Basics of Marketing Research

St.
Mary’s University College
Basics of Marketing Research

Duty 1. Collecting Relevant Marketing / Sales Data
General objective: Upon the completion of the topic, the trainees will be able to
gather relevant data for marketing decision appropriately
Task 1. Identifying the nature of marketing research

Specific Objective:
 After completing the lesson, the trainee will be able to state the basic
features of marketing research correctly
 Define the role of marketing research in decision making
 Outline the contents of a research brief
 Explain in detail each of the principal steps in research design.
Introduction
We have emphasized the importance of monitoring the marketing environment
to keep products and marketing practices current in the introduction to
marketing, salesmanship and work and work force supervision courses. Bust
how management learn about changing customer wants, new competitor
initiatives, changing distribution channels, and so on? The answer is clear:
Management must develop and manage information. Three developments make
the need for marketing information greater than at any time in the past:
 From local to national to global marketing: As companies expand their
geographical market coverage; their managers need more information
more quickly than ever before.
 From buyer need to buyer wants: As buyers’ incomes improve, they
become more selective in their choice of goods. To predict buyers’
response to different features, styles, and other attributes, sellers must
turn to marketing research
Department of Marketing Management /Basics of Marketing Research/complied by Tadesse Hailu 1

St. Mary’s University College
 From price to non price competition: As sellers increase their use of

branding, product differentiation, advertising, and sales promotion, they
require information on these marketing tools’ effectiveness
Fortunately, the explosion of information requirements has been met by

impressive new information technologies. The past 30 years have witnessed
the emergence of the computer, microfilming, cable television copy machines
etc. that have revolutionized information handling with respect to marketing
management and marketing research, the single most important technological
development has been the rise of computerized data capture systems.
Some firms have developed advanced marketing information systems that
provide company management with rapid and incredible detail about buyer
wants, preferences, and behavior.
Nevertheless, many business firms lack information sophistication. Many do
not have a marketing research department, and many others have small
marketing research departments whose work is limited to routine forecasting,
sales analysis, and occasional surveys. In addition, many managers are
dissatisfied with the information available to them. Their complaints include
not knowing where critical information is located in the company; getting too
much information that they can’t use and too little that they really need;
getting important information too late; and doubting the accuracy of the
information they receive.
In today’s information-based society, development of good information can
provide a company with a jump on its competitors. Once it has surveyed the
market and obtained the information it requires, the company can carefully
evaluate its opportunities and choose its target markets to maximize profit.
An Important part of this evaluation entails forecasting current and future
demand.

What is a Marketing Information System?
Every firm must organize the flow of marketing information to its marketing
managers. Companies are studying their managers’ information needs and
designing marketing information systems (MIS) to meet these needs
A Marketing Information System (MIS) consists of people, equipment, and procedures to
gather, sort, analyze, and distribute needed, timely, and accurate information to
marketing decision makers.
To carry out their analysis, planning, implementation, and control
responsibilities, marketing managers need information about developments in
the marketing environment. The role of the MIS is to assess the manager’s
information needs, develop the needed information, and distribute the
information in a timely fashion to the marketing managers. The needed
information is developed through internal company records, marketing
intelligence activities, and marketing research. In the sections that follow, we
describe each of the components of the company’s MIS.
1. Internal records system

The most basic information system used by marketing managers is the internal
records system. Included in the internal system are reports on orders, sales prices
inventor levels, receivables, payables and so on. By analyzing this information,
marketing managers can spot important opportunities and problems.
2. Marketing Intelligence System

While the internal records system supplies results data, the marketing
intelligence system supplies happenings data.
 A Marketing intelligence system is a set f procedures and sources used by managers to obtain their
every day information about pertinent developments in the marketing environment.
Marketing managers often carry on marketing intelligence by reading books,
newspapers, and trade publication; talking to customers, suppliers, distributors,
and other outsiders; and talking with other managers and personnel within the
company. Yet if the system is too casual, valuable information could be lost or

arrive too late. Managers might learn of a competitive move, a new-customer

need or a dealer problem too late to make the best response
A well-run company takes four steps to improve the quality and quantity of
marketing intelligence
 First, it trains and motivates the sales force to spot and report new
developments
 Second, the competitive company motivates distributors, retailers, and
other intermediaries to pall along important intelligence.
 Third, the company purchases information from outside suppliers
 Fourth, some companies have established an internal marketing
information center to collect and circulate marketing intelligence
3. Marketing Research
Management cannot always wait for information to arrive in bits and pieces from
internal sources. Also, sources of market intelligence cannot always be relied
upon to provide relevant or up-to-date information (particularly for smaller or
niche market segments). In such circumstances, businesses often need to
undertake specific studies to support their marketing strategy – this is market
research.
In essence, management is about decision making. Decision is invariably
surrounded by uncertainties and, therefore, risks. Marketing research is charged
with helping to reduce such uncertainties, “… but will never remove it”. At bets,
marketing research will increase the probability that the decisions which
management has to take will help attain the organization’s marketing objectives?
Marketing research is the systematic design, collection, analysis, and reporting of
data and findings relevant to a specific marketing situation facing the company.
Marketing research and market research should not be confused. Market
research- research into a particular market- is just one component of marketing
research.
3.1. The Role of Marketing Research in Decision Making

The emphasis in marketing is on the identification and satisfaction of customer

need. In order to determine customer needs and to implement marketing
strategies and program aimed at satisfying those needs, marketing managers
need information. They need information about customers, competitors and
other forces in the marketplace. In recent years, many factors have increased the
need for more and better information. As firms have become national and
international in scope, the need for information on larger and more distant
markets has increased. As consumers have become more affluent and
sophisticated, marketing managers need better information on how they will
respond to products and other marketing offerings. As competition has become
more intense, managers need information on the effectiveness of their marketing
tools. As the environment changes more rapidly, marketing managers need more
timely information.
The task of marketing research is to assess the information needs and provide
management with relevant, accurate, reliable, valid, current, and actionable
information. Today’s competitive marketing environment and the ever-
increasing costs attributed to poor decision making require marketing research to
provide sound information. Sound decisions are not based on gut feeling,
intuition, or even pure judgment. In the absence of sound information, an
incorrect management decision may be made.
Using market research and decision clarification tools, they help clients benefit
from the right marketing research information for uncovering marketing strategy
solutions that work
 The Importance of Marketing Research to Management is highlighted

by its three basic uses:
1. Improving the quality of decision making
2. Finding out what went wrong
3. Understanding the marketplace
 Marketing information is also needed by managers specifically
 To carry out their analysis
 To make marketing plan

 To implement plans
 To exercise control over responsibilities
 Why we study Marketing Research

The reasons can be categorized into two
1. Career related reasons
A. To make marketing research once own career
B. To make marketing management once own career
Further marketing managers able to do the following:
1. Able to communicate with marketing researches in an effective manager
2. Determine whether marketing research is to be conducted in a given
situation
3. Decide the amount of resources required to conduct a given marketing
research project
4. Describe in words marketing research parameters including data
collection and analysis methodologies
5. Organize, evaluate and interpret the results of marketing research projects
and incorporate them into the marketing management process.
6. Non-career related reasons to study marketing research
2. Non - career related reasons
1. The need to have better understanding of how a given countries economic
system function.
 Deciding Whether or Not to Conduct Market Research Criteria for the

decision.
1. Lack of resources
2. Research results won’t be useful
3. Poor timing in the marketplace
4. The decision has already been made

5. When managers can’t agree on what they need to know to make a

decision.
6. When decision-making information already exists.
7. When the costs of conducting research are greater than the benefits.
3.2. The Marketing Research Process

We conceptualize the marketing research process as consisting of six steps. Each
of these steps is discussed in detail in the subsequent tasks and duties; thus, the
discussion here is brief.
Step 1: Problem definition
Step 2: Development of an approach to the problem
Step 3: Research design formulation
Step 4: Fieldwork or data collection
Step 5: Data preparation and analysis
Step 6: Report preparation and presentation
Step 1: Problem Definition

The first step in any marketing research project is to define the problem. In
defining the problem, the researcher should take in to account the purpose of the
study, the relevant background information, the information needed, and how it
will be used in decision-making. Problem definition involves discussion with the
decision makers, interviews with industry experts, analysis of secondary data,
and, perhaps, some qualitative research, such as focus groups. Once the problem
has been precisely defined, the research can be designed and conducted properly
Step 2: Development of an Approach to the Problem

Development of an approach to the problem includes formulating an objective or
theoretical framework, analytical models, research questions, and hypotheses
and identifying the information needed. This process is guided by discussions

with management and industry experts, analysis of secondary data, qualitative

research, and pragmatic considerations.
Step 3: Research Design Formulation

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing
research project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the required
information, and its purpose is to design a study that will test the hypotheses of
interest, determine possible answers to the research questions, and provide the
information needed for decision-making.
Step 4: Data collection

Data collection involves a field force or staff that operates either in the field, as in
the case of personal interviewing, from an office by telephone, through mail or
electronically etc. Proper selection, training, supervision, and evaluation of the
field force help minimize data-collection errors
Step 5: Data preparation and analysis

Data preparation includes the editing, coding, transcription, and verification of
data. Each questionnaire or observation form is inspected or edited and, if
necessary, corrected. Number or letter codes are assigned to represent each
response to each question in the questionnaire. The data from the questionnaires
are transcribed or keypunched onto magnetic tape or disks, or input directly into
the computer. The data are analyzed to derive information related to the
components of the marketing research problem and, thus, to provide input into
the management decision problem. (Discuss in duty 2).
Step 6: Report preparation and presentation

The entire project should be documented in a written report that addresses the
specific research question identified; describes the approach, the research design,
data collection, and data analysis procedures adopted; and present the results
and the major findings. The findings should be presented in a comprehensible

format so that management can readily use them in the decision-making process.
In addition, an oral presentation should be made to management using tables,
figures, and graphs to enhance clarity and impact. (Discuss in duty 6).
1.1. IMPORTANCE OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Although each step in a marketing research project is important, problem
definition is the most important step. For the purpose of marketing research,
problems and opportunities are treated interchangeably. Problem definition
involves stating the general problem and identifying the specific components of
the marketing research problem. Only when the marketing research problem
has been clearly defined can research be designed and conducted properly. Of
all the tasks in a marketing research project, none is more vital to the ultimate
fulfillment of a client’s needs than a proper definition of the research problem.
All the effort, time, and money spent form this point on will be wasted if the
problem is misunderstood or ill defined; this point is worth remembering,
because inadequate problem definition is a leading cause of failure of marketing
research projects. Further, better communication and more involvement in
problem definition are the most frequently mentioned ways of improving the
usefulness of research. These results lead to the conclusion that the importance
of clearly identifying and defining the marketing research problem cannot be
overstated.
1.2. THE PROCESS OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM

The tasks involved in problem definition consists of discussions with the
decision makers, interviews with industry experts and other knowledgeable
individuals, analysis of secondary data, and sometimes qualitative research.
These tasks help the researcher to understand the background of the problem by

analyzing the environmental context. Certain essential environmental factors

bearing on the problem should be evaluated. Understanding of the
environmental context facilitates the identification of the management decision
problem. Then, the management decision problem is translated into a marketing
research problem. Based on the definition of the marketing research problem, an
appropriate approach is developed. The components of the approach consists of
objective theoretical framework, analysis models, research questions, hypotheses,
and specification of the information needed. Further explanation of the problem
definition process begins with a discussion of the tasks involved.
Task Involved
Discussion Interview with Secondary Qualitative

With Experts Data Research
Decision marker(s) Analysis
Environmental Context of the Problem
Management Decision Problem
Marketing Research Problem
Step 2: Approach to the Problem
Research Specification
Questions Hypotheses of information
needed

TASKS INVOLVED
1.2.1. Discussion with Decision Makers (DM)

Discussions with decision makers are extremely important. The DM needs to
understand the capabilities and limitations of research. Research provides
information relevant managerial judgment. Conversely, the researcher needs to
understand the nature that decision manger’s face and what they help to learn
from the research.
To identify the management problem, the researcher must posses considerable
skill in interacting with the DM. Several factors may complicate this interaction.
Access to the DM may be difficult, and some organizations have complicated
protocols for access to top executives. The organizational status of the researcher
or the research department may make it difficult to reach the key DM and
meeting with them collectively or individually may be difficult. Despite these
problems, it is necessary that the researcher interact directly with the key
decision makers.
1.2.2. Interviews with Industry Experts

In addition to discussion with the DM, interviews with industry experts,
individuals knowledgeable about the firm and the industry, may help formulate
the marketing research problem. These experts may be found both inside and
outside the firm. Typically, experts’ information is obtained by unstructured
personal interviews, without administering a formal questionnaire.
1.2.3. Secondary Data Analysis
Secondary data are data collected for some purpose other than the problem at
hand. Primary data, on the other hand, are originated by the researcher for the
specific purpose of addressing the research problem. Secondary data include
information made available by business and government sources, commercial
marketing research firms, and computerized databases. Secondary data are an
economic and quick source of background information. Analysis of available
secondary data is an essential step in the problem definition process: primary

data should not be collected until the available secondary data have been fully
analyzed. Given the tremendous important of secondary data, this topic will be
discussed in detail in later tasks and duty, which also further discussion the
differences between secondary and primary data.
1.2.4. Qualitative Research

Information obtained from the DM, industry experts, and secondary data may
not be sufficient to define the research problem. Sometimes qualitative research
must be undertaken to gain an understanding of the problem and its underlying
factors.
Qualitative research is unstructured, exploratory in nature, based on small
samples, and may utilize popular qualitative techniques such as focus groups
(group interviews), word association (asking respondents to indicate their first
responses to stimulus words), and depth interviews (one-on-one interviews that
probe the respondents’ thoughts in details). Other exploratory research
techniques, such as pilot surveys with small samples of respondents, may also be
undertaken.
1.2.5. Environmental Context of the Problem

Factors to be considered in Environment context of the problem are:
i Past information and forecasts
i Resources and constraints
i Objectives
i Buyer behavior
i Legal environment
i Economic environment
i Marketing and technological skill
1.3. DEFINING THE MAREKTING RESEARCH PROBLEM

The general rule to be followed in defining the marketing research problem is

that the definition should (1) allows the researcher to obtain the information
needed to address the management decision problem, and (2) guide the
researcher in proceeding with the project. Researchers make two common errors
in problem definition. The first arises when the research problem is defined too
broadly. A broad definition does not provide clear guidelines for the subsequent
steps involved in the project. Some examples of overly broad marketing research
problem definitions are: (1) developing a marketing strategy for the brand, (2)
improving the competitive position of the firm, or (3) improving the company’s
image. These are not specific enough to suggest an approach to the problem or a
research design.
The second type of error is just the opposite: the marketing research problem is
defined too narrowly. A narrow focus may preclude consideration of some
courses of action, particularly those that are innovative and may not be obvious.
It may also prevent the researcher from addressing important components of the
management decision problem. For example, in a project conducted for a major
consumer products firm, the management problem was how to respond to a
identified by the firm’s research staff were: (1) decrease the price of the firm’s
brand to match the competitor’s price cut; (2) maintain price but increase
advertising heavily; (3) decrease the price somewhat, without matching the
competitor’s price and moderately increase advertising. None of these
alternatives seemed promising. When outside marketing research experts were
brought in, the problem was redefined as improving the market share and
profitability of the product l line. Qualitative research indicated that in blind
tests consumers relied on price as an indicator of product quality. These findings
led to a creative alternative: increase the price of the existing brand and
introduce two new brands – one priced to match the competitors and the other
priced to undercut it. This strategy was implemented, leading to an increase in
market share and profitability.
The likelihood of committing either type of error in problem definition can be
reduced by stating the marketing research problem in broad, general terms and
identifying its specific components. The brand statement provides perspective

on the problem and acts as a safeguard against committing the second type of
error. The specific components focus on the key aspects of the problem and
provide clear guidelines on how to proceed further, thereby reducing the
likelihood of the first year of error.
Step 2: Development of an approach to the problem

In the process of developing an approach, we must not lose sight of the goal-the
outputs. The outputs of the approach development process should include the
following components: formulating research questions, hypotheses, and
specification of information needed.
2.1: Formulating research questions

Research questions (RQs) are refined statements of the specific components of
the problem. Although the components of the problem define the problem in
specific terms, further detail may be needed to develop an approach. Each
component of the problem may have to be broken down into subcomponents or
research questions. Research questions ask what specific information is required
with respect to the problem components. If the research question are answered
by the research, then the information obtained should aid the decision maker..
Research questions are interrogative statements.
2. 2: Hypothesis generation
Whilst it is true that the purpose of research is to address some question,
nonetheless one does not test research questions directly. For example, there
may be interest in answering the question. “Does a person’s level of education
have any bearing upon whether or not he/she adopts new products?” Research
questions are too broad to be directly testable. Instead, the question is reduced to
one or more hypotheses implied by these questions.
A hypothesis is a conjectural statement regarding the relation between two or
more variables. There are two key characteristics which all hypotheses must
have: they must be statements of the relationship between variables and they
must carry clear implications for testing the stated relations. These
characteristics imply that it is relationships, rather than variables, which are
tested; the hypotheses specify how the variables are related and that these are
measurable or potentially measurable. Statements lacking any or all of these
characteristics are not research hypotheses. For example, consider the following
hypotheses:
“Red meat consumption increases as real disposable incomes increase.”
This is a relation stated between one variable, “red meat consumptions”, and
another variable, “disposable incomes”. Moreover, both variables are potentially
measurable. The criteria have been met. However for the purposes of statistical
testing it is more usual to find hypotheses stated in the so-called null form, e.g.
“There is no relationship between red meat consumption and the level of
disposable incomes.”
Consider a second hypothesis:

“There is no relationship between a farmer’s educational level and his degree of
innovativeness with respect to new farming technologies.”
Again there is a clear statement of the relationship being investigated but there
are question marks over the measurability with respect to at least one of the
variables i.e. “… a farmer’s degree of innovativeness”. We may also encounter
difficulties in agreeing an appropriate measure of the other variables, i.e. “level
of education”. If these problems can be resolved then we may indeed have a
hypothesis.
Hypotheses are central to progress in research. They will direct the researcher’s
efforts by forcing him/her to concentrate on gathering the facts which will
enable the hypotheses to be tested. The point has been made that it is all too easy
when conducting research to collect “interesting data” as opposed to “important
data”. Data and questions which enable researchers to test explicit hypotheses
are important. The rest are merely interesting.

Figure 1.3. Characteristics of a sound definition of the research problem
The problem should be “Will the new product, if launched,

stated as a question gain at least a 10% market share?”
1. The problem statement

“Are consumers with above
should express a relation
average incomes more likely
between 2 or more variables
to buy exotic fruit than the
lower income groups?”
The research problem should Research that which is important

be related directly to and not merely interesting.
decisions that management
need to take
There is a second advantage of stating hypotheses, namely that implicit notions

or explanations for events become explicit and this often leads to modifications
of these explanations, even before data is collected.
On occasion a given hypotheses may be too broad to be tested. However, other

testable hypotheses may be deduced from it. A problem really cannot be solved
unless it is reduced to hypothesis form, because a problem is a question, usually
of a broad nature, and is not directly testable.
2. 3: Specification of information needed

By focusing on each component of the problem and the analytical framework
and models, research questions, and hypotheses, the researcher can determine
what information should be obtained in the marketing research project. It is
helpful to carry out this exercise for each component of the problem and make a
list specifying all the information that should be collected.

Step 3: RESEARCH DESIGN FORMULATION:
3.1. DEFINITION
A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing
research project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the
information needed to structure and/or solve marketing research problems.
Although a broad approach to the problem has already been developed, the
research design specifies the details – the nuts and bolts – implementing that
approach. A research design will ensure that the marketing research project is
conducted effectively and efficiently. Typically, a research design involves the
following components or tasks:
1. Define the information needed
2. Design the exploratory, descriptive, and/or causal phrases of the research
3. Specify the measurement and scaling procedures
4. Construct and pretest a questionnaire (interviewing form) or an appropriate
form for data collection.
5. Specify the sampling process and sample size
6. Develop a plan of data analysis
Research Design: Classification

Research designs may be broadly classified according to the objective of the
research as exploratory or conclusive. The difference between exploratory and
conclusive research are summarized in the table below:
Research Design
Exploratory Conclusive
Department of Marketing Management /Basics of Marketing Research/complied by Tadesse Hailu
Research 17
Research
Design design
Descriptive Causal
Research Research
Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Design Design
Single Multiple
Cross-Sectional Design Cross-Sectional Design
Figure 3.1. A Classification of Marketing Research Designs
Exploratory Conclusive
Objective To provide insights and To test specific hypothesis and
understanding examine relationships
Loose definition of information Clear definition of information
needed, research process is needed
Characteristics unstructured, small and non- Research process is formal and
representative sample structured
Large and representative sample
Findings Tentative Conclusive
Generally followed by further Findings used as inputs into
exploratory research or
Outcome conclusive research decision making process
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
As its name implies, the objective of exploratory research is to explore or search
through a problem or situation to provide insights and understanding (Table
3.2.). Exploratory research could be used for any of the following purposes:
 Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely
 Identify alternative courses of action
 Develop hypotheses
 Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination
 Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem
 Establish priorities for further research
In general exploratory research is meaningful in any situation where the
researcher does not have enough understanding to proceed with the research
project. Exploratory research is characterized by flexibility and versatility with
respect to the methods because formal research protocols and procedures are not
employed. It rarely involves structured questionnaires, large samples, and
probability sampling plans. Rather, researchers are alert to new ideas and
insights as they proceed. Once a new idea or insight is discovered, they may
redirect their exploration in that direction. That new direction is pursued until
its possibilities are exhausted or another direction is fond. For this reason, the
focus of the investigation may shift constantly as new insights are discovered.
Thus, the creativity and ingenuity of the researcher plays a major role in
exploratory research. Exploratory research can greatly benefit from the use of
the following methods.
 Survey of experts
 Pilot surveys
 Analysis of secondary data
 Qualitative research
Conclusive Research
Research designed to assist the decision maker in determining, evaluating, and

selecting the best course of action to take in a given situation. Conclusive
research is classified into Descriptive research and Causal research.
A. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
As the name implies, the major objective of descriptive research is to describe
something – usually market characteristics or function. De scriptive research is
conducted for the following reasons:
1. To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers,
salespeople, organizations, or market areas. For example, we could
develop a profile of the “heavy users” (frequent shoppers) of prestigious
departments stores
2. To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a
certain behavior. For example, we might be interested in estimating the
percentage of heavy users of prestigious department stores who also
patronizes discount department stores.
3. To determine the perceptions of product characteristics. For example,
how do households perceive the various department stores in terms of
salient factors of the choice criteria?
4. To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated.
For example, to what extent is shopping at department stores related to
eating out?
5. To make specific predictions. For example, what will be the retail sales
of Neiman Marcus (specific store) for fashion clothing (specific product
category) in the Dallas area (specific region)?
The major difference between exploratory and descriptive research is that

descriptive research is characterized by the prior formulation of specific
hypotheses. Thus, the information needed is clearly defined. As a result,
descriptive research is preplanned and structured. It is typically based on
large representative samples. A formal research design specifies the methods
for selecting the sources of information and for collecting data from those
sources. A descriptive design requires a clear specification of the who, what,

when, where, why, and way (the six Ws) of the research
Classification of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is classified into cross-sectional research and longitudinal
research.
I. Cross section research involves the collection of information from any
given sample of population elements only once. They may be either single
cross section or multiple cross sectional.
 In single cross-sectional design, only one sample of respondents is
drawn from the target population and information is obtained from
this sample only once.
 In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more samples
of respondents and information from each sample is obtained only
once. Often information from different samples is obtained at
different times. Multiple cross-sectional designs allow comparisons
at the aggregate level but not at the individual respondent level.
Because a different sample is taken each time, when a survey is
conducted. There is no way to compare the measure on an
individual respondent across surveys
II. In longitudinal designs, a fixed sample of population elements is
measured repeatedly. A longitudinal design differs from a cross sectional
designs in that sample or samples remain the same over time. Cross sectional
design gives a snapshot of the variables of interest at a single point in time
whereas a longitudinal study provides a series of pictures that gives an in-
depth view of situation and the changes that take place over time.
The term panel is used interchangeably with the term longitudinal design. A
panel consists of a sample of respondents, generally households that have agreed
to provide information at specified intervals over an extended period of time.

 Relative advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal and cross

sectional designs are summarized below
Evaluation criteria Cross sectional design Longitudinal design

Detecting change Disadvantage Advantage
Large amount of data
Disadvantage Advantage
collection
Accuracy Disadvantage Advantage
Representative sampling Advantage Disadvantage
Response bias Less bias There is a bias
Causal Research
Causal research is used to obtain evidence of cause and effect relationships.
Marketing managers continually make decisions based on assumed causal
relationships. These assumptions may not be justified and the validity of the
causal relationships should be examined via formal research. Causal research is
appropriate for the following purposes;
1. To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and
which variables are the effect (dependent variables)
2. To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables
and the effect variables.
Step 4. Methods of data collection
Task 2. Identifying sources of data for decision

Specific objective: After the completion of the lesson, the trainee will be able to identity
the basic sources of marketing data correctly.
I. Secondary Data - is data that had been previously gathered for some other
purpose, other than the current research problem under
investigation.
 It only "may" be relevant to the problem at hand.

 Two types of secondary data, namely internal and
external
A. Internal - is secondary data that is already within the investigator's firm that
is, or should be, contained in the firm's internal database.
 This is the first place to look for data to solve the problem at
hand.
B. External - is secondary data that is already available from other organizations

or persons (in what your firm refers to as external databases if such
information is computerized).
 This is the second place to look for data to solve the problem at
hand.
C. Advantages (or Reasons to Use) Secondary Data:
1. It may help to clarify or redefine the definition of the problem as part of

the exploratory research process.
2. It may actually provide a solution to the problem.
3. It may provide or identify primary data research method alternatives.
4. It may alert the marketing researcher to potential problems or difficulties

that may be encountered in the research process (such as sample
selection difficulties, response biases experienced by other researchers in
the same area, and respondent hostilities or lack of cooperation).
5. It may provide necessary background and build creativity into the

planning of the research report.
D. Limitations of Secondary Data:

 Lack of Availability - the needed data may be unavailable.

 Lack of Relevance - the available data may be expressed in units or
measures that cannot be used by the researcher.
 Inaccurate Data - previous researchers may have published data

containing errors that may distort your research results.
They may have committed errors in sampling procedures, data collection, data
coding, data analysis, or in the presentation (printing) of the data as printed for
your use.
While the researcher can never be certain of total accuracy of published

secondary data, its accuracy can be somewhat assessed by asking the following
questions:
 Who gathered the data?

 What was the purpose of the study that generated the data?
 What information was collected and from who ("who" refers to the
population)?
 When was the information collected? --- (from the times of day to
the date of collection)?
 How was the information collected? (Mail, survey, interview)---

And what was the response rate? (Look for biases).
 Is the information consistent with other, similar information?
 Insufficient Data -- Even if the secondary data is available, relevant, and

accurate, it may not be sufficient to make a decision or bring complete
closure to a problem.

That is, there may be one or more important data items missing from previous research
that makes the collection of primary data mandatory.
II. Primary Data - is data generated from a survey, observation, or experiment

just to solve the particular problem under investigation.
- This is the third (and last) place to look for data to solve the problem
at hand.
The different types of primary data collecting tools and technique will be discuss in the
next task (task 3) with their respective advantages and disadvantages
Task 3. Identifying data collection technique
Primary Research
In primary research, data is collected specifically for the study at hand. It can be
obtained either by the investigator observing the subject or phenomenon being
studied or communicating directly or indirectly with the subject. Direct
communication techniques include such qualitative research, techniques as in-
depth interview, focus group and projective techniques, and quantitative research,
techniques such as telephone, self-administered and interview surveys.
1. Observation
Observation is one of the methods of collecting data. It is used to get both past
and current information. For example, instead of asking respondents about their
current behavior, we may observe it and record our observations. Although, it is
not possible to observe past behavior, we may observe the results of such
behavior.

A few examples indicating how observation may be used in marketing research

are given below;
 One of the factors influencing the sale of a branded product is how

readily it is kept in stock. An interested may send some observers
to a sample of stores to find out how frequently the product is out
of stock. Likewise, sales are also influenced by its display position
in a store. A prominently displayed product will receive greater
attention of the people visiting the store as against another product
displayed in an obscure corner.
 In order to ascertain what prices are charged by competitors, a

manufacturer may depute some observers to go round the stores.
 Certain mechanical devices can be used to undertake observation

e.g. The eye camera
The advantages of observation include
 Recording of behavior as it occurs instead of waiting for respondent

response retrospectively
 Observation can be used regardless of respondent’s willingness
 Observation can be used when it pertains to those who are unable to

respond like infants and animals
The limitations of observation include
 Only current behavior of a person can be recorded (no past, no future

behavior can be recorded)
 Does not help the researcher to measure attitude or opinion on a certain

subject
 The observation method is very slow and becomes unsuitable when large
numbers of persons are to be contacted.
Certain difficulties come in the way of accurate observation and cause it to

become distorted. These difficulties arise on account of inadequacies of our sense
organs, interdependence of observation and interaction between the observer

and the observed.
Methods of Observation
There are several methods of observation of which one or combination of some

of them can be used by the observer. Thus, there are structured or unstructured
methods, disguised or undisguised methods, or observations made in natural
setting or laboratory setting, direct –indirect observation or human –mechanical
observation.
1. Structured-unstructured observation
Structured observation is used when the research problem has been

formulated precisely and the observers have been told specifically what has
to be observed. They may be given a simple form to record their observations.
Unstructured observation implies that observers are free to observe whatever
they think is relevant and important. While structured observations are free
from subjective bias, unstructured observations are subject to this limitation.
2. Disguised-undisguised observation
In the case of disguised observation, the subjects do not know that they are
being observed red. E.g. By looking like a shopper. In case of undisguised
observation, the subjects know that they are being observed.
3. Observation under natural-lab setting
Observation in field studies are in their natural settings and undertaken in

extremely realistic conditions. Observation in a laboratory setting, on the other
hand, enables the observer to control extraneous variables which influence the
behavior of people. Lab observations enable prompt and economical data
collection.
4. Direct-indirect observation
In the case of direct observation, the event or the behavior of a person is

observed as it occurs. In contrast, indirect observation implies that some

record of past behavior is observed. In other words, the behavior itself is not
observed, rather its effects are observed. An observer engaged in indirect
observation generally looks for physically looks for physical traces of
behavior or occurrence of an event.
Eg. Looking for liquor consumption behavior of a household, one may

observe empty liquor cans in garbage (pantry)
5. Human-Mechanical Observation
Human observation is more integrated and can lead to a more valid

evaluation of observation. In some cases, mechanical devices such as eye
cameras and audiometers are used in observation.
2. Direct Communication
There are many different ways for the investigator to collect data from subjects
by communicating directly with them either in person, through others or
through a document, such as a questionnaire. Direct communication is used in
both qualitative and quantitative research. Each has a number of different
techniques:
2.1. Qualitative Research Techniques
Although qualitative research can be used as part of formal or conclusive research,

it is most commonly encountered when conducting exploratory research.
Qualitative research techniques are part of primary research .
Qualitative research differs from quantitative research in the following ways:
 The data is usually gathered using less structured research instruments

 The findings are more in-depth since they make greater use of open-ended
questions
 The results provide much more detail on behavior, attitudes and

motivation
 The research is more intensive and more flexible, allowing the researcher
to probe since s/he has greater latitude to do so
 The results are based on smaller sample sizes and are often not
representative of the population,
 The research can usually not be replicated or repeated, given it low
reliability; and
 The analysis of the results is much more subjective.
Because of the nature of the interaction with respondents, the training and level
of expertise required by the person engaging in the direct communication with
the respondents must be quite high.
The most common qualitative research techniques include:
o In-depth interview
o Focus group
o Projective methods
o Pilot study
2.1.1. The Depth Interview
When it is important to explore a subject in detail or probe for latent attitudes

and feelings, the in-depth interview may be the appropriate technique to use.
Depth interviews are usually conducted in person, although telephone depth
interviewing is slowly gaining greater acceptance.
Interviewers must be very experienced or skilled, since it is critical that s/he and
the respondent establish some kind of rapport, and that s/he can adapt quickly
to the personality and mood of the person being interviewed. This will elicit
more truthful answers. In order to receive full cooperation from the respondent,
the interviewer must be knowledgeable about the topic, and able to relate to the
respondent on his/her own terms, using the vocabulary normally used within
the sector being studied. But the interviewer must also know when it is necessary
to probe deeper, get the interviewee to elaborate, or broaden the topic of
discussion.
2.1.2. The Focus Group
In the applied social sciences, focus group discussions or group depth interviews
are among the most widely used research tool. A focus group takes advantage of
the interaction between small groups of people. Participants will respond to and
build on what others in the group have said. It is believed that this synergistic
approach generates more insightful information, and encourages discussion
participants to give more candid answers. Focus groups are further characterized
by the presence of a moderator and the use of a discussion guide. The moderator
should stimulate discussion among group members rather than interview
individual members, that is to say every participant should be encouraged to
express his/her views on each topic as well as respond to the views expressed by
the other participants. In order to put focus group participants at ease, the
moderator will often start out by assuring everyone that there are no right or
wrong answers, and that his/her feelings cannot be hurt by any views that are
expressed since s/he does not work for the organization for whom the research
is being conducted.
Although focus group sessions can be held in many different settings, and have
been known to be conducted via conference hall, they are most often conducted
in special facilities that permit audio recording and/or video taping, and are
equipped with a one-way mirror. This observation of research process as it
happens can be invaluable when trying to interpret the results. The many
disparate views that are expressed in the course of the 1 to 2 hour discussion
make it at times difficult to capture all observations on each topic. Rather than
simply summarizing comments, possible avenues for further research or
hypotheses for testing should be brought out.
Focus groups are normally made up of anywhere between 6 and 12 people with
common characteristics. These must be in relation to what is being studied, and
can consist of demographic characteristics as well as a certain knowledge base or
familiarity with a given topic. For instance, when studying perceptions about a
certain destination, it may be important to have a group that has visited it before,
while another group would be composed of non-visitors. It must, however, be
recognized that focus group discussions will only attract a certain type of
participant, for the most part extroverts.
2.1.3. Projective Techniques
Deeply held attitudes and motivations are often not verbalized by respondents
when questioned directly. Indeed, respondents may not even be aware that they
hold these particular attitudes, or may feel that their motivations reflect badly on
them. Projective techniques allow respondents to project their subjective or true
opinions and beliefs onto other people or even objects. The respondent’s real
feelings are then inferred from what s/he says about others.
Projective techniques are normally used during individual or small group

interviews. They incorporate a number of different research methods. Among the
most commonly used are:
 Word association test

 Sentence completion test
 Thematic apperception test (TAT)
While deceptively simple, projective techniques often require the expertise of a

trained psychologist to help devise the tests and interpret them correctly.

A. Word Association Test
There are a number of ways of using word association tests:
 A list of words or phrases can be presented in random order to

respondents, who are requested to state or write the word or phrase that
pops into their mind;
 Respondents are asked for what word or phrase comes to mind
immediately upon hearing certain brand names;
 Similarly, respondents can be asked about slogans and what they suggest;
 Respondents are asked to describe an inanimate object or product by giving it
"human characteristics" or associating descriptive adjectives with it.
B. Sentence Completion Test
In the sentence completion method, respondents are given incomplete sentences

and asked to complete the thought. These sentences are usually in the third
person and tend to be somewhat ambiguous. For example, the following
sentences would provide striking differences in how they were completed
depending on the personality of the respondent:
 "A beach vacation is……………………"

 "Taking a holiday in the mountains is…."
 "Golfing is for…"
 "The average person considers skiing….."
 "People who visit museums are…………"
Generally speaking, sentence completion tests are easier to interpret since the answers
provided will be more detailed than in a word association test. However, their intent is
also more obvious to the respondent, and could possible result in less honest replies.
C. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

In the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the respondents are shown one or more
pictures and asked to describe what is happening, what dialogue might be
carried on between characters and/or how the "story" might continue. For this
reason, TAT is also known as the picture interpretation technique
Although the picture, illustration, drawing or cartoon that is used must be

interesting enough to encourage discussion, it should be vague enough not to
immediately give away what the project is about.
TAT can be used in a variety of ways, from eliciting qualities associated with
different products to perceptions about the kind of people that might use certain
products or services.
For instance, respondents were shown a schematic logo and asked what type of
destination would have such a logo, and what a visitor might expect to find.
Some of the comments were:

 That makes me think of the garden.

 It is the city in the country, very much so.
 It looks like New York, with the Empire State Building right there.
Calming, relaxing. There’s a tree there so you can see the country-side and you’ve got the
background with the city and the buildings, so it’s a regional focus.
2.1.4. The Pilot Study
When data is collected from a limited number of subjects selected from the
population targeted by the research project, we refer to it as a pilot study. A pilot
study can also take the form of a trial run. For instance, an advertising campaign
is tested in a specific market before it goes nation-wide, to study the response by
potential consumers.
In a pilot study, the rigorous standards used to obtain precise, quantitative

estimates from large, representative samples are often relaxed, since the objective
is to gain insight into how subjects will respond prior to administering the full
survey instrument. Although a pilot study constitutes primary research, it tends
to be used in the context of a qualitative analysis.
There are four major qualitative research techniques that can be used as part of a
pilot study. These are
 Depth interview
 Focus group (or group depth interview)
 Panel
 Projective technique
2.1.4.1. Panels
When it is important to collect information on trends, whether with respect to consumer

preferences and purchasing behavior or changes in business climate and opportunities,
researchers may decide to set up a panel of individuals which can be questioned or
surveyed over an extended period of time.
The most common uses for panels are
 Trend monitoring and future assessment,
 Test marketing and impact assessment, and
 Priority setting for planning and development.
There are some clear advantages to using panels. These include the fact that
recall problems are usually minimized, and that it is even possible to study the
attitudes and motivation of non-respondents. However, it must also be
recognized that maintaining panels is a constant effort. Since there is a tendency

for certain people to drop out (those that are too busy, professionals, senior
executives, etc.), this can lead to serious bias in the type of respondent that
remains on the panel. Participants can also become too sensitized to the study
objectives, and thus anticipate the responses they “should" be giving.
2.2. Quantitative Research Techniques
Quantitative research is most common encountered as part of formal or conclusive

research, but is also sometimes used when conducting exploratory research.
Quantitative research techniques are part of primary research.
Quantitative research differs from qualitative research in the following ways:
 The data is usually gathered using more structured research instruments

 The results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes and motivation
 The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the
population,
 The research can usually be replicated or repeated, given it high reliability;
and
 The analysis of the results is more objective.
The most common quantitative research techniques include:

 Observation technique
 Experimentation
 Survey technique
2.2.1. Survey Techniques
The survey technique involves the collection of primary data about subjects,
usually by selecting a representative sample of the population or universe under
study, through the use of a questionnaire. It is a very popular since many
different types of information can be collected, including attitudinal,
motivational, behavioral and perceptive aspects. It allows for standardization
and uniformity both in the questions asked and in the method of approaching
subjects, making it far easier to compare and contrast answers by respondent
group. It also ensures higher reliability than some other techniques.
If properly designed and implemented, surveys can be an efficient and accurate

means of determining information about a given population. Results can be
provided relatively quickly, and depending on the sample size and methodology
chosen, they are relatively inexpensive. However, surveys also have a number of
disadvantages, which must be considered by the researcher in determining the
appropriate data collection technique.
Since in any survey, the respondent knows that s/he is being studied, the
information provided may not be valid insofar as the respondent may wish to
impress (e.g. by attributing him/herself a higher income or education level) or
please (e.g. researcher by providing the kind of response s/he believes the
researcher is looking for) the researcher. This is known as response error or bias.
The interviewer can (inadvertently) influence the response elicited through

comments made or by stressing certain words in the question itself. In interview
surveys, the interviewer can also introduce bias through facial expressions, body
language or even the clothing that is worn. This is knows as interviewer error or
bias.
There are three basic types of surveys:
 Telephone
 Self-administered
 Interview
A. The Telephone Survey
The use of the telephone has been found to be one of the most inexpensive, quick
and efficient ways of surveying respondents. The ubiquity of telephone
ownership as well as the use of unlisted numbers are factors that must, however,
be considered as part of the sampling frame. Telephone surveys also allow for
random sampling, allowing for the extrapolation of characteristics from the sample
to the population as a whole.
There tends to be less interviewer bias than in interview surveys, especially if the
interviewers are trained and supervised to ensure consistent interview
administration. The absence of face-to-face contact can also be an advantage
since respondents may be somewhat more inclined to provide sensitive
information. Further, some people are reluctant to be approached by strangers,
whether at their home or in a more public location, which can be overcome by
the more impersonal use of the telephone.
On the other hand, telephone surveys are also known to have a number of
limitations. The length of the survey has to be kept relatively short to less than 15
minutes as longer interviews can result in refusal to participate or premature
termination of the call. The questions themselves must also be kept quite short
and the response options simple, since there can be no visual aids such as a cue
card.
The increasing use of voice mail and answering machines has made phone
surveys more difficult and more costly to undertake. Calls that go answered
receive a busy signal or reach a machine, require callbacks. Usually, eligible
respondents will be contacted a pre-determined number of times, before they are

abandoned in favor of someone else. The potential for response bias must be
considered, however, when discussing the results of a study that relied on the
telephone.
The sample for a telephone survey can be chosen by selecting respondents
 from the telephone directory, e.g. by calling every 100th name

 through random-digit dialing (RDD) where the last four digits of a
telephone number are chosen randomly for each telephone exchange or
prefix (i.e. first three numbers), or
 The use of a table of random numbers.
B. The Self-Administered Survey
Any survey technique that requires the respondent to complete the questionnaire
him/herself is referred to as a self-administered survey. The most common ways
of distributing these surveys are through the use of mail, fax,
newspapers/magazines, and increasingly the internet, or through the place of
purchase of a good or service (hotel, restaurant, and store). They can also be
distributed in person, for instance as part of an intercept survey. Depending on the
method of survey administration, there is a number of sampling frame
considerations, such as who can or cannot be reached by fax or internet, or
whether there is a sample bias.
A considerable advantage of the self-administered survey is the potential

anonymity of the respondent, which can lead to more truthful or valid responses.
Also, the questionnaire can be filled out at the convenience of the respondent.
Since there is no interviewer, interviewer error or bias is eliminated. The cost of
reaching a geographically dispersed sample is more reasonable for most forms of
self-administered surveys than for personal or telephone surveys, although mail
surveys are not necessarily cheap.

In most forms of self-administered surveys, there is no control over who actually

fills out the questionnaire. Also, the respondent may very well read part or the
entire questionnaire before filling it out, thus potentially biasing his/her
responses. However, one of the most important disadvantages of self-
administered surveys is their low response rate. Depending upon the method of
administration chosen, a combination of the following can help in improving the
response rate:
1. A well written covering letter of appeal, personalized to the extent

possible, which stresses why the study is important and why the
particular respondent should fill in the questionnaire.
2. If respondents are interested in the topic and/or the sponsoring
organization, they are more likely to participate in the survey; these
aspects should be stressed in the covering letter
3. Ensuring confidentiality and/or anonymity, and providing the name and
contact number of the lead researcher and/or research sponsor should the
respondent wish to verify the legitimacy of the survey or have specific
questions
4. Providing a due date that is reasonable but not too far off and sending or
phoning at least one reminder (sometimes with another survey, in case the
original one has been misplaced)
5. Follow-up with non-respondents
6. Providing a postage paid envelope or reply card
7. Providing an incentive, particularly monetary, even if only a token
8. A well designed, visually appealing questionnaire
9. A shorter questionnaire, where the wording of questions has been
carefully considered. For instance, it might start with questions of interest
to the respondent, while all questions and instructions are clear and
straight forward
10. An envelope that is eye-catching, personalized and does not resemble
junk mail

11. Advance notification, either by phone or mail, of the survey and its intent
C. The In-Person Interview Survey
Face-to-face interviews are a direct communication, primary research collection

technique. If relatively unstructured but in-depth, they tend to be considered as
part of qualitative research. When administered as an intercept survey or door-to-
door, they are usually part of quantitative research.
The opportunity for feedback to the respondent is a distinct advantage in

personal interviews. Not only is there the opportunity to reassure the respondent
should s/he be reluctant to participate, but the interviewer can also clarify
certain instructions or questions. The interviewer also has the opportunity to
probe answers by asking the respondent to clarify or expand on a specific
response. The interviewer can also supplement answers by recording his/her
own observations, for instance there is no need to ask the respondent’s gender or
the time of day/place where the interview took place.
The length of interview or its complexity can both be much greater than in other
survey techniques. At the same time, the researcher is assured that the responses
are actually provided by the person intended, and that no questions are skipped.
Referred to as item non-response, it is far less likely to occur in personal interviews
than in telephone or self-administered surveys. Another distinct advantage of
this technique is that props or visual aid can be used. It is not uncommon, for
instance, to provide a written response alternatives where these are complex or
very numerous. Also, new products or concepts can be demonstrated as part of
the interview.
Personal interviews provide significant scope for interviewer error or bias. Whether
it is the tone of voice, the way a question is rephrased when clarified or even the
gender and appearance of the interviewer, all have been shown to potentially
influence the respondent’s answer. It is therefore important that interviewers are
well trained and that a certain amount of control is exercised over them to ensure
proper handling of the interview process. This makes the interview survey one of
the most costly survey methods.
Task 4: Administering Questionnaire

Specific Objectives: After completing the lesson, the trainee will be able to:
 Introduce the concept of questionnaire design

 Become familiar with the process of questionnaire design
 Learn to recognize the characteristics of a good questionnaire
 Learn how to deal with sensitive questions
 Discuss the issues of questionnaire design
The questionnaire is a structured technique for collecting primary data in a

marketing survey. It is a series of written or verbal questions for which the
respondent provides answers. A well-designed questionnaire motivates the
respondent to provide complete and accurate information.
The survey questionnaire should not be viewed as a stand-alone tool. Along

with the questionnaire there is field work, rewards for the respondents, and
communication aids, all of which are important components of the questionnaire
process.
4.1. Steps to developing a Questionnaire
The following are steps to developing a questionnaire – the exact order may vary
somewhat.
i Determine which information is being sought.
ii. Choose a question type (structure and amount of
disguise) and method of administration (for example, written form,
email or web form, telephone interview, verbal interview)
iii. Determine the general question content needed to
obtain the desired information.
iv. Determine the form of response

v. Choose the exact question wording
vi. Arrange the questions into an effective sequence
vii. Specify the physical characteristics of the questionnaire
(paper type, number of questions per page, etc.)
viii. Test the questionnaire and revise it as needed.
i. Required Information
To determine exactly which information is needed it is useful to construct tables

into which the data will be placed once it is collected. The tables will help to
define what data is needed and what is not needed.
ii. Question Type and Administration Method
Some question types include fixed alternative, open-ended, and projective

 Fixed-alternative questions provide multiple-choice answers. These types
of questions are good when the possible replies are few and clear-cut,
such as age, car ownership, etc.
 Open-ended questions allow the respondent to better express his/her
answer, but are more difficult to administer and analyze. Often, open-
ended questions are administered in a depth interview. This technique is
most appropriate for exploratory research.
 Projective methods use a vague question or stimulate and attempt to
project a person’s attitudes from the response. The questionnaire could
use techniques such as word associations and fill-in-the-blank sentences.
Projective methods are difficult to analyze and are better suited for
exploratory research than for descriptive or causal research.
There are three commonly used rating scales: graphic, itemized, and
comparative.

 Graphic- simply a line on which one marks an X anywhere between the

extremes with an infinite number of places where the X can be placed.
 Itemized – similar to graphic except there are a limited number of
categories that can be marked.
 Comparative – the respondents compares one attributes to others.
Examples include the Q-sort technique and the constant sum method,
which requires one to divide a fixed number of points among the
alternatives.
Questionnaires typically are administered via a personal or telephone interview

or via a mail questionnaire. Newer methods include e-mail and the Web.
iii. Question Content
Each question should have a specific purpose or should not be included in the
questionnaire. The goal of the questions is to obtain the required information.
This is not to say that all questions directly ask for the desired data. In some
cases questions can be used to establish rapport with the respondent, especially
when sensitive information is being sought.
Sensitive questions can be posted in ways to increase response likelihood and to
facilitate more honest responses. Some techniques are:
 Place the question is a series of less personal questions
 State that the behavior or attitude is not so unusual
 Phrase the question in terms of other people, not the respondent
 Provide response choices that specify ranges, not exact number
 Use a randomized response model giving the respondent pairs of
questions with a randomly assigned one to answer. The interviewer does
not know which question the person is answering, but the overall
percentage of people assigned to the sensitive question is known and
statistics can be calculated.
iv. Form of Question Response

Questions can be designed for open-ended, dichotomous, or multichotomous

responses.
 Open-ended responses are difficult to evaluate, but are useful early in the
research process for determining the possible range of responses.
 Dichotomous questions have two possible opposing responses, for
example, “Yes” and “No”.
 Multichotomous questions have a range of responses as in a multiple
choice test.
The questionnaire designer should consider that respondents may not be able to
answer some questions accurately. Two types of error are telescoping error and
recall loss.
 Telescoping error is an error resulting from the tendency of people to
remember events as occurring more recently that they actually did.
 Recall loss occurs when people forget that an event even occurred. For
recent events, telescoping error dominates; for events that happened in the
distant past, recall loss dominates.
v. Question Wording
The questions should be worded so that is unambiguous and easily understood.
The wording should consider the full context of the respondent’s situation. In
particular, consider the who, what, when, where, why, and how dimensions of
the question.
For example, the question,
“Which brand of toothpaste do you use?”
Might seem clear at first. However, the respondent may consider “you” to be the
family as a whole rather than he or she personally. If the respondent recently
changed brands, the “when” dimension of the question may be relevant. If the
respondent uses a different, more compact tube of toothpaste when traveling, the
“where” aspect of the question will matter.
A better wording of the question might be,

“Which brand of toothpaste have you used personally at home during the past 6
months? If you have used more than one brand, please list each of them.”
When asking about the frequency of use, the questions should avoid ambiguous
words such as “sometimes”, “occasionally”, or “regularly”. Rather, more
specific terms such as “once per day” and “2-3 times per week” should be used.
vi. Sequence the Questions

Some neutral questions should be placed at the beginning of the questionnaire in
order to establish rapport and put the respondent at ease. Effective opening
questions are simple and non-threatening.
When sequencing the questions, keep in mind that their order can affect the
response. One way to correct for this effect is to distribute half of the
questionnaire with one order, and the other half with another order.
Physical Characteristics of the Questionnaire
4.2. Advantages of Written Questionnaires

Questionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face-to-face interviews.
This is especially true for studies involving large sample sizes and large
geographic areas. Written questionnaires become even more cost effective as the
number of research questions increases.
Questionnaires are easy to analyze. Data entry and tabulation for nearly all
surveys can be easily done with many computer software packages.
Questionnaires are familiar to most people. Nearly everyone has had some
experience completing questionnaires and they generally do make people
apprehensive.
Questionnaires reduce bias. There is uniform question presentation and no

middle-man bias. The researcher’s own opinions will not influence the

respondent to answer questions in a certain manner. There are no verbal or

visual clues to influence the respondent.
Questionnaires are less intrusive than telephone or face-to-face surveys. When a

respondent receives a questionnaire in the mail, he is free to complete the
questionnaire on his own time-table. Unlike other research methods, the
respondent is not interrupted by the research instrument.
4.3. Disadvantages of Written Questionnaires

One major disadvantage of written questionnaires is the possibility of low
response rates. Low response is the curse of statistical analysis. It can
dramatically lower our confidence in the results. Response rates vary widely
from one questionnaire to another (10% - 90%), however, well-designed studies
consistently produce high response rates.
Another disadvantage of questionnaires is the inability to probe responses.

Questionnaires are structured instruments. They allow little flexibility to the
respondent with respect to response format. In essence, they often lose the
“flavor of the response” (i.e., respondents often want to quality their answers).
By allowing frequent space for comments, the researcher can partially overcome
this disadvantage. Comments are among the most helpful of all the information
on the questionnaire, and they usually provide insightful information that would
have otherwise been lost.
Nearly ninety percent of all communications is visual. Gestures and other visual
cues are not available with written questionnaires. The lack of personal contact
will have different effects depending on the type of information being requested.
A questionnaire requesting factual information will probably not be affected by
the lack of personal contact. A questionnaire probing sensitive issues or attitudes
may be severely affected.
When returned questionnaires arrive in the mail, it’s natural to assume that the
respondent is the same person you sent the questionnaire to. This may not
actually be the case. Many times business questionnaire get handed to other
employees for completion. Housewives sometimes respond for their husbands.
Kids respond as a prank. For a variety of reasons, the respondent may not be
who you think it is. It is a confounding error inherent in questionnaires.
Finally, questionnaires are simply not suited for some people. For example, a
written survey to a group of poorly educated people might not work because of
reading skill problems. More frequently, people are turned off by written
questionnaires because of misuse.
4.4. Qualities of a Good Question
There are good and bad questions. The qualities of a good question are as
follows:
1. Evokes the truth. Questions must be non-threatening. When a

respondent is concerned about the consequences of answering a question
in a particular manner, there is a good possibility that the answer will not
be truthful. Anonymous questionnaires that contain no identifying
information are more likely to produce honest responses than those
identifying the respondent. If you questionnaire does contain sensitive
items, be sure to clearly state your policy on confidentially.
2. Asks for an answer on only one dimension. The purpose of a survey is
to find out information. A question that asks for a response on more than
one dimension will not provide the information you are seeking. For
example, a researcher investigating a new food snack asks “Do you like
the texture and flavor of the snack?” If a respondent answers “no”, then
the researcher will not know if the respondent dislikes the texture or the
flavor, or both. Another questionnaire asks, “were you satisfied with the
quality of our food and service?” Again, if the respondent answers “no”,
there is no way to know whether the quality of the food, service, or both

were unsatisfactory. A good question asks for only one “bit” of

information.
3. Can accommodate all possible answers. Multiple choice items are the
most popular type of survey questions because they are generally the
easiest for a respondent to answer and the easiest to analyze. Asking a
question that does not accommodate all possible responses can confuse
and frustrate the respondent. For example, consider the question:
What brand of computer do you own?
A. IBM PC
B. Apple
Clearly, there are many problems with this question. What if the respondent
doesn’t own a microcomputer? What if he owns a different brand of computer?
What if the owns both an IBM and an Apple? There are two ways to correct this
kind of problem.
The first way is to make each response a separate dichotomous item on the
questionnaire. For example:
Do you own an IBM PC? (circle: Yes or No)
Do you own an Apple computer? (circle: Yes or No)
Another way to correct the problem is to add the necessary response categories
and allow multiple responses. This is the preferable method because it provides
more information than the previous method.
What brand of computer do you own?
(Check all that apply)
- Do not own a computer
- IBM PC
- Apple
- Other

4. Have mutually exclusive options. A good question leaves no ambiguity

in the mind of the respondent. There should be only one correct or
appropriate choice for the respondent to make. An obvious example is:
Where did you grow up? __
A. Country
B. Farm
C. City
A person who grew up on a farm in the country would not know whether to
select choice A or B. This question would not provide meaningful information.
Worse than that, it could frustrate the respondent and the questionnaire might
find its way to the trash.
5. Produces variability of responses. When a question produces no
variability in responses, we are left with considerable uncertainty about
why we asked the question and what we learned from the information. If
a question does not produce variability in responses, it will not be possible
to perform any statistical analyses on the item. For example:
What do you think about this report? ____
A. It’s the worst report I’ve read
B. It’s somewhere between the worst and best
C. It’s the best report I’ve read
Since almost all responses would be choice B, very little information is learned.
Design your questions so they are sensitive to differences between respondents.
As another example:
Are you against drug abuse? (circle: Yes or No)
Again, there would be very little variability in responses and we’d be left
wondering why we asked the question in the first place.
6. Follows comfortably from the previous question. Writing a
questionnaire is similar to writing anything else. Transitions between
questions should be smooth. Grouping questions that are similar will
make the questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent will feel
more comfortable. Questionnaires that jump from one unrelated topic to
another feel disjointed and are not likely to produce high response rates.
7. Does not presuppose a certain state of affairs. Among the most subtle
mistakes in questionnaire design are questions that make an unwarranted
assumption. An example of this type of mistake is:
Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance? (Yes or No)
This question will present a problem for someone who does not currently have
auto insurance. Write your questions so they apply to everyone. This often
means simply adding an additional response category.
Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance?
- Yes
- No
- Don’t have auto insurance
One of the most common mistaken assumptions is that the respondent knows
the correct answer to the question. Industry surveys often contain very specific
questions that the respondent may not know the answer to. For example:
What percent of your budget do you spend on direct

Mail adverting? _________
Very few people would know the answer to this question without looking it up,
and very few respondents will take the time and effort to look it up. If you ask a
question similar to this, it is important to understand that the responses are
rough estimates and there is a strong likelihood of error.
It is important to look at each question and decide if all respondents will be able
to answer it. Be careful not to assume anything. For example, the following
question assumes the respondent knows what Proposition 13 is about.
Are you in favor of Proposition 13?

_____ Yes _____No _____ undecided
If there is any possibility that the respondent may not know the answer to your
question, include a “don’t know” response category.
8. Does not imply a desired answer. The wording or a question is

extremely important. We are striving for objectivity in our surveys and,
therefore, must be careful not to lead the respondent into giving the
answer we would like to receive. Leading questions are usually easily
spotted because they use negative phraseology. As examples:
Wouldn’t you like to receive our free brochure?
Don’t you think the Congress is spending too much money?
9. Does not use emotionally loaded or vaguely defined words. This is one
of the areas overlooked by both beginners and experienced researchers.
Quantifying adjectives (e.g., most, least, majority) are frequently used in
questions. It is important to understand that these adjectives mean
different things to different people.
10. Does not use unfamiliar words or abbreviations. Remember who your
audience is and write your questionnaire for them. Do not use
uncommon words or compound sentences. Write short sentences.
Abbreviations are okay if you are absolutely certain that every single
respondent will understand their meanings. If there is any doubt at all, do
not use the abbreviation. The following question might be okay if all the
respondents are accountants, but it would not be a good question for the
general public.
What was your AGI last year? ______
11. Is not dependent on responses to previous questions. Branching in
written questionnaires should be avoided. While branching can be used
as an effective probing technique in telephone and face-to-face interviews,
it should not be used in written questionnaires because it sometimes

confuses respondents. An example of branching is:
1. Do you currently have a life insurance policy? (Yes or No) if no, go
to question 3
2. How much is your annual life insurance premium? ____
These question could easily be rewritten as one question that applies to
everyone:
1. How much did you spend last year for life insurance? ______
12. Does not ask the respondent to order or rank a series of more than five
items. Questions asking respondents to rank items by importance should
be avoided. This becomes increasingly difficult as the number of items
increases, and the answers become less reliable. This becomes especially
problematic when asking respondents to assign a percentage to a series of
items. In order to successfully complete this task, the respondent must
mentally continue to re-adjust his answers until they total one hundred
percent. Limiting the number of items to five will make it easier for the
respondent to answer.
Task 5 Conducting Interview with Respondents

Specific Learning Objectives of the Lecture
 After completing the lesson, the trainee will be able to:
o Briefly define what an Interviewing is
o Mention conditions of successful interviewing.
o Explain the major Interviewing Errors.
o Identify major types of Interview
o Describe the sequence of question In the Interview
In this lecture today we will study about the interviewing method of collecting
data. This is tactical approach to get important information from the
respondents.
Interviewing
Having looked into methods of data collection, the designing of questionnaires,

in some of the preceding tasks, we now turn to an important aspect of the field
survey, namely, interviewing. It is one of the most difficult tasks in marketing
research and yet it has not received adequate attention. It is difficult because it
requires a rare combination of intelligence, initiative and tact on the part of
interviewers to enable them to get the desired information from the unknown
respondents.
5.1 Conditions for a Successful Interview
An interview is a purposeful conversation between the interviewer and the

respondent aimed at eliciting certain information from the latter. Though this
appears to be a simple task, in reality, it is not so. It is necessary that certain
conditions are fulfilled in order to ensure its successful completion. These
conditions are explained below.
5.1.1 Availability of Information with the Respondent

First, the respondent must have the information which is sought by the
interviewer. It may well be that the respondent had the information but due to
the passage of time, he has now forgotten it. Alternately, he might have
repressed it due to some emotional stress.
5.1.2 Cognition
Second, the respondent should understand what is required and expected of
him. He should be in a position to decide what information he should give how
much he should give in what manner he should give it. The interviewer should
ensure that the respondent understands his role when he is interviewed.
Whenever the respondent’s answer to a question is incomplete or irrelevant, the
interviewers should again explain it clearly or probe further to get the necessary
details.
5.1.3 Motivation
Finally, the respondent should feel motivated to answer questions accurately. He
should be cooperative right from the beginning to the end of the interview. At
the same time, he should realize the seriousness of the interview and give correct
answers. An interview is in fact an interaction of the interviewer and the
respondent. Unless they are cooperative and talk on the same wavelength, the
interview cannot be successful. Much responsibility, therefore, falls on the
interviewer to remove any distrust and misgiving on the part of the respondent
at the beginning of an interview, as also his confusion in answering questions as
the interview proceeds. A number of errors do creep in on account of the
interviewers, which are termed as interviewer bias.
5.2. The Interviewer’s Task

The interviewer’s task has four aspects: (i) Locating sample members, (ii)
Obtaining interviews, (iii) Asking questions, and (iv) Recording the answers. The
amount of time spent on these aspects will vary on account of such factors as the
nature of the inquiry, the type of sample, the extent of the respondent’s
cooperation and length of the questionnaire. The time spent by interviewers on
actual interviewing is much less than what is generally imagined .
5.2.1. Locating the Respondents

In probability sampling, the interviewer cannot choose his respondents on his
own. He has to approach only those persons who have been selected in the
sample. This fixes a responsibility on the interviewer to find the sample
members. In area sampling, where maps are used, the interviewer has to concern
himself with either listing dwelling or segmenting within selected blocks. This
needs great care as a casual handling of the job may have some dwelling
unlisted. From these listed dwelling, a sample is chosen and the interviewer has
to call on the sample members. Sometimes he may have to call back when the
members are not available or unable to spare time on the first call.

5.2.2. Obtaining the Interview

Having located the respondent, the interviewer has to initiate the interview. He
may have to show his identity and authorization letter/card of his organization.
After this, it is necessary to inform the respondent about the purpose of the
survey, to impress upon him how his response will be helpful for the survey and
to convince him of the need for his cooperation. While he should fully justify to
the respondent the reasons for the information sought, he need not be too much
apologetic about it. He should also give some idea about what is expected to
emerge from such a survey and to whom the results may be of interest. He
should refrain from overstating or inflating the importance of the survey.
Initially, when the interview proceeds, the respondent is usually reserved. In

such a case, the interviewer should be very patient and courteous while
persuading the respondent lest he may be forced to abandon the interview
altogether. Such a situation is, no doubt, challenging but if handled carefully, it
will give added self-confidence to the interviewer. He should assure the
respondent that his answers will be kept confidential and that his identify will
not be disclosed. He should also point out that the interview is not a test nor is it
intended to educate the respondent. What is important at the beginning is that
the interviewer establishes a rapport with the respondent. He has to put the
respondent at ease so that he does not have any reservations while talking to the
interviewer. The more free and frank the respondent is in answering questions,
the better will be the interview. The interviewer must be careful not to assume an
air of superiority. This is necessary to ensure the respondent does not put off the
interviewing.
5.2.3. Asking the Questions

Having initiated the interview, the interviewer must ask the necessary questions.
In the case of a structured questionnaire, he has to ask the questions in the same
phraseology and sequence as contained in the questionnaire. He has to ensure

that whatever is asked is understood by the respondent in the sense in which it is

intended. He has also to ensure that he understands what the respondent says.
He has to be extremely careful not to influence the respondent by his own ideas
and prejudices. It has been rightly said that … the interviewer’s function is
neither that of an educator nor missionary, but that of an impartial observer of
public opinion as he finds it. No matter how much he may privately disagree
with the attitudes he encounters, it is not his business to enlighten or convert but
to listen and understand. If he directly or indirectly influences the respondent by
his ideas and opinions, the answers of the respondent will not reflect his own
ideas and opinions. The interviewer should not emphasize a particular word or
part of the question as it could be suggestive to the respondent. Particularly
when a question has more than one alternative answer, the interviewer should
not, by the manner of asking or by the tone in which it is asked, suggest that he
prefers one particular alternative to the remaining ones. In short, he must
maintain neutrality and objectivity throughout the interview process. During the
course of the interview, in addition to asking questions, the interviewer must
satisfy himself that the answers given by the respondent are adequate. The
symptoms of inadequate response, as given by Kahn and Cannel are: partial
response, non-response, irrelevant response, inaccurate response and the
verbalized response problem. While the first four symptoms are self-explanatory,
the last one needs some explanation. At times the respondent explains to the
interviewer why he is unable to answer the question. He might not have
understood the question or he does not posses the information sought, or he
thinks that the question is irrelevant or inappropriate. In all such cases the
interviewer should gently probe further to get the necessary information. It may
be difficult at times to develop supplementary questions on the spur of the
moment. This apart, the phrasing of a supplementary questioning a particular
manner may introduce an element of interviewer-bias. On the other hand, no
single supplementary question will be suitable in all possible situations. It is
difficult to lay down any rigid guidelines in this regard. However, one important
measure that can be taken is to provide adequate training to interviewers with a
set of standard techniques that should be used by them for handling inadequate
responses.
5.2.4. Recording the Responses

Recording the responses is the last aspect of the interviewing task. Except when
mail questionnaires are sent out, or a panel survey is undertaken in which the
respondents are requested to keep diary records, the recording of answers is
done by the interviewers themselves. The interviewer has to record the answers
honestly, as they are obtained from the respondent. In no case should he add or
delete something on his own. In the case of open-ended questions, he is expected
to be more careful in recording the answers otherwise he is likely to forget or
miss some part. If answers are improperly or partially recorded in the hope that
when the interviewer return to his organization, he will write them in full, he
may find that he is unable to recollect all the answers. This is likely to pose a
serious problem at the time of the editing of the questionnaire or the tabulation
of data.
While closing the interview, the interviewer should thank the respondent for this
cooperation in the survey and for the time that he has spent in providing the
answers. He should close the interview on a friendly note so that in exceptional
cases when some crucial additional information is needed, he can approach for
respondent again. However, the interviewer should avoid approaching the
respondent again as far as possible as this would take more time and enhance the
total cost of the survey.
5.3. A New Interviewing Technique

At this stage, we may mention that advances in electronic and communication
technologies have evolved a new interviewing technique. The traditional
questionnaire interview is being replaced by computer-assisted personal
interview (CAPI). In CAPI, the interviewer visits the respondent with a laptop
computer which has the entire questionnaire loaded on it. There are several
advantages of using CAPI. First, a correct sequence of questions is maintained.

Second, it is easy to display color pictures and visual aids for the better
understanding of the respondent. Third, there is no need for any subsequent data
entry if the interview is based on a structured questionnaire. Almost
immediately after the field work, data can be processed. In view of these
advantages, it should be clear that the use of CAPI will considerably cut down
the time for the survey-based marketing research. This will provide impetus to
marketing research in the country.
Although the cost of using CAPI will be higher than the traditional method of
interviewing, the advantages are substantial. One has to carefully weight the
cost-benefit before deciding to use the new device.
5.4. Interviewing Errors

Although the researcher may have taken sufficient care in the recruitment and
training of interviewers before they are deputed for interviewers, there are likely
to be certain errors which arise while interviewing. First, errors may arise if the
interviewer is unable to establish a proper rapport with the respondent. If the
rapport is too weak, the respondent may give answers half-heartedly or give
incorrect replies. On the other hand, if the rapport is too strong, it may obsess the
respondent on account of excessive influence of the interviewer. This too would
not help in obtaining accurate responses. Both these situations have to be
avoided and a reasonable rapport between the interviewer and the respondent is
to be establishing, as was pointed out earlier. Errors interviewing may also arise
if the interviewer has deliberately or inadvertently not followed the instructions.
For example, he might not have explained the background and purpose of the
survey to the respondent or he might have done so vaguely, as a result of which
the answers received may not be accurate. Further, if the interviewer gives
undue emphasis to a particular word or a part of the question, it might be
suggestive to the respondent. This too would be a source of an interviewing
error. Interviewing demands much patience on the part of both interviewers and
respondents. If the interviewer omits any questions in haste, the answers will not

be complete. This will cause an error of omission. Besides, when the response to
a question is inconsistent with that of an earlier one, it means that one of the
responses is wrong. The interviewer is expected to identify such inconsistencies
when he comes across them during the course of the interview itself. He should
then further probe or ask an additional question to clarify the situation. Finally,
the interviewer may commit some error in the recording of responses. As was
mentioned earlier, he should record answers as given by the respondent without
adding or deleting anything. Several studies have been conducted to find out
interviewer effects in marketing research. Boyd and Westfall have conducted an
extensive research of the literature on interviewer bias. One of their main
findings shows that interviewers are a major source of error in marketing field
studies and that little is known about the magnitude of such errors under
varying conditions. In a subsequent study they observe that despite the need for
research in a large number of areas dealing with interviewer bias, extremely
limited research has been done in this field. Some more work has been done
since then. In the field of social surveys, Sudman and Bradburn analysed the
results of a large number of surveys. One of their findings is that the use of self-
administered questionnaires reduces not only the amount of interviewer time
but also provides a better indication of the respondent’s real feelings those
personal interviews, under certain conditions. In a more recent study, Mckenzie
has investigated interviewer effects in marketing research. As the author has put
it: “This survey afforded the opportunity to measure interviewer effects on a
variety of long or involved questions, where they might be expected to be
greatest; emphasis is on effects due does not allow us to go into the technical
rather than selective non response.”
The sum up, we may say that the best way to reduce interviewer bias or effect
still continues to be the improvement of interviewer selection, training,
supervision and increasing the respondent’s motivation to cooperate. We shall
deal with the first three aspects in the subsequent sections.

5.4.1. Selection of Interviewers

It has been recognized in all quarters that the success of any enterprise depends
largely on the quality of manpower employed. This applies all the more in the
case of surveys where the interviewers are to collect data from different
respondents. To begin with, we should know what the major characteristics are ,
which an interviewer should possess. First, as interviewing is a tiresome job
involving strenuous field work for long hours, the interviewer should be in good
health. Second, he should be an extrovert. Any person who is very reserved will
not enjoy meeting respondents and talking with them, and would perhaps fail
miserably in canvassing the questionnaire. As such, a person should be sociable
and inclined to contact strangers whom he has not met earlier. Third, he should
be well-dressed and possess a pleasing personality. Many a time appearance
coupled with good manners decides whether the respondent will cooperate with
the interviewer or not. Fourth, the knowledge of the local or regional language
must be possessed by the interviewer. In a vast country like India where so many
different languages are spoken, it becomes necessary to recruit those
interviewers who are proficient in the local or regional language. Fifth, an
interviewer must be educated and well qualified to conduct the interview. For
example, in the case of a highly technical survey, a person who knows the
technicalities of the subject should be appointed. Sixth, as wide discrepancies in
the class or status of the interviewer and respondent inhibit certain types of
responses, these should be avoided as far as possible. Finally, an interviewer
must be capable of communicating with the respondent. The major problem that
arises in field investigation is that of a lack of communication. The interviewer
should be communicative so that the respondent can easily understand what he
wants.
5.4.2. Training of Interviewers

Before the interviewers are sent out for collecting data, it is necessary that they
should be given some training. In case the subject of enquiry is of a very general
nature, the training need not be very elaborate. The interviewers should be given
some guidance aspects, and it should be fully explained and the necessary
literature should be given to them so that they can familiarize themselves with
the subject. The duration and content of training will vary from survey to survey.
Even so, normally, training of 2 to 4 weeks may be considered sufficient. The
content of training must be decided carefully.
 Initial Training
It may be necessary to provide two types of training – initial training and
training for individual studies. Soon after the appointment of the interviewer,
initial training may be given which should familiarize him with the relevance of
marketing research and the role of interviewers in marketing research studies.
General aspects such as locating the respondents, obtaining interviews, asking
questions, recording responses and closing interviews, problems of non-
response, etc. should be covered fully. The entire training should not be in the
form of classroom lectures and discussions. A part of it should be practical – the
interviewer should be asked to accompany and observe a supervisor who
actually conducts the interview. In the next visit, the interviewer may be asked to
initiate and conduct the interview in the presence of the supervisor. Later on, the
supervisor should comment on his interview, pointing out specific mistakes
committed and suggesting improvements.
Finally, the interviewer should be sent out on his own. Each recorded interview
should be discussed by the supervisor, indicating its deficiencies. Such training
will go a long way in improving the competence of interviewer.
 Training for Individual Studies

In addition to initial training, it is necessary that training for individual studies
should be given. The purpose of the research study should be explained. If a
consulting firm is undertaking research for an outside firm, it is desirable to
inform the interviewers as to which is the sponsoring organization and to give
them some background information about it. Further, if the study involves any

technical aspects, these must be clearly explained to the interviewers. In case of

studies using area sampling, the interviewer is required to exercise great care in
locating the sample respondents. Specific instructions must be given to the
interviewers so that the job can be done efficiently. It may further improve the
quality of interviewing if interviewers are issued written instructions with
respect to a particular survey. In case of doubt, they can refer to them and resolve
the difficulty on their own. Finally, certain hypothetical problem-situations
should be covered in a specific study and explanations given as to how such
problems can be handled if they occur at the time of interviewing.
5.4.3. Supervision of Interviewers

In conducting a survey, it is necessary to organize it on the right lines and to
ensure its timely completion. The role of supervisors is important in this respect.
A supervisor’s work should include:

1. Gathering and training interviewers on the fundamentals of interviewing,
including application forms.
2. Alerting and briefing interviewers for a particular job.
3. Allocating territory, in some cases requiring map work of a fairly detailed
nature.
4. Carefully studying the first day’s work, and correcting errors.
5. Editing all work.
6. Validating some of the reports (10 per cent or whatever percentage is
required).
7. Keeping careful production records.
8. Reviewing time sheets.
9. Rendering a detailed bill for the work.
From this list it is evident that a supervisor’s task involves several functions,
which remain the same whether he is a fulltime employee of a company or an
independent functionary. To minimize the chances of interviewer cheating,

supervisors may visit the places, without any prior intimation, where the
interviewer is expected to be present. Such sudden inspection visits by without
contacting the respondents. Apart from this, questionnaires filled in by the
interviewer unaided by the respondent, are frequently self-disclosures in the
sense that they contain rather unusual or inconsistent answers. Supervisors have
to cross check such questionnaires very carefully so that they may detect the
fraud. Thus, they can compare the data recorded by a particular interviewer with
those recorded by other interviewers. If his data are very different from those of
others, then two possibilities exist. First, the interviewer may have deliberately
entered wrong data or he may not even have visited the respondent. Second, the
respondents assigned to him may be different from the rest of the population. In
either case, the supervisor has to closely look into the problem. Further, to
minimize interviewer cheating, it may be desirable to boost up the interviewer’s
morale and offer him a reasonable compensation for his work. If he is poorly
paid, then he is unlikely to work hard and may be tempted to cut short
interviews. In addition, he may be given an assurance that if his work is found
quite satisfactory, he will be sought in the next survey or his services may be
retained in the organization. Apart from these measures, two methods may be
used to ascertain and control cheating. The first is the re-interview method which
implies that a sample of respondents covered by each interviewer may be
interviewed again. This method is helpful not only in checking whether the
interviewer has followed sampling instructions but also whether the respondent
was really interviewed and whether the information collected in the first
interview was accurate. The main limitation of this method is that it is expensive.
Besides, it is time-consuming. The second method is the post-card check. Instead
of holding re- interviews of selected respondents, a post-card is sent to them to
find out whether the interview was held. The method is unable to check the
quality of interviews though it will reveal if they were not held. No doubt, this
method is much cheaper. This advantage is offset to a certain extent on account
of the failure of the respondents to send back the post-cards. This method too is
time-consuming. Further, sometimes these cards are likely to reach persons other
than the respondents and when these are sent back, the supervisor may receive
inaccurate information. Perhaps the more important job of a supervisor is to
evaluate the interview itself rather than to ascertain whether it was conducted or
not. One way is to conduct a re- interview, but the method is both time-
consuming and expensive as was mentioned earlier. Another method is to
evaluate the filled-in questionnaire. The supervisor should read through the
questionnaire carefully to detect inconsistencies and inaccuracies. Sometimes one
may not be able to detect these shortcomings.
However, certain checks can be used. For instance, the supervisor may select a
few important questions where the interviewer was particularly required to
follow instructions, the noncompliance of which would be reflected in the
responses. A check of this type may be helpful in evaluating the quality of the
interviewer’s work, though it is not complete by itself. Again, such a check may
sometimes reveal that the instructions themselves were deficient. Another
method is to use free response questions in which the interviewer verbatim
records the answers given by the respondent. A close perusal of such answers
helps the supervisor to find out whether the interviewer has adhered to the
instructions given. The method is subjective but it can be helpful in evaluating
the quality of the interviewer’s work as revealed by selected parts of filled-in
questionnaires. There are other methods for evaluating the interviewer’s
performance. One method is by assigning comparable interviewing tasks to
interviewers and then comparing their performance relative to each other.
Another method is that of direct observation, though it may not be possible
always for the supervisor to accompany every interviewer. In addition, it is very
expensive, though, at the time of initial training, the method can be followed. Yet
another method is to invite comments from the interviewers on the work done
by them, problems encountered in the field and measures taken by them to
collect information. The supervisor may be able to identify interviewers having
grater initiative, intelligence and who are hardworking.

5.5. Types of Interviews
1. Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are

asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the
interviewee's nature and priorities; during the interview, the interviewer
"goes with the flow".
2. General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to
ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each
interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach,
but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting
information from the interviewee.
3. Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended
questions are asked to all interviewees (an open-ended question is where
respondents are free to choose how to answer the question, i.e., they don't
select "yes" or "no" or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this approach
facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and
compared.
4. Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the
same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of
alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.
5.6. Sequence of Questions
1. Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.

2. Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and
conclusions), first ask about some facts. With this approach, respondents
can more easily engage in the interview before warming up to more
personal matters.
3. Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long
lists of fact-based questions, which tends to leave respondents
disengaged.

4. Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or
future. It's usually easier for them to talk about the present and then work
into the past or future.
5. The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other
information they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.

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Basics of Marketing Research

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St.

Mary’s University College

Basics of Marketing Research

Task 1. Identifying the nature of marketing research

Department of Marketing Management /Basics of Marketing Research/complied by Tadesse Hailu 1

 From price to non price competition: As sellers increase their use of

Fortunately, the explosion of information requirements has been met by

Department of Marketing Management /Basics of Marketing Research/complied by Tadesse Hailu 2

What is a Marketing Information System?

1. Internal records system

2. Marketing Intelligence System

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arrive too late. Managers might learn of a competitive move, a new-customer

3.1. The Role of Marketing Research in Decision Making

The emphasis in marketing is on the identification and satisfaction of customer

 The Importance of Marketing Research to Management is highlighted

 To make marketing plan

 Why we study Marketing Research

 Deciding Whether or Not to Conduct Market Research Criteria for the

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5. When managers can’t agree on what they need to know to make a

3.2. The Marketing Research Process

Step 1: Problem Definition

Step 2: Development of an Approach to the Problem

Department of Marketing Management /Basics of Marketing Research/complied by Tadesse Hailu 7

with management and industry experts, analysis of secondary data, qualitative

Step 3: Research Design Formulation

Step 4: Data collection

Step 5: Data preparation and analysis

Step 6: Report preparation and presentation

and the major findings. The findings should be presented in a comprehensible

Step 1: Problem Definition

1.1. IMPORTANCE OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM

1.2. THE PROCESS OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Department of Marketing Management /Basics of Marketing Research/complied by Tadesse Hailu 9

analyzing the environmental context. Certain essential environmental factors

Discussion Interview with Secondary Qualitative

Environmental Context of the Problem

Step 1: Problem Definition

Management Decision Problem

Marketing Research Problem

Step 2: Approach to the Problem

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1.2.1. Discussion with Decision Makers (DM)

1.2.2. Interviews with Industry Experts

secondary data is an essential step in the problem definition process: primary

1.2.4. Qualitative Research

1.2.5. Environmental Context of the Problem

1.3. DEFINING THE MAREKTING RESEARCH PROBLEM

Department of Marketing Management /Basics of Marketing Research/complied by Tadesse Hailu 12

The general rule to be followed in defining the marketing research problem is

identifying its specific components. The brand statement provides perspective

Step 2: Development of an approach to the problem

2.1: Formulating research questions

Consider a second hypothesis:

Department of Marketing Management /Basics of Marketing Research/complied by Tadesse Hailu 15

Figure 1.3. Characteristics of a sound definition of the research problem

The problem should be “Will the new product, if launched,

1. The problem statement

The research problem should Research that which is important

There is a second advantage of stating hypotheses, namely that implicit notions

On occasion a given hypotheses may be too broad to be tested. However, other

2. 3: Specification of information needed

Department of Marketing Management /Basics of Marketing Research/complied by Tadesse Hailu 16