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doi: 10.1680/jenes.19.00043
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Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science

 Accepted manuscript
doi: 10.1680/jenes.19.00043
Submitted: 09 September 2019

Published online in ‘accepted manuscript’ format: 26 May 2020

Manuscript title: Interpretation of High-Resolution Aeromagnetic Data for Estimation of

Curie Point Depth Isotherm Across Sokoto Basin, Northwest, Nigeria

Authors: Suleiman Taufiq1,2, Okeke, F. Nneka1, Obiora, N. Daniel1

Affiliations: 1Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria.

2
Department of Science Education, Waziri Umaru Fed. Polytechnic, B/Kebbi, Kebbi State,

Nigeria.

Corresponding author: Suleiman Taufiq, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University

of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria. Tel.: 08034454194

E-mail: taufiq.suleiman.pg01826@unn.edu.ng

Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science

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Abstract

This studies the estimation of Curie point depth isotherm using aeromagnetic data across

Sokoto Basin, Northwest, Nigeria. The study area lies within the Longitude of 3ºE – 7ºE and

Latitude of 10ºN – 14ºN. The Residual-Regional separation was carried out on the total

magnetic intensity using polynomial fitting of second order. The residual map which forms the

basis for analysis and interpretation was divided into thirty spectral blocks; hence, the log of

the spectral energies was plotted against the frequency using a spectral program plot (SPP)

developed with MATLAB. The results of centroid depth and depth to top boundary obtained

were used in estimating the Curie point depth isotherm which serves as the depth at which the

crust and uppermost mantle magnetic materials cease to be magnetic. Interestingly, the results

obtained from the spectral analysis of the study area, where an average depth to top boundary

of 2.2 6km was obtained, indicated a good spot for hydrocarbon potential. The Curie point

depth within the study area vary between 5.96 km to 74.29 km with an average depth of 18.99

km. Impliedly, the results obtained from curie point depth isotherm indicated a good source of

geothermal potential in the study area.

Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science

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doi: 10.1680/jenes.19.00043
Notation
F is the force

P1 and P2 are dipoles

r is the distance between P1 and P2 (in meters)

µ is the free space permeability

H is the strength of the magnetic field

J is the magnetization

Ji is the intensity of magnetization

k is the susceptibility of the magnetic material

T is the inducing field

Z0 centroid depth

Zt depth to the top boundary

P(s) is the radially averaged power spectrum of the anomaly

/s/ is the wavenumber

A is constant

B is the sum of constant independent of |s|

Zb is the basal depth which is also called Curie point depth

Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science

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Introduction

In November 2016, the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) commenced

preliminary studies on Sokoto Basin, Chad Basin, and Benue Trough with a view to finding

hydrocarbon potentials in the Basins. Thereafter, Chad Basin received much attention in terms

of the exploration activities. Unfortunately, after the attacks on oil workers and military

personnel by the terrorist group (Boko haram) in Chad Basin on 27th of July, 2017, exploration

activities were suspended and the Corporation considered shifting focus to Sokoto Basin.

Investigations into the hydrocarbon prospectivity, minerals and geothermal energy in Sokoto

Basin is not a recent development as oil exploration in the Basin began way back in the 1950’s.

Unfortunately, some of the results obtained from the geophysical investigation in the Basin

have remained the major discouragements to geoscientists. Some of the Researchers

(Nwankwo et al., 2009; Taufiq, 2012; Ofor and Udensi, 2014) who investigated the Basin

geophysically, observed that the Basin may be too shallow to accommodate hydrocarbon in

commercial quantities based on the results at their disposals, shifted attention to exploring the

Basin for other economic gains such as minerals and geothermal energy. It is against the

background that the NNPC is shifting attention to the Basin, that present research work is

stimulated and aimed at further carrying out spectral analysis of the Basin vis-à-vis estimating

the Curie point depth isotherm using high resolution aeromagnetic data for geothermal

potential source.

Curie Point Depth (CPD) can simply be defined as the deepest level in the earth crust

containing materials which create discernible signatures in a magnetic anomaly map

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(Bhattacharyya and Leu, 1975). It is the depth at which the Fe-Ti Oxide minerals of the earth

lose their ferromagnetic property (Nur et al., 1999). Curie point is the temperature at which

spontaneous magnetization vanishes and magnetic minerals exhibit paramagnetic

susceptibility. Because paramagnetism is much smaller than spontaneous magnetization, rocks

are essentially non-magnetized at temperatures greater than the Curie point of magnetite

(approximately 580°C). Accordingly, CPD used to describe the depth to the inferred Curie

point transition of magnetite.

The bottom of a magnetic source indicates the thermal boundary at which magnetic

mineral in the crust loss their magnetic properties as a result of an increase in temperature as

depth increase down the crust (Nagata, 1961; Ross et al., 2006). This thermal boundary is

referred to as Curie point depth and it is the nethermost part of the crust to have material which

develops discernible mark in a magnetic anomaly map (Bhattacharyya, 1966). This point is

assumed to be the depth for the geothermal source (magmatic chamber), where most

geothermal reservoirs tapped their heat from in a geothermal environment (Elleta and Udensi,

2012). It varies from area to area, as such, it is therefore normal to expect minimum CPD at

the regions which have geothermal potential, young volcanisms and a thin crust (Aydn and

Oksum, 2010). Consequently, assessment of the disparities in the CPD of a particular region

can give a preliminary and appreciated information about the area temperature distribution at

depth and the geothermal energy potential of the subsurface (Tselentis, 1991).

The application of the power spectrum analysis on magnetic data was carried out in many

previous studies across the globe in determining CPD. Tselentis, (1991) determined CPD in

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Greece from aeromagnetic and heat flow data. His results showed that Curie depths in the area

range from about 20 km in western Greece, up to 1 km beneath the Hellenic volcanic arc. The

author concluded that the results are consistent with the existing geothermal and geotectonic

regime in the area. Ofor and Udensi (2014) determined CPD and heat flow in the Sokoto Basin

Nigeria using spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data. Their result suggested that the basin is

underlain by a Curie-point isotherm of between 11.36 km to 22.30 km. Alain et al., (2017)

estimated CPD variations derived from the aeromagnetic and thermal structure of the crust at

the zone of continental collusion, South East Cameroon. The CPD estimated from the four

overlapping area varies from 20.0 to 25.0 km. Similarly, Rowland and Ahmed (2018)

determined CPD isotherm and geothermal studies over parts of Nassarawa and Environs, North

Central Nigeria using spectral analysis. The result of their investigation revealed that Curie

point depth varies between 18 km and 23 km with deeper isotherm at the northwestern part and

shallow isotherm at the south eastern part. Aliyu et al. (2018) interpreted high resolution

aeromagnetic data to estimate the CPD isotherm of parts of Middle Benue Trough, North-East,

Nigeria. Their result shows that the Curie isotherm depth varies between 17.04 km to 27.40 km

with an average value of 22.5 km. Adewumi et al. (2019) analyzed CPD and heat flow over

part of Bida Basin Northcentral Nigeria using aeromagnetic data. The results of their CPD

range from 10.88 km to 35.51 km with an average value of 23.22 km. Wilson et al. (2019)

investigated CPD, geothermal gradient and heat flow in the Colombian Caribbean,

Northwestern South America. The modified centroid method provided better estimations of

Curie depths, which range between 13 km and 47 km.

Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science

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doi: 10.1680/jenes.19.00043
Location and geology of the study area

Sokoto Basin lies between longitudes 30E and 70E and latitudes 100N and 140N. It forms the

southeastern sector of the Lullemmeden Basin, one of the young (Mesozoic–Tertiary) inland

cratanoic sedimentary basins of West Africa (McCurry et al., 1976; Shehu et al., 2004; Obaje,

2009). Up to 2000 meters of clastic sequences rest upon the Basement (Zboril, 1984; Adelana

et al., 2003). Moreover, the sequences of semi consolidated gravels, sands, clay, some

limestone and ironstone are found in the Basin. According to Kogbe (1989), the sedimentary

sequences are sub-divided from bottom to top into the late Jurassic to early Cretaceous Illo &

Gundumi Formations (Continental Intercalaire.), the Maestrichtian Rima Group (sub-divided

into Taloka, Dukamaje, and Wurno Formations), the late Paleocene Sokoto Group (sub-divided

into Dange, Kalambaina and Gamba Formations) and the Eocene-Miocene Gwandu Formation.

Sokoto basin in Nigeria like other sedimentary basins in other parts of the world provides

possible source rocks, reservoir beds and the structural environment required for hydrocarbon

accumulation (Kogbe, 1989). The sedimentary rocks of the basin composed of sandstone,

limestone and clay of cretaceous to tertiary ages from a multilayered groundwater basin with a

pumping rate of 300/min at a well with 100-150 mm in diameter (Adetona and Udensi, 2007).

Kogbe (1989) further described the basin as a series of crystalline massif rocks

outcropping to the east and south of the basin consisting of granite gneisses, schist, phyllites,

quartzites and some amphibolite, diorite, gabbro and marble of pre-Cambrian age. The rocks

are fractured and deeply weathered in many places especially in the western part of the

catchment. The lowlands and plains of the basement areas are sometimes covered on the
8

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surface by Quaternary sediments of Aeolian and fluvial origin especially along the flood plains

of the major rivers and streams. Offodile (2002) also added that the basement complex

occupies about 42% area of Sokoto basin. Figure 1 is the geology map of Nigeria showing

the study area (Sokoto Basin) and figure 2 is the extract of the study area from geology map of

Nigeria.

Theory, materials and methods

Theory

The concept underlying magnetic prospecting is the existence of a magnetic dipole or

monopoles within the rocks constituting the earth (Umeanoh, 2015). Mathematically, magnetic

force expression, F between two magnetic monopoles of strength P1 and P2 (Ariffin, 2012) is

given by:

p1 p2
Fm  (1)
r 2

where P1 and P2 are dipoles, r is the distance between P1 and P2 (in meters), µ is the free space

permeability

The above Coulomb’s equation is the basic underlying principle of magnetic prospecting.

Magnetic monopole, P1 or P2 which exerts force per unit pole strength can be expressed as:
P
H (2)
r2
where H is the strength of the magnetic field

Magnetic materials positioned within a magnetic field will acquire magnetic force and

will experience magnetic induction. Due to the inducing field, one can measure the strength of

Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science

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doi: 10.1680/jenes.19.00043
the magnetic field known as the intensity of magnetization, Ji, induced on the material and this

is expressed as:

Ji  kT (3)

where J is the magnetization, k is the susceptibility of the magnetic material and T is the

inducing field.

Materials

Fifteen aeromagnetic maps with sheets numbers 9, 10, 11, 28, 29, 30, 50, 51, 52, 73, 74, 75, 96,

97 and 98, which are Binji, Sokoto, Rabah, Argungu, Dange, Gandi, Tambuwal, Gummi,

Anka, Fokku, Danko, Gwanda, Shanga, Zuru, and Wasagu respectively were acquired from the

Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA) Abuja. The Agency acquired the data using

magnetometers.

The survey was carried out with the following details;

Terrain clearance = 80m

Line spacing = 500 m

Nominal tie-line spacing = 2 km.

The flight line and tie-line trends = 135 and 45°.

All grid data were saved and delivered in Oasis Montaj Geosoft raster file format. Each

1:100,000 topographical sheet covers an area of about 3025 km2 (i.e. 55 x 55 km2) totaling a

superficial area of 45,375 km2.

10

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Methods

The fifteen (15) aeromagnetic sheets were assembled, merged into Oasis Montaj 8.4.2v

software and gridded to produce the map of total magnetic intensity, TMI (Fig. 3) of the area.

For the purpose of separating regional (anomalies associated with low-frequency components)

and residual (anomalies associated with high-frequency components), polynomial fitting of the

second order was employed. Hence, the residual components formed the basis for further

analysis and interpretation in this study. Fig 4 is the residual map showing areas within the

Basin.

Spectral method

It is a depth estimating method pioneered by Bhattacharyya (1975) and later developed by

Spector and Grant (1970). It has been utilized widely in the analysis of magnetic anomalies as

in the determination of average depth to the top of magnetic basement, computation of crustal

thickness, thermal framework of the earth (Bhattacharyya, 1975; Shuey et al., 1977; Kehinde et

al., 2018; Kamureyina, 2019; Daniel et al., 2018; Tanaka et al., 1999; Salako and Udensi,

2013). There are two methods for estimating the depth thickness of magnetic sources, thus; the

method used in examining the shape of isolated anomalies and the one used in examining the

patterns of the anomalies (Bhattacharyya and Leu, 1975). Fundamentally, the method of

Spector and Grant (1970) estimates the average depth to the top boundary of the magnetized

layer from the slope of the log power spectrum while the method of Bhattacharyya (1966)

obtains the depth to the centroid (effects from the bottom) of the causative body using a single

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anomaly interpretation. Okubo et al. (1985) effectively combined and expanded both methods

to propose an algorithm for regional geomagnetic interpretation oriented to the purposes of

geothermal exploration.

The techniques permit an estimate of the depth of magnetized blocks of varying depth,

width, thickness and magnetization. Most approaches used include Fourier transformation of

the aeromagnetic data to estimate the energy (or amplitude) spectrum by transforming the

spatial data into the frequency domain. Therefore, the residual data obtained from polynomial

fitting of the second-order using Oasis Montaj software was divided into thirty spectral blocks,

where block A – O allowed spectral probe of 55 km by 55 km, P – Y allowed spectral probe of

82.5 km by 55 km, Block Z – CC allowed spectral probe of 165 km by 110 km and DD

allowed spectral probe of 165 km by 165 km. In carrying out these divisions using Oasis

Montaj, efforts were made in ensuring that no part of the anomaly was cut off. Subsequently,

the analysis was carried out using a spectral program plot (SPP) developed with MATLAB.

The top bound Zt and the centroid of a magnetic source Zo were calculated from the spectrum

of magnetic anomalies. The estimated values for centroid depth and depth to the top boundary,

Zo and Zt respectively are shown in Table 1. Random sample of graphs of the logarithm of

spectral energies against frequencies obtained for blocks (A, F, and P) are shown in Fig. 5.

Curie point depth estimation

CPD have been studied by many authors in different parts of the world. (Kamureyina, 2019;

Daniel et al., 2018; Ogawa et al., 2001; Aydin et al., 2005; Büyüksaraç and Bekta, 2007;

Bansal et al., 2010; Aboud et al., 2011; Manea and Constantin, 2011; Abd El Nabi, 2012;
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Salako and Udensi, 2013; Aliyu et al., 2018; Adewumi et al., 2019) and many other authors

used CPD in determining geothermal potential of areas. Bhattacharyya (1966) proposed the

theory for determining Curie depth, a theory which was later developed by (Spector and Grant,

1970; Blakely, 1988; Tanaka et al., 1999; Francisco and Antonio, 2003). The theory posited

that the curie temperature isotherm corresponds to the temperature at which minerals lose their

ferromagnetism (approximately 580°C). Magnetic minerals warmer than their Curie

temperature are paramagnetic and are essentially non-magnetic. Thus, the Curie Depth

Isotherm corresponds to the basal surface of magnetic crust and can be calculated from the

power spectrum of the magnetic anomalies (Byerly and Stolt, 1977; Kehinde et al., 2018;

Mishra and Naidu, 1974; Salem et al., 2000).

Curie point depth was evaluated in two stages (Okubo et al., 1985; Okubo et al., 1989;

Tanaka et al., 1999). The first phase is the estimation of depth to the centroid (Zo) of the

magnetic source from the slope of the longest wavelength part of the spectrum.

 P( s ) 
ln    ln A  2 S Zo (4)
 s 

where P(s) is the radially averaged power spectrum of the anomaly, /s/ is the wavenumber, and

A is constant.

The second phase is the estimation of the depth to the top boundary Zt from the slope of

the second longest wavelength part of the spectrum (Okubo et al., 1985.

ln  P( s )   ln B  2 S Zt (5)

where B, is the sum of constant independent of |s|.

Finally, the basal depth (Zb) which is also called Curie point depth was calculated using
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equation (6) (Bhattacharyya and Leu, 1975; Okubo et al., 1985).

Zb  2Z 0  Zt (6)

where Z0 = centroid depth, Zt = depth to the top boundary.

Table 1 summarized the results of both spectral analysis and the Curie point depth

obtained for the study area.

Results and discussion

Total magnetic intensity and residual map

The Total Magnetic Intensity (TMI) of the area ranges between 32932.84 nT to 33118.27 nT.

The lower values are areas that are magnetically subdued or quiet, they are the magnetic lows

of the study area, hence, typically of a sedimentary terrain. The higher values are areas that are

magnetically responsive, that is, areas with high magnetic anomalies, hence, assumed to be due

to the presence of outcrops of crystalline igneous or metamorphic rocks, and deep-seated

volcanic rocks. The TMI of the study area revealed variations of highs and lows magnetic

signature. The high magnetic anomalies which are probably attributes of igneous intrusion and

shallower sediment (denoted with High) are found majorly around the Northwest part and

Northcentral of the Basin. The low magnetic anomalies which are associated with the

sedimentary region are found within the Southeast, Northcentral and in the northwestern part

of the study area. Another feature (yellow) which dominate the study area is the intermediary,

it corresponds to granitic rocks. Fig. 3a is the total magnetic intensity map of the study area

indicating areas of high magnetic and low magnetic anomalies, while fig. 3b indicated the

areas in the Basin.

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Fig. (4) is the residual map also indicating high and low values, which varies between

-524.8 nT to 326.1 nT. The variations in the residual map may be due to lithology, magnetic

susceptibility, variation in degrees of strike, depth and different lithology. At some places on

the southern part of the residual map, there is a break in the NW-SW trending, this is an

indication of low magnetic present in the Residual. These anomalies may be due to the

magnetic source of shallow origin.

Spectral analysis

Table 1 indicated block divisions, coordinates of each block, depth estimation of centroid

depth, depth to top boundary and CPD. The results of estimated depth extents for the 30 blocks

show that the centroid depths range from 4.16 km to 38.10 km with an average of 10.62 km,

while depths to the top of magnetic sources vary from 1.01 km to 4.50 km with an average

depth of 2.26 km. This average depth of the top of magnetic source is less than the results of

Kamba et al. (2017) who got an average depth of 2.82 km across the basin. The result is in

close agreement with the result of Bonde et al. (2014) who obtained a sedimentary thickness of

2.70 km using 2D modeling techniques, and Nnaemeka (2017) who also got an average depth

of 2.77 km using spectral analysis. However, the result is in contrast with the investigations of

Umego (1990) who got an average thickness of 1.60 km, Oganija (1994) with an average

thickness of 1.40 km, Adetona et al. 2007; average thickness of 1.45 km, and Nwankwo and

Shehu (2016) with an average depth of 1.22 km. The variations in the present results may be

attributed to the usage of new high-resolution aeromagnetic data acquired by the Nigerian

Geological Survey Agency and the use of latest version of Oasis Montaj 8.4.2 version. Wright
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et al. (1985) argued that the minimum thickness of sediment required to achieve a threshold

temperature for the commencement of hydrocarbon formation is 2.3 km. An average depth of

2.26 km obtained in the study area is a favourable result for hydrocarbon potential.

Curie point depth (CPD)

From table 1, the CPD estimated varies between 5.96 km to 74.29 km with an average value of

18.99 km. Subsequently, the 2D contour map of the Curie point depth was generated and it is

shown in Fig. 6. From the contour map, it is observed that high values of 55 km to 70 km are

located around the eastern region (Shanga) of the study area, while the lower values of 5 km to

15 km dominated about one-third of the study area. This low value might be as a result of

igneous intrusion or the dominance of sandstone and limestone in the area. It was also

observed that areas with intermediary magnetic values recorded higher values of CPD, while

areas with low magnetic values have moderate CPD values (15 – 35 km). Fig. 7 represents the

3D view of CPD indicating high depth areas which corresponds with Tambuwal and Shanga

Local Governments Areas. CPD is greatly dependent on the geologic conditions of an area, as

they are shallower in the volcanic and geothermal field (Bhattacharyya and Leu, 1975;

Kehinde et al., 2018; Tanaka et al., 1999; Aliyu et al., 2018).

Conclusion

The Curie point isotherm across Sokoto Basin has been determined from the method of

spectral analysis and found to range between 5.96 km to 74.29 km with an average value of

18.99 km. The curie point depth was found to attain its highest point of 74.29 km around

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Shanga and Fokku, that is, Southwestern part of the study area while the lowest of 5.96 km was

found around Argungu, that is Northwestern part of the study area. The implication of this

result is interpreted in the assertion of Tanaka et al. (1999) that CPDs are shallower than 10 km

for volcanic and geothermal fields, between 15-25 km for island arcs and ridges, deeper than

20 km in plateaus and trenches. Consequently, Argungu, Gandi, Dange, Rabah and Gwanshi

which are found shallower than 10 km are considered hotspot geothermal fields. Similarly, an

average depth of 2.2 6 km obtained from the spectral analysis has shown some potential for

hydrocarbon potential in the study area. This result has re-confirmed the assertion of Kogbe

(1989) who assumed that Sokoto and Bida basins are endowed with hydrocarbon structural

components and other necessities needed for oil exploration.

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Table 1. Blocks, coordinates, depth estimation of centroid depth (Z0), depth to top (Zt) and
CPD (Zb)

Block Long (0) Lat (0) Zo (Km) Zt (Km) Zb (Km)

A 4.525 13.250 8.55 3.39 13.71
B 5.025 13.250 10.60 2.11 19.09
C 5.525 13.250 9.38 1.65 17.11
D 4.525 12.525 4.36 2.76 5.96
E 5.250 12.525 5.85 4.50 7.20
F 5.525 12.525 5.01 1.95 8.07
G 4.525 12.025 8.08 1.98 14.18
H 5.250 12.525 5.96 1.26 10.66
I 5.525 12.525 4.62 1.02 8.22
J 4.525 11.525 7.33 1.05 13.61
K 5.525 11.525 9.21 1.85 16.57
L 5.525 11.525 4.16 1.01 7.31
M 4.525 11.025 11.8 1.32 22.28
N 5.025 11.025 13.9 1.57 26.23
O 5.525 11.025 8.94 2.03 15.85
P 4.538 13.025 9.95 3.68 16.22
Q 5.513 13.025 8.39 1.28 15.50
R 4.538 12.525 15.30 2.52 28.08
S 5.513 13.025 5.68 4.21 7.15
T 4.538 12.025 11.00 3.93 18.07
U 5.513 12.025 5.84 1.35 10.33
V 4.538 11.525 8.40 2.68 14.12
W 5.513 11.525 15.60 1.43 29.77
X 4.538 11.025 16.70 1.92 31.48
Y 5.513 11.025 12.30 1.51 23.09
Z 5.025 12.550 14.00 2.91 25.09
AA 5.025 12.500 21.50 2.13 40.87
BB 5.025 11.550 38.10 1.91 74.29
CC 5.025 11.500 10.10 3.73 16.47
DD 5.025 12.025 8.08 3.09 13.07
Average 10.62 2.26 18.99

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Figure 1. Geology of Nigeria indicating the study area (after Nwajide, 2013)

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Figure 2. The study area

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Figure 3. (a) TMI indicating high & low anomalies. (b) TMI indicating local government areas

(a) (b)

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Figure 4. Residual map indicating high & low anomalies

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Figure 5. Samples of graph of Zo and Zt

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Figure 6. Curie point depth of the study area (contour interval of 5km)

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Figure 7. 3D view of curie point depth of the stud area indicating areas with high CPD

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