes also cause the highly dis-
membered nature of ophiolite sequences within most oro-
gens and thus a discontinuous distribution to many preaccre-
tionary VMS and chromite ores.
Cordilleran-style orogens may show a similarly wide
(>1,000 km) pattern of subduction-related magmatism, as in
the Altaids and mainland Alaska. By contrast, continent-con-
tinent orogens feature narrow magmatic arcs. In Cordillean
orogens, the ages of the igneous rocks young toward the
ocean, as arc magmatism migrates episodically in that direc-
tion as the continental margin is built outward (Sengor and
Natal'in, 1996a). Ages of orogenic gold deposits tend to follow
the same approximate spatial and/or temporal pattern (Gold-
farb et al., 1997). Most igneous rocks are juvenile in the oro-
gens; there are limited examples of remelted crust seaward of
the craton edges (Windley, 1995).
Lithological units in Phanerozoic orogens are dominated by
deep marine turbidite sequences and lesser basalts and
cherts, as these are the dominant rocks being accreted off the
top of subducting oceanic slabs and comprising the growing
prism defining the arc-trench gap (Fig. 4E). Addition of new
crust to a craton margin is also common in a spreading back-
arc regime, where foreland or retroarc basins may evolve in a
region of extension between the continental arc and craton
edge. These units may have a higher volume of fine-grained
terrigenous and biogenic material than units in the fore are,
which are more likely dominated by the clastic products of
deep-sea turbiditic currents. Importantly, the pelitic sedi-
mentary rocks and related mafic volcanic and volcaniclastic
sequences commonly contain volatile-rich mineral phases
such as phengite, biotite, lawsonite, chlorite, dolomite, mag-
nesite, and pyrite, all potential contributors of H2O, CO2, and
S to fluid phases produced during later thermal and de-
volatilization events (e.g., Fyfe et al., 1978). Furthermore,
marine pyrite may contain trace amounts of gold that can also
be mobilized during subsequent heating of the marine rocks.
During the last decade, Cordilleran-style orogens, as prod-
ucts of a present -day style of plate tectonics, have become
widely accepted as having developed far back into the Pre-
cambrian (Sengor and Natal'in, 1996a; deWit, 1998). Archean
and Paleoproterozoic terranes are dominated by greenstones
and tonalites, with minor turbidites; these linear belts also
likely formed via processes of accretion at convergent plate
boundaries (Kusky and Kidd, 1992; Kusky and Polat, 1999;
Foley et al., 2002). Structural style and metamorphic regimes
in many Precambrian greenstone belts, or composite
tectonostratigraphic terranes, resemble those in Phanerozoic
Cordilleran-style orogens. For example, accretionary assem-
bly of the -2.7 Ga Superior province and Yilgarn cratons
(Sengor and Natal'in, 2004), including the involvement of sig-
nificant volumes of plume-derived oceanic plateau crust
(Stein and Hofmann, 1994; Polat et al., 1999), was character-
ized by terrane accretion and batholith emplacement that mi-
grated in a seaward direction (Kerrich et al., 2000).
Ophiolites, long appreciated as footprints of Cordilleran-
style tectonics, are now widely recognized in Precambrian en-
vironments, with a particularly high abundance of tholeiitic
1106 KERRICH ET AL.

pillow basalts in many cratons (de Wit, 2004). Higher geot- swarm. Alternatively, the plumes spread laterally under the
herms in the Archean are reflected by the widespread high- normal continental lithospheric mantle (Fig. 2B). Plume ac-
grade gneissic basement rocks, which, with refractory conti- tivity,particularly of superplumes, is episodic, with maxima at
nental lithospheric mantle, have preserved the mid-crustal -3.8,3.4,3.0,2.7,2.4, 1.9, and 1.7 Ga, with one at -250 Ma
Cordilleran-like greenstone belts for billions of years. Simi- and another superplume in the Cretaceous (Fig. 3A; Larson,
larity in the geologic evolution of Precambrian and Phanero- 1991;Ernst and Buchan,2001;Abbott and Isley,2002).
zoic Cordilleran-style continental margins is reflected in a Mantle plumes occur in three broad varieties, as discussed
similar metallogenic record being preserved in metamor- below.
phosed rocks of all such orogens, regardless of geologic age Long-lived hotspots with low magma flux: These plumes
(Goldfarb et al., 2001). generate ocean islands, such as the Emperor-Hawaii chain on
Continent-continent orogens: A second type of orogen is oceanic lithosphere, or hotspot tracks on continents, e.g., the
termed continent-continent collisional or Tethyan. It is typi- Columbia River-Yellowstonetrack spanning 45 Ma to the pre-
cally marked by the closure of an ocean basin, a single well- sent (Schissel and Smail, 2001).
defined Z- or C-shaped suture zone containing ophiolites be- Short-lived plumes that generate flood basalt provinces:
tween blocks of continental crust, a magmatic arc on the Plumes that erupt through oceanic lithosphere form oceanic
active margin, and deformation of passive margin sequences. plateaus, including Kerguelen, Ontong-Java, and Iceland, or
Collision is orthogonal to oblique, with an exceptional amount continental flood basalts. For the Siberian and Deccan conti-
of crustal thickening, and reworking of the older crustal nental flood basalts, 1 to 3 X 106km3 of flows erupted during
blocks (Windley, 1995; Sengor and Natal'in, 1996a). This tec- d m.y; tholeiitic basalts predominate, with minor alkali
tonism includes metamorphism, widespread partial melting basalts and picrites. The Tertiary North Atlantic igneous
of the lower crust during lithosphere thickening, delamina- province, which includes continental flood basalts on Green-
tion, and commonly underplating by mafic magmas. Depend- land, a volcanic passive margin on eastern North America,
ing on the structural complexity, these orogens may show and the Iceland plume, collectively represent a transition
abundant, high-level overthrusting exemplified by the Alpine from continental flood basalts to an ocean plateau as North
type or limited thrusting of allochthonous blocks as in the Hi- America and Scandinavia rifted apart. The three elements of
malayan type (Sengor, 1990; Sengor and Natal'in, 1996a). superplumes, continental flood basalts, giant dike swarms,
and mafic intrusive complexes, are collectively referred to as
Mantle plumes large igneous provinces (Coffin and Eldholm, 1994; Saunders
Pirajno (2000) givesa comprehensivetreatment of mantle et al., 1997; Eldholm and Coffin, 2000). All three elements
plumes and ore deposits upon which this section draws ex- are present in the 1267 Ma Mackenzie giant dike swarm,
tensively. Jets of anomalously hot mantle are ejected from Coppermine CFB, and the Muskox intrusive complex of
thermal boundary layers, most likely the core-mantle bound- northern Canada (Ernst and Buchan, 2004). Giant dike
ary at 2,900 km, which advect through the mantle by thermal swarms may represent a failed triple junction and, therefore,
buoyancy on timescales of only 10 to 50 m.y. The plume head point toward a paleo-ocean (Fahrig, 1987). The secular distri-
is 500 to 1,000 km in diameter, whereas the tail, which feeds bution of iron formations, from 3.8 Ga to 40 Ma, is controlled
the head, is -100 km in diameter. At the top of the upper by mantle plumes.
mantle, ambient temperature is -1,280°C, the plume head Superswells or mantle upwellings: These features have di-
-1,480°C, and the tail -1, 700°C. Plumes conductively heat ameters of -10,000 km and spawn hotspots. There are two
ambient mantle, which is entrained into the plume head. On known, one centered on the South Pacific and another below
impinging upon normal lithosphere at -150-km depth, the Africa, both with dynamic topography (McNutt, 1998). The
plume head flattens to 1,000 to 2,000 km while undergoing African superswell was responsible for rifting of Gondwana
extensive decompressional melting (White, 1992). Anom- from Laurasia.
alously hot plumes, with high buoyancy-driven flux, advect Plumes and ore deposits: All three expressions of mantle
basalts through continental lithosphere to erupt as continen- plumes have a role in mineral provinces, from diamond fields
tal flood basalts. Basaltic liquids from cooler plumes, or from (Gurney et al., 2005) to Ni-Cu-PGE deposits(Pirajno,2000).
adiabatically decompressed asthenosphere under thinned Hotspot plumes are approximately fixed with respect to the
continental crust, pond at the Moho density filter (Herzberg mantle, so ocean island chains provide a reference frame for
et al., 1983); here they fractionate to form anorogenic gabbro- hotspots that constrains plate motions (Norton, 2000). Mantle
anorthosite complexes that may host Fe-Ti-V deposits plumes and lithospheric plate motions are not strongly
(Cawthornet al., 2005) and also fuse refractorylower crust coupled. However, where a plume erupts proximal to a spread-
into A-type granites with which Fe oxide-Cu-Au-REE ing center it may capture the ridge, as with the Iceland
provinces are associated (Fig. 2B; Windley, 1995; Williams et plume-Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Plumes may interact with conver-
al., 2005). gent margins, such as impingement of the mid-Cretaceous
Crucial to the understanding of magmatic Ni-Cu (Arndt et Marie Byrd Land plume with the Phoenix plate subducting be-
al., 2005; Barnes and Lightfoot, 2005) and chromite deposits neath Antarctica (Weaver et al., 1994). Present-day examples
(Cawthorn et al., 2005), as well as deposits associated with include the Samoan plume proximal to the Tonga trench and
anorogenic magmatism, is that plumes do not melt by de- interaction of the Yellowstone plume with the Farallon plate
-
compression at 250 km beneath Archean continentallithos- (Schissel and Smail, 2001). Plume-ocean ridge and plume-con-
pheric mantle but rather penetrate laterally as dikes. These vergent margin interactions cause some of the largest known
include the 2596 Ma Great Dyke and 2200 Ma Matachewan structural and geochemical anomalies (Ito et al., 2003).
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
Ocean plateaus with >30-km thickness of basaltic crust,
erupted from anomalously hot mantle plumes, resist subduc-
tion, and cause collisional orogenesis when they jam up
against a subduction zone (Cloos, 1993). The Solomon-New
Ireland arc has migrated to capture the 120 to 90 Ma Ontong-
Java ocean plateau, which is being jammed against the sub-
duction zone; this is where the Lihir Au deposit has formed
(MacInnes et al., 1999). Formation of the giant 2.7 Ga Kidd
Creek VMS deposit followed capture of the Abitibi arc by an
ocean plateau (Wyman et aI., 1999)
There is compelling evidence for the influence of mantle
plumes on conditions of surface geology, the hydrosphere, at-
mosphere, and biosphere (Larson, 1991; Coffin and Eldholm,
1994; Kerr, 1998). Isley and Abbott (1999) and Condie et ai.
(2001) demonstrated a coincidence in timing of mantle
plumes, deposition of iron formations and black shales, and
the chemical index of alteration. Ocean plateaus that erupted
from plumes formed thick crust that displaced oceans across
continents and caused flooding of continental shelves; the
plumes also resulted in the discharge of Fe-rich hydrothermal
fluids and the release of CO2 and other gases that generated
greenhouse conditions, causing intense silicate weathering
(Kerr, 1998).
Sedimentary basins
The geodynamic setting of sedimentary basins, and their
lifespan and fate, have been summarized by Ross (2000) and
Woodcock (2004). This discussion deals only with foreland,
intracontinental, passive margin, and oceanic basins, drawing
mainly on these summaries (Fig. 4).
Foreland basins develop as a consequence of tectonic loading
at convergent margins. A classic profile involves a foredeep axis
proximal to an orogen, a continental ramp or outer slope, and a
peripheral bulge. Lithosphere elastic thickness determines
basin characteristics; transitions from narrow, deep-water flysch
sequences to wide, marine or fluvial molasses facies reflect
propagation of the load from elastically thin lithosphere at a sea-
ward position to thicker continental lithosphere. Proterozoic
unconformity U deposits and Phanerozoic Mississippi Valley-
type (MVT) Pb-Zn deposits accumulated in foreland basins that
evolved to intracratonic basins (Fig. 4B, D).
The pattern of stratigraphic onlap (so-called steershead
geometry) of intracratonic and passive margin sequences is
consistent with extension being driven by far-field forces, in
which differential tensile strength causes mantle lithosphere
to extend over a wider area than the crust (Fig. 4B,C; White
and McKenzie, 1988). The Williston as well as Michigan and
Illinois basins developed inboard of the Cordilleran and Ap-
palachian orogens, respectively, but the cause of this relation-
ship is not clear (Ross, 2000). According to Pysklywec and
Mitrovica (2000), some intracratonic basins stem from dy-
namic topography generated by foundering of subducted
lithosphere. Sublithospheric loading generates flexural wave-
lengths one order of magnitude longer than surface loads, ac-
counting for both the relative dimensions and lifespans of in-
tracontinental versus foreland basins (cf. Woodcock, 2004).
Proterozoic sedimentary-hosted SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits de-
veloped in intracontinental rifts (Leach et al., 2005a,b).
Passive-margin sequences that develop as intracontinental
rifts evolve into ocean basins. A typical sequence is rifting of
1107
continental lithosphere followed by sedimentation, magma-
tism linked to thinned continental lithosphere, and evolu-
tion to ocean lithosphere. The Atlantic margin, with its con-
tinental shelf, continental slope, and rise, is a typical
example. The sedimentary wedge may be deposited at nor-
mal, oblique, or transform continental margins. Transfer
faults accommodate differential extension rates and patterns
of sedimentation. Subsidence initiates by lithospheric thin-
ning from far-field forces and then evolves by thermal con-
traction and sediment loading. Basins driven mainly by ther-
mal subsidence are characterized by concave-up subsidence
patterns, as documented for aging oceanic lithosphere,
whereas foreland basins have concave-down subsidence pat-
terns (Fig. 4C; Ross, 2000).
Phosphorites and iron formations accumulated on passive
margins from -2.4 Ga. Rifted passive-margin clastic sedi-
mentary sequences, formed at low latitudes, are favorable
hosts for Phanerozoic Pb-Zn ores. The deposits are generated
by metal-rich brines that evolved in adjacent carbonate units
and basement (Leach et al., 2005a,b). Placer deposits of Ti-
Zr-Hf are preserved in Teriary and younger passive margin
sequences (Freeman and Donaldson, 2004).
Where extension is focused within a continent, as in the
Basin and Range province, a continental back-arc basin may
develop. The Bathurst and Iberian pyrite VMS provinces are
examples of continental back-arc basins that closed; sill-sedi-
ment complexes in the Gulf of Cortez may be a present-day
analog (Boulter, 1993).
The supercontinent and/or superevent cycle
The concept of the supercontinent cycle emerged in the
late 1980s from recognition that the continental masses as-
semble and disaggregate in a cyclic pattern on a timescale of
200 to 500 m.y. (Fig. 5; Hoffman, 1988; Murphy and Nance,
1992; Rogers, 1996; Rogers and Santosh, 2004). All of the
present continents formed a single landmass, Pangea, that
broke up -180 Ma. Previous supercontinents were Kenorland
at -2.7 to 2.2 Ga, Columbia at -1.7 to 1.4 Ga, and Rodinia at
-1.0 at 0.6 Ga (Fig. 5; Condie, 2004; Zhao et al., 2004).
A consensus has emerged that rifting of continents and dis-
persal of supercontinents is generally triggered by a mantle
plume, in keeping with Ziegler's (1993) estimates of tractional
forces for plumes that impinge on continents (White, 1992;
Duncan and Turcotte, 1994; Carlson, 1997). Sill-sediment
complexes of the Mesoproterozoic Sullivan Pb-Zn deposit and
Neoproterozoic basalt sequences associated with the Central
African Cu province are expressions of mantle plumes that dis-
persed the supercontinents Columbia and Rodinia, respec-
tively. Condie (1998, 2004) envisaged superevent cycles at 2.7,
1.9, and 1.2 Ga in which graveyards of subducted oceanic
lithosphere, stored at the 670-km D' boundary, avalanched to
the core-mantle boundary, thus ejecting plumes from that
boundary and causing plume bombardment under the lithos-
phere (Fig. 5). Larson (1991) associated the increased rate of
ocean crust formation at ridges and plateaus in the Pacific
Ocean with a superplume ejected from the core-mantle
boundary, coinciding with cessation of magnetic field reversals
at 41 Ma (for a contrary view see Anderson, 1994).
Murphy and Nance (1992) recognized two principal styles
of supercontinent aggregation, which they termed internal
1108 KERRICHET AL.

Kenorland Columbia Rodinia Gondwana Pangea A

Superior Dharwar Yilgarn Trans Hudson Grenville Pon African Cordilleran/Alpine

- . JuvenileCrust
ME
~ . Collision Orogens
0-
0 . SuperplumeEvent
.......

~
Q)
E
:I

.2.6 . 1.3
Age (Go)
1.1 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.3
. 0.1
.
Superplume Events

B
Cyprus-type

VMS Abitibi-type

Kuroko

Gold Veins

Gold ond Uranium Conglomerates

Porphyry Molys
Porphyry
Deposits Porphyry Coppers

Uranium in Weathered Profile

Kiruna-type
Anorogenic
Intrusions Olympic Dam-type
Ilmenite-anorthosite

Supercontinent Cycles
Ga 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0
c
Kenorland Columbia Rodinia Gondwana Pangea
E. Gondwana
/ /
. Yilgarn
Arc t Ica
E.Antarctica
N. India, E. Aust.

/'"
/
'" Nena \ 4
/~
1/
r w. Gondwan~
(Atlantica and /
other plates in Africa)

~ laurasia
Gondwana

~.
/
/
Baltica
/'
..
Kazakhstan, N. China
Atlantica S. China, and other
plates that formed Asia

FIG. 5. A. Secular distribution of collisional orogens and juvenile crust, with supercontinents (modified from Condie,
1997; Columbia after Zhao et aI., 2004). B. Secular distribution of mineral deposits, modified from Meyer (1988). C. Super-
continent cycle, modified from Rodgers (1996).
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
and external. Internal aggregation corresponds to continent-
continent collision, for exmple, the Alpine-Himalayan, Ap-
palachian, and Grenville orogenic belts. External aggregation
corresponds to Cordilleran-style tectonics, where allochtho-
nous tectonostratigraphic terranes are transpressively ac-
creted to a continental margin. Neoarchean magmatic-accre-
tionary events in the Superior and Slave provinces of Canada,
Finland, southern Africa, India, and Western Australia likely
correspond to an early external supercontinent aggregation
that was associated with development of orogenic gold
provinces (Kerrich and Wyman, 1994). Internal cycles involve
internal oceans between continents. The North and South At-
lantic Oceans have opened and closed two or three times, as
North America-South America and Europe-Africa diverged
and then closed in Wilson cycles. The Pacific Ocean is an ex-
ternal ocean outboard of the external Cordilleran orogen.
Supercontinents may assemble in two configurations. In-
troversion involves breakup, opening then closing of interior
oceans, and reassembly. In extroversion, following supercon-
tinent dispersal, exterior margins of continental fragments ro-
tate and collide during reassembly. Combinations of the
processes may occur. The Paleozoic Appalachian-Caledonian-
Variscan orogen is an example of supercontinent introversion.
In contrast, during the Neoproterozoic East African and
Brasiliano orogens, the exterior ocean surrounding Rodinia,
which broke up at -7S0 Ma, was consumed dming the amal-
gamation of Gondwana, representing extroversion (Murphy
and Nance, 2003).
Metallogenic provinces in a supercontinent cycle framework
In an important synthesis for economic geology, Barley and
Groves (1992) showed that the temporal distribution of sev-
eral major classes of metallic mineral deposits can be related
to the cyclic aggregation and breakup of the continents in the
supercontinent cycle. Metal deposits related to continental
rifting (sedimentary rock-hosted Cu and Pb) would form
mainly during initiation of supercontinent fragmentation,
whereas deposits related to convergent tectonics (porphyry
Cu, VMS, orogenic Au) predominate during periods of sub-
duction and supercontinent aggregation (Fig. S).
Superimposed on this -SOO-m.y. cycle are variations aris-
ing from preservation, thermal decay, and subtleties of tec-
tonic style. The scarcity of porphyry Cu and epithermal Au
deposits in rocks older than 200 Ma is widely considered to
be the consequence of their low preservation potential in
rapidly eroded magmatic arcs and collisional mountain
belts. Preservation potential is considered to be higher in
external (Cordilleran style) than internal (continent-conti-
nent) mountain belts (Barley and Groves, 1992). The
change in style of base metal-bearing VMS deposits, from
Archean Abitibi type to the Phanerozoic Kuroko and Cyprus
types, may reflect differences in style of subduction, nature
of the mantle wedge, and composition of arc magmas, and
these differences in turn stem from decreasing thermal gra-
dients. Archean crust is resistant to reworking in younger
orogenic events due to its thick, refractory continental
lithospheric mantle. This characteristic accounts for preser-
vation of the prodigiously rich orogenic gold provinces of
Neoarchean greenstone terranes (Cordilleran-type accre-
tion), VMS (back-arc) camps of the Superior province, and
1109
komatiite-associated Ni deposits (Figs. 1,2,3, S; Kerrich et
al., 2000; Groves et aI., 200S).
The abundance of VMS deposits in the Superior province,
particularly when compared to the sparseness of similar de-
posits in Neoarchean counterpart terranes of India, southern
Africa, and Western Australia, might be considered contra-
dictory to such a unified framework. However, volcanic rocks
in the Yilgarn craton of similar age to those of the Superior
province were generally erupted through continental crust
and, therefore, do not correspond to the more primitive
oceanic arc settings represented by the 2.7 Ga VMS-hosting
terranes in Canada (Wyman et al., 1999).
In summary, the empirical association of mineral deposit
classes with specific stages of the supercontinent cycle sup-
ports the precept that mineral deposits are products of par-
ticular geodynamic settings (Fig. S).
Archean Geodynamics and Greenstone Terranes
Neoarchean greenstone-granitoid terranes show both differ-
ences from and similarities to Proterozoic and Phanerozoic
Cordilleran-type orogenic belts that formed by terrane accre-
tion at convergent margins (Burke et al., 1976; Sleep and
Windley, 1982; Card and Ciesielski, 1986; Friend et al., 1988;
Sengor, 1990; Sleep, 1992; Windley, 1995; Polat et al., 1999).
Komatiitic liquids stem from melting in anomalously hot man-
tle plumes. Their eruption temperature of 1,650°C contrasts
with -1,200°C for basalts. Komatiites are ubiquitous in
Archean greenstone terranes but are rare in Proterozoic or
Phanerozoic counterparts (Arndt, 1994). Together with basalts,
they represent intraoceanic plateaus or continental flood
basalts. Given higher mantle temperatures in Archean plumes,
plateau crust would have been thicker, -30 to SOkm (Fig. 3)
and thus not able to be subducted; rather, such crust was im-
bricated where plateaus jammed against convergent margins
(Bickle, 1986; Abbott et aI., 1994a; Wyman et al., 1999).
At Archean convergent margins, bimodal arc magmatism
involved slab dehydration and wedge melting, generating arc
basaltic liquids as in the Phanerozoic (Pearce and Peate,
1995; Wyman, 2003). However, given their high thorium con-
tents, trondhjemite-tonalite-granite (TTG) batholiths likely
formed as melts of enriched, gamet-amphibolite facies,
plateau basalt crust subcreted beneath the convergent mar-
gin, rather than depleted MORB-like crust (Foley et aI.,
2002). The TTG suite is characterized by a secular increase of
Mg number and Ni from 4 to 2 Ga, conferring evidence of the
involvement of a progressively thicker mantle wedge as sub-
duction steepened (Martin and Moyen, 2002). Models of the
thermal structure of the mantle predict a transition from flat
to steep subduction at -2.S Ga, in keeping with the distribu-
tion of TIG in Archean terranes and the transition in sedi-
mentary rock REE patterns at this time (Abbott et al., 1994a;
Taylor and McLennan, 1995). Given smaller plates, and a
commensurately longer global ridge system in the Archean
(Hargraves, 1986), ridge subduction would have been more
frequent, accounting for high heat flow in convergent mar-
gins, which was responsible for the abundant TIG (Polat and
Kenich, 2004).
Similarities between Neoarchean greenstone terranes and
Phanerozoic convergent margins include accretionary tecton-
ics, melanges, subduction-accretion complexes, ophiolites,
1110 KERRICH ET AL.

and Cenozoic-type arc associations. The Superior province (Figs. 1, 2C). Sparsity of these deposits in Precambrian ter-
was assembled by diachronous accretion in a Cordilleran-type ranes reflects the same process responsible for the absence of
orogen from 2.74 to 2.65 Ga (Card and Ciesielski, 1986; Card, blueschists and eclogites, or of complete ophiolite sections,
1990; Thurston et al., 1991; Percival et al., 1994; Calvert and given that the upper basaltic sections of thicker oceanic
Ludden, 1999). A few small melange occurrences have been lithosphere were obducted (Fig. 2E; Moores, 2002; Polat et
documented in Archean terranes (Kusky, 1991; Wang et al., aI., 2004).
1996; Polat and Kerrich, 1999), with melanges indicating the
presence of subduction-accretion complexes. Precambrian VMS deposits
ophiolites, reviewed by Kusky (2004), indicate paleo-conver- VMS deposits (Franklin et al., 2005) form in oceanic
gent margins. Boninites have been recorded from several spreading centers, arcs, and rifts (Hannington et al., 2005),
Archean volcanic rock sequences, as well as an association of but mid-ocean-ridge crust is rarely preserved in the geologic
adakites, high Mg andesite, and Nb-enriched basalts, typical record due to the likelihood that oceanic lithosphere will be
of Cenozoic arcs that are linked to shallow subduction of rel- subducted (Cloos, 1993). Many VMS deposits formed at
atively hot oceanic lithosphere (Kerrich et al., 1998; Hollings,
convergent margins under extensional conditions, specifically
2002; Polat et al., 2003). in back arcs, where thinned and fractured lithosphere,
Neoarchean greenstone belts are now generally considered upwelling asthenosphere, and high-temperature magmas
generate long-lived high heat flow and enhanced hydraulic
to be Cordilleran-style collages of oceanic arc and plateau ter-
ranes, in which orogenesis was induced by plateaus jamming conductivity (Figs. 2C, 4E). Back-arc lithosphere is more
against arcs. The composite arc-plateau crust was stabilized readily obductible, being young and hot. The fact that all
by the residue of plume melting, coupled to the composite VMS deposits are associated with some mafic magmatism sig-
crust as continental lithospheric mantle (Wyman and Kerrich, nifies a functional relationship to thermal anomalies in the
2002). At Archean convergent margins, shallow subduction upper mantle (Barrie and Hannington, 1999). A lack of sig-
angles, -11-km-thick oceanic crust (of which only the top -7 nificant VMS deposits in the Mesoproterozoic and Neopro-
km was occasionally obducted) and relatively high thermal terozoic (Hutchinson, 1981; Meyer, 1981, 1988) reflects the
gradients, can explain the absence of blueschist-eclogite asso-drift stage in dispersal of first Columbia and then Grenville
ciations and rare ophiolites that generally lack a mantle sec- orogens that stitched together Rodinia. These orogens now
tion (Figs.2E, 3; cf. Mooreset al., 2000). expose deep erosional levels, which is ultimately due to de-
lamination of mantle lithosphere (Fig. 5).
Metallogeny of Intraoceanic Arcs Based on rock associations, and therefore tectonic setting,
Barrie and Hannington (1999) and Franklin et al. (2005)
Podiform Cr classified VMS deposits into five groups. Mafic and bimodal
Podiform bodies of spinel are an important resource of siliciclastic rock-associated deposits are mainly restricted to
chromium. Most of the deposits are in Caledonian or younger the Phanerozoic. The former consists of tholeiitic with minor
suprasubduction zone ophiolites. Notable are the -500, -460, boninitic rocks and includes ocean-ridge deposits that were
and -370 Ma ophiolites of northwestern China, obducted obducted as part of ophiolite fragments, exemplified by
during accretion of arc terranes along composite sutures be- Tethyan ores of Cyprus and Turkey. The geodynamic setting
tween the Kazakhstan, Siberian, and Tarim blocks; Ap- is a suprasubduction zone, and such magma-ore associations
palachian ophiolites; Hercynian ophiolites of Eurasia; extend to the Paleoproterozoic Flin Flon VMS province
Tethyan Mesozoic ophiolites, including those in Turkey, (Wyman, 1999). The latter, characterized by large tonnages
Oman, and Cyprus; and Mesozoic-Cenozoic ophiolites in ac- with high Pb but low Cu contents, formed in a continental
creted terranes of the North American Cordillera. Rare pod- arc or back-arc setting; VMS ores of the Bathurst and Iber-
iform chromitite bodies have been reported from a 3.0 Ga ian Pyrite Belt provinces are prominent examples of this
ophiolite in the Ukraine, and the 2.5 Ga Zunhua ophiolite of group.
the North China craton (Thayer, 1976; Duke, 1996a; Zhou et The other three groups of VMS deposits have broader sec-
al., 2001; Polat et aI., 2004). ular distributions. Bimodal-mafic and bimodal-felsic group
Podiform bodies are dominated by Cr-rich spinels en- deposits occur in oceanic terranes back to the Neoarchean of
veloped by dunite in harzburgite of the mantle section, or the some cratons. The former represent primitive oceanic arcs or
crust-mantle transition, of oceanic lithosphere from intrao- back arcs; examples include Noranda and Matagami, Quebec,
ceanic arcs. Podiform morphology reflects mantle flow paths. some ores of Flin Flon, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, and
A current model for development of chromitite bodies in- Jerome, Arizona. The latter represents precipitation of VMS
volves generation initially of hydrous basaltic melts in the deposits in mature arcs, such as the Mt. Read district, Tasma-
peridotitic mantle wedge from dehydration of the subducting nia. A mafic volcanic-volcaniclastic rock and turbidite associ-
slab. Hydrous melts depolymerize, enhancing the octahedral ation with VMS formation occurred from the Mesoprotero-
site preference for ci3+ Subsequent reaction of melt WIth zoic through the Phanerozoic. These deposits developed in
peridotite in an open system induces polymerization accom- sediment-rich oceanic rifts, notably Windy Craggy, British
panied by precipitation of Cr spinel at -7-km depth and 0.2 Columbia, or in propagating continental rifts, exemplified by
GPa (Fig. 2C; Edwards et al., 2000). the Besshi district of Japan. The Middle Valley and Escanaba
Podiform chromite deposits reflect obduction of intrao- trough, and the Sea of Cortez, are present-day metal-rich
ceanic arc crust-upper mantle sections in both continent-con- analogs to these two environments in the final group, respec-
tinent (Appalachian, Tethyan) and Cordilleran-type orogens tively (Barrie and Hannington, 1999).
 II

METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK 1111

Intraoceanic and Continental Margin Arc subduction, both of which may result in higher temperatures
Porphyry- Epithermal Systems being achieved in the slab at shallow depths. Normal subduc-
Porphyry Cu-Mo-Au (hereafter referred to as porphyry Cu) tion of oceanic lithosphere results predominantly in dehydra-
and related epithermal Au-Ag deposits are predominantly, but tion and release of a water-rich fluid phase into the overlying
not exclusively, a Phanerozoic occurrence (Seedorff et al., mantle wedge. Fluid release probably begins at the shallow-
2005; Simmons et al., 2005). The majority of both deposit types est levels of subduction but appears to reach a maximum at
occur in Mesozoic and Cenozoic subduction-related subvol- depths of -100 km, corresponding to the final breakdown
canic plutonic complexes and related volcano-sedimentary se- conditions of serpentine, amphibole, and chlorite, all of which
quences, but this may be in part a function of the low preser-
appear to have maximum stabilities at -3 CPa and 700° to
vation potential of shallow-level crustal sequences within active
850°C (Schmidt and Poli, 1998). These depths correspond to
convergent plate margins. Rapid uplift and erosion, tectonic the characteristic depth of the Benioff zone beneath volcanic
erosion, and collision (either with oceanic terranes such as is- arcs, suggesting a direct connection between slab dehydration
land arcs, seamounts, or plateaus, or with continental masses) and magma generation. Micas may persist to greater depths
commonly result in destruction of supracrustal sequences in and higher temperatures, which may, in part, explain the ob-
both oceanic and continental volcanic arcs. Nevertheless, de- served K20 increase in magmas toward the back arc (Schmidt
et aI., 2004).
posits of both types do occur in older terranes, but with in-
creasing rarity back to the Mesoarchean, to the point that Pre-
Convection of metasomatized peridotite into warmer cen-
cambrian occurrences in Australia, Canada, India, and tral parts of the mantle wedge, or direct fluid infiltration, re-
Scandinavia are noted as exceptions; the earliest known de- sult in partial melting to form high Mg basalts with as much
posits are -3.3 Ga in age (Barley, 1982). The characteristics of as 2.5 wt percent H2O, enrichments in large ion lithophile el-
Precambrian deposits are little different from those of their ements, relatively high oxidation state compared with MORB
Phanerozoic counterparts (GaaI and Isohanni, 1979; Barley, (as much as two log units above fayalite-magnetite-quartz),
1982; Roth et al., 1991; Fraser, 1993; Sikka and Nehru, 1997; and high sulfur contents (experiments suggest S concentra-
Stein et al., 2004), suggesting that similar tectonomagmatic tions as high as -1.5 wt % in oxidized basaltic melts; Jugo et
aI., 2005).
processes were involved in their formation.
Concentrations of chalcophile and highly siderophile ele-
ments in these primary melts may be controlled by the stabil-
Porphyry Cu deposits ity and abundance of residual sulfide phases in the mantle
Porphyry Cu deposits show one of the clearest relationships wedge source, which is in turn a function of oxidation state
to specific plate tectonic processes of any ore deposit type (Candela, 1992). With increasing oxidation state, concentra-
(Fig. 6; Sillitoe, 1972; Burnham, 1981). The relationship to tions of chalcophile elements, such as Cu, will reach a maxi-
subduction of oceanic crust relates primarily to the large flux mum prior to the concentration of highly siderophile ele-
of water and other volatiles from the slab into the overlying ments, such as Au and platinum group elements (Richards,
asthenospheric mantle wedge. As recently reviewed by 2005, and references therein). This observation may explain
Richards (2003; see also Candela and Piccoli, 2005), these some of the variation in CuiAu ratios in porphyry systems,
volatiles metasomatize the mantle wedge and reduce its melt- with Cu-rich deposits being generated under normal subduc-
ing point, such that hydrous basaltic magmas are produced by tion conditions leading to moderate mantle wedge oxidation,
partial melting in the highest temperature regions. These and Au-rich deposits being formed under more extreme or
melts are the ultimate sources of more evolved magmas that atypical conditions that result in complete destruction of
are emplaced into the overlying crust and which may gener- residual sulfide phases either by extreme oxidation or multi-
ate porphyry and related epithermal deposits. ple stages of partial melting (e.g., during tectonic transitions
Subduction represents the return flow of materials into the such as subduction-polarity reversal or termination, back-arc
mantle to compensate for the creation of new oceanic lithos- extension, or arc collision; Solomon, 1990; Wyborn and Sun,
phere at mid-ocean ridges. But processes of sea-floor meta- 1994; Richards, 1995). Mungall (2002) has recently suggested
morphism, resulting in hydration and introduction of other that highly oxidized adakite magmas produced by slab melt-
sea water-derived elements, such as S, CI, and alkalis (ex- ing may also have this effect of sulfide destruction.
changed for Ca), mean that the return flow is modified from Processes affecting the composition of primary subduction-
the original MORB composition. Upon return into the man- related magmas thus appear to be the most fundamental con-
tle, these same water-soluble elements are released during trols on metallogenesis in volcanic-plutonic arcs. Although
prograde dehydration reactions, whereby minerals such as not all arcs or magmatic suites within arcs host economic por-
serpentine, amphibole, chlorite, zoisite, and lawsonite (Fig.6; phyry Cu deposits, few deposits are known that cannot be
Tatsumi, 1986; Schmidt and Poli, 1998; Winter, 2001; clearly related to subduction magmatism or to magmas de-
Forneris and Holloway,2003)are converted to progressively rived from subduction-modified mantle; a possible exception,
more anhydrous blueschist- and eclogite-facies assemblages. which is associated with a continental rift, is described by
Additional components may be added by subduction of sea- Blecha (1974). Because the exsolution of metalliferous hy-
floor sediment and tectonic erosion of upper plate rocks (e.g., drothermal fluids occurs in the final stages of magmatic evo-
de Hoog et aI., 2001). lution, many factors can intervene between initial magma
Basaltic crust of the downgoing slab may partially melt generation and upper crustal emplacement to affect the ore-
where the lithosphere is young (<25 m.y.; Defant and Drum- forming potential of these magmas and their exsolved fluids.
mond, 1990; Peacock et al., 1994) and/or during shallow The simplest constraint is the magmatic flux into the upper
1112 KERRICH ET AL.

,,

, ,
, ,,
,
,,
,
14OQ°C
,

Transpression: High Crustal Composite volcanoes develop

Permeability at Releasing Bends above shallow magma chambers;
high potential for PCD formation

FIG. 6. A. Normal subduction configuration beneath a continental arc (from Richards, 2003; modified from Winter, 2001).
Slab dehydration leads to hydration of the overlying asthenospheric mantle wedge and partial melting in the hotter central
regions of the wedge. Hydrous basaltic melts pool at the base of the crust due to density contrasts, where they fractionate,
release heat, and interact with crustal materials to generate more evolved, less dense andesitic magmas (by melting, assimi-
lation, storage, and homogenization-MASH process of Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988), which can then rise to upper crustal
levels. It is these evolved magmas that are directly associated with porphyry Cu deposit formation. B. Oblique convergence
leads to the generation of structurally permeable transpressional sites along trench-linked strike-slip faults, up which magma
may ascend from lower crustal MASH zones. Rapid, voluminous emplacement of magmas in the upper crust is regarded here
to be a prerequisite for the subsequent formation of large porphyry Cu deposits by magmatic-hydrothermal fluid exsolution.

crust. If the rate and volume of supply of magma is limited,
then so too will be the flux of heat, metals, and other ore-
forming components (Fig. 6). This constraint implies that the
largest porphyry systems will be associated with long-lived
and voluminous arc magmatic suites.
Tosdal and Richards (2001) and Richards (2003) reviewed
structural controls on the emplacement of porphyry magmas
in the upper crust and argued that tectonic stresses acting on
a regional architecture of translithospheric structures may in-
fluence the location of magma ascent by providing relatively
permeable pathways. Optimal sites are extensional structural
domains formed at jogs and stepovers in large strike-slip fault
systems deforming under mildly oblique compressional stress
(Fig. 6B). Although magma ascent can occur in the absence
of such structures, their existence may act to focus magma
flux, thus enhancing subsequent ore-forming potential. A
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
spatial relationship of ore deposits to such structural nodes,
often recognized in regional exploration as lineament inter-
sections, has been noted in many porphyry and related ep-
ithermal districts (e.g., Corbett and Leach, 1998; Sasso and
Clark, 1998; Padilla Garza et al., 2001; Richards et aI., 2001;
Chemicoff et aI., 2002; Sapiie and Cloos, 2004).
Other models for porphyry Cu formation have invoked the
direct involvement of slab melts (adakites; Sajona and Maury,
1998; Oyarzun et aI., 2001) or the role of crustal thickening
and shallowing of subduction angle in affecting magma gen-
eration and composition (Kay et aI., 1999). However, al-
though these processes may be important locally,they do not
seem to be universally applicable, and a more general rela-
tionship to subduction magmatism is implied. Variations
among the porphyry suite may arise from the wide variety of
possible tectonic configurations in subduction zones, and spe-
cific events or combinations of events may cumulatively act to
maximize (or reduce) porphyry-forming potential. Notably,
differences in porphyry systems in oceanic versus continental
arcs occur mainly in subtle details and not in overall
processes. Oceanic arc systems tend to be associated with
somewhat more mafic (dioritic) plutonic rocks, whereas con-
tinental arc systems are typically associated with more felsic
systems (Hollister, 1975; Kesler et al., 1975). There is a com-
mon tendency for oceanic systems also to be somewhat more
Au versus Mo rich in continental systems, although manyex-
ceptions exist. Both of these variations may relate to the de-
gree of fractionation and crustal interaction experienced by
the primary magmas (oceanic systems representing more
primitive systems) and continental porphyries being more
fractionated (loss of Au) and contaminated with crustal com-
ponents (higher Mo; Farmer and DePaolo, 1984; Blevin and
Chappell, 1992).
Epithermal Au-Ag deposits
Historically, an understanding of the relationship between
shallow-level epithermal Au-Ag deposits and subvolcanic por-
phyry systems was slower to develop than the overall rela-
tionship to convergent plate margins. This was primarily due
to problems of preservation and exposure level, which meant
that where near-surface deposits were preserved, erosion had
not penetrated deeply enough to reveal underlying mag-
matic-hydrothermal systems. Conversely, where porphyry de-
posits were exposed, overlying epithermal deposits had al-
ready been removed. Consequently, near-surface advanced
argillic alteration, characteristic of high-sulfidation-type ep-
ithermal deposits, was not included in the classic model of
porphyry alteration and mineralization zoning of Lowell and
Guilbert (1970). Nevertheless, Sillitoe (1973) made an early
connection between porphyry formation and surficial vol-
canic and fumarolic activity, and later studies, such as those of
the adjacent Far Southeast (porphyry) and Lepanto (high-sul-
fidation epithermal) deposits by Arribas et al. (1995) and
Hedenquist et aI. (1998), clearly demonstrated a connection
between these distinct ore-forming environments. As such,
the tectonic controls on high-sulfidation epithermal mineral-
ization are closely related to those affecting porphyry de-
posits. However, economic deposits of both types need not
form together, because local details of fluid evolution, trans-
port, and deposition processes may favor ore deposition in
1113
one or the other environment but not necessarily both envi-
ronments. For example, Bissig et al. (2002) recently proposed
that regional uplift and erosion history was critical in control-
ling the development of mineralized epithermal systems in
the EI Indio-Pascua belt (Chile and Argentina), which are as-
sociated only with apparently barren plutons. Thus, drilling
beneath a known epithermal deposit will not necessarily re-
veal an economic porphyry deposit, although evidence of a
high-temperature magmatic hydrothermal system is likely to
be encountered.
Unlike high-sulfidation systems, low-sulfidation epithermal
deposits do not show a clear, exclusive relationship to sub-
duction zone magmatism, and many deposits are generated
by thermal anomalies caused by crustal extension, such as
epithermal Au-Ag deposits in the Basin and Range district,
Nevada (Berger and Bonham, 1990; John, 2001; Simmons
et al., 2005). In this respect, the involvement of specific
magmatic components (both volatiles and metals) in low-sul-
fidation epithermal systems is less clear, and the key input for
such systems may simply be a heat source of any origin. By
contrast, intermediate-sulfidation epithermal systems are
commonly found in porphyry districts, and either a direct or
distal association with magmatism has been proposed in many
instances (e.g., Rye, 1993; Hedenquist et aI., 1996; Hayba,
1997; Faure et al., 2002). A common structural control on
most epithermal-type deposits is extensional faulting and
brecciation, either generated regionally by tectonic stress
fields (as in the case of the Basin and Range) or locally by
forces involved with magma emplacement (crustal doming)
or by elevated fluid pressure (hydraulic fracturing). The latter
tectonic condition is commonly generated in association with
porphyry formation but not exclusively so.
Metallogeny of Cordilleran Orogens
Metallogenic context
In contrast to the shallow crustal regions that characterize
continental magmatic arcs, as described above, much of an
evolved orogen exposes rocks that were deformed and meta-
morphosed at deeper crustal levels. Crustal rocks that would
have hosted porphyry and related epithermal mineral de-
posits are typically unroofed and eroded in fore- and back-arc
regions. The exposed middle crustal rocks in these regions are
dominated, in contrast, by mineral deposits that reflect
deeper hydrothermal processes that are active in convergent
to transform continental margins. These processes form
mainly orogenic Au deposits, with commonly related As, W,
Sb, and Hg resources. In addition, pre accretionary mineral
deposits, such as podiform Cr and VMS deposits that were
described above, may also be present and hosted within the
same blocks of accreted juvenile crust (Fig. lA).
High heat flow and intense fluid regimes are important tec-
tonic features inherent to most Cordilleran orogens. The gen-
eration of Barrovian P-T conditions is typical for progressive
accretion of a broad zone of radiogenic juvenile material
scraped off a downgoing slab, where clockwise P-T-time tra-
jectories generate deeper and later metamorphism. Under
these heat-flow conditions, peak metamorphism at mid-crustal
levels (greenschist facies) predates peak metamorphism in
the deeper crust, such that fluids generated by dehydration
1114
reactions in deeper crust advect to the mid-crust where they
overprint the peak-metamorphic assemblage (McCuaig and
Kerrich, 1998). Within about 15 m.y. of accretion, large areas
of the mid-crust will begin to experience a significant rise in
geotherms (e.g., Jamieson et aI., 1998). The causes of the
thermal episode are complex; increased radioactive heat pro-
duction of accreted material is the most commonly cited trig-
ger, but shear heating, massive fluid flow, crustal thickening,
ridge subduction, or slab rollback are all processes that may
add heat into the growing continental margin. Rapid uplift
and/or continued outboard subduction typically yields a pat-
tern of inverted isotherms, such that more highly metamor-
phosed rocks are thrust above lower grade rocks (Peacock,
1987).
Fluid reservoirs are present both in the subducted slab, as
noted above, and in the accreted sedimentary and volcanic
rock sequences. As described above, slab devolatilization
releases volatiles into the overlying mantle wedge. The pro-
grading accreted juvenile crust represents a significant sec-
ond reservoir, with voluminous fluid release across various
metamorphic isograds (Fyfe et al., 1978; Powell et al., 1991).
Estimates for progressive metamorphism of an average pelite
are that about 5 vol percent of the rock will be lost to the fluid
phase at metamorphic reaction boundaries (e.g., Walther and
Orville, 1982). Fluids released at greenschist- and amphibo-
lite-facies conditions typically consist of H2O, CO2, CH4, and
N2 (Mullis, 1979), as well as relative enrichments of H2S from
desulfidation reactions (Ferry, 1981), therefore explaining the
dominance of c-o- H-N-S fluids in Cordilleran orogens. Spe-
cific volatile composition of these fluids generated during
metamorphism will depend on the composition of the juve-
nile rocks, particularly on the clay, carbonate, and organic
matter content (Yardley, 1997). Numerous studies (see sum-
mary by Goldfarb et al., 2005) also indicate a progressive mo-
bilization of As, Au, B, Hg, Sb, and W in such fluids with in-
creasing degree of metamorphism. Concentration of these
species in metamorphic fluids may determine, to a large part,
Formerly Active
Magmatic Arc.
Depth in Crust
Subgreenschist
300"C
10 km-"--+--+---'
400"C Greenschist
SOO"C
600"C
FIG. 7. Cordilleran-type orogens are recognized for the widespread distribution of orogenic gold deposits in metamor-
phosed juvenile rocks on either side of the magmatic arc. Ore-forming fluids in the fore arc may be derived from prograde
metamorphism of accreted material above a subducting slab and from the slab itself; where slab fluids are released into the
mantle wedge, mantle-derived melts may carry some of the fluid into the accreted oceanic rocks. The metalliferous fluids
are focused along major crustal shear zones in the fore are, which previously may have been sites of terrane suturing.
KERRICH ET AL.
mineral resource potential within Cordilleran orogens. Silica
metasomatism in both the mantle wedge and overlying crust
is commonplace (Manning, 1997) and, as a result, there is a
consistent association of epigenetic ore deposits in metamor-
phic environments with large quartz vein systems (Fig.7).
Orogenic Au
The fore-arc regions of Cordilleran orogens inherently are
characterized by widespread orogenic gold deposits. The type
Cordilleran orogen of western North America, which is still
evolving, may have begun to form anywhere from 400 to 200
m.y. ago, depending on how an orogen is defined. Subsequent
to Rodinian rifting in the Neoproterozoic, the Pacific margin
of North America was the passive margin site of sedimenta-
tion through the Middle Devonian (Dickinson, 2004). By the
Late Devonian, convergent tectonism began along the mar-
gin, with the Late Devonian to Early Mississippian Antler (or
Ellesmerian in the far north) and Late Permian to Early Tri-
assic Sonoma allochthons of oceanic rocks being thrust over
the miogeoclinal shelf edge (Burchfiel et al., 1992). Such ob-
duction of oceanic rocks was not associated with any type of
subduction zone geodynamics, continental arc development,
or metamorphism, and this low-temperature tectonism also
lacked any associated ore deposit formation of significance.
Cordilleran orogenesis essentially began with the accretion of
more than 200 terranes along the seaward side of the former
passive margin post-Early Triassic (Fig.lA; Coney et al., 1980;
Monger et aI., 1982). The exact time of initiation of simulta-
neous slab subduction and terrane accretion, and thus the
best estimate of the start of orogenesis, could be any time be-
tween -240 and 70 Ma. Moores et al. (1999) noted that there
is a lack of evidence for such terrane collision along much of
the margin prior to the younger part of this age range.
With the onset of subduction-accretion and the deeper and
later style of metamorphism, economically significant oro-
genic Au deposits have formed within mainly greenschist fa-
cies rocks of the Cordilleran orogen for probably the last 170
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
m.y. (Fig. 5; Goldfarb et aI., 2001). The youngest such ores
are the -50 Ma gold deposits on Chichagof Island, southeast-
ern Alaska. However, it is likely that younger orogenic gold
deposits have formed at depth within the fore arc of the oro-
gen since the middle Eocene, but these mid-crustal ore-host-
ing regimes have yet to be uplifted and exposed at the surface
(Fig. 7; Goldfarb et aI., 2000).
The most significant lode deposits are associated with ter-
rane-bounding fault systems. Where no such major conduits
occur within a deeper and later thermal sequence, veins are
smaller and more widely distributed, and world-class economic
gold lodes are unlikely to have formed (e.g., Chugach Moun-
tains/Kenai peninsula, Nome, Klondike). Both exotic oceanic
blocks, such as hosts for the Mother Lode and Juneau gold
belt, and terranes of pericratonic miogeoclinal strata, including
the Fairbanks and Klondike districts in the Yukon-Tanana ter-
rane, all of which were translated along the North American
margin, are equally likely to host orogenic gold deposits.
The oldest gold lodes in the North American Cordillera are
those of Middle and Late Jurassic in the Canadian sector and
Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous in California (Goldfarb et
al., 1998). In Alaska, both gold and arcs young seaward, from
-100 Ma in the north and interior to -60 to 50 Ma along the
present-day active margin. Typically, the orogenic gold
provinces occur at geologic and structurally favorable loca-
tions in terranes of the fore arc, such as within the Juneau
gold belt and Sierra foothills. However, where arcs are rela-
tively diffuse, rather than occurring as distinct Andean-style
batholiths, important lodes occur within an evolving arc (in-
cluding hosts to deposits of the Klamath Mountains and Fair-
banks districts). Where well-defined batholiths have already
been crystallized and are in the process of regional uplift,
competent margins to these igneous masses may also host
orogenic gold deposits (e.g., Willow Creek). In addition to a
number of small orogenic gold deposits in the Cordilleran
back-arc regions (e.g., Polaris-Taku, northern British Colum-
bia; Humboldt Range, Nevada), the world-class Late Creta-
ceous Bridge River deposit in southern British Columbia in-
dicates important orogenic gold ore formation, as well as
subduction-related plutonism, may also continue landward
into oceanic terranes inboard of an evolving continental mar-
gin arc. The thermal profile of a Cordilleran orogen, rather
than simply a geographic location in a growing margin, ap-
parently controls fluid evolution and ore genesis in the
oceanic rocks (McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998). Indeed, a similar
arc to back-arc position characterizes many of the Late Juras-
sic-Cretaceous orogenic gold deposits in the deformed terri-
geneous rocks to the west of the Siberian craton in eastern
Russia (Fridovsky and Prokopiev, 2002).
The Altaid orogen presents a similar Au-rich Cordilleran-
type orogen composed of Vendian through Jurassic units
accreted to the margins of the Siberian craton (Sengor and
Natal'in, 1996b). Inclusion of the Baikalides and Uralides,
both containing important Paleozoic orogenic gold provinces,
remains controversial (Sengor, 1993). Tectonism and defor-
mation span the entire duration of the Paleozoic. Giant Early
Permian orogenic gold deposits (e.g., Muruntau, Zarmitan,
Kumtor, Sawyaerdun) continue along the length of the oro-
gen in what is probably one of the outermost accreted ter-
ranes (Yakubchuket al., 2002). In a pattern similar to that
1115
observed in Alaska, older orogenic gold provinces reflect ear-
lier subduction closer to the craton margin. Giant deposits
such as Olympiada and Zun-Kholba formed in Proterozoic
terranes along the southwestern side of the craton in the lat-
est Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic, followed by ores in
more seaward regions of Kazakhstan and the Urals in the
mid-Paleozoic, and then the Permian ores developed along
the edge of the closing Paleo-Tethyan Ocean (Herrington et
al., 2005;Yakubchuket al., 2005).
Significant characteristics of the Altaid orogen (Yakubchuk
et al., 2005) illustrate other broad tectonic controls on oro-
genic gold in Cordilleran orogens. First, the immense gold re-
source at the Sukhoi Log deposit, probably of mid-Paleozoic
age (Goldfarb et al., 2001), is hosted by carbonaceous and
pyrite-rich flysch in a retroarc location within complexly de-
formed Neoproterozoic pericratonic Baikal terranes (Bulga-
tov and Gordiyenko, 1999). The thermal event associated
with emplacement of the immense Angara-Vitim batholith
(Yarmolyuk et al., 1998) correlates with the major period of
orogenic gold deposit formation within 100 km of the craton.
Thus, there are clearly significant exceptions to the general
observation that orogenic gold ores in a Cordilleran orogen
will always be younger in an oceanward direction. Second,
with the exception of this Baikal region, large gold placers,
such as those that dominate the circum-Pacific goldfields, are
absent. Perhaps this reflects the fact that continent -continent
collision closed the Altaid orogen and has, at least temporar-
ily, formed a Paleozoic craton. This preserved paleo-
Cordilleran margin has thus not been susceptible to rework-
ing and erosion of significant amounts of its contained lode
gold systems. Further support for such a concept is that much
of the interior of the Altaid orogen still contains numerous
Paleozoic porphyry and epithermal deposits (Yakubchuk et
aI., 2002, 2005), whereas such shallow crustal levels have
been already removed by uplift and erosion from many of the
circum-Pacific Cordilleran terranes.
The Paleozoic Tasman orogen of eastern Australia, which
includes the gold-rich Thomson, Hodgkinson-Broken River,
and, particularly, Lachlan fold belts, may also be considered
an accretionary orogen but with important differences from
the more classic Cordilleran-type orogens of western North
America and the Altaids. Rather than a series of accreted ter-
ranes, much of the more deformed and metamorphosed sec-
tors of the orogen reflect a single, quartz-rich turbidite fan
system shed off the Delamerian-Ross highlands in the earliest
Paleozoic. Ordovician-Silurian orogenesis was dominated by
shortening and folding, as is typical of Cordilleran orogens,
but these were thin-skinned tectonic events and lacked any
major uplift of basement blocks (Coney, 1992; Goldfarb et aI.,
1998). This difference in crustal response may be indicative
of subduction and/or accretion in association with a large fan
system, rather than a series of terranes, along a continental
margin (Gray and Foster, 2000). The extensive ores of the
Victorian goldfields formed during Late Ordovician deforma-
tion, metamorphism, and subduction in the western province
of the Lachlan fold belt (-440 Ma: Bierlein et aI., 2001); how-
ever, no magmatic arc developed during subduction beneath
the deforming turbidite wedge (Fergusson, 2003).
Thrust-fault development and uplift of the Victorian ore
host rocks began at -455 Ma, with perhaps slab rollback -15
1116 KERRICH ET AL.

my later, providing the main thermal event related to gold such as the Pan-African of the Nubian-Arabian Shield, show
formation (Squire and Miller, 2003). Therefore, the Tasman little difference from younger Phanerozoic accretionary oro-
orogen scenario suggests that deformation, heating, and uplift genesis. Subduction-accretion in eastern Africa occurred
of juvenile material along a margin may be essential to fluid from 900 to 690 Ma, with the orogen dominated by the addi-
production, fluid migration, and related lode gold formation, tion of new juvenile material (approx 80%), and this terrane
regardless of the presence of associated magmatism or an accretion was then followed by 100 m.y. of strike-slip on
abundance of well-defined terrane-bounding fault zones. major fault systems (e.g., Stem, 1994; Genna et al., 2002),
The Otago schist belt of the South Island of New Zealand which corresponds to the onset of oblique convergence af-
may be more like a classic Cordilleran orogen, or at least a fecting much of Gondwana (Veevers, 2003). Widespread gold
part of such an orogen, but also without any magmatic arc ac- deposits formed throughout the shield at this time (Albino et
tivity recognized in the gold-hosting terranes. This Permian- al., 1995; LeAnderson et al., 1995), which probably included
Cretaceous accretionary wedge contains a number of terranes the great goldfields of ancient Egypt-Nubia (Klemm et al.,
that likely amalgamated and were simultaneously deformed 2001), and other important ores along the southern margin of
and metamorphosed in Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (Mor- the opening Tethyan ocean basin such as the Tuareg and
timer, 1993; Gray and Foster, 2004). Orogenic gold formation Nigerian Shields of West Africa. The Halls Creek orogen of
occurred in the schists during this deformation and uplift, northern Australia, host to the Telfer deposit, is also of this
probably at -150 to 130 Ma (Craw, 2002). This time is ap- age.
proximately mid-way through the 150-m.y.-Iong episode of The same style of accretionary tectonics appears to have
terrane translation along the margin of East Gondwana characterized the Paleoproterozoic, as in the 2.1 Ga Birimian
(Pickard et al., 2000), such that hydrothermal activity oc- terrane, West African Shield; 1.8 Ga Homestake deposit,
curred within the actively deforming rocks as they were partly South Dakota, of the Trans Hudson orogen; and 1.7 Ga Ash-
between their original location off the northeastern coast of burton and Pine Creek gold provinces of northern Australia
Australia and present South Island location. (Hirdes et al., 1996; Attoh and Ekwueme, 1997; Sener et al.,
Another variation on a Cordilleran-style margin might be 2005). Similarly, gold-rich provinces in the broad,
east-central Asia, where terranes that now form the Japanese Neoarchean, Cordilleran-type superfamily of accretionary
islands and southeastern Russia were at one time immediately orogens have been documented in the Superior province
seaward of the eastern margin of China and have since un- (Kerrich and Wyman, 1990; Polat and Kerrich, 2001), Yilgarn
dergone significant Jurassic(?)-Cretacous strike-slip transla- craton (Myers, 1993, 1995), Slave province (Kusky, 1989), and
tion (Sengor and Natal'in, 1996b; Charvet et al., 1999). The Zimbabwe cratons (Kusky, 1998), where major terrane-
resulting Cenozoic configuration, subsequent to northward bounding faults focused auriferous fluids (Kerrich and Feng,
migration of the entire subduction and/or accretion complex, 1992; de Ronde et al., 1997).
includes rocks of the North China craton now located imme- The span of Earth history from -1.8 to -0.8 to 0.6 Ga is no-
diately along the Pacific margin. These Precambrian rocks, as table for the lack of orogenic gold deposits, despite numerous
well as the migrated Mesozoic sequences, contain important Cordilleran orogens, particularly as products of the Mesopro-
orogenic gold deposits; indeed, the orogenic gold deposits in terozoic growth of Rodinia. However, due to the cessation of
the North China craton represent the only knowu significant extensive cratonization (Archean-type continental lithos-
Phanerozoic gold ores in any Precambrian craton (Goldfarb pheric mantle) on a cooling Earth, much of these continental
et al., 2001; Zhou et al., 2002). Gold ores along the northern, margin orogens were not preserved and only high-grade base-
eastern (Le., Jiaodong), and southern (Le., Qinling) margins ment rocks remain (Goldfarb et al., 2001). These sectors of
of the craton formed at -130 to 120 Ma, during delamination the Cordilleran orogens lie beneath typical gold-favorable en-
of the eastern half of the Archean continental lithospheric vironments, and thus more than 1 b.y. of orogenic gold for-
mantle (Griffin et al., 1998). Delamination of continental mation has apparently been eroded from the geologic record.
lithospheric mantle, mantle magmatism (generally at ca. In addition, some of the Rodinian margins were composed of
160-125 Ma), and hydrothermal activity may relate to slab terranes of mainly continental affinity, exemplified by the
subduction from the north and south, and/or circum-Pacific Grenville province (Condie and Chomiak, 1996), which
oblique subduction along the eastern transform margin, all would have lacked the volatiles, and perhaps gold, which
during the Mesozoic. Because these rocks were highly meta- occur in more juvenile oceanic terranes and are critical for
morphosed already 2 b.y. prior to this Yanshanian orogen, ore formation.
ore-forming fluids must have been sourced in either the un- Wand As
derplated material or the mantle melts, although the gold it-
self still could have a crustal source. The North China exam- Scheelite is almost universally associated with orogenic
ple indicates that decratonization, or delamination, of gold provinces (Boyle, 1979) in more deeply unroofed meta-
Precambrian terranes during some form of continental mar- morphic environments. Many of the largest orogenic gold de-
gin tectonism may still lead to formation of orogenic gold sys- posits (e.g., Muruntau, Hollinger-McIntyre, Olympiada, Mt.
tems, despite the presence of crustal rocks that were first Charlotte) contain notable W enrichments, with scheelite sig-
highly tectonized and devolatilized billions of years earlier. natures commonly being relatively HREE and Sr rich, and
Cordilleran-style orogens of Precambrian age, although Mo poor (Kempe and Oberthur, 1997). The As-Au-B-Sb-W
more difficult to recognize, also inherently contain wide- geochemical signature, with W at economic concentrations in
spread orogenic gold deposits in, most commonly, green- places such as YellowPine, Idaho (Cookro et al., 1988), char-
schist-facies terranes. Neoproterozoic gold-forming events, acterizes epigenetic ores in most orogenic belts. Historically,
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
minor amounts of W have been produced from some shear
zone-hosted quartz veins in orogenic gold provinces, includ-
ing the Sierra foothills, California, and Otago schists, South
Island, New Zealand (Henley et al., 1976). In the Vmiscan of
central and southern Europe, W-rich ores have been particu-
larly economically significant at Mittersill, Austria, the Bo-
hemian Massif, Czech Republic, and Chataigneraie, France.
Recent data indicate that these are epigenetic deposits,
which formed during deeper and later metamorphic events,
surplanting the syngenetic model of some workers (Marignac
and Cuney, 1999). The spatial association between gold and
scheelite in Phanerozoic ore systems is further supported by
the consistent association of abundant scheelite grains in
many placer goldfields.
The spatial association between Wand Au in metamorphic
belts, which has been well recognized for decades (Boyle,
1979), likely reflects similar solubilites of the two trace ele-
ments in low-salinity, aqueous-carbonic crustal fluids (Foster,
1977). However, in Precambrian orogens, although green-
stone belts can be sources for gold ores, most associated mafic
to ultramafic lithologic units would have relatively low con-
centrations of Wand are unlikely sources for W enrichments
in hydrothermal fluids. Thus, hydrothermal systems that have
interacted with basement granitoids may be critical for ex-
plaining tungsten-rich quartz vein systems in greenstone belts
(e.g., Zimbabwe craton: Foster, 1977).
Arsenic resources are associated with both a variety of mag-
matic arc-related, shallow-formed mineral deposits (de-
scribed in previous sections) and with auriferous veins in
metamorphosed terranes landward and seaward of the arc.
Currently, much of the world's As resources are in different
deposit types in China; however, historically, many Precam-
brian and Phanerozoic shear zone-hosted orogenic gold de-
posits were the source for As (Fig. 7).
Hg and Sb
In areas of limited erosion within accretionary orogens, Hg,
Hg-Sb, and Sb deposits, typically with anomalous gold, are
preserved as the most characteristic resources formed within
the upper few kilometers of the allochthonous terranes
(Studmeister, 1984; Dill, 1998). Such deposits, within low-
grade to unmetamorphosed host units, have precipitated
from the same CO2-, 180-, N-, and Cs-, Rb-, and K-rich fluid
types that likely formed the Au, W, and As concentrations in
the higher P-T environments (Fig. 7; Goldfarb et aI., 1990,
2005). Seismicity along active continental margin faults leads
to discharge of such deep crustal fluids at the Earth's surface,
as along the San Andreas and Alpine, New Zealand fault sys-
tems (White, 1967, 1981). If associated hydrothermal systems
are large and far travelled, then these Hg- and Sb-rich sys-
tems may be important indicators of deeper orogenic Au de-
posits. Such metallogenic zoning of Cordilleran-style vein
systems has been suggested by many workers (Kerrich, 1987;
Nesbitt and Muehlenbachs, 1989; Ashley and Craw, 2004).
The consistent Hg-Sb-As-Au association within such orogens
reflects a similar affinity to bisulfide complexing. Lindgren
(1895) pointed out more than 100 years ago that features such
as the trace element suites, quartz-carbonate-pyrite gangue,
and carbonate-dominant alteration were indicators that oro-
genic gold deposits in the Mother Lode province and epi-
1117
zonal mercury deposits in the California Coast Ranges had
some type of important genetic association.
Given their shallow level of formation, Hg ores are poorly
preserved. With the exception of the giant 400 Ma Almaden
deposit in Spain, other globally productive mercury systems
are -220 Ma or younger (Obolenskiy and Naumov, 2003).
Genesis of the Almaden Hg province remains problematic:
sea-floor exhalative, mantle plume, and epigenetic shear
zone-related tectonism have all been proposed (Hernandez et
aI., 1999). However, the structural setting, in conjunction with
Cr mica-altered peridotite, is consistent with a Cordilleran-
type suture (Jebrak et al., 2002). Mercury deposits of the
Permo-Triassic of central Asia, Jurassic-Early Cretaceous of
eastern Russia, Late Cretaceous of southwestern Alaska, and
Cenozoic of the western United States are less problematic;
all appear to be products of tectonism in evolving orogens.
The association of Hg ores at Almaden and in the Dometsk
basin anticline in Ukraine, Europe's second most historically
productive Hg province, with older, trans crustal fault systems
(de Boorder et aI., 1995), is consistent with Caledonian and
Variscan age orogeny, respectively (Fig. 7).
There is an abundance of Sb deposits, with notably few spa-
tially associated Hg-rich systems, throughout the Acadian-
Hercynian domain of the Canadian Appalachians and much
of western and central Europe (Mossman et aI., 1991). This
relationship suggests catchment erosion of the shallowest parts
of the Gondwanan host terranes, such that few near-surface
ores have been preserved beyond supercontinent breakup.
Placer Au
Economic concentrations of Cenozoic placer gold charac-
terize catchments of both the fore- and back-arc regions of
orogens throughout the circum-Pacific (Henley and Adams,
1979; Goldfarb et aI., 1998). These include the great gold-
fields of the Mother Lode (Calfornia), Klondike (Yukon),
Fairbanks and Nome (Alaska), the Russian Far East, and
Otago (New Zealand). The source of gold is in auriferous
veins of Jurassic to Cretaceous age in uplifted Paleozoic-
Mesozoic terranes. Significant Cenozoic placers accumulated
where Paleozoic gold lodes that formed along the active mar-
gin of Gondwana have been uplifted and eroded, such as Vic-
toria, Australia, Westland, New Zealand, and the eastern
Cordillera, South America. Similar giant placers apparently
did not form where lodes of the same age, but hosted in Pre-
cambrian basement rocks, were uplifted and eroded, as in the
North China craton.
There is a gap in gold placers between 2.0 Ga and 60 Ma
(Fig. 5). The significant Paleoproterozoic placer deposits of
Tarkwa (Ghana) and Jacobina (Brazil) accumulated 100 to
200 m.y. prior to orogenic gold lodes of the same terranes, sig-
nifYing earlier gold-forming episodes (Groves et aI., 2005).
Orogenic gold provinces may also have been eroded from the
catchment to the Witwatersrand basin (Frimmel et aI., 2005),
although opinion remains divided as to the origin of those
gold deposits (Law and Phillips, 2005). Preservation of Pre-
cambrian placer gold deposits is a function of the thick,
buoyant, and refractory continental lithospheric mantle that
preserved ancient foreland basins, as well as the Mesozoic-
Cenozoic Cordilleran-style accretionary orogens in which
orogenic gold provinces developed.
1118 KERRICH
Metallogeny of Continent-Continent Orogens
Metallogenic context
Continent-continent orogens, such as the Tethyan Alpine-
Himalayan, Damaran, or Appalachian-Caledonian, are un-
likely to be highly metalliferous. Given little production of ju-
venile crust, many of the Au-, Hg-, and Sb-rich veins that
develop in accretionary orogens do not form during rework-
ing of older continental terranes that already have been highly
devolatilized. Also, given the single narrow suture zone in
such orogens, there is a narrow magmatic arc and thus a lim-
ited extent to the distribution of arc-related epithermal, por-
phyry, and skarn deposits. Continent-continent orogens may
be the end stages of accretionary orogens, where an external
ocean closes (Sengor and Natal'in, 1996a), such as where the
Himalayan orogen has followed the Altaid orogen.
Therefore, mineral deposits that typifYolder accretionary
orogens are commonly preserved in the trapped juvenile
crust during subsequent collisional orogenesis (e.g., the cen-
tral Asian deposits between the Tethysides blocks and Siber-
ian craton). Podiform Cr and VMS deposits that formed in
oceanic arcs later become emplaced as ophiolite fragments
within obducted sheets during continent-continent collision.
Granitoid Sn-W
Magmatic deposits of Sn-W are associated with granites in
continent-contine nt-type orogens, as well as some Cordilleran
and Andean orogens. Source magmas are the higWyfraction-
ated peraluminous granites ofIshihara's (1981) ilmenite series,
involving melting of reduced sedimentary facies and mantle
melts. These granites are enriched in the incompatible ele-
ments Cs, Rb, Th, D, Nb, Ta, Sn, W, Mo, and LREE, and the
volatile elements F and B (Sinclair, 1996). Intrusions and min-
eralization are constrained by structures imposed by regional
tectonics (Clarke et al., 2000). Mineralization is triggered by
mixing of saline magmatic and low-salinity meteoric waters
during regional uplift (Kontak and Clark, 2002).
Large Sn-W metallogenic provinces developed in Paleozoic-
Mesozoic continent-continent orogens. Prominent deposits
are Grey River and East Kemptville, Nova Scotia, in the Ap-
palachian orogen; Xhuashan, China; the Erzgebirge and Mas-
sif Central, provinces at 325 to 300 and 290 to 260 Ma, and the
southwest England and Portugal (Panasqueira) province at
-290 Ma of the Variscan orogen in Europe; and the Sinobur-
malaya terrane of the Permo-Triassic (300-200 Ma) orogen of
southeastern Asia (Pollard et al., 1995). Granites were gener-
ated in overthickened crust following collision and emplaced
in a tensional regime, possibly after delamination of continen-
tal lithospheric mantle and gravitational collapse of crust.
Prominent granitoid Sn-W provinces of inner arcs of An-
dean orogens are Llallagua, Chojlla, and Chambillaya in the
Tertiary of Bolivia, and San Rafael and Pasto Bueno of Peru.
Cordilleran-type orogenic Sn-W provinces include the Aber-
foyle and Ardlethan districts of the Tasman orogen, as well as
the Regal Silver and Kalzas deposits in northwestern North
America (Sinclair, 1996).
The conjunction of elements that lead to the formation of
orogenic Sn-W granites are (1) siliciclastic sediments from a
weathered catchment deposited under the chemocline, (2)
input of mantle melts, (3) melting of overthickened crust, and
ET AL.
(4) advection of fluid-undersaturated melts to shallow crustal
levels. According to Clark et al. (1990), the richest granite-re-
lated Sn-W deposits in the Andes reflect an arc-broadening
event, caused by a shift in subduction angle linked to chang-
ing convergence velocity. The secular distribution of Sn-W
provinces is similar to that of porphyry Cu deposits, including
preservation potential in eroding mountain belts (Fig. 5).
Metallogeny of Foreland Basins
U:Foreland-intracontinental basins
Thirty percent of the global D resource is sited in Protero-
zoic siliciclastic sequences, proximal to unconformities (Fig.
5; Ruzicka, 1996). Sedimentary basins evolved on all cratons
after supercontinent assembly at -2.0 to 1.8 Ga (Windley,
1995), but preserved economic deposits of D have only been
found in foreland-intracratonic basins (Fig. 4B, D) in North
America, Australia, and western Africa. Nash et al. (1981)
suggest that the D geochemical cycle was widely established
from 2 Ga onward, with Proterozoic sedimentary accumula-
tions setting the stage for 1.0 Ga metamorphic D provinces in
the Grenville and Damara orogens, as well as the sedimen-
tary-hosted D provinces of western Texas and the Colorado
Plateau.
The conjunction of two geodynamic events may have been
responsible for initiating large-scale near-surface D geo-
chemical cycles; i.e., transition from flat to steep subduction
at -2.6 Ga, and decreased intensity of plume activity since 2.6
Ga (except the 1.9 Ga superplume; Figs. 3A, 5). Archean slab
melt TTG possess Th/U ratios of 5.8 and lower D abundances
than younger intermediate to felsic arc magmas, where Th/U
ratios average 3.7 (Drummond et al., 1996). Lower plume
intensity increased the continental freeboard, permitting de-
velopment of extensive continental siliciclastic sequences
(Fig.3B).
The Athabasca basal unconformity developed on Archean
cratons and in Paleoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks that
include reductants such as Fe2+and graphite. The unconfor-
mity corresponds to a transition from intracontinental
transtensional basins controlled by escape tectonics outboard
of the Trans-Hudson orogen, to a Laramide-type distal fore-
land or perimeter basin (cf. Dickinson et al., 1988), to the
Trans-Hudson orogen. Collision of the Reindeer and Hearne
terranes from 1810 to 1710 Ma generated topographic uplift
of -10 km in the Trans-Hudson orogen. Four depositional se-
quences total 1,800 m of quartzose sandstones capped by 500
m of oolitic or stromatolitic dolomite, with three regional un-
conformities; these sequences developed in a fluvial to lacus-
trine environment with an aeolian input (Ramaekers and
Catuneanu, 2004). Sedimentation commenced at 1830 Ma in
the Athabasca and correlative Thelon basin (Rainbird et al.,
2002), continuing intermittently to 950 Ma. Coeval cratonic
sequences in Laurentia include the Hornby Bay Group, and
Sioux, Baraboo, and Mazatzal sandstones (Ross, 2000).
Two meteoric water-dominated hydraulic systems devel-
oped during extensional subsidence at -1500 Ma. Isotopically
evolved fluids at 180° to 240°C advected through the base-
ment, interacting with reductants, whereas formation brines
dissolved D as aqueous D+6within the Athabasca sequence.
Dranium was deposited where the two fluids mixed proximal
+,
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
to the unconformity, where it was transected by northeast-
trending faults that parallel the structural grain of Trans-Hud-
son orogen accreted terranes (Kotzer and Kyser, 1993, 1995).
This event was coeval with assembly of the Colombia super-
continent. A second mineralization stage developed at -1400
Ma, coeval with intracontinental rifting of Columbia; a third
stage at 1260 Ma was related to extension during the Macken-
zie large igneous province event; and a fourth occurred
during diking in the Athabasca basin or possibly in response
to distal tectonic events, such as Nipigon rifting, the Racklan
orogen in the Yukon, or the Grenville orogen (Kotzer et aI.,
1992; Kyser et aI., 2000; Ramaekers et al., 2005).
In Australia, the McArthur River foreland basin developed
during the 2.0 to 1.8 Ga Barramundi orogen. As much as 15
km of siliciclastic and carbonate sediments accumulated from
1800 to 1770 Ma in a marine to terrestrial environment with
intermittent volcanism. The principal unconformity-related
deposits are Jabiluka, Ranger, and N abarlek, in the Pine
Creek sub-basin of the McArthur River basin. Uraninite pre-
cipitated at 1640 Ma from saline (Na-Mg-Ca-CI), diagenetic
fluids> 100 m.y. after termination of sedimentation, as in the
Athabasca basin. A pronounced change in the apparent pale-
omagnetic wandering path throughout the McArthur River
basin at 1640 Ma corresponds to the timing of both sedimen-
tary rock Pb-Zn-Ag and U mineralization (Idnurm et al.,
1995). Diagenetic fluids advected through the basin intermit-
tently for >900 m.y. (Kyser et al., 2000, and references
therein; Polito et aI., 2004).
There are several common factors in the evolution of the
Athabasca and McArthur basins and their U deposits, as well
as the 2 Ga Oklo U province, Gabon. These include (1) Pale-
oproterozoic orogens that sutured supercontinents, such as
Baltica, Laurentia, and East Antarctica into Nena (Fig. 8A;
Rogers, 1996; Rogers and Santosh, 2004); (2) reductants in
the basement; (3) foreland basins that promoted high hy-
draulic conductivity in sediments, (4) evaporites in some se-
quences that generated saline diagenetic brines; and (5) evo-
lution to intracontinental basins underlain by some amount of
Archean continental lithospheric mantle, which accounts for
their preservation compared to geodynamically equivalent
Phanerozoic basins. Protracted fluid flow was tectonically
triggered and generated multiple stages of mineralization
>100 m.y. after sedimentation (Hoeve and Quirt, 1987; Ra-
maekers et aI., 2005).
Rollfront sandstone-hosted deposits on most continents
represent -30 percent of global U resources; they formed at
dOO Ma (Fig. 5B). Key factors in their formation are (1) de-
velopment of extensive upland terrestrial forests at -100 Ma;
(2) intermontane or intracratonic basins with fluvio-Iacustrine
sediments characterized by the conjunction oflarge hydraulic
conductivities, with both oxidized and reduced facies; (3) tec-
tonic uplift induced orographic rainfall; and (4) topographi-
cally driven fluid flow (Nash et al., 1981).
Carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn
Carbonate-hosted MVT deposits of Pb-Zn are reviewed
by Leach et ai. (2005a). These workers emphasize that oro-
genic uplift is a key factor to create elevated recharge for
topographically driven flow of formation fluids through
sedimentary rock aquifers in foreland basin sequences (but
1119
see Cathles and Adams, 2005, for an alternative explanation
in terms of gas-driven flow). Unconformities developed at the
forebulge (Fig. 4D) tend to be favorable sites for discharge of
metalliferous fluids or mixing of fluid reservoirs.
The MVT deposits are restricted to compressional tectonic
events of Paleozoic and Cretaceous-Tertiary age. The eco-
nomically most significant ores precipitated in the Devonian
to Permian assembly of Pangea, notably Appalachian orogen-
related deposits of the United States mid-continent. Younger
MVT deposits formed during the North American Cordilleran
orogen (Robb Lake, Canada) and the Africa-Eurasian Tethyan
orogen (Cracow-Silesian, Poland). Accumulation and preser-
vation of platform sedimentary sequences that include car-
bonates are fundamental factors in the spatial and secular dis-
tribution of these huge base metal deposits.
Metallogeny of Intracontinental Rifts
Fe oxide-Cu-Au-Ag-REE
The Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposit class has a variety of metal
budgets, possibly reflecting a spectrum of crustal depths
(Hitzman et al., 1992; Davidson and Large, 1998; McMaster,
1998; Porter, 2002; Williams et al., 2005). Economically the
most important deposits in decreasing age include Carajas,
Brazil (2.57 Ga); Kiruna-Bergsdalen, Sweden (1890-1880
Ma); the Great Bear magmatic zone, Canada (1885-1865
Ma); the Cloncurry District of the Mt. Isa terrane (1.79-1.74
Ga) and Olympic Dam (1.59 Ga), Australia; and the St.
Francois district of Missouri (1450-1350 Ma). Variants may
include Slipfontein, an Fe-Cu-Au-F deposit pipelike deposit,
hosted by a 2.06 Ga Bushveld granite; the 2.09 Ga Palabora
carbonatite ring complex, sited at the margin of the Kaapvaal
craton (Figs. 5, 8B); and Kiruna as an Fe-dominant end mem-
ber (Pirajno, 2000; Groves and Vielreicher, 2001). The unify-
ing characteristics are enrichment of Fe-P-F and alkali meta-
somatism of the host rocks (Pirajno, 2000; Groves et al.,
2005).
The Olympic Dam Cu-Au-Ag-REE deposit developed
witllin the 1.59 Ga Roxby Downs A-type granite. Lithos-
pheric attenuation was focused at the eastern margin of the
Archean Gawler craton where the Torrens hinge zone devel-
oped at the transition to thinner post-Archean continental
lithospheric mantle. The Adelaide intracontinental rift basin
filled with a siliciclastic and volcaniclastic rock sequence,
most likely with evaporites. Basaltic magmas were generated
by decompressional melting of hot asthenosphere and/or a
mantle plume that advected into the base of thinned lithos-
phere. Basalts ponded at the Moho, fusing refractory, halo-
gen-rich, lower crust, the residue of previous hydrous melt
extraction, to form anhydrous A-type granites emplaced at
shallow crustal levels (Campbell et al., 1998). Two fluids
mixed in the breccia: a cooler, oxidized, hypersaline formation
brine at hydrostatic pressure carrying Cu-Au-U-S, and a litho-
statically pressured deeper Fe-F-Ba-C02-rich fluid likely
evolved from A-type magmas (Haynes et al., 1995).
Deposits of the St. Francois Mountains are associated with
A-type felsic to intermediate anorgenic magmas. The eNd
values of LREE-enriched mineralization in these deposits of
Proterozoic to Tertiary age span depleted mantle to enriched
values in common with associated igneous rocks, indicating
H2O KERRICHET AL.

PossiblePre-RodinioBosementcovered by PhanerozoicCover or lee

.
D
ExposedArchean and PaleoproterozoicBasement
2.1 - 1.8 Go Collisional Orogens

1.8 - 1.3 Go AccretionaryOrogens

@ SEDEXDeposits

@ Uranium Deposits

.
0 1.7 -1.5 Go Anorogenic Magmatism

1.4 -1.0 Go Anorogenic Magmatism

@ Fe-Oxide Cu-Au-REEDeposits

00 Fe-Ti-VDeposits

FIG. 8. A. Configuration of the Mesoproterozoic supercontinent Columbia ofZhao et al. (2004), illustrating the distribu-
tion of Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits proximal to Archean or Paleoproterozoic margins. Hecast from
Lydon (2000). B. Columbia, after Zhao et al. (2004), with 1.8 to 1.5 and 1.4 to 1.1 Ga belts of anorogenic magmatism from
Haapla and Hama (1999).

the mixing of basaltic with fused lower crustal reservoirs and line magmatism generated by decompressional melting of
a magmatic source of REE (Gleason et al., 1999). metasomatized continental lithospheric mantle. Many Pro-
The interplay of geodynamic and geologic elements for terozoic sedimentary basins feature evaporites. Groves et al.
this deposit class are (1) attenuated continental lithosphere, (2005) list possible Phanerozoic counterparts, such as Cande-
(2) basaltic liquids at the base of the crust and a rift sequence laria, with the caveat that these may have characteristics in-
near the surface, (3) translithospheric rift-related faults to termediate between the Proterozoic Cu-Au-REE-Fe deposits
focus A-type magmas, (4) enhanced hydraulic conductivity at and Au-rich porphyry systems.
shallow crustal levels by hydraulic fracturing, and (5) mixing
of two fluids with different redox states. The 1.8 to 1.1 Ga Sedimentary rock-hosted rb-Zn
age span for most of these deposits is related to the assembly The dominantly Proterozoic SEDEX mineralization oc-
and dispersal of the supercontinent Columbia and then as- curred in intracontinental rifts that developed into passive
sembly of Rodinia (Fig. 5; Unrug, 1997). Their location near margins (Fig. 4), as reviewed by Leach et al. (2005b). Barley
attenuated continental lithospheric mantle may involve alka- and Groves (1992) related the secular distribution of these
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
deposits to the fragmentation stage of supercontinents. In the
reconstruction by Zhao et ai. (2004) of the Mesoproterozoic
supercontinent Columbia, the giant Pb-Zn deposits of
Australia, Laurentia, and India are on intracontinental rifts
that presaged drift, proximal to the margins of Archean cra-
tons or Paleoproterozoic terranes (Fig. 8A). The regionally
extensive, and protracted, history of diagenetic brine flow of
these Proterozoic siliciclastic basins, reflected both in uncon-
formity U and SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits, results from the com-
bination of basin development on relatively thick continental
lithospheric mantle with the thermal anomaly of the 1.4 Ga
superplume that dispersed Columbia. Sulfides precipitated
from basinal brines pumped by far-field forces, which were
active from synsedimentary times to -200 m.y. after sedi-
mentation, e.g., Sullivan and HYC, respectively (Idnurm et
al., 1995). Extensive passive margin sequences did not form
prior to the Paleoproterozoic given low freeboard (Fig. 3).
According to Large et ai. (2001), younger intracontinental
rifts lack such deposits.
Sedimentary rock-hosted Cu-Co deposits
Copper sulfide and native Cu deposits, commonly with
high Co concentrations and locally PGE (Kucha, 1982; Hitz-
man et aI., 2005), occur as stratiform deposits in fine-grained
clastic sedimentary rocks and silty dolomites within rift-re-
lated sedimentary basins. The best known of these sediment-
hosted Cu deposits occur in the Central African Copperbelt
of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia (Selley
et al., 2005) and the Kupferschiefer of central Europe. Iso-
lated large deposits include White Pine (Michigan), Redstone
(Northwest Territories, Canada), and Dzhezkazgan (Kaza-
khstan). These deposits are of various, commonly imprecisely
constrained, ages, ranging from Neoproterozoic (Central
African Copperbelt, Redstone, White Pine), through Car-
boniferous (Dzhezkazgan), to Permian (Kupferschiefer) but
share a common tectonic setting in failed intracratonic rifts or
aulacogens (Fig. 5; Raybould, 1978).
Many of these rifting events have been terminated by basin
inversion, resulting in deformation, metamorphism, and late
hydrothermal overprinting (e.g., Richards et aI., 1988a, b).
These effects have hampered interpretations of original met-
allogenic processes, to the extent that models ranging from
synsedimentary deposition (Renfro, 1974; Garlick, 1981),
through early diagenetic fluid flow (Bartholome et al., 1973),
to late epigenetic hydrothermal Cu introduction (Sales, 1962)
have all been proposed over the last several decades (see re-
views by Gustafson and Williams, 1981; Kirkham, 1989;
Sweeney et al., 1991; Selley et al., 2005).
In the case of the Central African Copperbelt, the timing of
sedimentary and tectonic events is not well constrained.
However, it is clear that synsedimentary or diagenetic models
would require a pre- Lufilian orogeny age (pre-600-550 Ma;
Porada and Berhorst, 2000), whereas an epigenetic model
would suggest an early or syn-Lufilian age, because the ores
are clearly deformed by this orogenic event. Richards et al.
(1988a) obtained a two-stage pb-Pb model age for least re-
crystallized Cu-Fe sulfides from the Musoshi deposit of 645 :t
15 Ma, which was interpreted either to reflect the timing of
Cu introduction into the Ore Shale, or isotopic disturbance of
preexisting sulfides. Either explanation indicates that primary
1121
mineralization predated the main stage of Lufilian orogene-
sis. Selley et ai. (2005) similarly report an unpublished Re-Os
date of 816 :t 62 Ma for stratiform sulfide deposition at the
Konkola deposit in Zambia, consistent with a diagenetic or
late-diagenetic timing for mineralization. Richards et ai.
(1988a, b) also dated rutile and uraninite from late quartz
veins cutting the Ore Shale at Musoshi and obtained an age
of 514 Ma, indicating that these veins postdated the Lufilian
orogeny, and that they could, therefore, not have been re-
sponsible for original introduction of Cu into the Ore Shale.
Ore textures indicate a permeability control on metal dis-
tribution, reflected in the concentration of Cu sulfides within
more sandy laminae of the siltstone sequence, with finer
grained, less permeable laminae being almost devoid of sul-
fides except possibly syndepositional pyrite (Richards et aI.,
1988b). Permeability in the sediments during introduction of
Cu implies an origin prior to regional metamorphism, per-
haps during early diagenesis, because pore space would sub-
sequently have been filled by diagenetic and then metamor-
phic minerals (Brown, 1978). An early diagenetic timing
would also coincide with advanced development of the rift
basin, involving crustal thinning and increased mantle-de-
rived heat flow. In contrast, Selley et al. (2005) propose a
model involving secondary permeability development during
early orogenic fluid flow.
A common characteristic of sedimentary rock-hosted Cu
deposits is that they are hosted by what were originally or-
ganic-rich black shales or dolomites, typically representing
the first marine transgression in previously subaerial clastic
sedimentary basins (Oszczepalski, 1999). In some Cu-Co
provinces, such as the Central African Copperbelt, the un-
derlying clastic rock sequences are referred to as red beds, re-
flecting subaerial oxidation of relatively immature sandstones
(commonly dune-bedded), arkoses, and conglomerates; evap-
Olitic horizons also occur locally (Jackson et al., 2003). Knife-
sharp contacts between the Ore Shale and underlying con-
glomerates attest to sudden flooding of the subaerial basin,
with a switch to deposition of fine-grained clastic sedimentary
rocks with high organic content, followed by deeper marine
carbonate deposits. A link is thus suggested between hydro-
carbon maturation, diagenetic flow of oxidized basinal brines
in the footwall sequences, and base metal sulfide deposition
by reduction upon interaction between these brines and or-
ganic-rich shales (Annels, 1979; Kelly and Nishioka, 1985;
Sverjensky, 1987; Jowett, 1992; Mauk and Hieshima, 1992).
Red-bed formation has been suggested as a key precursor fac-
tor in this process, by causing the breakdown of primary sili-
cate and oxide minerals to render trace concentrations of base
and other metals labile (Zielinski et al., 1983; Brown, 1984).
These metals are then available for dissolution by later fluxes
of warm, oxidized basinal brines (Rose, 1976).
Expulsion of metalliferous brines from the deeper parts of
sedimentary basins is recognized to be an essential part of the
ore-forming process, not only of sedimentary rock-hosted Cu
deposits but also of other sedimentary rock-hosted base metal
deposits such as MVf and SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits (Cathles
and Adams, 2005; Leach et al., 2005a). The different metal
inventory of these deposits, but otherwise similar environ-
ments of formation within intracratonic sedimentary basins,
may reflect simply the dominant composition of sedimentary
1122 KERRICH ET AL.
rocks. For example, Sverjensky (1989) has suggested that Pb-
and Zn-rich deposits form where brines have flowed predom-
inantly through sandstone and carbonate aquifers, respec-
tively, whereas Cu-rich deposits form where aquifers contain
a significant amount of immature sediments, such as red-bed
arkoses. The high Co contents of some Central African Cu
deposits may reflect leaching from mafic materials, either
present as clastic components in the arkosic sediments or sills
deep within the sedimentary sequence (Annels and Sim-
monds, 1984).
The onset of basin inversion is commonly regarded as an im-
portant tectonic driving force for fluid flow, resulting in high
fluid pressures in deeper parts of the basin that force fluids to
escape by percolation through normally impermeable shale
horizons, thereby bringing oxidized metalliferous brines into di-
rect contact with reductants in these shales (Cathles and Adams,
2005). Metal deposition as sulfides also requires a source of re-
duced sulfur, which may be generated by in situ reduction of
sulfate carried by the same brines (McGowan et al., 2003).
The formation of sedimentary rock-hosted Cu deposits, like
other sedimentary basin-hosted base metal deposits, may thus
be seen as part of the larger supercontinent cycle, forming
during the early stages of rifting (Raybould, 1978; Barley and
Groves, 1992; Titley, 1993). Successful rifting will generate a
new ocean basin, with the original rift sediments forming part
of a passive margin sequence. However, such sequences are
either currently submarine, or have been caught up in and
potentially destroyed by later collisional events, and are
therefore either inaccessible to, or of low potential for, explo-
ration. In contrast, failed rifts have high preservation poten-
tial within stable continental interiors and are thus the most
prospective regions for discovery of economic deposits.
Passive Margins
Phosphorites
Most sedimentary phosphate deposits accumulated on the
continental shelves of the western margins of continents and
in passive margin marine settings, within 45° of paleoequa-
tors. Deposition occurred in zones of high bioproductivity
from upwelling of cold polar currents moving toward the
equator in oceanic gyres. Ocean basins -3,000 km wide are
required for gyres, implying deposition of phosphate 15 to 20
m.y. after rifting. Deposits may also form on east-facing pas-
sive margins, such as in the Miocene basin of Florida (Fig.
4C; Chandler and Christie, 1996).
Significant phosphorite units were deposited as the first ex-
tensive passive margins developed during dispersal of the su-
percontinent Kenorland at -2.4 to 2.2 Ga (Fig. 5). Examples
are units in the 1.95 to 1.85 Ga Animikie Group in Minnesota
and in the 2.0 Ga Trans-Amazonian Central Guiana belt, Smi-
name. Major phosphate accumulations became widespread
on passive margins (e.g., Russian platform) following breakup
of the supercontinent Rodinia at -600 to 500 Ma, which
marked the Neoproterozoic-Cambrian boundary. The largest
deposit is the Permian (300-251 Ma) Posphoria Formation,
Montana and Idaho, deposited on the western margin of late
Paleozoic Pangea in an epicratonic sea. These deposits are as-
sociated with global sea-level high stands linked to maxima of
plume or ocean-ridge activity.Phosphates also occur on ocean
plateaus and islands (Windley, 1995; Chandler and Christie,
1996; Follmi, 1996; Ilyin, 1998).
placer Ti-Zr-HJ
Economically the most significant placer deposits of tita-
nium minerals (Garnett and Bassett, 2005) and zircon, in ter-
ranes associated with gemstones, are those of eastern and
Western Australia, South Africa, southwestern India, and the
southeastern United States. An economic example is the <5
Ma beach sands of the Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia.
This plain is bounded to the east by the Darling fault scarp,
linked to the dispersal of Pangea at -230 Ma. Zircon age pop-
ulations in the beach sands and Cretaceous siliciclastic rocks
of the Perth basin are both 1.3 to 1.1 Ga and 600 to 500 Ma.
The catchment is thought to be Pan-African terranes, such as
those of the Albany-Fraser or Pinjarra orogens, involved in
welding the Australian, Antarctic, and Indian continents into
Pangea. Those orogens are interpreted to have been formerly
located to the west, possibly partially in India prior to sub-
duction under Asia. Titanium minerals and zircon were con-
centrated during recycling of the Cretaceous sedimentary
rocks (Freeman and Donaldson, 2004, and references
therein). Tertiary equivalents are present on the western pas-
sive margin of South Africa, which are sourced in the Meso-
proterozoic Namaqua province (Macdonald et al., 1997).
Sedimentary rock-hosted Pb-Zn
Neoproterozoic-Phanerozoic sedimentary rock-hosted Pb-
Zn deposits, in contrast to older Proterozoic examples, are re-
stricted to Atlantic-type passive margins (Leach et al., 2005a,
b). An essential factor in evolving ore-forming brines is the
presence of sabka sediments within carbonate platforms, as
has been suggested for the Red Dog deposit, Alaska. Most
SEDEX deposits formed within 30° of the paleoequator
(Leach et aI., 2004, 2005a, b).
Metallogeny of Anorogenic Magmatic Belts
Rapakivi Sn
More than 70 percent of Proterozoic anorogenic magma-
tism occurs in a 5,000-km-long belt, which is 1,000 km wide,
extending from southern California through Labrador to the
Svecofennides. Windley (1995) recognized six stages in the
assembly and dispersal of the Mesoproterozoic superconti-
nent Columbia and subsequent formation of the Grenville
orogen: (1) accretion of arc terranes of the Yavapai, Central
Plains, Penokean, and Svecofennide provinces from 1.9 to 1.8
Ga; (2) minimum melts of hydrated and accreted terranes to
generate 1.85 to 1.81 Ga granites; (3) melting of overthick-
ened lower crust that yielded vapor-poor nonminimum melts,
such as the 1.8 Ga Svecofennian granites, and lamprophyres
from enriched domains of mantle wedge; (4) delamination of
overthickened continental lithospheric mantle replaced by
hot asthenosphere, which generated 1.75 to 1..55 Ga anoro-
genic Rapakivi granites from lower crust and gabbros from as-
thenosphere melts; (5) plume activity that thinned and frag-
mented the supercontinent at -1.3 Ga, with basaltic liquids
ponding at the Moho density filter, fractionating to anorthosite-
gabbro complexes; and (6) the Grenville ocean opened and
closed in an Alpine-Himalayan-type orogen, leaving remnants
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
of anorogenic Rapakivi granites and anorthosites (Fig. 8B;
Windley, 1995, figs. 15.2, 15.3; Karlstrom et a!., 2001).
Rapakivi granites are anorogenic A-type granites, a mem-
ber of bimodal gabbro-anorthosite and granitoid complexes
(Frost et ai., 2002). Most Rapakivi provinces formed from 1.6
to 1.0 Ga, with a tectonic setting of a mantle plume imping-
ing on thinned, incipiently rifted continental lithosphere or
upwelling of asthenosphere following extensional collapse, as
in the Basin and Range province. Rapakivi granites are melts
of residual lower crust and are relatively anhydrous and re-
duced; accordingly, they crystallized at shallow crustal levels.
Tin deposits with Be, W, Zn, and Cu are present in late-stage
differentiates of 1.7 to 1.5 Ga Rapakivi granite complexes of
Fennoscandia, Missouri, and Brazil (Haapala and Ramo,
1999; Pirajno, 2005).
Anorthosite Fe-Ti-V
Dominantly Mesoproterozoic in age, these deposits are
within layered or massive anorthosite-gabbro complexes (Fig.
5). Plume-related basalts ponded at the Moho density filter
where there was extensive fractional crystallization of plagio-
clase. Associated magmas are jotunites and monzonorites that
are rich in Fe, Ti, V, and P; apatite suppresses crystallization
of magnetite, resulting in immiscible Fe-rich evolved liquids.
Orebodies are cumulus layers or discordant bodies of Fe and
Ti oxides, the latter crystallizing from immiscible liquids.
Prominent examples are Kiglapait, Canada; Smaalands-
Taberg, Sweden; and Kachkanar-Kusinskoye,Russia (Gross and
Scoates, 1996). In the southern hemisphere, a 300-km-Iongbelt
between Angola and Namibia includes the 2.0 Ga Kunene In-
trusive Complex with an Fe-Ti-V province (Pirajno et al., 2004).
The narrow secular duration for massif anorthosites and
their associated Fe-Ti-V accumulations is readily accounted
for by plume-continental lithospheric mantle interactions.
Plumes impinging on thick Archean continental lithospheric
mantle did not undergo decompressional melting. After the
1.9 Ga superplume event, mantle plume activity waned but
was sufficiently hot during dispersal of the Mesoproterozoic
supercontinent to evolve large quantities of basalts under ex-
tended post-Archean continental lithospheric mantle. Shear-
wave splitting is greatest at the margins of Archean continen-
tal lithospheric mantle, and Vp and VpNs ratios of the
Grenville are consistent with 20-km-thick, plagioclase-rich
lowercrust (Musachioand Mooney,2002;Sleepet al., 2002).
Plume-Continental Lithosphere Interaction
Magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE and stratiform chromite
Three types of Ni-Cu sulfide and PGE deposits are recog-
nized (Arndt et ai., 2005; Barnes and Lightfoot, 2005;
Cawthorne et al., 2005): (1) Ni-Cu sulfide accumulations as
part of ultramafic-mafic intrusive complexes and continental
flood basalts (CFB) within intracontinental rifts, with Ni/Cu
ratios <1; (2) komatiite-hosted deposits with Ni/Cu ratios
generally> 10; and (3) tholeiitic intrusions in greenstone
terranes or along translithospheric faults characterized by
Ni/Cu ratios of 2 to 3 (Naldrett, 1989; Eckstrand, 1996). All
three reflect plume-lithosphere interaction (Fig. 2B).
The Stillwater Complex, Montana, with chromite and Ni-
Cu sulfide domains, is an intrusive expression of the 2.7 Ga
1123
global superplume event (Fig. 3A; Isley and Abbott, 1999; Pi-
rajno, 2000).The Great Dyke, emplacedat 2050 Ma, repre-
sents extension in the Zimbabwe craton, following amalgama-
tion of the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons. The 2060 to 2050
Ma Bushveld Intrusive Complex was emplaced proximal to
the Murchison- Thabuzimbi lineament that also controlled
the architecture of the intracratonic Transvaal sedimentary
basin. These African cratons were possibly adjacent to the
Antarctic and Pilbara cratons at -2.5 to 2.2 Ga (Pirajno,
2000). The intrusive complexes are likely an early stage of the
1.9 Ga superplume (Fig. 3A). In the Great Dyke and
Bushveld Intrusive Complex, oxide ores of Cr, Ti, Fe, and V
and sulfide ores of Ni, Cu, Co, and PGE were associated with
ultramafic liquids possessing high Mg number but low in-
compatible element abundances (Pirajno, 2000, 2005). Given
the constraint on depth of plume decompressional melting
imposed by the thick continental lithospheric mantle,
Archean intrusive complexes such as the Bushveld may either
reflect lateral flow of plume melts into the craton or, alterna-
tively, hotter Archean plumes melted at greater depths (Xie et
al., 1993).
Critical factors for transition metal ores in ultramafic to
mafic magmatic bodies are an increase of Si02 content to in-
duce S saturation and open-system conditions. Increase of
Si02 content of the parental liquid occurs either by assimila-
tion of crustal rocks or by mixing witl1noritic melts (Fig. 2B).
In an open system, sulfides equilibrate with successive pulses
of melts or by mixing of melts. Many Archean and Proterozoic
mafic-ultramafic intrusive complexes have vast quantities of
norites. Norites are not evolved, or crustally contaminated,
tholeiitic basalts. Intriguingly, these intracontinental norites
feature incompatible element enrichment in conjunction
with depletions of Nb-Ta, the characteristics of convergent
margin mafic magmas (Hall and Hughes, 1990; Pearce and
Peate, 1995). Some intrusive complexes have units with U-
shaped REE patterns compositionally akin to Phanerozoic
boninites and recent boninites of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana arc
(Stem et al., 1991; Taylor et al., 1994). Shallower mantle
lithosphere of Archean terranes acquired a subduction zone
signature in subcreted normal oceanic and ocean plateau
lithosphere during accretionary assembly of the terranes into
cratons. Subsequently, the deep residue of plume melting
coupled buoyantly to form the deeper continental lithos-
pheric mantle (Wyman et ai., 2002; Schmitz et al., 2004),
which later remelted at shallower depths by decompression
during extension and/or plume impingement. This generated
intracratonic norites with a subduction signature and allowed
mixing of plume material with high Si norite liquids in layered
complexes (Fig. 2B).
Other well-documented examples of magmatic Ni-, Cu-,
and Co-bearing sulfide deposits stemming from plume im-
pingement on incipiently rifted lithosphere are discussed
below. In the circum-Superior craton belt, Ni sulfide deposits
in Manitoba occur at the cratonic margin, in -1.8 Ga sills
compositionally evolved from dunite to pyroxenite, which are
an expression of the -1.9 Ga superplume event (Fig. 3A;
Condie et al., 2001). The 1850 Ma Sudbury igneous complex
is located at the boundary between the Archean Superior cra-
ton and Proterozoic Southern province. Large volumes of
norite are present, hosting Cu-, Ni-, and Co-bearing sulfides
1124 KERRICH ET AL.
with significant PGE. Crustal melting was induced by a me-
teorite inpact (Barnes and Lightfoot, 2005), so this igneous
complex is an exception to the association of magmatic Ni-Cu
sulfide ores with mantle plumes. In the Neoproterozoic, Ni-
Cu sulfide deposits occur in (1) the 1.1 Ga Duluth complex of
the mid-continent rift associated with the Keweenawan large
igneous province; (2) the 1.1 Ga Coppermine large igneous
province of the Northwest Territories, with the Muskox in-
trusive complex; and (3) the Jinchuan deposit, China, which
occurs in ultramafic bodies that intruded translithospheric
faults at the southwestern margin of the North China craton.
Deposits of the Insizwa complex, South Africa, are associated
with the Karoo large igneous province and formed at 200 to
180 Ma; impingement of the ancestral Iceland plume on Lau-
rentia- Baltica induced their rifting, as part of the Tertiary
North Atlantic large igneous province. In Greenland, the 55
Ma Skaergaard intrusion, hosting PGE-Au deposits, is a relict
of that plume-lithosphere interaction (Fig. 3A; Saunders et
al., 1997; Pirajno, 2000).
Magmatic Ni-Cu-Co-PGE deposits in the Noril'sk-Talnakh
metallogenic province have clearcut expressions of the cou-
pled geodynamic and magmatic elements that are associated
with this deposit type. The province is sited at the edge of the
Siberian craton, where the transition from thick (Archean) to
thinner continental lithospheric mantle guided the location of
the regional, translithospheric Kharayelakh fault. Incipient
rifting created intracontinental basins between the Siberian,
eastern European, and Taimyr cratons. Impingement of a
plume at 250 Ma near the failed triple junction led to exten-
sive decompressional melting under thin continentallithos-
pheric mantle, and plume magmas erupted onto a Devonian
epicontinental sedimentary sequence generating 3.5-km-
thick continental flood basalts. Tholeiitic basalts are preva-
lent, with minor alkali basalts and picrites indicating melting
in an anomalously hot plume tail. Assimilation of low S conti-
nental crust led to increase of Si02 content and S saturation
of basaltic melts, with gravitational accumulation of magmatic
sulfides that partitioned Ni-Cu-PGE from multiple pulses
through open-system magma conduits. More than 12 Gt of S
entered the system from stoping of sulfate-rich evaporites,
but only -1 percent of this S entered the orebody (Naldrett,
1989; Lightfoot and Hawkesworth, 1997).
The largest komatiite-hosted Ni-Cu deposits are in the 2.7
Ga Norseman-Wiluna belt, Yilgarn craton. Komatiite flows
erupted in a deep marine environment over sulfidic sedi-
ments deposited in a -200-km-wide intracontinental rift. Sul-
fur saturation of the ultramafic liquids may stem from assim-
ilation of the sediments (Lesher and Keays, 2002). Similar
deposits are present in the 2.7 Ga Abitibi belt and
Neoarchean greenstone terranes of Botswana and Zimbabwe.
Paleoproterozoic equivalents formed in greenstone terranes
of Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec (Ungava, Raglan), Finland
(Hitura), Russia (Pechenga), and Tanzania (Kabanga). A com-
mon geodynamic element for these deposits is eruption of
high-temperature, S-undersaturated ultramafic melts through
continental (Noresman-Wiluna) or dominantly oceanic
(Abitibi) crust (Naldrett, 1989; Eckstrand, 1996; Cassidy et
al., 2002; Lesher and Keays, 2002).
Tholeitic intrusion-hosted cumulus Ni-Cu sulfide deposits
occur dominantly in Archean greenstone terranes, with fewer
in Paleoproterozoic counterparts of Finland and Russia (Nal-
drett, 1989; Ekstrand, 1996). Their common secular distribu-
tion with komatiite-hosted deposits is consistent with plume
magmas advecting into an arc, back-arc, or sub-continental
flood basalt setting.
Magmatic Ni-Cu-Co sulfide deposits at Voisey's Bay, New-
foundland, are sited on the 1.8 Ga translithospheric suture
between the Archean Nain and Paleoproterozoic Churchill
provinces. Troctolite magmas, likely part of the 1350 to 1290
Ma anorogenic Nain Plutonic Complex, intruded the suture
at 1.3 Ga, coeval with dispersal of the supercontinent Colum-
bia, triggered by a mantle plume. Interaction with graphite-
bearing paragneisses of the host terrane by assimilation and
fractional crystallization added Si, K, Na, and S to the trocto-
lites, triggering S saturation and segregation of immiscible
sulfide liquids (Eckstrand, 1996; Naldrett and Ripley, 2001).
In summary, magmatic Ni deposits have the same secular dis-
tribution as mantle plumes.
Economic stratiform chromite deposits are all Archean or
Paleoproterozoic in age. The largest deposits are Selukwe, in
the 3420 Ma Sebakwian sequence of the Zimbabwe craton;
Kemi in Finland (2444 Ma); and Campo Formoso in Brazil
(2000 Ma). All involve plumes interacting with Archean con-
tinentallithospheric mantle (Fig. 2B; Duke, 1996b). Strati-
form chromite in the Neoarchean Bird River Sill, Manitoba,
and Big Trout Lake intrusion, Ontario, appear to be the result
of plume-related intrusions emplaced into Archean green-
stone terranes (Duke, 1966b). Crystallization of chromite was
triggered by mixing of a high Mg primitive melt with Si02-
rich norites, raising the Si activity iil the former.
Diarrwnds
Diamonds form by reaction of asthenospheric carbonatitic
liquids with peridotite (p-type) and eclogite (e-type) of deep,
mostly Archean, continental lithospheric mantle (Gurney et
al., 2005). Accordingly, ages of inclusions in diamonds span
3.3 Ga to Mesoproterozoic (Fig. 2B; Kirkley et al., 1991). Car-
bon is introduced into the continental lithospheric mantle
both from deep asthenospheric fluids and from subducted
ocean crust, in keeping with independent evidence for resi-
dence of subducted material in Archean continental lithos-
pheric mantle (Cartigny, 2005). Diamonds are transported as
xenocrysts from the continental lithospheric mantle to shal-
low crustal levels in kimberlites or lamproites, both incom-
patible element-enriched and volatile-rich ultramafic mag-
mas (Mitchell, 1995; Dawson, 1999). Kimberlitic melts are
generated in the upper mantle, some at depths of 450 to 670
km as indicated by inclusions of beta majorite gamet, but may
also form below the 670-km D' transition zone. In southern
Africa, continental lithospheric mantle with slower P-wave
velocity correlates with a greater proportion of eclogitic sili-
cate inclusions in diamonds, younger Sm-Nd ages of the in-
clusions, more depleted b13C,and fewer diamonds character-
ized by low N contents. Converse properties characterize
high P-wave domains of continental lithospheric mantle
(Shirey et al., 2004). Whereas mantle plumes do not undergo
decompressional melting at -300 km beneath Archean conti-
nental lithospheric mantle, volatile-rich kimberlites possess
the buoyancy flux to penetrate this mantle along preexisting
structures (Fig. 2B).
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK
Three of seven known major kimberlite events are associ-
ated with superplumes: (1) -480 Ma in Russia, China,
Canada, South Africa, and Zimbabwe; (2) -280 Ma in Lau-
rentia-Baltica; and (3) -120 to 80 Ma in North America,
India, Siberia, Brazil, and Africa, linked to the Pacific Creta-
ceous superplume and associated dispersal of Gondwana
(Figs. 3A, ,5). Jelsma et aI. (2004) identified four lineament
trends in southern Africa, along which many kimberlites
occur, that they attributed to lithospheric structures formed
during breakup of Gondwana. Oceanic lithosphere, stored at
670-km depth, may avalanche to the core-mantle boundary,
ejecting superplumes that in turn cause dispersal of super-
continents (Condie, 2002). Kimberlite events not known to
be associated with plumes occurred at 1 Ga, 410 to 370 Ma,
200 Ma, and 50 Ma (Condie, 2001). Geodynamic settings of
kimberlites are reviewed by Helmstaedt (1993); plume-
lithosphere interaction is prevalent, but continental rifts and
transform faults are also significant for localizing kimberlite
emplacement in the crust.
Iron formations
Arguably the most significant insight into the fundamental
process for iron formations comes from the work of Isley and
Abbott (1999), reviewed by Clout and Simonson (2005). They
demonstrated that from 3.8 to 1.9 Ga, iron formations and
ocean plateaus that were erupted from mantle plumes have a
common time series (Fig. 9; see also Clout and Simonson,
2005). Reduced hydrothermal fluids enriched in Fe2+ and Si,
from convection through submarine basaltic lavas, were
transported by ocean circulation to shallower basins where Fe
precipitated in near-surface waters. Fryer et aI. (1979) pio-
neered the concept of large volcanic-related hydrothermal
fluxes into Archean oceans, specifically to maintain an
Archean CO2 greenhouse. Simonson and Hassler (1996) ar-
gued for deposition of Archean banded iron formation (ElF)
below the wave base in deep water during global sea-level
high stands, in keeping with decreased continental freeboard
associated with oceanic plateaus (Fig. 3).
Isley and Abbott's (1999) insight explains the scarcity of
iron formations younger than 1.8 Ga (Fig. 9). Accordingly,
these deposits not only span the putative great oxygenation
event at -2.2 Ga and, therefore, are not proxies for the oxida-
tion state of Earth's atmosphere-hydrosphere system but re-
quire oxygenated waters to precipitate Fe:3+ (Ohmoto,
2004a,b). Corroborative evidence for this depositional
scheme of reduced source fluids and oxygenated surface ma-
rine waters comes from 2.9 Ga BIF in India, which are char-
acterized by positive Eu but negative Ce anomalies. The for-
mer is indicated by the solubility of Eu2+ in reduced
hydrothermal fluids, whereas the latter is consistent with se-
questration of Ce:3+from marine water by Fe:3+and Mn4+ ox-
ides and oxyhydroxides (Kato et al., 2002). Not all Precam-
brian iron formations have such clear Eu and Ce anomalies.
Trendall and Blockley (2004) reject the conventional classi-
fication of iron formations into Algoman and Superior types.
They identifY four main associations. The first is older BIF in
volcanic basins of Archean greenstone terranes of the Slave,
Superior, Baltic, Ukraine (Krivoi Rog BIF), Dharwar, Ama-
zon, Yilgarn, Kaapvaal, and West African cratons. Microbands
are interpreted as chemical and seasonal varves, and BIF are
1125
associated with graywackes. Similar BIF occur in a 650 Ma
arc terrane of the Pan African orogen and in the Ordovician
Bathurst district (Windley, 1995; Peter, 2003). From the geo-
chemistry of first-cycle volcanogenic turbidites in the 2.7 Ga
Abitibi greenstone terrane, ElF were precipitated in posi-
tions distal from bimodal intraoceanic arcs or in back arcs, as
well as distal from ocean plateaus (Feng et aI., 1993). On four
of the Gondwana continents there is a peak of are ally exten-
sive ElF at 2.5 to 2.4 Ga. These ElF unconformably overly
the Archean Karnataka, Amazon, Transvaal, and Pilbara cra-
tons. The Hammersly and Transvaal BIF may have been con-
tiguous in a superbasin termed Vaalbara (Fig. 9; Cheney,
1996). Associated rocks are mafic volcanics and black shales.
An equivalent, the 2.3 Ga Kursk district, is present on the
margin of the Siberian craton (Trendal and Blockley, 2004).
Molecular fossils in Hammersly BIF confer evidence for pho-
tosynthetic cyanobactelia, and concentrations of P, V, Co, Zn,
and Mo in these BIF are consistent \vith precipitation by Fe2+
oxidizing bacteria, as also characterizes present-day Fe-rich
aqueous environments (Brocks et aI., 1999; Kornhauser et aI.,
2002). Shales of the Transvaal Supergroup are cratonic
(Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1990), and the areal extent of Pa-
leoproterozoic BIF on the Gondwana continent is consistent
\vith stable continental shelves above Archean continental
lithospheric mantle.
Granular iron formations (GIF) accumulated on circum-
Superior province continental shelves in the Lake Superior
and Labrador regions, and in the Earaheedy basin on the
northern margin of the Yilgarn craton, at -1.9 to 1.8 Ga (Pi-
rajno, 200,5). These GIF are commonly associated with epi-
clastic sedimentary rocks and tuffs; they are interpreted as re-
working of Fe oxide particles in a shallow-water, high-energy
environment (Simonson, 2003; Trendall and Blockly, 2004).
The areal extent of GIF stems from stable continental shelves
on, or proximal to, Archean continental lithospheric mantle.
Distinctive iron formations, termed Rapitan, were de-
posited from -800 to 700 Ma. The principal accumulations
are Rapitan in the Yukon, U rucum in Brazil, and in the
Damara belt, Namibia (Fig. 9C). These iron formations are
associated with, but more restricted than, Neoproterozoic
glacial deposits and include dropstones. Evidence for rift-re-
lated mafic magmatism that generated Fe-rich hydrothermal
plumes is present in the stratigraphic sequences (Yeo, 1986;
Young, 1988; Trompette et aI., 1998). A possible analogue is
Fe-rich hydrothermal sediments in the Red Sea, where rift-
ing is caused by the African superswell and related plumes.
Iron formations are also associated \vith the -250 Ma and
Cretaceous superplumes (Fig. 9; Oyarzun et aI., 2003).
The combination of factors necessary for iron formations
are (1) mantle plumes; (2) tectonic stability for timescales of
>1 m.y.; (3) hiatus of proximal volcanic activity over compara-
ble timescales; (4) basin architecture that promoted open ex-
change with deep marine bottom waters; and (5) sufficient
water depth to limit the input of epiclastic sediments, GIF ex-
cepted (Isley and Abbott, 1999; Trendall and Blockly, 2004).
Synthesis
Plume intensity was relatively greater in the Archean and
erupted hotter melts, but some type of plate tectonics was
also operating. Archean cratons formed where ocean plateaus
1126 KERRICH ET AL.

Globol Plumes A
"',

Iron Formations B

"/'

c It

Volume (x109 km3) F

en
a

~
a
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Age (Go)

FIG. 9. (A). Secular distlibution of mantle plumes, after Isley and Abbott (1999). (B). Iron formations after Trendall and ~,
Blockley (2004). Rapitan (C), Algoman (D), and VMS (E) after Ohmoto (2004a). (F). Volume of ocean crust from Condie
(1997)

that had been erupted from plumes became jammed against
convergent margins and the buoyant refractory residue of hot
plume melting coupled with imbricated arc-plateau crust.
This refractory residue constitutes the deep continental
lithosphere mantle keel that defines Archean cratons and is
responsible for preservation of Archean continental crust and
its deposits. Magmatic Ni deposits are associated with ko-
matiites and basalts erupted from mantle plumes; VMS de-
posits formed in intraoceanic arcs; and orogenic gold deposits
are prevalent in the Neoarchean (Fig. 10), linked to
Cordilleran-type orogens that welded cratons into the first su-
percontinent, Kenorland, at -2.7 Ga.
The Proterozoic is characterized by a distinctive set of min-
eral deposits. At deeper crustal levels, magmatic Ni-Cu de-
posits formed in layered complexes where high Mg melts from
mantle plumes intruded translithospheric structures guided by
the transition from thicker Archean to thinner Proterozoic con- .~
tinentallithospheric mantle. At shallower depths, Fe oxide Cu-
Au-REE deposits are also controlled by structures marginal to
Archean continental lithospheric mantle. As plume intensity
waned, the continental freeboard increased, and phosphorites,
carbonates, and Fe and Mn formations precipitated on the first
extensive passive margins as Kenorland dispersed. The first U
accumulations were in foreland basins to orogens that welded
Columbia; the first Pb-Zn deposits in intracontinental rifts ac-
companied the dispersal of Columbia; and anorthosite-associ-
ated Fe-Ti-V and Rapakivi Sn deposits occur in tlle vast belts of "
Proterozoic anorogenic magmatism that fundamentally reflect
plume-lithosphere interactions. Several features are evident in
Figure 10: The sparsity of deposits that form in topographically
"
 METALLOGENIC PROVINCES IN AN EVOLVING GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK 1127

0<.~0~
C..o",,-,,: . ~..
~<§<?§
A
c~;",o:.,..
O<.o<:i!i

~0<.0-
~0.,..O"~0<.0
~<,; ~~O"~o-.j.'O<:-
,,~0<'

':>~

,,~

~~
,<t>6,
0 70'
-~~
~A-U'
0.....
;..o~ ~
~ /~
~ Q.
<I>~ ~<:<::
C~ :.0,,-
Q~ 6- ~ ~
<9-
~ ':?>o-"""-
,.C' ~o-/
~"-
~ %6::: ~
~ ~ <9'0

<;;:::,r:;:. ~ .-<'- ':?>%;- ~"'Y~

<5t... C'-'L
~~ -~-

",<Y-

CO<j,.,.,..0<:'

':>~

~ II'" ,,~
c!>/,:
~~ ,<t>
Q~ 0<>-
~~~ G,;C~
4~ o-~ 0
~, 0... <1>-
o~ ~;:o-::( o ~ ~-
<;;:::,r:;:. -:> ~
-:>0 <1>...
OG:
::C:;;...

FIG. 10. Secular variation of specified classes of mineral deposits according to geodynamic setting. Peak height on the y-
axis is scaled according to relative size of the metallogenic provinces. A. AM = an orogenic magmatism; CA = continental arc;
CC = continent-continent orogen; CO = Cordilleran orogen; CR = continental rift; IA = intraoceanic arc; PL = plume-lithos-
phere. Porphyry-epithermal and VMS deposits form in both intraoceanic and continental arcs, but for simplicity of illustra-
tion the former are plotted on the continental arc track. Similarly, magmatic Sn deposits occur in both Cordilleran and
continent-contenent orogens, but are illustrated only on the latter. B. Sedimentary basins. BA = back arc; FA = fore arc; FL
= foreland; IC = intracontinental; 0 = oceanic; PM = passive margin; RM = rifted continental margin; SS = strike slip. Placer
gold deposits accumulate in the fore arcs and back arcs of orogenic belts, but for simplicity of illustration are plotted in fore
arcs. Sources: Meyer (1988), Goldfarb et al. (2001) for orogenic Au, Groves et al. (2005) for Fe oxide-Cu-Au-REE.
1128 KERRICH
elevated tectonic belts, such as magmatic Sn and porphyry-ep-
ithermal deposits, in the Archean; the sparsity of several deposit
types over the interval from -1.8 to -0.8 Ga; the onset of sev-
eral classes of sedimentary rock-hosted deposits with the first
stable passive margins and increased freeboard; prevalence of
Fe-Ti-V deposits in belts of Proterozoic anorogenic magmatism;
and the low prospectivity of intracontinental settings.
In terms of preservation, the sparsity of many deposit types
from -900 to 500 Ma may have resulted from a secular de-
crease in thickness and buoyancy of the continental lithos-
pheric mantle, coupled with Grenvillian orogens having deep
levels of erosion due to delamination of continental lithos-
pheric mantle. The secular distribution of ore deposits in the
Phanerozoic (Fig. 10) reflects enhanced preservation, espe-
cially of deposits in topographically elevated ranges, notwith-
standing thinner continental lithospheric mantle.
Four potential future directions for research may provide
useful insights for exploration. At the scale of cratons, better
seismic imaging of continental lithospheric mantle topography
may assist in the exploration for magmatic Ni-Cu and Fe oxide
Cu-Au-REE deposits. Refined reconstructions of the super-
continent cycle allow projections of metallogenic provinces
(Fig. 8). At the scale of terranes, investigations on the conjunc-
tion of thermal, structural, and lithological factors will help to
determine the distinction between a metallogenic province
versus regions of subdued mineralization. At the scale of a
province, efforts to systematize Damkohler (Ndo) numbers
(Johnson and DePaolo, 1994) will help to determine why large
or small deposits of a given type may form from the same ore-
forming fluids but with subtleties of geochemistry that may in-
dicate size; e.g., large deposits may have high Nd signatures.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Bruce Eglington, Franco Pirajno, Paul
Ramaekers, Vlad Sopuk and Derek Wyman for reviewing
some, or all, sections of an intial draft of tl1ismanuscript. The
section on geodynamics draws on a document written by Ali
Polat and RK for an unpublished report to the Canadian As-
sociation of Mining Industry Research Organization
(CAMIRO). Economic Geology One Hundredth Anniversary
Volume reviewers, Dallas Abbott and David Groves, conferred
insights and identified errors that resulted in substantial im-
provement to the final version. Glen Caldwell, Kevin Cassidy,
Bruce Eglington, and Mike Lesher guided RK to information
where background was lacking. Karen McMullan and Ignacio
Gonzales are thanked for assistance with the text, and Ryan
Schmidt, June McLintock, and Tim Wardell for generating the
figures. RK acknowledges the George McLeod endowment to
the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of
Sasktchewan, and JPR and RK acknowledge support of Dis-
covery Grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Re-
search Council of Canada. We appreciate the invitation by Jeff
Hedenquist to write this article.
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Abbott, D., Drury, R., and Smith, WH.F., 1994b, Flat to steep transition in
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