MKT-413 - Marketing Research PDF

Study Note
EMBA Program
MKT 413: Advanced Marketing Research
Prepared by
Ahmed Sabbir
Prepared as per Curriculum of PSTU

Unit-1
Introduction to Marketing Research
Definition of Marketing Research
 According to American Marketing Association (AMA), “Marketing Research is the

systematic gathering, recording and analyzing of data about problems relating to the
marketing of goods and services.”
 Marketing research is the systematic and objective, identification, collection, analysis,
dissemination and use of information for the purpose of improving decision making
related to the identification and solution of problems and opportunities in
marketing.
The function which links the consumer, the customer, and public to the marketer through
INFORMATION.
Used to identify and define market

opportunities and problems
Generate, refine and evaluate

marketing performance
Information
Monitor marketing performance
Improve understanding of
marketing as a process
Purposes of Marketing Research:

To link the consumer to the marketer by providing information that can be used in making
marketing decisions
 How marketing research can help
– Gain a more detailed understanding of consumer needs
– Reduce risk of product / business failure
– Help anticipate / forecast future market trends
 Businesses need accurate & up-to-date information because the business world is always
changing around them
– Changes in technology
– Changes in customer tastes
– Changes in competitor products
– Changes in economic conditions
Course-MKT413 Advanced Marketing Research Study Note for EMBA, Prepared by Ahmed Sabbir 2
Classification of Marketing Research:
Marketing research can be classified into two of the following ways-
1. Problem Identification Research
Research undertaken to help identify problems which are not necessarily apparent on
the surface and yet exist or are likely to arise in the future. Examples: market potential,
market share, image, market characteristics, sales analysis, forecasting, and trends
research.
2. Problem Solving Research
Research undertaken to help solve specific marketing problems. Examples:
segmentation, product, pricing, promotion, and distribution research.
Role of Marketing Research:
The purpose of marketing research is to provide management with relevant, accurate, reliable,
valid, and up to date market information. Competitive marketing environment and the ever-
increasing costs attributed to poor decision making require that marketing research provide
sound information. Sound decisions are not based on gut feeling, intuition, or even pure
judgment.
Managers make numerous strategic and tactical decisions in the process of identifying and
satisfying customer needs. They make decisions about potential opportunities, target market
selection, market segmentation, planning and implementing marketing programs, marketing
performance, and control. These decisions are complicated by interactions between the
controllable marketing variables of product, pricing, promotion, and distribution.
Further complications are added by uncontrollable environmental factors such as general

economic conditions, technology, public policies and laws, political environment, competition,
and social and cultural changes.
Another factor in this mix is the complexity of consumers. Marketing research helps the
marketing manager link the marketing variables with the environment and the consumers. It
helps remove some of the uncertainty by providing relevant information about the marketing
variables, environment, and consumers. In the absence of relevant information, consumers'
response to marketing programs cannot be predicted reliably or accurately.
Ongoing marketing research programs provide information on controllable and non-

controllable factors and consumers; this information enhances the effectiveness of decisions
made by marketing managers.
Traditionally, marketing researchers were responsible for providing the relevant information
and marketing decisions were made by the managers. However, the roles are changing and
marketing researchers are becoming more involved in decision making, whereas marketing
managers are becoming more involved with research.
Marketing Research Process:

There are six steps to conduct the marketing research; are-
Step 1: Problem Definition
Step 2: Development of an Approach to the Problem
Step 3: Research Design Formulation
Step 4: Fieldwork or Data Collection
Step 5: Data Preparation and Analysis
Step 6: Report Preparation and Presentation
Step 01: Problem Definition
Here at first, the purpose of the study & the relevant background information is determined.
Then how it will be used in decision making also focused.
In defining the problem the research should take into account
 Purpose of the study
 The relevant background information
 What information is needed
 How it will be used in decision making.
It is important that the problem or issues under investigation are clearly defined. Too broad a
definition will result in a lot of unnecessary information: too narrow a definition may mean
that further research will have to be undertaken.
Variations in problem
 Management decision problem-What the decision markets need to do?
 Marketing research problem-What information is needed to make the best decision?
Step 02: Development of an approach to the problem

Here the researcher need to be formulating-
 an objective or theoretical framework
 analytical models
 research questions
 hypotheses and
 Identifying the information needed are described.
Step 03: Research Design Formulation

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project.
In details the procedures necessary for-
 obtaining the required information and
 its purpose is to design a study that will test the hypotheses of interest
 determine possible answers to the research questions and
 Provide the information needed for decision making.
A systematic procedure for research design involves:

1. Definition of the information needed
2. Secondary data analysis
3. Qualitative research
4. Methods of collecting quantitative data
5. Measurement & Scaling procedures
6. Questionnaire design
7. Sampling process & Sample size
8. Plan of data analysis
Step 04: Fieldwork or Data Collection
Data collection involves a field force or staff that operates either in-
 Personal Interviewing (in-home, mall intercept)
 From an Office by Telephone (Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing)
 Through Mail (Traditionally mail & mail panel surveys) &
 Electronically (Email or Internet)
Step 05: Data Preparation and Analysis

Data Preparation includes:
 Editing
 Coding
 Transcription &
 Verification of Data
 Number or letter codes are assigned to represent each response to each question in the
questionnaire.
 Verification ensured that the data have been accurately transcribed from original
questionnaire.
Step 06: Report Preparation & Presentation

– Major findings and results are presented here.
– The findings may be presented in a comprehensible format so that management can
readily use them in the decision making process.
– In addition, an oral presentation can be made to management using tables, figures and
graphs to enhance clarity.
What kind of information might a business need?
 Who are our customers? Are they young/ old; male/ female; local/ national/
international; how much do they earn?
 How do customers make buying decisions in our market? What information do they
need? How long do they take to make their minds up? Do they compare products with
alternative competitor products first/
 How well are our products selling? Are sales improving/declining/stable? Is the
market growing/shrinking/stable; are we increasing our market share?
 Have new products been introduced recently by competitors? Are they cheaper/more
expensive, what new features do they have, how are they being promoted, are they
selling?
 How can we respond successfully to changes in the marketplace? Do we introduce
new products or modify old ones? Should we launch existing products in new
markets? Are these changes in line with our corporate objectives?
Marketing Research Supplier and Services
Marketing research suppliers and services provides most of the information needed for
making marketing decision.
 Internal Suppliers is a marketing research department within the firm like P & G,
Ford, General Motors, Coca Cola, Colgate etc.
o Its structure may be vary considerably:
 One extreme this function may be centralized and located in head office,
and
 2nd is a decentralized structure in which the marketing research function is
organized along divisional scale.
 External Suppliers are outside firms hired to supply marketing research services.
– These suppliers collectively comprise the marketing research industry range
from small, one or a few persons, to operations to very large global competitors.
– External suppliers can be classified into two aspects as:
o Full-service suppliers- Full-Service Suppliers offer the entire range of
marketing research services
 Syndicated services-Syndicated Services collect information which is
then provided to subscribers. For example the Stanford Research
Institute, conducts an annual surveys of consumers that is used to
classify persons into homogenous groups for segmentation
purposes.
 Standardized services-Standardized Services are research studies
conducted for different client firms but in a standard way.
 Customized services- Customized Services offer a wide variety of
marketing research services customized to suit a client’s specific
needs.
 Each marketing research project is treated uniquely.
 Some marketing research firms that offer these services include
Bruke, Inc., Marketing Facts, Inc., and Elrick & Lavidge.
 Internet services-Internet Services are offered by the several
marketing research firms including some who have specialized in
conducting marketing research on the internet. For example,
Greenfield Online Research Center Inc. offers a broad range of
customized qualitative and quantities online marketing research for
consumer, business-to-business, and professional markets.
o Limited-service suppliers-Services Suppliers specialize in one or a few
phases of marketing research project.
 Field services- Field Services collect data through mail, personal or
telephone interviewing; and the firms that specialize in interviewing
are called field service organization. Some firms that offer field
services are Field Facts, Inc., Field Work Chicago, Inc. and Quality
Control Services.
 Coding and data entry services- Coding & Data Entry Services
include editing questionnaires, developing a coding scheme and
transcribing the data on to diskettes or magnetic tapes for input into
computers. NRC Data Systems provides such services.
 Analytical services- Analytical Services include designing and
pretesting questionnaires, determining the best means of collecting
data, designing sampling plans, and other aspects of the research
design. Analytical techniques like Conjoint Analysis and
Multidimensional Scaling expertise can be obtained from firms and
consultants specializing in analytical services.
 Data analysis services- Data Analysis Services are offered by firms
also known as tab houses that specialize in computer analysis of
quantities data such as those obtained in large surveys. Initially most
data analysis firms two or more variable simultaneously. Now SDR,
Inc. is among those companies which are using advance statistical
techniques for data analysis.
 Branded marketing research products-specialized data collection and
analysis procedures developed to address specific types of marketing
research problems. Magic Wand by DigiData Entry System is an
example of a branded product that transcribed data from printed
questionnaires into a computer readable format.
Criteria for Selecting a Research Supplier:

 What is the reputation of the supplier?
 Do they complete projects on schedule?
 Are they known for maintaining ethical standards?
 Are they flexible?
 Are their research projects of high quality?
 What kind and how much experience does the supplier have? Has the firm had
experience with projects similar to this one?
 Do the supplier's personnel have both technical and non-technical expertise?
 Can they communicate well with the client?
Competitive bids should be obtained and compared on the basis of quality as well as price.
Uses of Marketing Research:

• About the market
– Market potential for new products | Forecasting future demand | Competitor
behaviour and performance | Market shares
• About products
– Likely customer response to new products | Comparison of existing products
in the market (features, costs etc) | Forecasting new uses for existing products |
New product development
• About promotion
– Effectiveness of advertising | Effectiveness of direct marketing and/or the sales
force | Competitor promotional strategies
• About distribution
– Use and effectiveness of each distribution channel | Opportunities to sell direct
| Cost of transport & warehousing products
• About pricing
– What happens to demand following changes in price | Analysis of impact of
changes in price on costs and profits | Customer perceptions of pricing
Unit-2
Defining the Marketing Research Problem
Problem Definition:
Defining the problem is the most important step, because only when a problem has been
clearly and accurately identified can a research project be conducted properly.
It also sets the course of the entire project.
Importance of Problem Definition:

Problem definition involves stating the general marketing research problem and identifying
its specific components.
Only when marketing research problem has been clearly defined can research be designed and
conducted properly.
Inadequate problem definition is a leading cause of failure of marketing research project.
Better communication and more involvement in problem definition are the most frequently
mentioned ways of improving the usefulness of research.
Variations of the Problem:

 The management decision problem asks what the Decision Maker needs to do, whereas the
marketing research problem ask what information is needed and how it can best be obtained.
 Research can provide the necessary information to make a sound decision.
 The management decision problem is action oriented. It is concerned with the possible
actions the Decision maker could take.
• How should the loss of market share be arrested?
• Should the market be segmented differently?
 The marketing research problem is information oriented. It wants to determine what
information is needed to make the best decision. It involves determining what information is
needed and how that information can be obtained effectively and efficiently. Whereas the
management decision problem focuses on symptoms, the marketing research problem
focuses on underlying causes.
Management decision problem Marketing research problem
 Asks what the decision maker needs to  Asks what information is needed and
do how it should be obtained
 Action oriented  Information oriented
 Focuses on symptoms  Focuses on the underlying causes
Examples: Examples:
 Should a new product be introduced?  To determine consumer preferences
 Should the advertising campaign be and purchase intentions for the
changed? proposed new product.
 To determine the effectiveness of the
current advertising campaign
Understanding the problem: Tasks Involved
1. Discussions with Decision Maker(s)

Discussions with the decision maker (DM) are extremely important. The DM needs
to understand the capabilities and limitations of research. Research provides
information relevant to management decisions, but it cannot provide solutions,
because solutions require managerial judgment.
Conversely, the researcher needs to understand the nature of what decisions
managers face the management problem and what they hope to learn from the
research
Focus of the DM Focus of the Researcher
Underlying Causes
Symptoms  Superior Promotion by
Loss of Market Discussion Competition
Share  Inadequate Distribution of
Company’s Products
 Lower Product Quality
 Price Undercutting by a Major
Competitor
The problem audit is the way to provide a useful framework for interacting with the
Decision Maker and identifying the underlying causes of the problem. The problem
audit is a comprehensive examination of a marketing problem with the goal of
understanding its origin and nature. It is important to perform a problem audit
because the Decision Maker, in most cases, has only a vague idea of what the problem
is.
The problem audit involves discussions with the Decision Maker on the following
issues:
 The events that led to the decision that action is needed, or the history of the
problem. (e.g. McDonalds losing market share in 2003 to Burger King, Wendy’s
and Subway)
 The alternative courses of action available to the Decision Maker (For
MacDonald’s – new sandwiches, reduce prices, more restaurants, special offers,
more advertising)
 The criteria that will be used to evaluate the alternative courses of action. (e.g
more sales, higher market share, more profit)
 The potential actions that are likely to be suggested based on the research
findings.
 The information that is needed to answer the DM’s questions.
 The manner in which the Decision Maker will use each item of information in
making the decision.
 The corporate culture as it relates to decision making.
2. Interviews with Experts
Interviews with industry experts, individuals knowledgeable about the firm and
the industry, may help formulate the marketing research problem. These experts
may be found both inside and outside the firm. Typically, expert information is
obtained by unstructured personal interviews, without administering a formal
questionnaire. The purpose of interviewing experts is to help define the
marketing research problem rather than to develop a conclusive solution.
3. Secondary data Analysis
Data which was originally collected for some other purpose but is relevant e.g.
government, previous similar research. Convenient way to get background
information.
4. Qualitative Research
Sometimes qualitative research must be undertaken to gain an understanding of
the problem and its underlying factors. Qualitative research is unstructured,
exploratory in nature, based on small samples, and may utilize popular qualitative
techniques such as-
 Focus group (group interviews or focus group discussions or FGD),
 Word association (asking respondents to indicate their first response to
stimulus words), and
 Depth interviews (one-on-one interviews that probe the respondents’
thought in detail).
Unit-3:
Research Design Formulation
Research Design: Definition

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project.
It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve
marketing research problems.
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
A research design includes:

– Type of research
– Measurement and scaling
– Construct and pre-test questionnaire
– Sampling process and sample size
– Data analysis plan
– Budget and scheduling
Classification of Marketing Research Designs
Exploratory Research design

 Exploratory research is most commonly unstructured, “informal” research that is
undertaken to gain background information about the general nature of the research
problem.
 Exploratory research is usually conducted when the researcher does not know much
about the problem and needs additional information or desires new or more recent
information.
 The goal of exploratory research is to discover ideas and insights.
Uses of Exploratory Research:

 Diagnosing problems
 Discovering new ideas
 Screening alternatives
 Gain background information
 Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely
 Identify alternative courses of action
 Develop hypotheses
 Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination
 Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem
 Establish priorities for further research
Methods of Exploratory Research:

 Survey of experts
 Pilot surveys
 Secondary data analyzed in a qualitative way
 Qualitative research
Strengths
 ability to generate insights
 clarify problems
Weaknesses
 results cannot be generalized
 should not be a basis for decision making
Exploratory & Conclusive Research Differences:

Aspects Exploratory Conclusive
Objective: To provide insights and To test specific hypotheses and
understanding. examine relationships.
Characteristics: Information needed is defined only Information needed is clearly
loosely. Research process is defined. Research process is formal
flexible and unstructured. Sample and structured. Sample is large and
is small and non-representative. representative. Data analysis is
Analysis of primary data is quantitative.
qualitative.
Findings/Results: Tentative. Conclusive.
Outcome: Generally followed by further Findings used as input into decision
exploratory or conclusive research. making.
Comparison of Basic Research Designs:
Aspects Exploratory Descriptive Causal
Objective: Discovery of ideas and Describe market Determine cause and
insights characteristics or functions effect relationships
Characteristics: 1. Flexible, versatile 1. Marked by the prior 1. Manipulation of

formulation of specific one or more
hypotheses independent
variables
2. Often the front end 2. Preplanned and
of total research structured design 2. Control of other
design mediating
variables
Methods: • Expert surveys • Secondary data • Experiments
• Pilot surveys • Surveys
• Secondary data • Panels
• Qualitative • Observation and other
research data
Descriptive Design:
 Descriptive research is undertaken to provide answers to questions of who, what, where, when,
and how – but not why.
 It is a research design in which the major emphasis is on determining the frequency with which
something occurs or the extent to which two variables cover.
 Descriptive research assumes that the researcher has much prior knowledge about the problem
situation. In fact, a major difference between exploratory and descriptive research is that
descriptive research is characterized by prior formulation of specific hypotheses. Thus the
information needed is clearly defined. As a result, descriptive research is pre planned and
structured.
Descriptive Research: Strengths and Weaknesses

• Strengths
• Ability to provide an accurate description
• Can be a basis for decision making
• Weaknesses
 Causal links not established
 Can be more expensive and time consuming than exploratory
Uses of Descriptive Research:

• To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople,
organizations, or market areas.
• To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain
behavior.
• To determine the perceptions of product characteristics.
• To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated.
• To make specific predictions
Methods of Descriptive Research:
• Secondary data analyzed in a quantitative as opposed to a qualitative manner
• Surveys
• Panels
• Observational and other data
Cross-sectional Designs:
Cross-sectional designs involve the collection of information from any given sample of
population elements only once. There are two types of cross-sectional designs. These are-
• In single cross-sectional designs, there is only one sample of respondents and
information is obtained from this sample only once.
• In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more samples of respondents,
and information from each sample is obtained only once. Often, information from
different samples is obtained at different times.
Longitudinal Designs:
A fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured repeatedly on the same
variables. A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design in that the sample or
samples remain the same over time
Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal:
Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Designs:
Evaluation Criteria Cross-Sectional Design Longitudinal Design

Detecting Change - +
Large amount of data collection - +
Accuracy - +
Representative Sampling + -
Response bias + -
Note: A “+” indicates a relative advantage over the other design, whereas a “-” indicates a
relative disadvantage.
Causal Research
Research design in which the major emphasis is on determining cause-and-effect relationships.
Most causal research is conducted as experiments—defined as manipulating an independent

variable to see how it affects a dependent variable while also controlling the effects of
additional extraneous variables.
For example, if a clothing company currently sells blue denim jeans, causal research can
measure the impact of the company changing the product design to the color white.
Causal research has two objectives:

 Understanding which variables are the cause, and which variables are the effect.
 Determining the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect
predicted.
Uses of Casual Research:

 To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and which
variables are the effect (dependent variables) of a phenomenon
 To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the
effect to be predicted
 METHOD: Experiments
Unit-4
Potential Sources of Error in Research Designs
Errors in Marketing Research
 The total error is the variation between the true mean value in the population of the
variable of interest and the observed mean value obtained in the marketing research
project.
 Random sampling error is the variation between the true mean value for the
population and the true mean value for the original sample.
 Non-sampling errors can be attributed to sources other than sampling, and they may
be random or nonrandom: including errors in problem definition, approach, scales,
questionnaire design, interviewing methods, and data preparation and analysis. Non-
sampling errors consist of non-response errors and response errors.
 Non-response error arises when some of the respondents included in the sample do
not respond.
 Response error arises when respondents give inaccurate answers or their answers are
mis-recorded or mis-analyzed.
 Surrogate Information Error: Surrogate information error is caused by a variation
between the information required to solve the problem and the information sought by
the researcher. The so-called price-quality relationship, where a consumer uses the
price of a brand to represent its quality level, is a common example of a measure that
is subject to surrogate information error.
 Measurement error: Measurement error is caused by a difference between the
information desired by the researcher and the information provided by the
measurement process. For example, respondents may exaggerate their income in order
to impress an interviewer
 Population Specification Error: Population specification error is caused by selecting
an inappropriate universe or population from which to collect data. This is a potentially
serious problem in both industrial and consumer research.
 Frame Error: The sampling frame is the list of population members from which the
sample units are selected. An ideal frame identifies each member of the population
once and only once. Frame error is caused by using an inaccurate or incomplete
sampling frame. For example, using the telephone directory as a sampling frame for
the population of a community contains a potential for frame error.
Marketing Research Proposal:

• Executive Summary
• Background
• Problem Definition/Objectives of the Research
• Approach to the Problem
• Research Design
• Fieldwork/Data Collection
• Data Analysis
• Reporting
• Cost and Time
• Appendices
Unit-5
Exploratory Research Design-Secondary Data
Primary versus Secondary Data:

 Primary data are originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the
problem at hand. The collection of primary data involves all six steps of the marketing
research process. Primary data are those which are collected for the first time. It is real
time data which are collected by the researcher himself.
• Secondary data are data that have already been collected for purposes other than the
problem at hand. These data can be located quickly and inexpensively. These are
usually in journals, periodicals, dailies, research publications, official records etc.
Secondary data may be available in the published or unpublished form.
Aspects Primary data Secondary data

Collection purpose For the problem at hand For other problems
Collection process Very involved Rapid & easy
Collection cost High Relatively low
Collection time Long Short
Uses of Secondary Data:
 Identify the problem
 Better define the problem
 Develop an approach to the problem
 Formulate an appropriate research design (for example, by identifying the key
variables)
 Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses
 Interpret primary data more insightfully
Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data:

 Specifications: Methodology Used to Collect the Data
 Error: Accuracy of the Data
 Currency: When the Data Were Collected
 Objective(s): The Purpose for which the data were collected
 Nature: The Content of the Data
 Dependability: Overall, How Dependable Are the Data
Classification of Secondary Data:
Internal Secondary Data

Every department within an organization will have its own records that represent a potential
source of valuable data. Internal secondary data may be obtained with less time, effort and
money than the external secondary data.
Internal sources of secondary data are usually for marketing application-
 Sales Records
 Marketing Activity
 Cost Information
 Distributor reports and feedback
 Customer feedback
External Secondary Data:
1. Classification of Published Secondary Sources:
Published Secondary
Data
General Business Government

Sources Sources
Guide Directorie Indexe Statistical Census Other

s s s Data Data Government
Publications
Guides
• An excellent source of standard or recurring information
• Helpful in identifying other important sources of directories, trade associations, and
trade publications
• One of the first sources a researcher should consult
Directories
• Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect specific data
• Examples: Consultants and Consulting Organizations Directory, Encyclopedia of
Associations, FINDEX: The Directory of Market Research Reports, Studies and
Surveys, and Research Services Directory
Indices
• Helpful in locating information on a particular topic in several different publications
2. Classification of Computerized Databases:

 Bibliographic databases are composed of citations to articles
 Numeric databases contain numerical and statistical information
 Full-text databases contain the complete text of the source documents comprising the
database
 Directory databases provide information on individuals, organizations, and services
 Special-purpose databases provide specialized information
Computerized
Databases
Online Internet Off-Line
Bibliographic Numeric Full-Text Directory Special-

Databases Databases Databases Databases Purpose
Databases
3. Syndicated Services:
Companies that collect and sell common pools of data of known commercial value designed
to serve a number of clients. Syndicated sources can be classified based on the unit of
measurement (households/consumers or institutions).
 Household/consumer data may be obtained from surveys, diary panels, or electronic
scanner services.
 Institutional data may be obtained from retailers, wholesalers, or industrial firms.
Unit-6
Exploratory Research Design-Qualitative Research
Classification of Marketing Research Data
Qualitative Research: Definition

Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining data
through open-ended and conversational communication.
Qualitative research generates “textual data” (non-numerical). This method is not only about
“what” people think but also “why” they think so.
It is primarily used to discover and gain an in-depth understanding of individual experiences,

thoughts, opinions, and trends, and to dig deeper into the problem at hand.
Often viewed as a “Soft-approach.” Conducted:

– When structured research is not possible,
– When true response may not be available [embarrassing “touchy questions”]
– To explain quantitative research results.
Qualitative versus Quantitative Research:
Aspects Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Definition Qualitative research is a scientific Quantitative research is the
method of observation to gather systematic empirical investigation of
non-numerical data. observable phenomena via statistical,
mathematical, or computational
techniques.
Objective To gain a qualitative To quantify the data and generalize
understanding of the underlying the results from the sample to the
reasons and motivations population of interest
Sample Small number of non- Large number of representative cases
representative cases
Data Unstructured Structured
Collection
Data Analysis Non-statistical Statistical
Methods Non-structured techniques like In- Structured techniques such as
depth interviews, group surveys, questionnaires and
discussions etc. observations.
Approach Subjective Objective
Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented
Elements of Words, pictures and objects Numerical data
analysis
Outcome Develop an initial understanding Recommend a final course of action
Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures
1. Focus Groups:
Focus groups involve bringing together several participants (respondents), who are all
unknown to each other, to take part in a panel discussion that is headed by a moderator
(researcher).
The use of focus groups is sometimes used when it is better to obtain information from
a group rather than individuals.
The aim of the focus group is to make use of participants' feelings, perceptions and
opinions.
Characteristics of Focus Groups

Group Size 8-12
Group Composition Homogeneous, respondents, prescreened
Physical Setting Relaxed, informal atmosphere
Time Duration 1-3 hours
Recording Use of audiocassettes and videotapes
Moderator Observational, interpersonal, and communication skills of
the moderator
Advantages of Focus Groups:

1. Synergism
2. Snowballing (In a group discussion, one person’s comment often triggers a chain
reaction from the other participants and generates more views)
3. Stimulation
4. Security
5. Spontaneity
6. Serendipity
7. Specialization
8. Scientific scrutiny
9. Structure
10. Speed
Disadvantages of Focus Groups:

1. Misuse
2. Misjudge
3. Moderation
4. Messy
5. Misrepresentation
Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus Groups:
2. Depth Interviews
A qualitative approach in which a trained moderator conducts interviews with individuals,

rather than with groups, to obtain information about a product or brand is known as a depth
interview. These interviews are primarily conducted on a one to-one basis.
The aim of the interview is to seek the interviewees’ opinion on the subject matter.
Research can be conducted through telephone, in person or through online tools such as
Google Hangouts.
The interviewer should ask the participant open-ended questions and record the answers, sort
of like in a job interview.
Individual in-depth interviews can be subdivided into three types-
 Non-directive or unstructured interviews
 Semi-structured interviews
 Standardized open-ended interviews.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Depth Interviews

 Depth interviews attribute independent responses directly to the respondents
 Attitudes and emotions of the test persons can be explored in detail
 It is possible to determine the motivations and resistance towards certain markets,
products and services.
 Mutual interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee helps to generate an
informal atmosphere that facilitates the discussion of sensitive questions or ‘taboo
themes’.
Disadvantages
• It is difficult and expensive to find and employ skilled interviewers.
• Lack of structure in questionnaires in non-directive and semi-structured interviews
introduces interviewer bias.
• Quality of the results depends on the skills of the interviewer.
• The cost and the length of the interviews combined do not permit more number of
interviews to be conducted.
Focus Groups versus Depth Interviews:
Characteristic Focus Groups Depth Interviews

Group synergy and dynamics + -
Peer pressure/group influence - +
Client involvement + -
Generation of innovative ideas + -
In-depth probing of individuals - +
Uncovering hidden motives - +
Discussion of sensitive topics - +
Interviewing competitors - +
Interviewing professional respondents - +
Scheduling of respondents - +
Amount of information + -
Bias in moderation and interpretation + -
Cost per respondent + -
Note: A + indicates a relative advantage over the other procedure, a - indicates a relative
disadvantage.
3. Projective Techniques
The projective technique is an unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages

respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the
issue of concern.
In projective techniques, respondents are asked to interpret the behavior of others. In

interpreting the behavior of others, respondents indirectly project their own motivations,
beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into the situation.
The following are some of the projective techniques used by researchers to tap the feelings in
the sub-conscious minds of the subjects.
 Association techniques
 Completion techniques
 Construction techniques
 Expressive techniques
 Sociometry.
Word Association:
In word association, respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time and asked
to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. The words of interest, called test
words, are interspersed throughout the list which also contains some neutral, or filler words
to disguise the purpose of the study.
Responses are analyzed by calculating:
o the frequency with which any word is given as a response;
o the amount of time that elapses before a response is given; and
o the number of respondents who do not respond at all to a test word within a reasonable
period of time.
Association tests are especially useful in consumer research used for discovering brand image
or product attributes
Examples of Word Association:
STIMULUS MRS. M MRS. C
washday everyday Ironing
fresh and sweet Clean
pure air soiled
scrub don't; husband does Clean
filth this neighborhood Dirt
bubbles bath soap and water
family squabbles Children
towels dirty Wash
Completion Techniques:
These are somewhat similar to association techniques in that the subject is required to
complete an incomplete stimulus. Completion techniques are of two types, that is, sentence
completion and story completion.
 In Sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to
complete them. Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to
mind.
A person who shops at Sears is ______________________
A person who receives a gift certificate good for Sak's Fifth Avenue would be
__________________________________
J. C. Penney is most liked by _________________________
When I think of shopping in a department store, I ________
A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in which the respondent
completes a paragraph beginning with the stimulus phrase.
 In story completion, respondents are given part of a story – enough to direct attention
to a particular topic but not to hint at the ending. They are required to give the
conclusion in their own words.
Construction Techniques
In construction technique, the subject is asked to construct his responses in the form of a story,
description, dialogue or a picture. In construction techniques, the respondent is supplied with
less initial structure that in turn requires more complex and controlled intellectual activity on
his part. Construction techniques are of two types, that is, picture response and cartoons.
o With a picture response, the respondents are asked to describe a series of pictures of
ordinary as well as unusual events. The respondent's interpretation of the pictures
gives indications of that individual's personality.
o In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the
problem. The respondents are asked to indicate what one cartoon character might say
in response to the comments of another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to
administer and analyze than picture response techniques.
Let’s see if we can pick up

some house wares at Sears
Figure: A Cartoon Test
Expressive Techniques
In expressive techniques, respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation and
asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.
This is a technique that involves role-playing, where the respondent is given a verbal or visual
situation and is asked to play the role of a specific character like a sales executive, a manager,
or a political leader.
Question:
1. What is projective technique? Briefly discuss the variations of projective
techniques.
Advantages of Projective Techniques
 They may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew
the purpose of the study.
 Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social
norms.
 Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating at a
subconscious level.
Disadvantages of Projective Techniques

 Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater
extent.
 Require highly trained interviewers.
 Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses.
 There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.
 They tend to be expensive.
 May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior.
Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques

• Projective techniques should be used because the required information cannot be
accurately obtained by direct methods.
• Projective techniques should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights and
understanding.
• Given their complexity, projective techniques should not be used naively.
Comparison of Focus Groups, Depth Interviews, and Projective Techniques:

Criteria Focus Groups Depth Interviews Projective
Techniques
1. Degree of Structure Relatively high Relatively medium Relatively low
2. Probing of individual Low High Medium
respondents
3. Moderator bias Relatively medium Relatively high Low to high
4. Interpretation bias Relatively low Relatively medium Relatively high

5. Uncovering subconscious Low Medium to high High
information
6. Discovering innovative High Medium Low
information
7. Obtaining sensitive Low Medium High
information
8. Involve unusual behavior No To a limited extent Yes
or questioning
9. Overall usefulness Highly useful Useful Somewhat useful
Unit-7
Measurement and Scaling-Fundamentals and Comparative Scaling
Measurement and Scaling:

Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects
according to certain pre-specified rules.
– One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics being
measured.
– The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly.
– Rules must not change over objects or time.
Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located.
Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100,
with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual
assignment of a number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the
respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores.
Scale Characteristics:
1. Description
By description we mean the unique labels or descriptors that are used to designate each
value of the scale. All scales possess description.
2. Order
By order we mean the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Order is denoted
by descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.
3. Distance
The characteristic of distance means that absolute differences between the scale
descriptors are known and may be expressed in units.
4. Origin
The origin characteristic means that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning or trues
zero point.
Primary Scales of Measurement:

There are 4 types of Scale
 Nominal scale
 Ordinal scale
 Interval scale
 Ratio scale.
1. Nominal Scale:
The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. When
used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the
numbers and the objects. The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic
possessed by the objects. The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal
scale is counting. Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on
frequency counts, are permissible, e.g., percentages, and mode.
2. Ordinal Scale:
An ordinal scale is used to arrange objects according to some particular order. Thus,
the variables in the ordinal scale can be ranked. In ordinal level, the numerical values
are categorized to denote qualitative differences among various categories as well as
rank ordered in some meaningful way according to some preference. The preferences
would be ranked from best to worst, numbered 1, 2, and so on.
Example, test of 4 soft drinks, Coca-Cola ranked number 1, Sprite 2, RC cola 3, Lemu
4., Product Satisfaction (Satisfied, Neutral, Unsatisfied), Student Grade A, B, C, D, F,
Rankings of mobile phone service provider.
3. Interval Scale:
A scale of measurement for a variable in which the interval between observations is
expressed in terms of a fixed standard unit of measurement.
In an interval scale, the intervals between the points on the scale are equal. This is the
scale where there is equal distance between the two points on the scale. Examples of
interval scales are Fahrenheit and Celsius scales used to measure temperature.
Interval scales are suitable for the calculation of an arithmetic mean, standard deviation
and correlation coefficient.
4. Ratio Scale:
Ratio scale possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales. It
has an absolute zero point. It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values. Only
proportionate transformations of the form y = bx, where b is a positive constant, are
allowed. All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data. For example, a person
weighting 90 kg is twice as one who weight 45 kg, which have the ration of 2:1
Scaling Techniques:
Comparative Scales
In comparative scaling there is a direct comparison of stimulus object. For example, the
respondent might be asked directly about his preference between the ink pen and gel pen. The
comparative data can only be interpreted in relative terms and hence possess the ordinal or
rank-order properties. This is the reason why the comparative scaling is also called as
nonmetric scaling.
Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank
order properties.
Advantages of Comparative Scales:

• Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected.
• Same known reference points for all respondents.
• Easily understood and can be applied.
• Involve fewer theoretical assumptions.
• Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.
Disadvantages of Comparative Scales:

• Ordinal nature of the data
• Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled.
The Comparative Scaling includes the following techniques:
Paired Comparison Scaling
The Paired Comparison Scaling is a comparative scaling technique wherein the respondent is
shown two objects at the same time and is asked to select one according to the defined
criterion. The resulting data are ordinal in nature.
The paired Comparison scaling is often used when the stimulus objects are physical products.
The comparison data so obtained can be analyzed in either of the ways. First, the researcher
can compute the percentage of respondents who prefer one object over another by adding the
matrices for each respondent, dividing the sum by the number of respondents and then
multiplying it by 100. Through this method, all the stimulus objects can be evaluated
simultaneously.
Second, under the assumption of transitivity (which implies that if brand X is preferred to
Brand Y, and brand Y to brand Z, then brand X is preferred to brand Z) the paired comparison
data can be converted into a rank order. To determine the rank order, the researcher identifies
the number of times the object is preferred by adding up all the matrices.
The paired comparison method is effective when the number of objects is limited because it
requires the direct comparison. And with a large number of stimulus objects the comparison
becomes cumbersome. Also, if there is a violation of the assumption of transitivity the order
in which the objects are placed may bias the results.
Rank Order Scaling

Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank
them according to some criterion. It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand
ranked 1 in an absolute sense. Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data.
If there are ‘n’ stimulus objects, then only ‘n-1’ scaling decisions are to be made in case of Rank
order scaling, while in the case of paired comparison scaling ‘[n (n-1) /2]’ scaling decisions are
required.
Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking
out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most
preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all
the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned
a rank of 10.
Constant Sum Scaling
Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes of a product to
reflect their importance. If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. If
an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. The
sum of all the points is 100, hence, the name of the scale.
Instructions: The followings are eight attributes of bathing soaps. Please allocate 100 points
among the attributes so that your allocation reflects the relative importance you attach to each
attribute. The more points an attribute receives, the more important the attribute is. If an
attribute is not at all important, assign it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some
other attribute, it should receive twice as many points.
Average Responses of Three Segments

Attribute Segment I Segment II Segment III
1. Mildness 8 2 4
2. Lather 2 4 17
3. Shrinkage 3 9 7
4. Price 53 17 9
5. Fragrance 9 0 19
6. Packaging 7 5 9
7. Moisturizing 5 3 20
8. Cleaning Power 13 60 15
Sum 100 100 100
Q-Sort
Rank order procedure where objects are sorted into piles based on similarity with respect to
some criterion. Number of objects between 60 and 90 can be ranked according to pre-specified
number in each class. Each object is than assigned a rank order
Non-comparative Scales:
The non-comparative scale, also called as monadic or metric scale is a scale in which each
object is scaled independently of the other objects in the stimulus set under study. Generally,
the resulting data are assumed to be an interval and ratio scaled.
For example, a respondent may be asked to rate their preference for the gel pen on a
preference scale (1 = not at all preferred, 6 = greatly preferred).
Unit-8
Measurement and Scaling:
Non-comparative Scaling Techniques
COMPARATIVE AND NON-COMPARATIVE SCALING
 With comparative scaling, the items are directly compared with each other.
Example: Do you prefer Pepsi or Coke?
 In non-comparative scaling, each item is scaled independently of the others.
Example: How do you feel about Coke?
Non-comparative Scaling Techniques
Respondents evaluate only one object at a time, and for this reason non-comparative scales are often
referred to as monadic scales.
Non-comparative techniques consist of

 Continuous rating scales
 Itemized rating scales.
Continuous Rating Scale

Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one
extreme of the criterion variable to the other. The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.
How would you rate Sears as a department store?

Version 1
Probably the worst - - - I- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best
Version 2
Probably the worst - - - I- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Version 3
Very bad Neither good Very good
nor bad
Probably the worst - - - I- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Itemized Rating Scales

 The respondents are provided with a scale that has a number or brief description
associated with each category.
 The categories are ordered in terms of scale position, and the respondents are required to
select the specified category that best describes the object being rated.
 The commonly used itemized rating scales are-
 The Likert,
 Semantic differential, and
 Stapel scales.
Likert Scale:
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement
with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.
Strongly Disagree Neither agree Agree Strongly

disagree nor disagree agree
1. Sears sells high quality merchandise. 1 2X 3 4 5
2. Sears has poor in-store service. 1 2X 3 4 5
3. I like to shop at Sears. 1 2 3X 4 5
 The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a total

(summated) score can be calculated.
 When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements by the
respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.
Advantage
 Relatively quick to collect information
 Can be relatively easy simple to construct.
 Can collected from a large portion of a group.
 Easy to use.
Disadvantages of Likert scaling:
 Participants may not be completely honest - which may be intentional or unintentional.

 Can take a long time to analyze the data
Semantic Differential Scale:

The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar
labels that have semantic meaning.
SEARS IS:
Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak
Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable
Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned
 The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and
sometimes at the right.
 This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive
or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the
labels.
 Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a
1 to 7 scale.
Advantages:
 Adjective pairs are easier to develop than are unambiguous and unbiased statement.
 Adjective pairs from prior studies are more readily adaptable
 SDs are much easier and less time consuming to construct than other scales.
Limitation
 Respondents will misuse
 Limited to only few words
 Sometimes opposite is not easily found.
Stapel Scale:
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, without
a neutral point (zero).
This scale is usually presented vertically.
SEARS
+5 +5
+4 +4
+3 +3
+2 +2X
+1 +1
HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4X -4
-5 -5
 The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same way as semantic
differential data.
 Jan Stapel developed it
 It is used when it becomes difficult to find bipolar adjectives that match the investigative
question.
 One of the types of attitude measurement scales
Basic Non-comparative Scales
Scale Basic Characteristics Example Advantages Disadvatages

Continous Place a mark on a Reaction to TV Easy to Scoring can be
Rating Scale continous line Commercials construct cumbersome unless
computerized
Itemized Rating
Scales
Likert Scale Degree of agreement Measurement Easy to More time
on a 1 (strongly of attributes construct, consuming.
disagree) to 5 administer,
(strongly agree) scale and
understand.
Semantic Seven point scale with Brand, Versatile Controversy as to
Diffrenctials bipolar labels products and whether the data are
company interval.
Stapel Scale Unipolar ten point Measurement Easy to Confusing and
scale, -5 to +5 without of attributes construct, difficult to apply.
a neutral point (zero) and images administer,
and telephone.
Summary of Itemized Scale Decisions
01. Number of categories Although there is no single, optimal number, traditional

guidelines suggest that there should be between five and
nine categories
02. Balanced vs. unbalanced In general, the scale should be balanced to obtain objective
data
03. Odd/even no. of categories If a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible from at
least some of the respondents, an odd number of
categories should be used
04. Forced vs. non-forced In situations where the respondents are expected to have
no opinion, the accuracy of the data may be improved by
a non-forced scale
05. Verbal description An argument can be made for labeling all or many scale
categories. The category descriptions should be located as
close to the response categories as possible
06. Physical form A number of options should be tried and the best selected
Balanced and Unbalanced Scales
Balanced Scale Unbalanced Scales
Scale Evaluation
Reliability
 Reliability can be defined as the extent to which measures are free from random error,
X . If X = 0, the measure is perfectly reliable.
R R
 In test-retest reliability, respondents are administered identical sets of scale items at two
different times and the degree of similarity between the two measurements is
determined.
 In alternative-forms reliability, two equivalent forms of the scale are constructed and
the same respondents are measured at two different times, with a different form being
used each time.
 Internal consistency reliability determines the extent to which different parts of
a summated scale are consistent in what they indicate about the characteristic
being measured.
 In split-half reliability, the items on the scale are divided into two halves and
the resulting half scores are correlated.
 The coefficient alpha, or Cronbach's alpha, is the average of all possible split-half
coefficients resulting from different ways of splitting the scale items. This
coefficient varies from 0 to 1, and a value of 0.6 or less generally indicates
unsatisfactory internal consistency reliability.
Validity
 The validity of a scale may be defined as the extent to which differences in
observed scale scores reflect true differences among objects on the characteristic
being measured, rather than systematic or random error. Perfect validity
requires that there be no measurement error (X = X , X = 0, X = 0).
O T R S
 Content validity is a subjective but systematic evaluation of how well the content
of a scale represents the measurement task at hand.
 Criterion validity reflects whether a scale performs as expected in relation to
other variables selected (criterion variables) as meaningful criteria.
 Construct validity addresses the question of what construct or characteristic the
scale is, in fact, measuring. Construct validity includes convergent, discriminant,
and nomological validity.
 Convergent validity is the extent to which the scale correlates positively with
other measures of the same construct.
 Discriminant validity is the extent to which a measure does not correlate with
other constructs from which it is supposed to differ.
 Nomological validity is the extent to which the scale correlates in theoretically
predicted ways with measures of different but related constructs.
Measurement Accuracy
The true score model provides a framework for understanding the accuracy of
measurement.
X =X +X +X
O T S R
where
X = the observed score or measurement
O
X = the true score of the characteristic

T
X = systematic error
S
X = random error
R
Potential Sources of Error on Measurement
1) Other relatively stable characteristics of the individual that influence the test score, such
as intelligence, social desirability, and education.
2) Short-term or transient personal factors, such as health, emotions,
and fatigue.
3) Situational factors, such as the presence of other people, noise, and distractions.
4) Sampling of items included in the scale: addition, deletion, or changes in the scale items.
5) Lack of clarity of the scale, including the instructions or the items themselves.
6) Mechanical factors, such as poor printing, overcrowding items in the questionnaire, and
poor design.
7) Administration of the scale, such as differences among interviewers.
8) Analysis factors, such as differences in scoring and statistical analysis.
Unit-9
Questionnaire and Form Design
Definition of Questionnaire:
A questionnaire is a formalized set of questions for obtaining information from respondents.
Questionnaire Objectives:
 It must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that the
respondents can and will answer.
 A questionnaire must uplift, motivate, and encourage the respondent to become
involved in the interview, to cooperate, and to complete the interview.
 A questionnaire should minimize response error.
Questionnaire Design Process:
Specify the Information Needed
Specify the Type of Interviewing Method
Determine the Content of Individual Questions
Design the Question to Overcome the Respondent’s Inability

and Unwillingness to Answer
Decide the Question Structure
Determine the Question Wording
Arrange the Questions in Proper Order
Identify the Form and Layout
Reproduce the Questionnaire
Eliminate Bugs by Pre-testing
Step 1. Specify the Information Needed
 Consider the constructs
[Theory, hypotheses/research question developed earlier]
 Keep in mind the target population and ask questions appropriately
[Tertiary educated may have different levels of understanding compared with
migrant groups]
Step 2. Type of Interviewing Method

 Personal interviews
Lengthy, complex and varied questions
 Telephone interviews
Short and simple questions
 Mail questionnaire
Simple questions, detailed instructions
Step 3. Individual Question Content

 Is the Question Necessary?
If there is no satisfactory use for the data resulting from a question, that question
should be eliminated.
 Are Several Questions Needed Instead of One?
Sometimes, several questions are needed to obtain the required information in an
unambiguous manner. Consider the question:
“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty and refreshing softdrink?”

(Incorrect)
Such a question is called a double-barreled question, because two or more

questions are combined into one.To obtain the required information, two distinct
questions should be asked:
“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty soft drink?” and

“Do you think Coca-Cola is a refreshing soft drink?”
(Correct)
Step 4. Overcoming Inability to Answer

 Is the Respondent Informed?
In situations where not all respondents are likely to be informed about the topic of
interest, filter questions that measure familiarity and past experience should be
asked before questions about the topics themselves. A “don't know” option appears
to reduce uninformed responses without reducing the response rate.
 Can the Respondent Remember?
How many gallons of soft drinks did you consume during the last four weeks?
(Incorrect)
How often do you consume soft drinks in a typical week?
(Correct)
1. ___ Less than once a week
2. ___ 1 to 3 times per week
3. ___ 4 to 6 times per week
4. ___ 7 or more times per week
 Can the Respondent Articulate?

Respondents may be unable to articulate certain types of responses, e.g., describe the
atmosphere of a department store Respondents should be given aids, such as
pictures, maps, and descriptions to help them articulate their responses.
 Effort Required of the Respondents?
Most respondents are unwilling to devote a lot of effort to provide information.
Please list all the departments from which you purchased merchandise on your most
recent shopping trip to a department store.
(Incorrect)
In the list that follows, please check all the departments from which you purchased
merchandise on your most recent shopping trip to a department store.
1. Women's dresses ____
2. Men's apparel ____
3. Children's apparel ____
4. Cosmetics ____
.
.
16. Jewelry ____
17. Other (please specify) ____ (Correct)
 Increasing the Willingness of Respondents
Place sensitive topics at the end of the questionnaire. Preface the question with a
statement that the behavior of interest is common. Ask the question using the third-
person technique (see Chapter 5): phrase the question as if it referred to other people.
Hide the question in a group of other questions which respondents are willing to
answer. The entire list of questions can then be asked quickly. Provide response
categories rather than asking for specific figures. Use randomized techniques.
Step 5. Choosing Question Structure
Questions
Unstructured Structured
Multiple Dichotomous Scales

Choice
1. Unstructured Questions
Unstructured questions are open-ended questions that respondents answer in their
own words.
What is your occupation?

Who is your favorite actor?
What do you think about people who shop at high-end department stores?
2. Structured Questions
Structured questions specify the set of response alternatives and the response format.
A structured question may be multiple-choice, dichotomous, or a scale.
• Multiple-Choice Questions
In multiple-choice questions, the researcher provides a choice of answers and
respondents are asked to select one or more of the alternatives given.
Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?
____ Definitely will not buy
____ Probably will not buy
____ Undecided
____ Probably will buy
____ Definitely will buy
____ Other (please specify)
• Dichotomous Questions
A dichotomous question has only two response alternatives: yes or no, agree or
disagree, and so on. Often, the two alternatives of interest are supplemented by
a neutral alternative, such as “no opinion,” “don't know,” “both,” or “none.”
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know
• Scales
Such as likert scale
Definitely will Probably will Undecided Probably Definitely will

not buy not buy will buy buy
1 2 3 4 5
Step 6. Choosing Question Wording

• Define the Issue
Define the issue in terms of who, what, when, where, why, and way (the six Ws).
Who, what, when, and where are particularly important.
Which brand of shampoo do you use?

(Incorrect)
Which brand or brands of shampoo have you personally used at home during
the last month?
In case of more than one brand, please list all the brands that apply.
(Correct)
• Use Ordinary Words
“Do you think the distribution of soft drinks is adequate?”
(Incorrect)
“Do you think soft drinks are readily available when you want to buy them?”
`` (Correct)
• Use UnambiguousWords
In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores?
_____ Never
_____ Occasionally
_____ Sometimes
_____ Often
_____ Regularly
(Incorrect)
In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores?
_____ Less than once
_____ 1 or 2 times
_____ 3 or 4 times
_____ More than 4 times (Correct)
• Avoid Leading or Biasing Questions
A leading question is one that clues the respondent to what the answer should
be, as in the following:
Do you think that patriotic Americans should buy imported automobiles when
that would put American labor out of work?
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know
(Incorrect)
Do you think that Americans should buy imported automobiles?
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know
(Correct)
• Avoid Implicit Alternatives
An alternative that is not explicitly expressed in the options is an implicit
alternative.
1. Do you like to fly when traveling short distances?

(Incorrect)
2. Do you like to fly when traveling short distances, or would you rather
drive?
(Correct)
• Avoid Implicit Assumptions
Questions should not be worded so that the answer is dependent upon implicit
assumptions about what will happen as a consequence.
1. Are you in favor of a balanced budget?

(Incorrect)
2. Are you in favor of a balanced budget if it would result in an increase in the
personal income tax?
(Correct)
• Avoid Generalizations and Estimates

“What is the annual per capita expenditure on groceries in your household?”
(Incorrect)
“What is the monthly (or weekly) expenditure on groceries in your
household?”and“How many members are there in your household?”
(Correct)
• Dual Statements: Positive and Negative

Questions that are in the form of statements should be worded both positively
and negatively.
Step 7. Determining the Order of Questions
1. Opening Questions
The opening questions should be interesting, simple, and non-threatening.
2. Type of Information
As a general guideline, basic information should be obtained first, followed by
classification, and, finally, identification information.
3. Difficult Questions
Difficult questions or questions which are sensitive, embarrassing, complex, or
dull, should be placed late in the sequence.
Step 8. Form and Layout
Divide a questionnaire into several parts. The questions in each part should be
numbered, particularly when branching questions are used. The questionnaires
should preferably be precoded. The questionnaires themselves should be numbered
serially.
Step 9. Reproduction of the Questionnaire
The questionnaire should be reproduced on good-quality paper and have a
professional appearance. Questionnaires should take the form of a booklet rather
than a number of sheets of paper clipped or stapled together. Each question should
be reproduced on a single page (or double-page spread). Vertical response columns
should be used for individual questions. Grids are useful when there are a number
of related questions they use the same set of response categories. The tendency to
crowd questions together to make the questionnaire look shorter should be avoided.
Directions or instructions for individual questions should be placed as close to the
questions as possible.
Step 9. Pretesting
Pretesting refers to the testing of the questionnaire on a small sample of respondents
to identify and eliminate potential problems. A questionnaire should not be used in
the field survey without adequate pretesting. All aspects of the questionnaire should
be tested, including question content, wording, sequence, form and layout, question
difficulty, and instructions. The respondents for the pretest and for the actual survey
should be drawn from the same population.
Pretests are best done by personal interviews, even if the actual survey is to be
conducted by mail, telephone, or electronic means, because interviewers can observe
respondents' reactions and attitudes. After the necessary changes have been made,
another pretest could be conducted by mail, telephone, or electronic means if those
methods are to be used in the actual survey.
A variety of interviewers should be used for pretests. The pretest sample size varies
from 15 to 30 respondents for each wave. Protocol analysis and debriefing are two
commonly used procedures in pretesting. Finally, the responses obtained from the
pretest should be coded and analyzed.
Unit-9
Sampling-Design and Procedures
Population: The Aggregate of all the elements, sharing some common set of characteristics,
comprises the universe for the purpose of marketing research problem.
Census: A complete enumeration of the elements of a population or study objects.
Sample: A subgroup of the elements of a population selected for participation in the study.
Sample vs. Census:

Conditions Favoring the Use of
Type of Study
Sample Census
1. Budget Small Large
2. Time available Short Long
3. Population size Large Small
4. Variance in the characteristic Small Large
5. Cost of sampling errors Low High
6. Cost of non-sampling errors High Low
7. Nature of measurement Destructive Nondestructive
8. Attention to individual cases Yes No
In research terms a sample is a group of people, objects, or items that are taken from a larger
population for measurement. The sample should be representative of the population to ensure
that we can generalize the findings from the research sample to the population as a whole.
Sampling is defined as the process of selecting certain members or a subset of the population
to make statistical inferences from them and to estimate characteristics of the whole
population.
The Sampling Design Process:
Step 1. Define the Target Population
The target population is the collection of elements or objects that possess the information
sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made. The target population
should be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent, and time.
– An element is the object about which or from which the information is desired,
e.g., the respondent.
– A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing the element, that is available
for selection at some stage of the sampling process.
– Extent refers to the geographical boundaries.
– Time is the time period under consideration.
Important qualitative factors in determining the sample size
– the importance of the decision
– the nature of the research
– the number of variables
– the nature of the analysis
– sample sizes used in similar studies
– incidence rates
– completion rates
– resource constraints
Step-2: Determining the sampling frame

 Sampling frame
A sampling frame is a list of all the items in your population. It’s a complete list of
everyone or everything you want to study. The difference between a population and a
sampling frame is that the population is general and the frame is specific.
Population: People in STAT101.
Sampling Frame: Adrian, Anna, Bob, Billy, Howie, Jess, Jin, Kate, Kaley, Lin, Manuel, Norah,
Paul, Roger, Stu, Tim, Vanessa, Yasmin.
 Way to overcome the discrepancy of sample frame

 Redefine the population
 Screening the respondent in the data collection phase
 Adjust the data collection using weight scheme
Example:
 Telephone book directory
 Voter list
 Random digit dialing
This is essential for probability sampling.
Step-3: Select a sampling Technique
Bayesian approach
A selection method where the elements are selected sequentially. The bayesian approach explicitly
incorporates prior information about population parameters as well as the costs and probabilities
associated with making wrong decisions.
A Bayesian approach is a conditional probability or a probabilistic construct that allows new

information to be combined with existing information: it assumes, and continuously updates,
changes in the probability distribution of parameters or data.
Sampling with replacement
 A sampling technique in which an element can be included in the sample more than
once.
Sampling without replacement

 A sampling technique in which an element cannot be included in the sample more than
once.
Step-4 Sample size determination

Sample size may be determined by using:
 Subjective methods (less sophisticated methods)
 The rule of thumb approach: e.g., 5% of population
 Conventional approach: e.g., Average of sample sizes of similar other studies;
 Cost basis approach: The number that can be studied with the available funds;
 Statistical formulae (more sophisticated methods) Confidence interval
approach.
To determine sample sizes using statistical formulae, researchers use the confidence interval
approach based on the following factors:
 Desired level of data precision or accuracy;
 Amount of variability in the population (homogeneity);
 Level of confidence required in the estimates of population values.
 Availability of resources such as money, manpower and time may prompt the
researcher to modify the computed sample size.
Sample Sizes Used in Marketing Research Studies:

Type of Study Minimum Typical
Size Range
Problem identification research (e.g. market potential) 500 1,000-2,500
Problem-solving research (e.g. pricing) 200 300-500
Product tests 200 300-500
Test marketing studies 200 300-500
TV, radio, or print advertising (per commercial or ad tested) 150 200-300
Test-market audits 10 stores 10-20 stores
Focus groups 2 groups 4-12 groups
Step-5 Execute the Sampling process
The final step in the sample process involves execution of the operational sampling plan.
It is important that this step include adequate checking to make sure that specified procedures
are implemented.
• Detailed specifications are required for every stage
• Procedures should be specified for each stage and on how to conduct the data
collection
• Contingency plans should be made in case of non-availability of sampling unit
Classification of Sampling Techniques
1. Nonprobability Sampling Techniques
(a) Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements. Often,
respondents are selected because they happen to be in the right place at the right time.
– use of students, and members of social organizations
– mall intercept interviews without qualifying the respondents
– department stores using charge account lists
– “people on the street” interviews
(b) Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling in which the population
elements are selected based on the judgment of the researcher.
– test markets
– purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing research
– bellwether precincts selected in voting behavior research
– expert witnesses used in court
Judgmental sampling design is usually used when a limited number of individuals possess
the trait of interest. It is the only viable sampling technique in obtaining information from a
very specific group of people. It is also possible to use judgmental sampling if the researcher
knows a reliable professional or authority that he thinks is capable of assembling a
representative sample. Researchers prefer to implement Judgmental sampling when they feel
that other sampling techniques will consume more time and that they have confidence in their
knowledge to select a sample for conducting research.
(c) Quota Sampling

Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental sampling.
– The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of
population elements.
– In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or
judgment.
Control Population Sample
Characteristic composition composition
Sex Percentage Percentage Number
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
100 100 1000
Quota sampling is used when the company is short of time or the budget of the person who is
researching on the topic is limited. Quota sampling can also be used at times when detailed accuracy
is not important.
(d) Snowball Sampling

In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is selected, usually at random.
– After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to identify others who
belong to the target population of interest.
– Subsequent respondents are selected based on the referrals.
It allows for studies to take place where otherwise it might be impossible to conduct because of a
lack of participants.
2. Probability Sampling Techniques

(a) Simple Random Sampling
Each element in the population has a known and equal probability of selection. Each
possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and equal probability of being the
sample actually selected. This implies that every element is selected independently of
every other element.
(b) Systematic Sampling
The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking every ith
element in succession from the sampling frame. The sampling interval, i, is
determined by dividing the population size N by the sample size n and rounding to
the nearest integer. When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic of
interest, systematic sampling increases the representativeness of the sample. If the
ordering of the elements produces a cyclical pattern, systematic sampling may
decrease the representativeness of the sample.
For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a sample of 1,000 is
desired. In this case the sampling interval, i, is 100. A random number between 1 and
100 is selected. If, for example, this number is 23, the sample consists of elements 23,
123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
(c) Stratified Sampling

Stratified sampling is a process used in market research that involves dividing the
population of interest into smaller groups, called strata. Samples are then pulled from
these strata, and analysis is performed to make inferences about the greater population
of interest.
The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive in that every
population element should be assigned to one and only one stratum and no population
elements should be omitted. Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a
random procedure, usually SRS. A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase
precision without increasing cost.
Stratified sampling is used when:

 A researcher’s target population of interest is significantly heterogeneous
 A researcher wants to highlight specific subgroups within his or her population of
interest
 A researcher wants to observe the relationship(s) between two or more subgroups;
(d) Cluster Sampling

With cluster sampling, the researcher divides the population into separate groups,
called clusters. Then, a simple random sample of clusters is selected from the
population. The researcher conducts his analysis on data from the sampled clusters.
The most common variables used in the clustering population are the geographical area,
buildings, school, etc. Heterogeneity of the cluster is an important feature of an ideal cluster
sample design.
(e) Others: Internet Sampling
In internet sampling there are three types of sampling. These are online intercept
sampling (Random and Nonrandom), recruited online sampling (Panel and Nonpanel)
and other techniques.
What is the Difference between Stratified Sampling and Cluster Sampling?
The main difference between stratified sampling and cluster sampling is that with
cluster sampling, you have natural groups separating your population. For example,
you might be able to divide your data into natural groupings like city blocks, voting
districts or school districts. With stratified random sampling, these breaks may not
exist*, so you divide your target population into groups (more formally called "strata").
Factors for Cluster Sampling Stratified Sampling

Comparison
Definition Members of this sample are Members of this sample are
chosen from naturally divided randomly chosen from non-
groups called clusters, by overlapping, homogeneous
randomly selecting elements to strata.
be a part of the sample.
Sample All the individuals are taken from Randomly selected individuals
randomly selected clusters. are taken from all the strata.
Selection of Collectively Individually
population
elements
Homogeneity Between groups Within group
Heterogeneity Within group Between groups
Objective To reduce cost and improve To increase precision and
efficiency. representation.
Division type Naturally formed Depends on the researcher
Non probability Vs Probability sampling
Factors Non probability Probability
Nature of research Exploratory Conclusive

Retaining magnitude of sampling Non sampling error are large sampling error are large
and non-sapling errors
Variability in the population Homogeneous (Low) Homogeneous (High)
Statistical consideration Unfavorable Favorable

Operational Consideration Favorable Unfavorable
Time Favorable Unfavorable
Cost Favorable Unfavorable
Unit-10
Analysis of Variance and Covariance
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical models used to analyze the

differences between group means and their associated procedures (such as "variation" among
and between groups), developed by R.A.Fisher .
Why ANOVA
• Compare the mean of more than two population?
• Compare populations each containing several subgroups or levels?
Assumptions in ANOVA
To conduct ANOVA, the following must be considered-
 The categories of the independent variable are assumed to be fixed.
 The error term is normally distributed with a zero mean and a constant variance. The
error is not related to any of the categories of X.
 The error terms are uncorrelated. If the error terms are correlated the F ratio can be
seriously distorted.
One-way ANOVA
Analysis of Variance is used a test of means for two or more populations.
In a one-way ANOVA there are two possible hypotheses.

The null hypothesis (H0) is that there is no difference between the groups and equality between
means. (Walruses weigh the same in different months)
The alternative hypothesis (H1) is that there is a difference between the means and groups. (Walruses
have different weights in different months)
The null hypothesis is that all means are equal. That means, there is no difference among the
means. In ANOVA-must have a dependent variable that is metric ((measured in interval or
ratio scale) One or more independent variables that are non-metric (categorical/ factors)
In One-Way ANOVA, there is only one independent variable which will be categorical variable.
Ex: The differences in preference of heavy, medium, light and nonusers.
The process of one-way ANOVA
It is a five-step process; are-
Step:1
Here the dependent & independent variables are formulated where-
Dependent variable is denoted by Y (interval/ ration scale)
Independent variables are denoted by X (categorical scale)
Step-II:
In examining the differences among means, one-way analysis of variance involves the
decomposition of the total variation observed in the dependent variable. This variation is
measured by the sums of squares corrected for the mean (SS). The total variation in Y is
SS y
denoted by can be decomposed into two components; are-
SS y  SS between  SS within
 SS y  SS x  SS error
where,
N
SS y   Y  Y
i
2
 
i 1
c 2
SS x   n  Y  Y 
j1  
j
c n 2
SS error     Yij  Y j 
j i  
Here,
Yi  individual observation
Yj  mean for category j
Y  mean over the whole sample or grand mean
Yij  i th observation in the j th category
Step-III
The effects of X on Y are measured by

SS
x . The relative magnitude of x SS
increases the variation in Y. The strength of the effects of on Y are measured by
SS x
η2 
SS y
-
The value of
η2 varies between 0 and 1. It assumes-
1. A value of 0 means all the category means are equal indicating that X has no effect on
Y
2. A value of 1 means there is no variability within each category of X but there is some
variability between categories.
In testing ANOVA, it is assumed that,
Ho : μ1  μ 2  μ 3  ...........................  μ c
The null hypothesis is tested by F statistic where-
When-
0 H
1. Calculated value (F statistic) is larger than critical value (from table) then is
rejected
2. Calculated significance level is smaller than given significance level (normally 0.05)
H0
then is rejected.
If the null hypothesis is not rejected, then the independent variable does not have a significant effect on
the dependent variable. On the other hand, if the null hypothesis is rejected, then the effect on the
independent variable is significant.
ANCOVA
 If the set of independent variables consists of both categorical and metric variables, the
technique is called analysis of co-variance.
 It includes at least one categorical independent variable & at least one interval or metric
independent. The categorical independent variable is called a factor whereas the metric
independent variable is called a covariate.
 To examine the differences in the mean values of the dependent variable related to the
effect of the controlled independent variables, it is necessary to take into account the
influence of uncontrolled independent variables.
Ex:
 The preference of product use groups and loyalty groups taking into account the respondent’s
attitudes towards nutrition and the importance.
 In determining how consumers’ intentions to buy a brand vary with different levels of price,
attitude toward the brand may have to be taken into consideration.
Issues in Interpretation
Important issues involved in the interpretation of ANOVA results are-
 Interactions
 Relative Importance of Factors
 Multiple Comparisons
Interactions
No interaction The interaction effects are not found to be significant.
Interaction An interaction effect occurs when the effect of an independent variable on

a dependent variable is different for different categories or levels of
another independent variable. This interaction may be-
1. Ordinal: In ordinal interaction, the rank order of the effects related
to one factor does not change across the levels of the second factor.
2. Disordinal: In disordinal interaction, a change in the rank order of
the effects of one factor across the levels of another. It may be of
two types-
a) Noncrossover: Here the change in one factor won’t cross another
factor.
b) Crossover: Here the change in one factor will cross another
factor.
Relative Importance of Factors: The most commonly used measure in ANOVA is omega
squared, . It indicates what proportion of the variation in the dependent variable is related
to a particular independent variable or factor. It measures how much one variable is relatively
larger than other. The relative contribution of a factor X is calculated by-
SS x  df x x MS error 
ω2 
SS total  MS error
Multiple Comparisons:
If the null hypothesis of equal means is rejected, we can conclude only that not all of the group
means are equal. However, only some f the means may be statistically different and we may
wish to examine differences among specific means. This can be done by specifying appropriate
contrasts or comparisons used to determine which of the means are statistically different.
Contrast may be-
 Priori: A priori contrasts are determined before conducting the analysis based on the
researcher’s theoretical framework.
 Posteriori: A posteriori contrasts are made after the analysis. These are generally
multiple comparison tests. They enable the researcher to construct generalized
confidence intervals that can be used to make pair wise comparisons of all treatment
means.
Unit-10
Correlation & Regression Analysis
Correlation Analysis
A statistical technique that is used to analyze the strength and direction of the relationship between two
quantitative variables is called correlations analysis.
The measure of correlation called the correlation coefficient.
The degree of relationship is expressed by coefficient which range from correlation ( -1 ≤ r ≥ +1
The coefficient of correlation is a number that indicates the strength and direction of statistical
relationship between two variables.
 The Strength of relationship is determined by the closeness of the points to a straight line
when a pair of values of two variables are plotted on a graph. A straight-line is used as the
frame of reference for evaluating the relationship.
 The direction is determined by whether one variable generally increases or decreases
when the other variable increases.
Correlation is a bivariate analysis that measures the strength of association between two
variables and the direction of the relationship. In terms of the strength of relationship, the value
of the correlation coefficient varies between +1 and -1. A value of ± 1 indicates a perfect degree
of association between the two variables. As the correlation coefficient value goes towards 0,
the relationship between the two variables will be weaker. The direction of the relationship is
indicated by the sign of the coefficient; a + sign indicates a positive relationship and a – sign
indicates a negative relationship.
Figure shows how strength of association between two variables is represented by coefficient
of correlation
.
 If r is close to 1, we say that the variables are positively correlated. This means there is
likely a strong linear relationship between the two variables, with a positive slope.
 If r is close to -1, we say that the variables are negatively correlated. This means there
is likely a strong linear relationship between the two variables, with a negative slope.
 If r is close to 0, we say that the variables are not correlated. This means that there is
likely no linear relationship between the two variables, however, the variables may still
be related in some other way.
Typical Examples of Correlation
Product moment correlation

Product moment correlation is a statistic is used to summarize the strength of association
between two metric (interval or ratio) variables say X and Y. It is also known as Pearson
Correlation Co-efficient, Simple Correlation, Bivariate Correlation or simply Correlation Co-
efficient. It is proposed by Karl Pearson.
Ex: How strongly are sales related to advertising expenditures?
 X  X Y i  Y 
n
i
r i 1
 X  X  Y Y 
n n
2 2
i i
i 1 i 1
Regression Analysis
Regression analysis is a powerful and flexible procedure for analyzing associative
relationships between a metric dependent variable and one or more independent variables. It
is concerned with the nature and degree of association between variables and does not imply
or assume any causality.
It is used in the following ways:

 Determine whether the independent variables explain a significant variation in the
dependent variable: Whether a relationship exists
 Determine how much of the variation in the dependent variable can be explained by
the independent variables: Strength of the relationship
 Determine the structure or form of the relationship: The mathematical equation
relating the independent and dependent variables
 Predict the values of the dependent variable
 Construct for other independent variables where evaluating the contributions of a
specific variable or set of variables.
Y  β0  β1 X
Unit-11
Report Preparation and Presentation
Importance of the Report and Presentation:

For the following reasons, the report and its presentationare important parts of the marketing
research project:
1. They are the tangible products of the research effort.
2. Management decisions are guided by the report and the presentation.
3. The involvement of many marketing managers in the project is limited to the written
report and the oral presentation.
4. Management's decision to undertake marketing research in the future or to use the
particular research supplier again will be influenced by the perceived usefulness of the
report and the presentation.
Report Preparation:
i. Title page
ii. Letter of transmittal
iii. Letter of authorization
iv. Table of contents Prefatory Part
v. List of tables
vi. List of graphs
vii. List of appendices
viii. List of exhibits
ix. Executive summary
a) Major findings
b) Conclusions
c) Recommendations
1. Problem definition
a) Background to the problem
b) Statement of the problem
2. Approach to the problem
3. Research design
a. Type of research design Main Body Part
b.Information needs
c. Data collection from secondary sources
d.Data collection from primary sources
e. Scaling techniques
f. Questionnaire development and pretesting
g.Sampling techniques
h.Fieldwork
4. Data analysis
a. Methodology
b.Plan of data analysis
5. Results
6. Limitations and caveats
7. Conclusions and recommendations
Exhibits
a. Questionnaires and forms
Appendix Part
b.Statistical output
c. Lists
1. Title Page Format:
Title Page
 Title of research A Survey on
 Who prepared it Household Consumption
 Who is it for of Fast Food
 Date Prepared for
WE ‘R’ FAST
Prepared by
ABC Market Research
September, 2004
2. Letter of Transmittal
 Letter to client about the research, without mentioning the findings
 Should identify the need for further action on the part of the client
3. Letter of Authorisation
 Letter by client authorising the researcher to conduct the research
4. Table of Contents Format:

5. List of Tables Format:
6. List of Graphs Format:
7. List of Appendices Format:
8. List of Exhibits:
9. Executive Summary
 Concisely describe all steps in the research process
 Major results, conclusions, and recommendations
 May be the only section of the report that the “executives” read
10. Problem Definition

 Background to the problem
 Exploratory research undertaken to define the problem
 Secondary data
 Management decision problem
 Marketing research problem
11. Approach to the Problem: Approach that was adopted in addressing the problem
 Qualitative research
 Secondary data
 Theoretical foundations [ie. Literature review]
 Analytical models
 Research question
 Hypotheses
12. Research Design

 Type of research design
 Information needed
 Data collection [primary and secondary]
 Scaling techniques
 Questionnaire development
 Pre-testing
 Sampling techniques
 Fieldwork
13. Data analysis

 Plan of data analysis
 Justification of the data analysis strategy and techniques used.
14. Results
 Should address the research problem, research questions and hypotheses
 Longest part of the report
 Results of data analysis
o Aggregate level
o Subgroups level [market segment]
15. Limitations and Caveats

 Time, budget and other organisational constraints should be stated
 Research design errors
 Should be written with great care and a balanced perspective
16. Conclusions and Recommendations

 Interpret results
 Recommendations should be feasible, practical, actionable
Oral Presentation:
The key to an effective presentation is preparation. A written script or detailed outline should
be prepared following the format of the written report.
The presentation must be geared to the audience. The presentation should be rehearsed several
times before it is made to the management.
 Visual aids, such as tables and graphs, should be displayed with a variety of media.
 It is important to maintain eye contact and interact with the audience during the
presentation.
 Filler words like "uh," "y'know,” and "all right," should not be used.
 The "Tell 'Em" principle is effective for structuring a presentation.
 Another useful guideline is the "KISS 'Em" principle, which states: Keep It
Simple and Straightforward (hence the acronym KISS).
 Body language should be employed.
 The speaker should vary the volume, pitch, voice quality, articulation, and rate while
speaking.
 The presentation should terminate with a strong closing.

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Study Note

Prepared as per Curriculum of PSTU

Definition of Marketing Research

 According to American Marketing Association (AMA), “Marketing Research is the

Used to identify and define market

Generate, refine and evaluate

Monitor marketing performance

Purposes of Marketing Research:

Role of Marketing Research:

Further complications are added by uncontrollable environmental factors such as general

Ongoing marketing research programs provide information on controllable and non-

Marketing Research Process:

Step 02: Development of an approach to the problem

Step 03: Research Design Formulation

A systematic procedure for research design involves:

Step 05: Data Preparation and Analysis

Step 06: Report Preparation & Presentation

What kind of information might a business need?

Criteria for Selecting a Research Supplier:

Uses of Marketing Research:

Importance of Problem Definition:

Variations of the Problem:

1. Discussions with Decision Maker(s)

Focus of the DM Focus of the Researcher

Research Design: Definition

A research design includes:

Classification of Marketing Research Designs

Exploratory Research design

Uses of Exploratory Research:

Methods of Exploratory Research:

Exploratory & Conclusive Research Differences:

Characteristics: 1. Flexible, versatile 1. Marked by the prior 1. Manipulation of

Descriptive Research: Strengths and Weaknesses

Uses of Descriptive Research:

Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal:

Evaluation Criteria Cross-Sectional Design Longitudinal Design

Most causal research is conducted as experiments—defined as manipulating an independent

Causal research has two objectives:

Uses of Casual Research:

Errors in Marketing Research

Marketing Research Proposal:

Primary versus Secondary Data:

Aspects Primary data Secondary data

Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data:

Classification of Secondary Data:

Internal Secondary Data

General Business Government

Guide Directorie Indexe Statistical Census Other

2. Classification of Computerized Databases:

Online Internet Off-Line

Bibliographic Numeric Full-Text Directory Special-

Classification of Marketing Research Data

Qualitative Research: Definition

It is primarily used to discover and gain an in-depth understanding of individual experiences,

Often viewed as a “Soft-approach.” Conducted:

Aspects Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures

Characteristics of Focus Groups

Advantages of Focus Groups:

Disadvantages of Focus Groups:

A qualitative approach in which a trained moderator conducts interviews with individuals,

Advantages and Disadvantages of Depth Interviews

Focus Groups versus Depth Interviews: