Law in Education

LAW IN EDUCATION
(OUPM01512/OUPM016121)
Master of Education and Master of Education in Leadership and Management
COURSE AUTHORS
ME DARSHAN ROOPUN AND MR DÉSIRÉ GAËL HENRIETTE-BOLLI
Law in Education (OUpm01512/OUpm016121)
Table of contents
Unit 1: Introduction to Law
1. Overview……………………………………………………………………………………… Pg 4
2. The concept of Law……………………………………………………………………………. Pg 4
3. Sources of law in Mauritius……………………………………………..…………………….. Pg 6
4. Sources of International Law…………………………………………………………………. Pg 11
5. Fields of law……………………………………………………………………………….…. Pg 14
6. Recommended Readings……………………………………………………………………... Pg 15
7. Activities……………………………………………………………………………...……… Pg 15
Unit 2: The importance of the Constitution in the Mauritian Education System
1. Overview………………………………………………………………………………..…… Pg 18
2. The Constitution……………………………………………………………………………... Pg 18
3. Fundamental Rights and Freedoms of the individual………………………………………… Pg 20
4. Recommended Readings…………………………………………………………………….. Pg 25
5. Activities…………………………………………………………………………………….. Pg 26
Unit 3: The role of contract law in the educational system
1. Overview……………………………………………………………………………………. Pg 28
2. French law in the Mauritian context……………………………………………………...…. Pg 28
3. Le contrat……………………………………………………………………………….…… Pg 30
4. Recommended readings……………………...……………………………………………… Pg 55
5. Activities…………………………………………………………………………………..… Pg 55
Unit 4 : The role of tort law in the educational system
1. Overview……………………………………………………………………..……………. Pg 57
2. Les types de responsabilité civile délictuelle……………………………………………… Pg 58
3. Le fait générateur………………………………………………………………………….. Pg 60
4. Les causes d’exonération………………………………………………………..………… Pg 82
5. Le lien de causalité……………………………………………………………………….... Pg 84
6. Le dommage……………………………………………………………………………..… Pg 86
7. Références………………………………………….…………………………………….... Pg 91
8. Activities……………………………………………………………………………...…… Pg 91
Unit 5 : Statutes pertaining to education
1. Overview…………………………………………………………………………..………. Pg 93
2. Health and Safety regulation………………………………………………………….…… Pg 93
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3. Les pouvoirs du chef d’entreprise…………………………………………………….....… Pg 98

4. The Workers’ Rights Act…………………………………………………………….…. Pg 100
5. Alternative Dispute Resolution…………………………………………………………... Pg 106
6. Recommended readings………………………………………………………………….. Pg 108
7. Activities…………………………………………………………………………….…… Pg 108
Unit 6: Education sectors in Mauritius
1. Overview…………………………………………………………………………………. Pg 113
2. Education in Mauritius: a flashback into educational reforms……………………...……. Pg 113
3. The Ministry of Education and Human Resource, Tertiary Education and Scientific
Research………………………………………………………………………………….. Pg 115
4. The powers and duties of the Minister of Education…………………………………..… Pg 117
5. Delegation……………………………………………………………………...………… Pg 118
6. Measures in the pipeline…………………………………………………………...…….. Pg 138
7. Recommended readings……………………………………………………………...……Pg 139
8. Activities…………………………………………………………………………….…… Pg 139
9. References……………………………………………………………………………...… Pg 140
Unit 7: International Legal framework pertaining to Education
1. Overview…………………………………………………………………………..……… Pg 141
2. The right to education in international law…………………………………………..…… Pg 142
3. International Human Rights instruments……………………………………………...….. Pg 144
4. Acceptance of international human rights norms………………..………..………………. Pg 154
5. Legal framework for the protection of human rights at national level…………………..... Pg 157
6. Recommended readings……………………………………………………………...…… Pg 161
7. Activities …………………………………………………………………………………. Pg 161
Unit 8: Human Rights and Education
1. Overview…………………………………………………………………………………... Pg 162
2. Introduction to Human Rights………………………………………...…………………… Pg 163
3. The human right to education………………………………………………...……………. Pg 166
4. Justifications to the right to education………………………………………………...…… Pg 169
5. Recommended readings……………………………………………………………………. Pg 185
6. Activities………………………………………………………………………………...…. Pg 205
Unit 9: Dispute Resolution
1. Overview…………………………………………………………………………………... Pg 206
2. Dispute resolution framework in Mauritius…………………………………………..…… Pg 209
3. Why option for ADR?........................................................................................................... Pg 210
4. ADR process………………………………………………………………………………. Pg 214
5. Reference to ADR……………………………………………………………………….… Pg 215
6. Caselaw affecting ADR…………………………………………………………………… Pg 216
7. Recommended readings………………………………………………………………….... Pg 219
8. Activities………………………………………………………………………...…………. Pg 219
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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO LAW
1. Overview
2. The Concept of Law
3. Sources of Law in Mauritius
4. Sources of International Law
5. Fields of Law
6. Recommended Readings
7. Activities.
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1. Overview
This unit provides the learners with a broad introduction to the concept of law. This involves
examining the different sources of law at the international as well as national levels. In addition to
these, different fields of law are to be examined so as to provide the learners with an appreciation the
practical aspects of law.
1.1 Learning outcomes:
By the end of the unit, students should be able to:
- Explain the concept of law
- Analyse the different characteristics of law
- Identify the sources of law both in Mauritius and at the international level
- Elaborate on the different fields of law
2. The Concept of Law
2.1 Definition
Many legal scholars and philosophers have agreed that finding a universal definition for the concept
of law is a challenging task. However, what has been agreed upon is that law consists of a set rules
that dictate human behaviour and action.1 These rules direct individuals to act, or not to act, in a
certain way and provide for sanctions in cases of deviant behaviours.
1
Jaap Hage, ‘Foundations’ in Introduction to Law, (eds) Jaap Hage and Bram Akkermans (2014)
4
2.2 Characteristics
Laws exist as a result of individuals setting down some rules that have to be observed by everyone.
These rules are inspired from normative structures such as morality, religion or ethics.
The ultimate functions of law in any given society are to promote and protect human and societal
well being. Van Der Burg identified two main functions of law which are: law as a protection and
law as an instrument.2
The first function of a law is to protect individuals against the wrongdoings of others as well as the
State. The rational behind laws having a protective function is that an individual should have the
capacity to protect himself/herself against others as well as having the capacity to protect his own
interests. For example, Article 3 of the Constitution of Mauritius provides for the protection of the
fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual.
Article 3 reads as follow:
Fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual
It is hereby recognised and declared that in Mauritius there have existed and shall continue to exist
without discrimination by reason of race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but
subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest, each and all of the
following human rights and fundamental freedoms -
(a) the right of the individual to life, liberty, security of the person and the protection of the law;
(b) freedom of conscience, of expression, of assembly and association and freedom to establish
schools; and
2
Wibren Van Der Burg, ‘The Expressive and Communicative Functions of Law, Especially with regards to
Moral Issues’, 20 Law and Philosophy, 31-59, 2001.
5
(c) the right of the individual to protection for the privacy of his home and other property and from
deprivation of property without compensation,
and the provisions of this chapter shall have effect for the purpose of affording protection to those
rights and freedoms subject to such limitations of that protection as are contained in those provisions,
being limitations designed to ensure that the enjoyment of those rights and freedoms by any individual
does not prejudice the rights and freedoms of others or the public interest.
The second function of the law is to act as an instrument that serves public interests and goals. For
example, for public safety and security, section 29 of the Criminal Code (Supplementary) Act states
that any person who, without lawful authority or reasonable excuse, the proof of which shall lie on
him, has with him in any public place any offensive weapon, shall commit an offence and shall, on
conviction, be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years and to a fine not exceeding
100,000 rupees.
ACTIVITY
In groups of 2, discuss the relationship between: (i) law & morality (ii) law & religion
3. Sources of Law in Mauritius
Mauritius has inherited its legal system from two of its previous colonisers, who were the French and
the British.
During the French settlement in the island, they introduced the Civil Code, Code de Commerce and
the Criminal Code as the law of the land. When the British took over Mauritius, they implemented
the Common Law system in the country. However, along with the use of the Common Law, the
British kept the application of the different Codes.
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When Mauritius gained its independence in 1968, the country developed its own legal system by
using both the French Codes and the Common Law. The substantive part of Mauritian Law is based
on the Codes whereas the Procedural part of Mauritian law is based on Common law. The term,
hybrid law or hybrid system, is often used to describe the Mauritian legal system.
The main sources of Law in Mauritius are:
- The Constitution
- Primary and Secondary Legislation
- Judicial Decision
- Customs
3.1 The Constitution
A Constitution is referred to as the supreme law of the country.3 It sets out the fundamental rights and
freedoms of the citizens of the country as well as the branches of Government. The branches of
Government include: the Legislative (Parliament), the Executive (Ministries) and the Judiciary (The
Court Structure).
In Mauritius, Sections 3 to 16 of the Constitution provide for the protection of the fundamental rights
and freedoms of the individual. These fundamental rights should be respected and enforced. If
Parliament passes a law which is contrary to the spirit and word of the Constitution, Section 2 states
that this law should be void, to the extent of its inconsistency.
If any citizen of Mauritius feels that his/her Constitutional right has been breached, the person can
seek redress by applying to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court of Mauritius is the highest judicial
body in Mauritius and has the authority to entertain Constitutional matters. If the person is not
3
Section 2 of the Constitution of Mauritius
7
satisfied with the decision of the Supreme Court of Mauritius, he or she can make an appeal to the
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council4.
3.2 Primary and Secondary Legislation
In Mauritius, the only institution that has the power to make, amend and repeal laws is the Parliament.
Chapter V of the Constitution, particular Article 45, confers upon Parliament the authority to make
laws in Mauritius. Article 45 (1) reads as follows:
Article 45 (1) Subject to this Constitution, Parliament may make laws for the peace, order and good
government of Mauritius.
Article 46 elaborated on the law making process. Before a law is made5, it has to go through several
stages. First a bill is present by a Minister to the members of Parliament. Before the Bill is adopted
by Parliament it will have to go through various stages. These are: First Reading, Second Reading,
Committee Stage, Report Stage and Third Reading.
3.2.1 First Reading
At this stage, the Bill is read to all members of the National Assembly. The aim here is to present to
members of Parliament the content of the Bill. At this stage, there are no debate about the Bill
3.2.2 Second Reading
During the Second Reading stage, members of the National Assembly are invited to debate on the
principles and philosophy behind the Bill. At this stage, members of the opposition usually give notice
of any amendments they wish to make to the Bill. No changes to the Bill can be done at this level.
4
Vide the case of Madhewoo v The State of Mauritius & Others (2016) UKPC 30
5
NB: Laws are commonly known in Mauritius as Acts of Parliament
8
3.2.3 Committee Stage
During the Committee Stage, the Bill is examined clause after clause and the changes proposed by
the opposition are implement.
3.2.4 Report Stage
At this level, the Bill containing the amendments is reported to the House. During the report stage,
since the Bill has already gone through the Second Reading and the Committee Stage, there is no
further debate about it.
3.2.5 Third Reading
During the Third Reading, the final version of the Bill is presented to Parliament. It is expected that
there are no debates at this stage. No member of Parliament can include new comments to the Bill at
this level.
After a Bill has been voted by Parliament, before it becomes law it has to have the assent of the
President of the Republic of Mauritius. The President, under Section 46 (2) of the Constitution, shall
either provide for his assent or withhold it. If the President provides for his assent, the Bill become a
law (Act of Parliament). In the event that the President withhold his assent, he has to notify Parliament
within 21 days as from the day the Bill was submitted to him. Parliament should reconsider the Bill
and then send it back to the President. Section 46 (2) of the Constitution States that if the President
fails to comply with this Section, he may be removed from office on a motion made by the Prime
Minister in the Assembly and supported by the votes of a majority of all members of the Assembly.
Law made by Parliament are known as Primary Legislation. Secondary Legislation are the Rules and
Regulations made by Ministries, Local Councils or Public Authorities which have obtained the power
to do so by Parliament. For example Section 118 of the Constitution allows Commissions and
Tribunals to make regulations for their good functioning.

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3.3 Judicial Decision
Along with the Constitution and Primary and Secondary sources of law, in Mauritius another source
of law is judicial decision. The leading case where the Supreme Court affirmed that judicial decisions
are sources of law in Mauritius is the case of DPP v Mootoocarpen (1988) MR 195.
In this case, the court stated that “It is quite clear that if a treatise were to be written on Mauritian
Law, the sources of our law would not be limited to statute but would have to include case-law”.
In Mauritius, when giving a court decision, judges or magistrates will make reference to judgements
given by judges from other jurisdictions. As the laws in Mauritius are from French or British
inspiration, Mauritian judges often make reference to judgements given by French or British judges
to understand and make reference to the latter interpretation of the law.
3.4 Customs
Customs are the practices and behaviours that people in a particular society have developed over
time. For a custom to be considered as law, it has to satisfy two legal tests. These tests are: (i) a
material element test (ii) the intellectual element test.
3.4.1 Material Element
Under the material element test, for a custom to be considered as a law, it has to be a practice which
is constant and uniform and this practice should have existed over a long period of time.
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3.4.2 Intellectual Element
To satisfy the intellectual element test, a practice should be considered as opinio necessitates. This
means that the individuals who have adopted this particular practice have the feeling of being legally
bound to follow it. There should be little or no derogation to the adoption of this practice.
Activities
1. Elaborate on the various stages of the law making process in Mauritius.

2. Give examples of domestic customs/practices that have become law.
4. Sources of International Law.
International law has been developed by States to regulate their intention at an international level.
International law regulates activities like: diplomacy, military intervention, international trade and
finance.
The legal framework that provides for the basis of international law is Article 38 (1) of the Statute of
the International Court of Justice. The Article provides that the four (4) main sources of International
law are: Treaties and Conventions, Customary International Law, General Principles of Law and
Judicial Decisions & Writings of Scholars.
4.1 Treaties & Conventions
Treaties (also referred to as Conventions, Covenant, Protocol or Charter) are international agreements
on particular topics which countries have agreed to abide to. Examples of Treaties (Conventions):
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), Treaty of Rome, Convention on all forms of Racial
Discrimination, Ramsar Convention, Kyoto Protocol and Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.
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Treaties have the following characteristics:
- Treaties or Conventions can be bilateral or multilateral.
- The legal principle of pacta sunt servanda applies to treaties. It means that the treaties which are
in force are binding on the parties that have agreed to it.
- Treaties are binding on State Parties to it only. The treaty is not binding on other States that have
not expressed their will to be bound by it.
- A treaty will be void if it contains provisions which are against international norms. (For example,
a treaty on slavery will be void).
- Treaties can be terminated under two circumstances6: firstly, the termination is in conformity with
the provisions of the treaty. Secondly, it can be terminated at any time subject to the consent of the
parties.
4.2 Customary International Law
Customary International Law reflects the practices ad behaviours of States which have been
recognised by the international community and which later was turned into law. For example, during
the middle ages, in order for countries to identify their ships at sea, the ships had to fly the flag of
their country of origin. At that time, many countries adopted this practice but none of them have
codified it in a book of law. Later, when the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was
created, Article 91 of the Convention codified this practice and turned it into law.
In order for customary law to exist, it has two satisfy two requirements. They are:
- Settled Practice: This means that the practice should be uniform and constant7.
6
Article 54 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
7
Columbia v Peru (1950) ICJ 266
12
- An obligation to be bound by that practice: If a States repeatedly object a particular practice, then
under international law they cannot be bound by it. Therefore, the practice fails to the requirement
of being binding on states8.
4.3 General Principles of Law
General principles of law can be defined as the legal theories and general rules that are used to
describe and explain a particular context or event. International tribunals make reference to general
principles of law when there are no treaty rules or customary law applicable to the case. Example of
general principles of law include: unjust enrichment, corporate separate legal personality and
vicarious liability.
4.4 Judicial Decisions/ Writings of Scholars
Judicial decisions and writings of scholars are not formal or primary sources of law. They are used
by international courts to shed light and clarify certain national legal provisions that might appear
ambiguous at the international level.
Activity
1. Read the case of Columbia v Peru (1950) ICJ 266 and then explain how a settled practice has
been defined in the case.
2. Write short notes on the following general principles of law:

- Unjust Enrichment
- Corporate Separate Legal Personality
- Vicarious Liability
8
North Sea Continental Shelf Case (1969) ICJ 3
13
5. Fields of Law
The subject of law is divided in various fields which are: public law v private law, criminal law v
civil law and substantive law v procedural law.
5.1 Public Law v Private Law
Public law is concerned with regulating the relationship between the State and the individuals. The
aim of public law is to promote social objectives and the common interest of the population. Private
law on the other hand regulates the relationship between individuals. The aim of private law is to
protect the personal interest of the individual.
5.2 Criminal Law v Civil Law
Criminal law deals with offences that are against morality and contrary to public order. Offences
such as larceny, murder, wounds and blows, rape and assault are punishable by the Penal Code in
Mauritius. The sanctions for these types of offences are usually fines or terms of imprisonment.
Civil law is mainly concerned providing a legal framework that regulates activities between
individuals. Aspects of Civil law in Mauritius include, the law of contract, tort, family law and even
property law. The sanction applied for breaches in civil law cases take the form of damages.
5.3 Public International Law v Private International Law
Public International Law deals with the relationship among States. As there are no international
government or parliament, countries sign agreement or treaties to create and regulate activities among
themselves. Furthermore, in order to provide for a structural platform where countries can meet and
discuss about their relations various international and regional institutions were created. These
institutions are: The United Nations, The World Trade Organisation, The European Union and the
African Union among others.
14
Private International law is mainly concerned with the relationship between individuals at an
international level. It has to be noted that for principles of private international law to apply, the
parties to a dispute has to belong to different jurisdiction. Examples of the application of rules of
private international law: adoption (the parents are from one country and the child to be adopted is
from another country), international sales of goods or divorce of persons from two different
nationalities.
6. Recommended Reading
- The Constitution of Mauritius
- Madhewoo v The State of Mauritius & Others (2016) UKPC 30:
https://www.jcpc.uk/cases/docs/jcpc-2016-0006-judgment.pdf
- Christopher Schreuer: Sources of International Law: Scope and Application:
https://www.univie.ac.at/intlaw/sources.pdf
- Domaingue, (2010), Legal Method and Mauritian Legal System, Chapter 1, CPDL, UoM.
7. Activities
i. Critically analyse the different functions of law.
ii. Write short notes on the following:
- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR),
- International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR),
- Treaty of Rome,
- Convention on all forms of Racial Discrimination,
15
- Ramsar Convention,
- Kyoto Protocol and
- Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.
iii. Assess whether custom as a source of law in Mauritius is different from Customary International
Law.
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UNIT 2 - The Importance of the Constitution in the Mauritian Education System
1. Overview
2. The Constitution
3. Fundamental Rights
5. Activities.
17
1. Overview
In this unit, the importance of the Constitution of Mauritius as the supreme law of the land will be
examined. The fundamental rights and freedoms of the individuals will be elaborated upon.
1.1 Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
- Explain how the Constitution is the supreme law of law
- Identify the fundamental Rights and Freedoms of the individuals in Mauritius
- Analyse cases dealing with Constitutional matters
2. The Constitution
Section 2 of Chapter 1 of the Mauritian Constitution states that the Constitution should be the supreme
law of the land. The reasons why the Constitution is considered as the supreme law of the land are as
follow: first, the Constitution the existence of Republic of Mauritius as a sovereign democratic State.9
Secondly, section 3 to 16 lay out the fundamental rights and freedoms of the citizens of the country.
Thirdly, the Constitution provides for the branches of government which comprise of: Parliament,10
the Executive11 and the Judiciary12.
With a written Constitution, (compared to the United Kingdom which has an uncodified
Constitution,) the powers, roles and functions of the three branches of government are well
established and this allows for a separation of powers. Separation of powers can be defined as the
9
Section 1 of the Constitution of Mauritius
10
Chapter V of the Constitution
11
Chapter VI of the Constitution
12
Chapter VII of the Constitution
18
situation where all three branches of government function independently from each other.13 However
in Mauritius, separation of power is not absolute as Members of the Executive are also members of
Parliament.
Section 47 of the Constitution provides for its alteration. Section 47 (2) states that a Bill, which is
voted by Parliament to become an Act, and whose intention is to alter sections of the Constitution,
should not be passed unless it has received three quarters of the votes of the members of the National
Assembly. Moreover, section 47 (3) underlines that any Bill which is discussed in Parliament with
the intention to amend Section 1 and 57 (2) of the Constitution should go through a referendum and
then has to be approved by the votes of all members of the National Assembly.
Section 17 (1) of the Constitution reads as follow:
‘Where any person alleges that any of sections 3 to 16 has been, is being likely to be contravened in
relation to him, then, without prejudice to any other action with respect to the same matter that is
lawfully available, that person may apply to the Supreme Court for redress.’14
Furthermore section 83 (1) provides that:
‘… where any person alleges that any provision of this Constitution (other than Chapter II) has been
contravened and that his interests are being or are likely to be affected by such contravention, then,
without prejudice to any other action with respect to the same matter which is lawfully available, that
person may apply to the Supreme Court for a declaration and for relief under this section.’15
From these sections, it can be noted that if a citizen of Mauritius feels that his constitutional rights
have been breached, he can have recourse to the Supreme Court of Mauritius. If, the person is not
13
Thomas W. Merrill, ‘The Constitutional Principle of Separation of Powers’ (1992) The Supreme Court Review, 225-
260
14
Vide the case of Vinay Deelchand v The Commissioner of Prisons (2004) SCJ 202
15
Vide the case of S. Beeharry v The State of Mauritius (2008) SCJ 241
19
satisfied with the decision given by the Supreme Court, he or she can appeal this decision to the
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC).16 It has to be noted that the decision of the JCPC is
final and binding.
Activities
1. Why is the Constitution the Supreme Law of the Land?
2. With your classmates, briefly discuss about the roles of: Parliament, The Executive and the Judiciary.
3. Fundamental Rights and Freedoms of the Individual
Chapter 2 of the Constitution of Mauritius provides for the fundamental rights and freedoms of the
individuals in the country. These rights are listed below:
Section 3: Fundamental rights and freedoms of individual.
Section 4: Protection of right to life
Section 5: Protection of right to personal liberty
Section 6: Protection from slavery and forced labour
Section 7: Protection from inhumane treatment
Section 8: Protection from deprivation of property
Section 9: Protection for privacy of home and other property
16
Section 81 of the Constitution.
20
Section 10: Provisions to secure the protection of law
Section 11: Protection of freedom of conscience
Section 12: Protection of freedom of expression
Section 13: Protection of freedom of assembly and association
Section 14: Protection of freedom to establish schools
Section 15: Protection of freedom of movement
Section 16: Protection from discrimination
The rights provided under Chapter 2 can be categorised as qualified rights and absolute rights.
Qualified rights can be defined as rights where the State can intervene in the enjoyment of these
rights. For example, if there is an illegal gathering, the State can intervene to stop this gathering even
though Section 13 of the Constitution provides for the freedom of assembly and association.
Absolute rights can be defined as rights that cannot be restricted in their application nor should there
be any derogation to the application of these rights. For instance, section 6 and section 7 of the
Constitution provide for protection from slavery and forced labour and protection from inhumane
treatment respectively. These rights are considered absolute as there cannot be any derogation or valid
excuse for not respecting these rights and engage in slavery, forced labour or inhumane treatment.
The following sections will expand on some fundamental rights present in the Mauritian Constitution.
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3.1 Protection of right to personal liberty
The right to personal liberty guarantees the physical freedom of individuals.17 It provides for the
protection from arbitrary address of individuals.18 Every citizen of Mauritius shall enjoy his personal
liberty. However, this liberty is limited under the following circumstances:
i. There is a Court order against the person.19
ii. When there is reasonable suspicion that someone has committed or is about to commit a criminal
offence.20
iii. In the case of individuals under 18 years old, their personal liberty can be limited for the purpose
of their education and welfare.
iv. Personal liberty is limited in order to prevent the spread of contagious or infectious diseases.
v. For people who are addicted to drugs or alcohol or who are of unsound mind, their personal liberty
os restricted for the purpose of their care or the protection of the community.
3.2 Protection from slavery and forced labour
The International Labour Organisation describes forced labour as any work or services which
someone undertakes involuntarily and which he performs under the menace of a penalty.21 Section 6
of the Constitution provides for the protection from slavery and forced labour. No one should be
subjected to slavery or forced labour22. This right is an absolute right and there is no derogation to it.
17
Section 5 of the Constitution
18
Centre: http://www.humanrights.is/en/human-rights-education-
Icelandic Human Rights
project/human-rights-concepts-ideas-and-fora/substantive-human-rights/the-right-to-liberty
19
Vide the case of J.J Victor v The State of Mauritius (2000) SCJ 065
20
Vide the cases Police v Mirbel (2016) SCJ 56 & Hyppolite v The State of Mauritius (2007) INT 2
21
International Labour Organisation: https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/definition/lang--
en/index.htm
22
Top FM Ltd v Desmarais (2014) INT 243
22
3.3 Protection of freedom of expression
Freedom of expression can be defined as the liberty to hold opinions and ideas and express them
without any hindrance or interference.23 It is paramount that the opinions or ideas expressed should
not be in contraction with public safety, public order, public morality or public health. For instance,
in the case of Hosany v The State24, a newspaper published the pictures of a deceased person and
stated that it did so in the interest of the public. An action was taken against the newspaper company
and the company stated that its freedom of expression was being breached.The Supreme Court held
that the publication of pictures of a deceased person in a newspaper does not constitute a lawful
application of the freedom of expression and this constitute ‘… an outrage against good morals..’.
Also, the right of freedom of expression should not be used in order to tarnish the reputation of
others25.
3.4 Freedom of Assembly and Association
Section 13 of the Constitution provides for the freedom of assembly and association. This right allows
individuals to join groups, such as trade unions or associations, that promotes and protect their
interests. However, those associations or gatherings can be prohibited if they are against public safety
and public order or they represent a threat to the rights and freedoms of other persons. Furthermore,
in Mauritius for a public gathering to take place, approval from the Commissioner of Police should
be obtained as per the Public Gathering Act 1991.26
3.5 Protection of freedom to establish schools
The Constitution at its section 14 allows individuals, notwithstanding their religious denomination or
social, ethnic or cultural association, to establish schools. It has to be noted here that this section does
23
Section 12(1) of the Constitution.
24
(2016) SCJ 501
25
Vide the case LALA C B v Le Mauricien & Ors (2005) SCJ 42 and David v Le Mauricien & Ors (2017) SCJ 372
26
Vide the case of Police v Benydin & Anor (2008) INT 119.
23
not provide for the right to education but simply highlights the rights of citizens of the country to
establish schools.
3.6 Protection from discrimination
Section 16 (2) states that no person shall be treated in a discriminatory manner. Section 16 (3) defines
discriminatory as meaning giving different treatments to different persons according to their race,
caste, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex. The Supreme Court of Mauritius has
dealt with various cases of discrimination. For instance, in the case of Tengur v Minister of Education
& Anor27, it was stated that the co-defendants admission policy was discriminatory based on religious
considerations.
Activities
1. What are the circumstances under which the freedom of personal liberty are hindered?
2. Is freedom of expression an absolute right? If yes, why? If no, why?
3. By making reference to the case of Police v Benydin & Anor (2008) INT 119, elaborate on how the
Court interpreted the right to freedom of assembly and association.
27
(2002) SCJ 298
24
Icelandic Human Rights Centre: http://www.humanrights.is/en/human-rights-education-project/human-rights-concepts-
ideas-and-fora/substantive-human-rights/the-right-to-liberty
International Labour Organisation: https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/definition/lang--en/index.htm
Mavronicola, N 2012, 'What is an ‘absolute right’? Deciphering Absoluteness in the Context of Article 3 of
the European Convention on Human Rights', Human Rights Law Review, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 723-758.
https://doi.org/10.1093/hrlr/ngs020
Merrill, T. ‘The Constitutional Principle of Separation of Powers’ (1992) The Supreme Court Review, 225-260
Cases
David v Le Mauricien & Ors (2017) SCJ 372
Hosany v The State (2016) SCJ 501
Hyppolite v The State of Mauritius (2007) INT 2
J.J Victor v The State of Mauritius (2000) SCJ 065
LALA C B v Le Mauricien & Ors (2005) SCJ 42
Police v Benydin & Anor (2008) INT 119.
Police v Mirbel (2016) SCJ 56
S. Beeharry v The State of Mauritius (2008) SCJ 241
Tengur v Minister of Education & Anor (2002) SCJ 298
Top FM Ltd v Desmarais (2014) INT 243
25
Vinay Deelchand v The Commissioner of Prisons (2004) SCJ 208
5. Activities
1.Read the cases of:
(i) Vinay Deelchand v The Commissioner of Prisons (2004) SCJ 202 and elaborate on how the Supreme
Court of Mauritius has interpreted section 17(1) of the Constitution.
(ii) S. Beeharry v The State of Mauritius (2008) SCJ 241 and elaborate on how the Supreme Court of Mauritius
has interpreted section 83(1) of the Constitution.
2. Examine how the Supreme Court has interpreted freedom of expression in the cases of LALA C B v Le
Mauricien & Ors (2005) SCJ 42 and David v Le Mauricien & Ors (2017) SCJ 372.
3. Should the right on the protection from discrimination be considered as an absolute right or a qualified right?
26
UNIT 3 The role of contract law in the educational system
1.0 Overview
2.0 French Law in the Mauritian context
3.0 Le contrat
4.0 Références
5.0 Activities
27
1.0 Overview
As you have noticed in units 1 and 2, Mauritius has a unique reality based on the fact that it aligns
itself with both common law and civil law. Actually, the French components are part and parcel of
our judicial system. Consequently, the following aspects which will be tackled will be analysed in
French.
1.1 Objectifs :
a) Donner un aperçu de l’application du système juridique français dans le contexte mauricien
b) Analyser l’application du droit contractuel dans le système juridique mauricien
c) Identifier les circonstances menant à la responsabilité civile délictuelle
d) Comprendre les mécanismes et mesures mises en place afin d’initier les divers types de
responsabilités
2.0 Le droit français dans le système juridique mauricien

Dans un système de droit hybride tel que le nôtre, il est fascinant de constater que le droit français se
situe à plusieurs niveaux. Par exemple, le contrat de travail duquel découle des obligations pour
l’employeur et pour l’employé est un exemple type de l’application du droit du travail dans le contexte
mauricien. Mais encore, avec le code pénal, le code de commerce et le code civil, tout une panoplie de
domaines est couvert par le droit français.
Arrêt pertinent :
Mediterranean Shipping Company v. Sotramon Limited 2017 UKPC 23
“The only relationship between the parties was an ordinary form of commercial relationship arising from
entering into a contract of carriage of goods. The loss claimed to have been suffered by the plaintiff was
the consequence of the defendant’s alleged failure to perform its contractual obligation to deliver. On the
face of things, such a claim is by its very nature purely contractual.
43. The contention that the plaintiff was entitled nevertheless to sue in tort if the failure to deliver amounted
to faute lourde is not a novel argument, but it has generally been considered to be heretical.
44. The mainstream opinion of experts in French law has been and continues to be that the argument is
doctrinally unsound for reasons articulated in the extracts from Dalloz previously cited.
28
45. Although the relevant parts of the Mauritian civil code are derived from French law, the Mauritian
courts are not bound to follow French law if there is good reason to do otherwise.
46. In L’Inattendu Co Ltd v Cargo Express Co Ltd the first instance judge thought that he was following
French law in finding that the plaintiff might bring a claim in tort arising out of the non-performance of the
defendant’s normal contractual obligations, from the references which he made to French texts, but the
judgment was not satisfactory for reasons already set out. Then came three decisions of a Mauritian
appellate court, in all of which the court decisively rejected as a matter of principle the argument now
advanced by the plaintiff: TFP International Ltd v Itoola, The Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corpn v
Mamad Safii and Air Austral v Hurjuk.
47. In the present case at first instance Matadeen J followed those three authorities. The decision of the
appellate court involved a volte face from the principle established in those cases. Although the appellate
court referred to those decisions as authorities on which Matadeen J had relied, it did not itself seek to
analyse the decisions or state any reason to regard them as suspect.
48. The appellate court expressed the view in its conclusions that in the spirit of fairness and justice, a
plaintiff who wishes to plead faute lourde rather than breach of contract should be allowed to proceed in
accordance with that option. The Board understands the considerations of fairness and justice which led the
French courts, followed by the Mauritian courts, to develop the doctrine that a contracting party guilty of a
particularly grave breach of contract (whatever may be the precise parameters of faute lourde) should not
be entitled to rely on an exclusion or limitation clause. However, it sees no unfairness or injustice in a
principle which recognises that an action for damages resulting from the non-performance of a contractual
obligation is an action founded in contract, no less when the breach is particularly bad than otherwise. The
gravity of the breach does not alter the fact that it is founded on the non-performance of an obligation which
arose from the contract.
49. The point was made, as succinctly and incisively as it could be, in the passage from Dalloz cited at para
21: “… en cas d’inexécution dolosive, … cela ne tient pas à ce que la responsabilité cesse d’être
contractuelle. Comment le cesserait-elle, puisqu’il y a toujours inexécution du contrat?”. The judgment of
the appellate court provides no answer to this fundamental question and the question is indeed
unanswerable.
50. The Board concludes that Matadeen J’s judgment was correct and that the appellate court was wrong
to overrule it. It will therefore allow the appeal, set aside the judgment of the appellate court and restore
29
the order made by Matadeen J. The plaintiff must pay the defendant’s costs before the Board and the
appellate court, unless within 28 days the plaintiff makes submissions in writing as to why a different order
should be made.”
3.0 Le contrat
Comme énoncé plus tôt, le droit contractuel sera au centre de ce chapitre. En effet, nous traitons tous
les jours avec des contrats et ce sous des formules les plus différentes les unes des autres. Par exemple,
un achat dans la cantine du collège ou simplement l’achat d’un ticket d’autobus pour se rendre au
travail. Dans le premier exemple, le cantinier a le devoir de donner quelque chose en retour du
montant qui lui sera proposé, tout comme le chauffeur d’autobus qui est dans l’obligation d’emmener
les passagers à bon port contre un montant qui sera donné au préalable.
De ce fait, le contrat requiert la participation des deux parties ; notamment, un vendeur et un acheteur
d’où découleront des obligations mutuelles.
Couramment, une obligation se définit comme « Lien de droit par lequel quelqu'un est tenu de faire
ou de ne pas faire quelque chose »28. A noter ici que les obligations peuvent être d’ordre juridique
aussi bien que moral. La moralité et la conscience vont de pair et il est sous-entendu que l’un comme
l’autre ont le devoir moral de remplir leurs obligations.
Par contre, l’obligation juridique est soit naturelle ou civile. Une obligation naturelle est définie
comme suit ‘dans le for de l’honneur et de la conscience, oblige celui qui l’a contractée à
l’accomplissement de ce qui y est contenu’. Elle ressemble à une obligation morale. La différence est
que la loi rattache certains effets juridiques à l’exécution du devoir moral dans le cas d’une obligation
naturelle. Exemple : quelqu’un qui paye volontairement une dette qu’il a contractée.
Au niveau juridique, l’obligation contractuelle exige l’exécution d’une prestation de faire, de ne pas
faire ou de donner. Par exemple : l’obligation de payer des travaux de rénovation effectués dans un
collège.
3.1 Définition du contrat

Ainsi, selon le code civil mauricien, un contrat se définit comme suit :
Article 1101 du Code civil :

Le contrat est une convention par laquelle une ou plusieurs personnes s’obligent envers une ou
plusieurs autres, à donner, à faire, ou à ne pas faire quelque chose.
28
https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/obligation/55376
30
Le Code Civil reste le document primordial dans l’élaboration des contrats. Ainsi, les contrats peuvent
être classifiés comme suit :
1. La classification du Code Civil Mauricien
2. La classification sous entendue par le Code Civil Mauricien
3. La classification postérieure du Code Civil Mauricien
Ainsi, les diverses sources d’obligations selon l’article 1370 du CCM sont :
a) Les lois ; par exemple les actes parlementaires qui réglementent le système éducatif mauricien
b) Le contrat ; l’article 1101 et suivant du CCM
c) Le quasi-contrat ; un acte volontaire sans accord au préalable
d) Le délit ; l’acte volontaire illicite causant dommage à autrui
e) Le quasi-délit ; l’acte illicite mais non intentionnel
Des contrats ou des obligations conventionnelles en général sont traités aux Articles 1102 et suivants
du CCM.
Contrat synallagmatique
Le contrat est synallagmatique ou bilatéral lorsque les contractants s’obligent réciproquement les
uns envers les autres.
Un contrat synallagmatique va créer des charges mutuelles aux parties concernées. Ainsi, celui/celle
qui s’engage d’une part et la personne qui décharge l’engagement d’autre part est créancier, la
personne qui décharge l’obligation envers un débiteur qui s’engage. A noter que ce type de contrat
implique des obligations réciproques pour les deux parties. Par exemple, l’enseignant donnant des
leçons particulières a l’obligation d’un encadrement académique contre rémunération à la fin du mois.
Contrat unilatéral
Il est unilatéral lorsqu’une ou plusieurs personnes sont obligées envers une ou plusieurs autres,
sans que de la part de ces dernières il y ait d’engagement.
31
Danse ce type de contrat, une seule partie répond d’une obligation. Ainsi, dans ce type de contrat,
l’obligation n’est qu’à la charge d’une seule personne. A noter que l’accord de volonté mutuelle est
nécessaire de la part des deux parties. Par exemple, un don fait par l’école/ le collège à une
association.
Contrat à titre gratuit

Le contrat (à titre gratuit) de bienfaisance est celui dans lequel l’une des parties procure à l’autre
un avantage purement gratuit.
Comme fait mention dans l’article, ici l’obligation ne sera que pour une des parties car l’avantage
obtenu est purement gratuit sans que l’autre partie reçoive un avantage.
Contrat à titre onéreux

Le contrat à titre onéreux est celui qui assujettit chacune des parties à donner ou à faire quelque
chose.
Ce type de contrat impliquera un avantage obtenu par chacune des parties
Contrat commutatif
Article 1104, alinéa 1 :
Il est commutatif lorsque chacune des parties s’engage à donner ou à faire une chose qui est
regardée comme l’équivalent de ce qu’on lui donne, ou de ce qu’on fait pour elle.
Par excellence, ce type de contrat révèle les obligations mutuelles au moment de la formation du
contrat. Ici une équivalence des obligations sera exécutée. Par exemple, un échange dans l’emploi du
temps entre enseignant durant les surveillance d’examens.
Contrat aléatoire
Article 1104, alinéa 2 :
Lorsque l’équivalent consiste dans la chance de gain ou de perte pour chacune des parties, d’après
un événement incertain le contrat est aléatoire.
32
Ici, tout réside dans le mot « aléa ». En effet, au moment de la concrétisation du contrat, la prestation
n’est pas encore connue. Par exemple, le contrat d’assurance.
Après cette élaboration des types de contrats qui existe dans le CCM, il est essentiel de faire une
analyse du fondement du contrat.
Le fondement du contrat
Chaque contrat implique quatre éléments qui constituent le fondement du contrat. Les éléments sont
comme suit :
a) Le principe de la liberté contractuelle
b) Le principe du consensualisme
c) Le principe de la force obligatoire du contrat
d) Le principe de l’effet relatif du contrat à l’égard des tiers
A. Le principe de la liberté contractuelle

Tout partie bénéfice de la liberté de contracter ou de refuser de contracter. Ainsi, la partie à la liberté
de conclure ou pas le contrat. La personne peut refuser de contracter et ne sera pas forcée à le faire.
Avec le principe de la liberté contractuelle, les parties choisissent de leur propre gré les droits et
obligations qui découleront du contrat.
B. Le principe du consensualisme
Avec l’acte de pollicitation, seul le consentement des parties déterminera la validité du contrat.
Pollicitation implique une offre formelle à contracter. L’offrant devra faire mention de ses attentes et
des conditions essentielles du contrat. Cette offre devra être ferme, précise, non équivoque et
extériorisée. En ce qui concerne l’offre, elle peut être tacite (d’un façon écrite ou orale) ou express
(résultat d’un comportement).
Pour faire suite à la pollicitation, les parties peuvent aussi avoir une contre proposition. Cependant,
dès que les deux ont agrée, le contrat aura force de loi.
33
Arrêt pertinent :
Pougnet v. Médine Sugar Estate 1996 SCJ 222
Facts : Médine SE a fait une offre pour louer un terrain à Pougnet sous certaines conditions. Suite à
l’offre, Médine SE a suggéré certaines modifications des conditions proposées par Médine SE. Par la
suite, Pougnet a accepté de louer le terrain aux conditions mentionnées dans l’offre initiale de Médine
SE. Médine SE refuse en disant qu’il n’y a jamais eu de contrat parce qu’il n’y a pas eu de rencontre
des volontés.
Held: Pour qu’il y ait un contrat, il faut une offre et une acceptation de cette offre. Il faut une rencontre
de volontés sur les éléments essentiels du contrat.
Il faut que le contenu de l’acceptation soit identique à celui de l’offre. Si l’acceptation a été assortie
de réserves, si une modification des conditions a été sollicitée (ex : un rabais), le contrat ne se forme
pas. Le destinataire de l’offre a, en réalité, formulé des contre-propositions et est devenue à son tour
pollicitant. Il doit donc attendre l’acceptation de cette nouvelle offre par l’autre partie.
Il en est de même lorsque le destinataire de l’offre a notifié qu’il accepte à des conditions différentes
ou avec des réserves. Il y a là une offre nouvelle qui implique refus de l’offre reçue de sorte que
l’offrant est libéré de son offre initiale.
Lorsque Pougnet a émis des réserves, il a refusé l’offre de Médine et, à son tour, a fait une nouvelle
offre. Donc, Médine dont l’offre a été refusée, est libéré. Aucun contrat n’a vu jour.
Voir également : Jodun v. Municipal Council of Curepipe 2009 SCJ 177
C. Le principe de la force obligatoire du contrat

Article 1134 du code civil :
Les conventions légalement formées tiennent lieu de loi à ceux qui les ont faites.
Elles ne peuvent être révoquées que de leur consentement mutuel, ou pour les causes que la loi
autorise.
Elles doivent être exécutées de bonne foi.
L’article 1134 implique que l’autonomie de volonté implique que les parties ont l’obligation
d’exécuter le contrat de « bonne foi ». Ainsi, nul ne peut se libérer de l’engagement pris au préalable.
34
D. Le principe de l’effet relatif du contrat à l’égard des tiers

Le contrat est applicable seulement pour ceux qui ont contracté par leur propre volonté. Elles seules
sont tenues d’honorer les engagements et de bénéficier des effets de la convention. Toute personne
dite « tiers » doit être tenue à l’écart.
Question :
Faites une analyse critique de l’importance des éléments constituants le fondement
du contrat.
3.2 La formation du contrat
Les conditions pour la formation d’un contrat sont :

a. Le consentement- Ont elles voulu s’engager ?
b. La capacité- Avez-elles la capacité de contracter ?
c. L’objet- Le pourquoi du contrat
d. La cause- La cause est-elle licite ?
Article 1108 du CCM:

Quatre conditions sont essentielles pour la validité d’une convention :
le consentement de la partie qui s’oblige;
sa capacité de contracter;
un objet certain qui forme la matière de l’engagement;
une cause licite dans l’obligation.
A. Le consentement
Article 1109 du Code Civil Mauricien:
Il n’y a point de consentement valable si le consentement n’a été donné que par erreur, ou s’il a été
extorqué par violence ou surpris par dol.
Pour qu’on contrat soit valide, il doit être libre, éclairé et exempté de vices. A noter qu’un contrat non
exempté de vices est sanctionné par une nullité.
35
Les vices du consentement

a. L’erreur
Comme dirait l’autre, l’erreur est humaine. Il est évident qu’une erreur implique à croire que des
éléments existent tandis que tel n’est pas le cas, représentant ainsi une fausse représentation de la
réalité. Il est ici sous-entendu que c’est cette fausse représentation qui a menée les parties à contracter.
Il existe ainsi deux types d’erreurs qui retiennent notre attention :
i. Erreur obstacle- une erreur empêchant la rencontre de volonté par le biais d’une erreur
sur l’objet, la cause ou la nature même du contrat.
ii. Erreur qui vicient le consentement- une erreur sur la substance ou la personne.
L’article 1110 du CCM nous donne de plus amples informations sur l’application de l’erreur dans le
contexte juridique.
Article 1110 du CCM :
L’erreur n’est une cause de nullité de la convention que lorsqu’elle tombe sur la substance même
de la chose qui en est l’objet. Elle n’est point une cause de nullité lorsqu’elle ne tombe que sur la
personne avec laquelle on a intention de contracter, à moins que la considération de cette personne
ne soit la cause principale de la convention.
L’erreur doit donc être excusable et non-grossière. L’appréciation sera in concreto ; c’est-à-dire en
fonction des circonstances et éléments divers tels que l’âge et les compétences.
b. Le dol
Article 1116 du CCM:
Le dol est une cause de nullité de la convention lorsque les manœuvres pratiquées par l'une des
parties sont telles, qu’il est évident que sans ses manœuvres l'autre partie n’aurait pas contracté.
Il ne se présume pas et doit être prouvé.
Par définition, le dol est une « Tromperie commise en vue de décider une personne à conclure un acte
juridique (dol principal) ou à l'amener à contracter à des conditions plus désavantageuses (dol
incident).29
29
https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/dol/26315?q=dol#26195
36
Le dol implique de ce fait les éléments suivants:
i. L’intention ; un acte commis sciemment car dans le cas contraire ce sera une erreur
ii. Répréhensible ; l’aspect frauduleux impliquant manœuvres, mensonges, machination,
mise en scène, escroquerie, agissement malhonnête
iii. Déterminant ; le dol qui provoquant l’erreur.
iv. Le fait du cocontractant ; à faire la distinction entre la distinction entre le dol mauvais
(dolus malus) et le dol tolérable (dolus bonus).
A noter que seul le dolus malus est sanctionné par la nullité. Le dolus bonus par contre n’affectera
pas la validité du contrat.
Arrêt pertinent :
Ah Sien Q S v Ah Sien Q S & Anor 2007 SCJ 28
Résumé : Un homme de 73 ans demande l’annulation d’une vente d’immeuble conclue en faveur de
l’un de ses enfants. Il allègue avoir été l’objet d’une machination de son enfant qui l’a fait croire qu’il
avait besoin d’avoir un immeuble a son nom afin d’obtenir un prêt.
La Cour décide qu’il n’y a pas eu de manoeuvres frauduleuses et que le vieillard, lors de la vente faite
devant un notaire qui a expliqué aux parties le contenu de l’acte de vente en créole, savait parfaitement
qu’il s’agissait d’une vente pure et simple. Ce n’est qu’à la suite des reproches de ses autres enfant
qu’l tente de faire annuler la vente. La Cour refuse d’annuler la vente pour dol.
« Précis Dalloz, Droit Civil Les Obligations by Alex Weill :
La loi ne définit pas le dol. On entend par dol toute espèce de manoeuvres, de ruses ou d’artifices
dont une personne use pour en tromper une autre à l’occasion d’un contrat. Le dol atteint le
consentement dans son élément d’intelligence ; il agit sur lui au moyen de l’erreur qu’il engendre.
Pour qu’il y ait dol, deux éléments sont essentiels : c’est tout d’abord une condition d’ordre
psychologique, l’intention de tromper, ensuite un fait de tromperie.
181.1o Élément psychologique : l’intention de tromper. – A l`origine du dol, il y a un élément

intentionnel qui est la volonté d’induire une personne en erreur. Lorsque cette intention n’existe pas
ou qu’elle n’est pas prouvée, l’annulation du contrat ne peut être obtenue.
37
182. 2o Élément matériel : manoeuvres ; allégations mensongères ; réticence. – Il faut un fait de

tromperie. D’après l’article 1116, le dol suppose l’emploi de manoeuvres, c’est-à-dire d’artifices, de
ruses habiles ou grossières, mais comprenant toujours des actes combinés en vue de la tromperie.
Ainsi commettraient un dol celui qui amène une personne à contracter un achat en produisant une
lettre mensongère d’un tiers attribuant une augmentation de valeur à la chose vendue, un maquignon
qui emploie des moyens fallacieux pour dissimuler l’âge d’un animal ou faire croire qu’il est apte à
un service dont il le sait incapable, un commerçant qui simule des bénéfices exagérés pour vendre
plus cher son fonds.” »
9. Pyndiah P v Parasuramen R & Anor 2014 SCJ 356

“What would for that purpose amount to “dol” is explained in Dalloz – Répertoire Pratique, Tome
Troisième, Vo Contrats et Conventions en général in the following terms:
Note 125:
“Le dol consiste dans des manoeuvres pratiquées par l’une des parties pour tromper l’autre et
obtenir son consentement à un contrat ou à tout autre acte juridique. Ainsi, le dol susceptible
d’entraîner la nullité d’un contrat suppose une manoeuvre ayant un caractère personnel à l’encontre
de celui qui s’en prétend victime …”
For the plaintiff to invoke “dol” in order to establish that the agreement which he signed is null and
void and therefore neither binding nor enforceable against him by the defendant No. 1 and the co-
defendant, he must be able to establish that there were such “manoeuvres” on the part of the latter as
contemplated by Article 1116. The following notes from Jurisclasseur Code Civil, Article 1116,
fasc. 5: Contrats et Obligations - Dol explain what type of “manoeuvres” would, for that purpose,
amount to “dol”:
Note 12:
«L’article 1116 du Code civil ne vise que les «manoeuvres» pratiquées par l’une des parties. Mais
ce terme, qui se retrouve à l’article 313-1 du Code pénal («manoeuvres frauduleuses»), a fait l’objet
en jurisprudence d’une interprétation extensive: aux manoeuvres proprement dites sont assimilés le
mensonge et la réticence.»
Note 13:
«… La réalité jurisprudentielle oblige cependant à définir plus largement les manoeuvres comme
“toute espèce d’agissement tendant à créer une fausse apparence»
38
c. La violence
Article 1111 et suivant du CCM :
1111. La violence exercée contre celui qui a contracté l’obligation est une cause de nullité, encore
qu’elle ait été exercée par un tiers autre que celui au profit duquel la convention a été faite.
1112. Il y a violence lorsqu’elle est de nature à faire impression sur une personne raisonnable, et
qu’elle peut lui inspirer la crainte d’exposer sa personne ou sa fortune à un mal considérable et
présent. On a égard, en cette matière, à l’âge, au sexe et à la condition des personnes.
1113. La violence est une cause de nullité du contrat, non seulement lorsqu’elle a été exercée sur la
partie contractante, mais encore lorsqu’elle l’a été sur son époux ou sur son épouse, sur ses
descendants ou ses ascendants.
1114. La seule crainte référentielle envers le père, la mère, ou autre ascendant, sans qu’il y ait eu
de violence exercée, ne suffit point pour annuler le contrat.
1115. Un contrat ne peut plus être attaqué pour cause de violence, si, depuis que la violence a
cessé, ce contrat a été approuvé, soit expressément, soit tacitement, soit en laissant passer le temps
de la restitution fixé par la loi.
Ces articles démontrent ainsi que si l’acte de violence a amené les parties à contracter, le
consentement devient vicié et ne bénéficie donc plus d’une liberté à contracter. Au-delà d’être un
vice, la violence est aussi un acte condamnable d’un point de vue pénale et pour être cause de nullité,
la gravité doit être présente.
Parlant de nullité, l’article 1110 du CCM prévoit que :
« L’erreur n’est une cause de nullité de la convention que lorsqu’elle tombe sur la substance même
de la chose qui en est l’objet.
Elle n’est point une cause de nullité lorsqu’elle ne tombe que sur la personne avec laquelle on a
intention de contracter, à moins que la considération de cette personne ne soit la cause principale
de la convention. »
39
La sanction de l’erreur étant :

La convention contractée par erreur, violence, ou dol, n’est point nulle de droit ; elle donne seulement
lieu à une action en nullité ou en rescision, dans les cas et la manière expliqués à la section septième du
chapitre cinquième du présent titre.
Le CCM prévoit un délai de 5 ans pour entrer une action en justice de nullité pour l’erreur à compter du
jour où la victime a découvert l’erreur.

Dans tous les cas où l’action en nullité ou en rescision d’une convention n’est pas limité à un
moindre temps par une loi particulière, cette action dure cinq ans.
Question :
Faites une analyse critique de vices du consentement.
B. La capacité
Article 1123 du Code Civil :
Toute personne peut contracter, si elle n’est pas déclarée incapable par la loi.
Sont incapables de contracter, dans la mesure définie par la loi :
les mineurs non émancipés par le mariage;
les majeurs en tutelle ou en curatelle;
généralement tous ceux à qui la loi a interdit certains contrats.
Seront donc incapables de contracter :

a) Le mineur de moins de seize ans (sauf émancipé par le mariage)
b) Le majeur en tutelle ou curatelle

Le majeur qui est dans un état habituel d'imbécillité, de démence ou de fureur doit être placé sous
un régime de tutelle, même lorsque cet état présente des Intervalles lucides. De même, une tutelle
40
est ouverte, lorsqu'un majeur, dont l'altération des facultés corporelles empêche l'expression de sa
volonté, a besoin d'être représenté d'une manière continue dans les actes de la vie civile.

Le majeur qui, par sa prodigalité, son intempérance ou son oisiveté, s'expose à tomber dans le
besoin ou compromet l'exécution de ses obligations familiales, peut être placé sous un régime de
curatelle lorsqu'il est nécessaire de le conseiller ou le contrôler dans les actes de la vie civile.
L’incapacité de contracter implique de ce fait une incapacité :

i. De jouissance ; priver du droit d’accomplir un acte juridique. Par exemple selon l’article
478 du CCM « Le mineur émancipé par mariage ne peut être commerçant », ou le mineur
émancipé qui ne peut voter.
ii. D’exercice ; le contractant ne pouvant contracter seul. Par exemple, le mineur qui ne peux
ouvrir un compte en banque sans avoir atteint l’âge de la majorité.
Question :
« Toute personne peut contracter, si elle n’est pas déclarée incapable par la loi ».
Analysez la pertinence de cet extrait.
C. L’objet
Un objet certain qui forme la matière de l’engagement

Tout contrat a pour objet une chose qu’une partie s’oblige à donner, ou qu’une partie s’oblige à
faire ou à ne pas faire ?
L’objet doit donc être :
i) Possible
ii) Certain/ existé
iii) Déterminé ou déterminable
iv) Licite
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i. Possible
L’objet est ce qui est promis au moment de la concrétisation du contrat. Reference est ci faite à
l’article 1126 du CCM (donner, à faire ou à ne pas faire).
ii. Certain/ existé

En effet, l’objet de la convention doit être possible et doit exister au moment de la concrétisation du
contrat. La réalité est cependant que dans certains cas, la chose :
1. N’existe pas
2. N’existe plus
3. Est une chose future
La déclaration « je te promets la lune » prend tout son sens ici.
iii. Déterminé ou déterminable

Il faut que l’obligation ait pour objet une chose au moins déterminée quant à son espèce.
La quotité de la chose peut être incertaine, pourvu qu’elle puisse être déterminée.
Quand référence est faite à une chose certaine, il est déterminé. Dans le cas contraire, elle est
déterminable.
iv. Licite

Il n’y a que les choses qui sont dans le commerce qui puissent être l’objet des conventions.

Tout ce qui est dans le commerce, peut être vendu lorsque des lois particulières n’en pas prohibé
l’aliénation.
Ainsi, un objet est illicite quand il :

1. Va à l’encontre de l’ordre public
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2. Est contraire aux bonnes mœurs

3. Est qualifié comme objet dangereux
4. Est de l’appartenance de tous
5. Est interdit par la loi
D. La cause
Article 1108 :
… une cause licite dans l’obligation.
Il est à noter que le CCM ne prévoit pas de définition clair de la « cause » et il est sous-entendu que
la « cause » est la raison poussant à l’engagement. Ainsi, afin de mieux comprendre la licéité de la
cause, il faudra faire référence aux articles suivants :

L'obligation sans cause, ou sur une fausse cause, ou sur une cause illicite, ne peut avoir aucun
effet.

La convention n'est pas moins valable quoique la cause n'en soit pas exprimée.

La cause est illicite quand elle est prohibée par la loi, quand elle est contraire aux bonnes moeurs
ou à l'ordre public.
Basé sur les éléments mentionné plus haut, il est essentiel de faire ressortir qu’une convention n’est
point valide en cas d’absence de cause ou en cas de fausse cause. (Une fausse cause survient quand
il y a une erreur sur l’objet). En référence à l’article 1131 du CCM, par cause illicite, référence sera
cette fois faite à une cause qui est contraire aux normes publiques. Il serait ainsi recommandé de faire
référence aux différents types de contrats afin d’analyser les divers types de cause dépendant de la
convention.
Arrêt pertinent :
Somma v Somma 2013 SCJ 409
“What constitutes “cause” has been the subject of much debate and controversy in French doctrine.
In Dalloz Droit Civil Les Obligations 5e Edition by François Terré, Philippe Simler and Yves
Lequette at paragraphs 316 et seq, the authors gave a very interesting and clear history on the
43
“évolution de la notion de cause”, which is of assistance in the understanding of the concept.

Unknown in Roman law, the concept was introduced by canon law and the principle underlying it is
best expressed as follows “non servandi fidem, non est fides servanda” i.e. the party who has suffered
a breach of an obligation is freed from his own obligation. As from the 16th century, French doctrine
represented by Domat and Pothier retained the principle that “cause” is an essential condition for the
validity of a contract. The concept retained is explained in the following terms ”dans les contrats
synallagmatiques, l’obligation de chacune des parties a pour cause l’engagement pris par l’autreˮ.
[See Dalloz Droit Civil 5e Edition (Supra) at paragraph 316(3)]. Thus in a contract of sale, the
“cause” of the contract would be on one hand the payment of the sale price and on the other the
delivery of the subject matter of the sale. According to the learned authors, this was the concept
retained by the Code Civil and which prevailed during the 19th century.
The requirement of “cause” as an essential condition for the validity of the contract came under heavy
criticism at the end of the 19th century and notably by Planiol. “Cause” was assimilated with “objet”
and as a condition of the validity of the contract was considered superfluous. The usefulness of such
a condition is even now questioned notably in an article entitled “Sur l’utilité de la théorie de la cause”
by Professeur Xavier Lagarde which appeared in Dalloz 2007 page 740. Nevertheless, the French
Courts have retained the concept as an essential condition for the validity of a contract.
French doctrine nowadays views “la cause de l’existence de l’obligation” as the objective and
proximate undertaking of each party; in a contract for the sale of goods, it is the payment of the sale
price on the one hand and the delivery of goods on the other. However “la cause de la liceite du
contrat” is the subjective intention of the parties i.e. in the example given above, the purpose or use
the goods will be put to.
One can envisage a contract for the sale and purchase of illegal drugs for distribution. Such a contract
will be null and void for illegality in breach of articles 1131 and 1133 and not for absence of “cause”
under article 1108.”
Question :
Faites une étude critique des quatre conditions qui sont essentielles pour la validité
d’une convention.
Autres arrêts :
L’illicéité de la cause
2. Weg v. Patel 1991 MR 239
3. Sadien v. Maurel 1997 MR 248
44
4. Imhoff v. Boolakee 2006 SCJ 232

5. Jugnarain v. Cangy 2005 SCJ 3
6. Edoo v. Government of Mauritius 1996 SCJ 137
7. Uteem v. Maunick 2005 SCJ 243
8. Edoo v. Government of Mauritius 1996 SCJ 137
9. Fraser v. Air Mauritius 2011 SCJ 373
10. Garni J. L v Mansaram S. 2015 SCJ 458
L’obligation de moyens et l’obligation de résultats

Une ligne de distinction existe entre l’obligation de moyen par opposition à l’obligation de résultat.
Les définitions respectives sont comme suit :
i. Obligation de résultats : « lorsque le débiteur s’est engagé à obtenir un résultat

déterminé »30 ; impliquant que la non-exécution de l’obligation impliquera faute de la part
du débiteur.
Le débiteur est condamné s’il y a lieu, au paiement de dommages et intérêts, soit à raison de
l'inexécution de l'obligation, soit à raison du retard dans l'exécution, toutes les fois qu'il ne justifie
pas que l'inexécution provient d'une cause étrangère qui ne peut lui être imputée, encore qu'il n'y
ait aucune mauvaise foi de sa part.
Butan vs. Rivière du Rempart Bus Service 1972 MR 245 / SCJ 189
(Ex. d’une faute d’un tiers imprévisible et irrésistible qui a exonéré le transporteur)
Contrat de transport rémunéré dans un bus – accident de la route – le plaignant fut blessé et réclame
des dommages et intérêts Obligation de sécurité du transporteur – obligation de résultat de transporter
le voyageur jusqu'à sa destination sain et sauf – le transporteur a apporté les preuves qu’il a pris toutes
les mesures nécessaires pour accomplir son obligation - Faute d’un tiers qui était imprévisible et
irrésistible (un piéton a traversé devant le bus soudainement) – exonère le transporteur de toute
responsabilité.
30
https://www.murielle-cahen.com/publications/obligation.asp
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ii. Obligations de moyens : « lorsque le débiteur a promis de mettre son activité au service
du créancier, mais sans garantir que tel ou tel résultat sera obtenu »31 ; impliquant que le
débiteur mettra tout en œuvre afin de réussir la tâche qui lui est confié
L'obligation de veiller à la conservation de la chose soit que la convention n'ait pour objet que
l'utilité de l'une des parties, soit qu’elle ait pour objet leur utilité commune, soumet celui qui en est
chargé à y apporter tous les soins d'un bon père de famille.
A noter que nous avons aussi le contrat de sécurité qui peux aussi bien être une obligation de résultat
ou une obligation de moyens dépendant des circonstances.
Ha Soon M. L. v Ramdawon Dr. P. 2014 SCJ 45

The nature of the liability of a medical practitioner dispensing care pursuant to a contract between
the patient and himself or herself was decided by the Cour de Cassation in the Mercier Case Civ. 20
mai 1936 (DP 1936.1.88 rapp. Josserand). Such liability is described in Dalloz Méga Code Civil
Edition 2003 Article 1147 Note A 1o a as follows:
Contrat médical: responsabilité contractuelle. Il se forme entre le médecin et son client un véritable
contrat comportant pour le praticien l’engagement de donner des soins attentifs, consciencieux et,
sous réserve faite de circonstances exceptionnelles, conformes aux données acquises de la science;
la violation, même involontaire, de cette obligation contractuelle est sanctionnée par une
responsabilité de même nature, également contractuelle.
The principle stated in the Mercier Case was reiterated in another decision of the 1ère Chambre Civile
of the Cour de Cassation handed down on 30 October 1962 (Civ 1ère, 30 oct. 1962 ; D. 1963. 57,
note Esmein). In this case, the issue was whether in the case of a patient who sustained injuries when
coming down from the operating table, the liability of the medical practitioner was one of strict
liability as “gardien de la chose” under article 1384 alinéa 1 of the Code Civil or whether the medical
practitioner was liable for a “faute contractuelle” i.e. breach of contract. The Cour de Cassation held
that the case of the liability of the medical practitioner was one in breach of contract and that the use
of the operating table could not be dissociated from the contract between the patient and the medical
practitioner.
The principle of law underlying the decision in the Mercier case and referred to above is cited with
approval by the full bench in the recent judgment of the Supreme Court in the cases of D.S.A
31
https://www.murielle-cahen.com/publications/obligation.asp
46
Company Ltd v. The Ministry of Public Infrastructure represented by its Permanent Secretary
and Anor and Super Construction Co. Ltd. v. State of Mauritius represented by the Attorney
General [2013 SCJ 485].
Civil liability for “medical negligence” at least where the negligence complained of is pursuant to a
contract, is based on the contract i.e. a breach under article 1147 of the Code Civil and not in tort.
Further, in a note to the report of the decision of the Cour de Cassation of 30 October 1962 (supra),
Professor Paul Esmein opts for a wide interpretation of the existence of a contract. He is of the
following view:
D’une part, en effet, les médecins ou chirurgiens ne donnent pas toujours leurs soins en exécution
d’un contrat passé avec le malade ou ses représentants. Quand le médecin donne ses soins, comme
il en a le devoir, à un homme privé de connaissance, à la suite d’un accident, il n’y a pas de contrat
avec le malade. Je ne pense pas qu’on mette en doute qu’au cas d’insuccès de son intervention sa
responsabilité doit être appréciée exactement comme quand il intervient en exécution d’un contrat,
sauf qu’il n’a pas à obtenir le consentement du malade à une intervention présentant des risques.
The issue in the present case therefore is whether it has been proved that the defendant had committed
a “faute contractuelle" and failed to provide “des soins attentifs, conscientieux et, sous reserve faite
de circonstances exceptionnelles, conformes aux données acquises de la scienceˮ. The witness who
could have given an indication of negligence, if any, on the part of defendant is Dr. Balnath. However
the latter could not say whether the defendant was guilty of any “manquement”. Furthermore
according to him, many factors could have led to the infection developed by the plaintiff.
The state of the evidence in the present case is therefore such that it is therefore difficult to pinpoint
a specific factor which caused the infection at plaintiff’s thighs. This type of difficulty is not new and
has been frequently encountered in cases of infection contracted and developed by patients in medical
institutions. In France, the Courts have obviated the difficulty by having recourse in certain fit cases
to a “présomption de faute”. The following is an extract from an article entitled “Le recours du juge
civil à la présomption en matière de responsabilité médicale” by Jean Picard which appeared in
Gazette du Palais 1995 2e semestre p. 944:
Comme dans d’autres domaines, le recours à la présomption est utilisé naturellement par le juge
judiciaire dans les affaires de responsabilité médicale.
L’évolution jurisprudentielle passe souvent par ce moyen qui permet au juge de ne pas rester trop
dépendant des conclusions expertales et de conserver, malgré la technicité des dossiers, une marge
de manoeuvre importante ; et peut-être même croissante.
On constate ce phénomène à trois stades du processus d’élaboration de la décision ; la recherche de
la faute technique, Présomption et recherche de faute. Par hypothèse, ce sont les experts qui
47
apportent sur ce point fondamental, les lumières nécessaires. Celles-ci toutefois peuvent sembler
parfois insuffisantes ou imprécises ou bien encore laisser apparaître des hésitations des hommes de
l’art.
Il arrive alors au Tribunal de tirer du rapport ou d’une circonstance de fait la présomption qu’une
faute a néanmoins été commise au regard de l’obligation de moyens pesant sur les praticiens en
cause.
Question :
Faites une étude comparative de l’obligation de moyens par opposition à l’obligation
de résultats.
Les types de nullités

Dépendant de la gravité ou de la nature de la convention, il existe deux types de nullité qui sont
comme suit :
a. Nullité absolue : ce type de nullité concerne toute personne ayant un intérêt dans le contrat.
Dans ce cas précis, seuls les personnes ayant un intérêt légitimement protégé pourront évoquer
la nullité. Nul besoin de rappeler qu’un objet illicite ou un objet incertain seront tous deux
frappés de nullité. A noter que c’est une action prescrite par 30 ans.
b. Nullité relative : s’applique principalement en cas de vices du consentement ou de problème

par rapport à la capacité. Cependant, dans ce cas précis, la nullité ne peut être confirmé que
par la personne ayant eu connaissance du vice.
Effet de la nullité
Dans le cas des objets à caractère futur, la réclamation peut être réclamée. Par contre, l’aspect
rétroactif sera applicable pour les choses dans le passé. En effet, une restitution sera exigée. Mais
encore, la personne lésée aura droit à des dommages et intérêts sous la responsabilité civile délictuelle.
La fin du contrat
Un contrat arrive à terme au moment où l’exécution des obligations a été effectuée. Par opposition,
une fin non-conventionnelle serait le résultat d’une exécution partielle, d’une mauvaise exécution ou
d’une exécution sans les termes agréés au préalable.
48
Bourgault v D.M.K.T Ming Kan 1982 MR 3

Reference is made to the comments of Mrs Marie Jeanne Pierrard in J.C.P 1945.I.466:
“la seule échéance du terme ne met pas le débiteur en demeure – dies non interpellat pro homine – le
débiteur qui ne fournit pas le paiement d’une dette exigible n’est pas censé causer préjudice à son
créancier.
De plus, le terme est, en principe, dans notre Droit, présumé exister dans l’intérêt du débiteur. Le
créancier qui, lors de l’arrivée à terme de sa créance, n`en réclame pas le paiement, est supposé non
seulement ne subir aucun préjudice du fait de l’inexécution, mais encore accorder tacitement à son
débiteur un délai supplémentaire d’exécution. Cette présomption subsiste jusqu`à ce qu’une
manifestation de volonté du créancier vienne la faire tomber, vienne administrer la preuve contraire.
Cette manifestation de volonté, ce sera la mise en demeure du débiteur. Le fondement de la mise en
demeure apparait alors et nous pouvons donner de celle-ci la définition suivante : la mise en demeure
est le moyen de prouver l’absence d’octroi par le créancier d’un délai tacite d’exécution au débiteur.”
15. Editions Le Printemps Ltée v Ministry of Education 2010 SCJ 244

By letter dated 29th December 2008, the plaintiff had already notified its inability to comply with the
delay for the delivery of the textbooks. It stands to reason that it is futile for the defendant to send a
mise en demeure to call upon it to comply with the delivery date when the plaintiff had already
admitted its inability to comply with the agreed deadline. There was therefore no need for the
defendant to put the plaintiff en demeure as provided for under article 1230 of the Civil Code.
In Shelfer v. City of London Electric Company (1895) 1 Ch. 287 at p. 322, A. L. Smith, L.J. said:
“In my opinion, it may be stated as a good working rule that –
(1) If the injury to the plaintiff's legal rights is small.
(2) and is one which is capable of being estimated in money,
(3) and is one which can be adequately compensated by a small money payment,
(4) and the case is one in which it would be oppressive to the defendant to grant an injunction, then
damages in substitution for the injunction may be given”.
His Lordship then continued: “It is impossible to lay down any rule as to what, under the different
circumstances of each case, constitutes either a small injury, or one that can be estimated in money,
or what would be oppressive to the defendant. This must be left to the good sense of the tribunal
which deals with each case as it comes up for adjudication.”
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Question :
Faites une étude comparative de la nullité relative par opposition à la nullité
absolue.
Les quasi-contrats
Il est à noter que les quasi-contrats proviennent de sources différentes. Ainsi, la gestion d’affaires et
le paiement de l’indu sont prévus par le CCM tandis que l’enrichissement sans cause est de fuit
jurisprudentiel.
Article 1370 Code Civil Mauricien :
« Certains engagements se forment sans qu'il intervienne aucune convention, ni de la part
de celui qui s'oblige, ni de la part de celui envers lequel il est obligé.
Les uns résultent de l'autorité seule de la loi ; les autres naissent d'un fait personnel à celui
qui se trouve obligé.
Les premiers sont les engagements formés involontairement, tels que ceux entre proprié-
taires voisins, ou ceux des tuteurs et des autres administrateurs qui ne peuvent refuser la
fonction qui leur est déférée.
Les engagements qui naissent d'un fait personnel à celui qui se trouve obligé, résultent ou
des quasi-contrats, ou des délits ou quasi-délits ; ils font la matière du présent titre.
Certains engagements se forment sans convention. Le quasi contrat est un fait volontaire
licite mais qui ne résulte pas d’un accord. »

« Les quasi-contrats sont les faits purement volontaires de l’homme, dont il résulte un en-
gagement quiconque envers un tiers, et quelque fois un engagement réciproque des deux
parties ».
Il existe trois formes de quasi-contrats qui sont comme suit :
1) La gestion d’affaire
2) Le paiement de l’indu
3) L’enrichissement sans cause
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1. La gestion d’affaire
Afin de mieux comprendre la gestion d’affaire, il est essentiel de comprendre les conditions menant
à la gestion d’affaire qui se basent sur : l’affaire, le gérant et le maître.

« Lorsque volontairement on gère l’affaire d’autrui, soit que le propriétaire connaisse la gestion,
soit qu’il l’ignore, celui qui gère contracte l’engagement tacite de continuer la gestion qu’il a
commencée, et de l’achever jusqu’à ce que le propriétaire soit en état d’y pourvoir lui-même ; il
doit se charger également de toutes les dépendances de cette même affaire. Il se soumet à toutes les
obligations qui résulteraient d’un mandat exprès que lui aurait donné le propriétaire. »
L’affaire Peut être de nature juridique ou matériel

Le gérant Celui/celle-ci doit avoir la capacité de
contracter et d’initier un engagement envers
les tiers. A rajouter que les gestes doivent
être gratuits sans aucune redevance.
Le maître Le consentement ne doit pas être requis au
préalable car la gestion est faite sans son
accord.
En ce qui concerne les effets, l’article 1374 nous donne les précisions nécessaires :

« Il est tenu d’apporter à la gestion de l’affaire tous les soins d’un bon père de famille. Néanmoins
les circonstances qui l’ont conduit à se charger de l’affaire peuvent autoriser le juge à modérer les
dommages et intérêts qui résulteraient des fautes ou de la négligence du gérant. »
Le gérant devra donc rendre compte pour la bonne gestion du patrimoine auquel il a charge. Il se
trouve aussi dans l’obligation de compléter la gestion mise en marche par rapport à l’article 1373 du
CCM qui est comme suit : « Il est obligé de continuer sa gestion, encore que le maître vienne à
mourir avant que l’affaire soit consommée, jusqu’à ce que l’héritier ait pu en prendre la direction ».
Ainsi, le gérant est tenu de compléter son engagement et de réclamer une indemnisation au terme de
la tâche qu’il aura entreprise. En ce qui concerne les tiers, il est tenu aussi d’honorer tout engagement
51
qu’il aura pris ; et ceci inclue toute dépenses entreprises pour la gestion d’affaires. Finalement, le
maître est tenu d’honorer les engagements que le gérant aura pris en son nom et donc lui rembourser
toute dépense faite.

« Le maître dont l’affaire a été bien administrée, doit remplir les engagements que le gérant a
contractés en son nom, l’indemniser de tous les engagements personnels qu’il a pris, et lui
rembourser toutes les dépenses utiles ou nécessaires qu’il a faites »
2. Le paiement de l’indu
Article 1376 du Code Civil Mauricien dénonce

« Celui qui reçoit par erreur ou sciemment ce qui ne lui est pas dû, s'oblige à le restituer à
celui de qui il l'a indûment reçu. »
Certaines conditions doivent être mises en œuvre afin d’initier le paiement de l’indu. Déjà, le
paiement indument effectué doit être de la part du débiteur. Celui-ci le fera afin d’honorer une dette.
Cependant, le paiement n’est point dans les normes car :
a. Il n’y a pas de paiement,
b. Il n’y avait pas de paiement
c. Il n’y a plus de paiement
Pour faire simple, une restitution devra être effectuée afin de restituer le paiement indument effectué.
3. L’enrichissement sans cause

Ce quasi-contrat est un fruit jurisprudentiel et implique deux protagonistes qui sont l’enrichi et
l’appauvri. Ce quasi contrat est aussi connu comme l’action de in rem verso.
L’idée est ici de restituer le patrimoine de l’appauvri au dépens de l’enrichi afin de retrouver un
équilibre car le dernier nommé s’est enrichi à ses dépens. L’arrêt référence en la matière est celui de
« Patureau-Boudier ».
Dans cette affaire (15 juin 1892), un propriétaire avait affermé ses terres, et le fermier ne
pouvant payer ses dettes, le bail fût résilié. Le fermier abandonna la récolte sur pied au
52
propriétaire pour payer ses dettes. Mais un marchand d’engrais qui n’avait pas été payé par le
fermier agit contre le propriétaire qui avait ainsi tiré profit des engrais. Il obtient gain de cause.
Il est a noté que pour initier une telle action, la corrélation entre l’enrichi et l’appauvri .
Tandis qu’il existe un gain positif ou une dépense évitée, une perte ou une non rémunération
doit aussi être au centre des débats. Un contrat serait un atout mais bien souvent, vu le manque
de cet aspect juridique, la jurisprudence va combler cette lacune.
QUELQUES DECISIONS RENDUES PAR LES COURS MAURICIENNES
1. Doorgain v. Khedarun 1963 MR 242

“… there was on the defendant a legal duty to provide for his natural child Rosemay and, if the
plaintiff succeeds in proving that he has fulfilled that obligation in lieu of the defendant, he is legally
entitled in my view to recover from the defendant such sums as he may have expended. But the action,
of course, cannot be termed one de in rem verso.
Savatier on Droit Civil 2nd Edition, Vol. 11, at notes 204 and 219 shows why the Courts in Mauritius
in 1880 in Gregoire v. Pasnin wrongly held that a third party supplying the necessaries of life to a
child in lieu of his parents or ascendants becomes the negotiorum gestor of the said parent or
ascendant.
219- Les articles 1372 et suivants envisagent la gestion d'affaire comme un mandat que se serait
supposé le gérant, sans le consentement préalable du géré. L'objet de la gestion d'affaires doit donc
normalement consister en des actes juridiques.
Cependant, la jurisprudence étend la notion de gestion d'affaire, mêmes à des actes matériels. Elle y
englobe l'acte de l'aubergiste hébergeant et recevant, pendant quelques jours, un voyageur tombé
malade sur la voie publique (Req.,28 fevr. 1910, D., 1911. I 137, note Dupuich), les soins de
l'occuliste appelé par une sage femme auprès d'un nouveau-né (Civ., 17 mai 1939, Gaz.
Pal.,1939.2.245), ou même le sauvetage d'un attelage emporté (Tr. Com. Seine,3 janv. 1900, S.,
1902.2.217, note E. H. Perreau). Partout, la gestion d'affaire parait aux tribunaux un instrument
commode pour indemniser le prétendu gérant d'affaire. C'est une confusion: dans les deux premiers
cas, cette indemnisation aurait du résulter d'une action de in rem verso (v. supra No. 206). Dans le
troisième, d'une action en responsabilité contre le maitre de l'attelage (v. infra, NO. 531).
2o4-jusqu'en 1892, la jurisprudence, soucieuse de trouver dans un texte le fondement de toute action
en justice, s'était servi, pour sanctionner l'enrichissement sans cause, d'un quasi-contrat assez mal
53
défini: la gestion d'affaires (v. infra NO. 219). Elle prétendait que celui qui s'était appauvri au profit
d'autrui avait géré l'affaire de ce demier, et pouvait réclamer, à ce titre, la reparation du dommage
subi par lui.
Mais en général, l’appauvri n'avait eu nulle intention de gérer les affaires de l'enrichi. La
jurisprudence a donc du abandonner ici l'action de gestion d'affaires. Ce fut à l'occasion de l'action
d'un marchand d'engrais, fournisseur d'un fermier expulsé, qui n'ayant pas été pays par lui,
demandait une indemnité au proprietaire, lequel profitait de l'engrais. Par arrêt du 15 juin 1892
(D.,95.i.596), la Chambre des Requêtes de la Cour de cassation consacra l'action du marchand
d'engrais, dite action de in rem verso.
I hold therefore that the real juridical basis of the action is to be found in Art. 1370 C.C. under the
source termed "La loi".
2. Ebrahim Dawood Ltd. Vs Centrale de Beau Bassin 1957 MR 363

Résumé: Un employé du défendeur a acheté des marchandises du plaignant. Le plaignant poursuit le
défendeur pour non-paiement des marchandises. Le défendeur se défend en disant que l’employé
n’avait pas le pouvoir d’acheter des marchandises au nom et pour le compte du défendeur. La Cour
en analysant les faits conclut que le contrat de vente n’était pas valable. La Cour laisse sous-entendre
qu’au cas où le contrat n’est pas valable il est possible d’intenter l’action de in rem verso contre le
défendeur qui a été enrichi par les marchandises du plaignant. Toutefois, en l’absence de mention de
l’action de in rem verso dans la plainte, la Cour n’aurait pas pu indemniser le plaignant bien qu’il soit
prouvé que le défendeur a été enrichi injustement au dépens du plaignant.
Harper Tom v Maniram Raggoo & Anor 1997 SCJ 78
“Plaintiff’s claim for enrichissement sans cause is clearly misconceived. I need only refer to
Encyclopédie Dalloz - Verbo Enrichissement Sans Cause at note 134:
“..... Mais on y trouve très clairement exprimée l’idée que l’action de in rem verso peut seulement
être intentée quand le demandeur n’a à sa disposition aucune voie de droit (en ce sens: ROUAST,
op. cit., nos 26 et s.; GORE, op.cit., no 188). De même, le tribunal civil de Mauriac le 20 mars 1952
(D. 1952. somm. 50 Gaz. Pal. 1952 1. 424) a refusé à un enfant qui travaillait dans la ferme de ses
parents l’action de in rem verso, alors qu’il pouvait se prévaloir du décret-loi sur le contrat de salaire
différé.”
In fact, we see at note 135 that l’appauvri may enter an action de in rem verso against the enrichi
even if he has a cause of action against the debtor with whom he has a contractual or legal
relationship but only in cases where the debtor is insolvent - there is no evidence to that effect in the
present case.
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The same proposition is also set out in Marty et Reynaud - Tome 2 - Vol.1 at note 354 - it reads as
follows:
“Avec beaucoup de netteté quoi qu’on en ait dit, la Cour de cassation a posé comme condition de
l’action de in rem verso que l’appauvri ne jouisse «pour obtenir ce qui lui est dû d’aucune autre
action naissant d’un contrat, d’un quasi contrat, d’un délit ou d’un quasi délit». Cette formule qui ne
vise que les actions personnelles, doit certainement, par identité de raisons être étendue aux actions
réelles.” “.....Dans cet ordre d’idées il serait peut-être plus exact de dire que le règles concernant
l’enrichissement sans cause, de nature jurisprudentielle et manifestation caractéristique de
l’intervention du juge pour combler les lacunes de la loi, ne peuvent intervenir précisément que dans
la mesure où il y a lacune et se trouvent au contraire exclues quand il y a des règles applicables.”
Références :
- Encyclopédie Dalloz
- Code Civil Mauricien
Activities :
Activity 1 :
Définissez l’obligation de donner et l’obligation de faire.
Activity 2 :
Le Code Civil définit certaines conditions de formation de validité pour un contrat. Si ces conditions
sont remplies il en résulte que le contrat est valable. Il suffit qu’une de ces conditions fasse défaut
pour que le contrat ne soit pas valable.
Faites un exposé des conditions de formation du contrat en vous référant à la doctrine et à la
jurisprudence mauricienne.
55
UNIT 4. The role of tort law in the educational system
1.0 Overview
2.0 Les types de responsabilité
3.0 Le fait générateur
4.0 Les causes d’exonération
5.0 Le lien de causalité
6.0 Le dommage
7.0 Recommended readings
8.0 Activities
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1. Overview
After the analysis of the law of contract and its application in the Mauritian context, it is essential to
assess the application of tort law in the same context. Just like for the elements tackled in unit 3, unit
4 will also be mainly in French based on the fact that civil law is also applicable in this field in
Mauritius.
Objectifs
a) Analyser les articles reliés à la responsabilité civile délictuelle
b) Faire une étude critique du champ d’application de la responsabilité civile délictuelle
c) A travers la jurisprudence, comprendre les circonstances menant à l’évocation de la responsabilité
civile délictuelle
Introduction
La responsabilité civile délictuelle implique à répondre de ses actes pour dommage causé à autrui.
Pour faire court, il s’agit tout simplement de réparer le dommage causé à la victime par l’auteur de la
faute. Elle se distingue ainsi de la responsabilité contractuelle qui découle de ses obligations d’un
contrat. Ici, nous parlons de situation de fait et la responsabilité de répondre pour dommage causé à
autrui.
Le Titre IV, Livre III du Code Civil Mauricien (CCM) énonce les divers articles relatifs aux délits et
aux quasi-délits. Cependant, avant d’analyser les articles 1382 et suivants, il est essentiel de
comprendre la « responsabilité » qui est par définition, l’obligation d’assumer ses actes. La
responsabilité juridique quant à elle, se divise en la responsabilité juridique et extra juridique.
Peut-être d’ordre pénal ou civil

a) Pénale : le fait de répondre des
Responsabilité juridique infractions commises
b) Civile : réparation pour dommage
causé à autrui
Responsabilité extra-juridique En référence au droit canon, c’est le fait de

répondre des actes devant Dieu
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Dans le cas d’une responsabilité civile délictuelle, la loi prévoit une compensation sous la forme de
dommage et intérêt à être payé. Le devoir de réparation est donc applicable ici. Même si dans bon
nombre de cas, il est difficile d’évaluer le montant du dommage, il est souhaité qu’il y ait un équilibre
entre le dommage et le montant de la compensation.
Cependant, en cas où une compensation d’ordre pécuniaire ne peut être effectuée, une compensation
en nature peux être aussi acceptée.
2.0 Les types de responsabilité

Le CCM prévoit une réparation pour dommages causés par plusieurs protagonistes. Les articles
relatifs sont comme suit :
a) Article 1382 du CCM :
« Tout fait quelconque de l’homme qui cause à autrui un dommage, oblige celui par la faute duquel
il est arrivé à le réparer. »
Arrêt pertinent:
Medine Sugar Estate v. Anthony 1990 MR 217 / SCJ 334
Un enfant de 3 ans était blessé par un tigre lors d’une visite à Casela. L’action a été intentée sur une
base délictuelle – Art. 1382 et en alternative art. 1385 (la garde d’animal). La victime a invoqué la
faute du propriétaire du parc. Il n’y avait pas de mention dans la plainte si l’enfant blessé était un
visiteur payant. Le Magistrat avait tranché en faveur de la victime en décidant uniquement sur la base
de l’art. 1382 du CCM. En appel, la Cour décide que lors d’une affaire basée sur l’art. 1382 du CCM,
la question qui se pose est de savoir si le propriétaire du parc a commis une faute. Le Juge considère
aussi que l’accident n’aurait pas eu lieu si la victime n’avait pas franchi la barrière de sécurité. En
appel la Cour Suprême décide que l’accident a resulté de la faute exclusive de la victime qui avait
grimpé sur la clôture. Il n’a eu aucune indemnisation.
b) Article 1383 du CCM :
« Chacun est responsable du dommage qu'il a causé non seulement par son fait, mais encore par sa
négligence ou par son imprudence. »
58
Arrêt pertinent:
Dabysing v. Dowlut 1947 MR 3

Un voyageur fut blessé dans un mini-bus lors d’une collision. Il s’agissait d’un transport onéreux.
Le transporteur est exonéré lorsque le dommage résulte d’une cause étrangère qui ne peut lui être
imputée. Cela comprend tous les évènements indépendants de la volonté du débiteur, c’est-à-dire :
(1) La faute de son créancier, à supposer que l’inexécution provienne exclusivement de cette faute,
car la faute du créancier n’exonère pas le débiteur de la sienne propre. Par exemple, le transporteur
prouve que le voyageur a ouvert la portière pendant la marche du train ;
(2) La faute d’un tiers, dont le débiteur n’est pas responsable ; par exemple, le voyageur est victime
d’une agression commise par un autre voyageur (Civ., 24 juillet 1930, D.H. 1930, 508).
(3) Un cas fortuit ou de force majeure.
“In other words, the carrier who is bound under his contract to convey his passenger safe and sound
to his destination and who fails to do so will escape liability if he can prove:
(a) that he has taken all the usual and necessary precautions for the safe transport of the passenger,
and
(b) that the outside agency (cause étrangère) which has made it impossible for him to fulfil his
obligation is either;
(i) the faute of the passenger, provided that no faute contributory to the accident can be attributed to
the carrier himself; or
(ii) the faute of a third party for which he (the carrier) cannot in any way be responsible; or
(iii) a cas fortuit or a cas de force majeure. »
c) Article 1384 du CCM
« On est responsable non seulement du dommage que l'on cause par son propre fait, mais encore
de celui qui est cause, par le fait des personnes dont on doit répondre, ou des choses que l'on a sous
sa garde.
Le père et la mère, en tant qu'ils exercent le droit de garde sont solidairement responsables du
dommage causé par leurs enfants mineurs habitant avec eux.
Les maîtres et les commettants, du dommage causé par leurs domestiques et préposés dans les
fonctions auxquelles ils les ont employés.
Les instituteurs et les artisans, du dommage causé par leurs élèves et apprentis pendant le temps
qu'ils sont sous leur surveillance.
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Le gardien de la chose, du dommage causé par le fait de celle-ci.

La responsabilité ci-dessus a lieu, à moins que les père et mère, instituteurs et artisans, ne prouvent
qu'ils n'ont pu empêcher le fait qui donne lieu à cette responsabilité ou que le gardien de la chose
ne prouve que le dommage a été causé par l'effet d'une force majeure ou de la faute exclusive de la
victime.
Toutefois, celui qui détient à un titre quelconque, tout ou partie de l'immeuble ou des biens
mobiliers dans lesquels un incendie a pris naissance ne sera responsable, vis-à-vis des tiers, des
dommages causés par cet incendie que s'il est prouvé qu'il doit être attribué à sa faute ou à la faute
des personnes dont il est responsable. Cette disposition ne s'applique pas aux rapports entre
propriétaires et locataires, qui demeurent régis par les articles 1733 et 1734 du présent Code. »
d) Article 1385 du CCM :

« Le propriétaire d’un animal, ou celui qui s’en sert, pendant qu’il est à son usage, est responsable
du dommage que l’animal a causé, soit que l’animal fût sous sa garde, soit qu’il fût égaré ou
échappé. »
e) Article 1386 du CCM:

« Le propriétaire d’un bâtiment est responsable du dommage cause par sa ruine, lorsqu’elle est
arrivée par une suite du défaut d’entretien ou par le vice de sa construction. »
Le fondement de la responsabilité civile délictuelle

Trois conditions sont essentielles pour évoquer la responsabilité civile délictuelle. Elles sont comme
suit :
1. Un fait générateur
2. Un lien de causalité
3. Un dommage
3.0 Le fait générateur

« on est responsable non seulement du dommage que l'on cause par son propre fait, mais encore de
celui qui est cause, par le fait des personnes dont on doit répondre, ou des choses que l'on a sous sa
garde ».
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Le fait générateur se classe en divers parties qui sont :

a. Fait Personnel
b. Fait d’autrui
c. Fait des choses
d. Animaux/bâtiments
a. Fait personnel
Comme le stipule l’Article 1382 du CCM, le fait personnel est une faute qui est faite personnellement.
Et nul besoin de le rappeler, cette faute cause dommage à autrui. Selon le même article 1382, cette
faute peux être d’ordre délictuelle ou selon l’article 1383, d’ordre quasi-délictuelle étant causée par
sa négligence.
Abus de droit, diffamation, rupture de

Faute délictuelle promesse de mariage, trouble de voisinage,
etc…
Faute quasi-délictuelle Incendies, concurrence déloyale, etc…
Arrêt pertinent:
Mohun v. Jugnah 2002 SCJ 36
“We wish to spell out that the basis of tortious liability under art. 1382 and 1383 of the Civil Code is
still “faute” in its normal dictionary meaning of wrongful act done either deliberately or through
negligence or imprudence. Where a citizen suffers loss as a result of what is glaringly a criminal
act it is clearly open to him to report the matter to the police for enquiry. It is also logical that he
should impart to the police any information on the identity of the wrongdoer or suspected wrongdoer,
depending upon the situation; unless the declarant is of bad faith, and the declaration is false and
malicious, he stands no reason to fear any legal action from any person he has named and who may
have been subjected to questioning by the Police. It is therefore essential, for his action to succeed,
61
that the person who may have been subjected to unpleasant and perhaps strong questioning during
a consequential police enquiry avers and proves “faute” on the part of the declarant.”
Goinhat v. Municipal Council of Quatre Bornes 2014 INT 176
Droit Civil, Les Obligations, 10e édition, Alain Bénabent, note 550, p. 377 Fautes d’abstention:
“La jurisprudence admet aujourd’hui qu’une abstention peut constituer une faute, si le bon père de
famille, placé dans la même situation, ne se fût pas abstenu… On revient donc au vieil adage de
Loysel « qui peut et n’empêche, pèche » Il faut toutefois observer que les tribunaux semblent plus
indulgents lorsqu’il s’agit d’une abstention qui ne concerne que les intérêts matériels d’autrui… “
Droit de la Responsabilité et des contrats, 7ème édition, Philippe le Tourneau, notes 7202 et
7209:
7202. La faute peut consister non seulement en un fait actif, culpa in commitendo, mais en une simple
abstention, une omission, culpa in omittendo. Ce principe, implicitement admis par les auteurs du
Code civil, était déjà connu dans notre ancien droit. Loysel enseignait que « qui peut et n’empêche,
pêche » tandis que Domat affirmait: « Ceux qui pouvant empêcher un dommage, que quelque
devoir les engageait de prévenir, y auront manqué, pourront en être tenus selon les circonstances…
»
7209…Dès lors, l’appréciation de la faute d’omission apparaît tout à fait comparable à celle de la
faute par commission. Il est donc possible de poser la règle que toute omission est répréhensible si
un homme diligent normal, placé dans les mêmes circonstances, aurait agi…
Innovator Ltd v. IBL Properties Ltd 2006 SCJ 321
Hurnam v. Dabee 2010 INT 176
Rory Kenneth Dunoon Kirk v The Bay (Holding) Limited & Ors 2013 SCJ 108
« Now, French jurisprudence under Article 1382 of the French Civil Code of which Article 1382 of
our own Civil Code is a replica, shows that an action may be directed against a director personally,
based on a “faute” committed in the course of his acts or omissions as representative of a company,
62
but whilst acting outside his normal functions as a director. For example it is not part of the functions
of a director, qua director to engage in fraud or theft, with the requisite clear intention to defraud,
or steal from, a third party. In doing so he therefore engages his personal liability because it is not
part of the ordinary objects or rules of companies for them to commit fraud or to steal. A director
who chooses to do so is acting as it were “on a frolic of his own”, and it is not the company, but the
director who has to answer for such acts (vide the highlighted parts of note 87 of Manuel Pratique
de la Société à responsabilité Limitée by Andre Moreau, under the heading Limitation de la
responsabilité des associés to which I have referred at page 8 in the judgment in The Mauritius
Broadcasting Corporation v. Ashrafi Financial World Company Limited & Ors [2011 SCJ 155],
and which reads as follows:-
“87 Toute personne qui entre dans une société ou traite des affaires avec elle est censée se soumettre
à l’acte social, de telle sorte que le préjudice dont elle peut souffrir dans ses rapports avec la société
incombe normalement à cette dernière représentée par ses gérants et non aux gérants eux-mêmes,
ceux-ci n’étant intervenus qu’ès-qualité, il n’en peut être autrement que si l’action individuelle
exercée contre eux est fondée sur une faute commise à l’occasion de leur activité sociale, mais hors
des règles qui la gouvernent normalement.
Par suite, lorsqu’un gérant n’a agi sur toutes les opérations qu’il a entreprises à l’occasion de
certaines conventions, que comme l’organe de la société qu’il représentait et dans l’intérêt, - fût-il
mal compris – de celle-ci, et qu’on ne trouve pas, dans l’attitude de ce gérant, le fait personnel
nettement détachable de sa fonction qui doit être aussi recherché comme le seul critère valable de la
gestion fautive et dommageable… »
Trouble de voisinage
Selon la Cour Supreme dans l’affaire Ramgutty and Co. Ltd v. Hanumanthadu [1981 MR 340],
le test est un test objectif. La Cour détermine si le défendeur cause un inconvénient qui excède les
inconvénients normaux du voisinage. La Cour considère si le trouble en question aurait affecté “le
bon père de famille”.
La Cour Suprême suit la jurisprudence française qui établit comme suit :
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“lorsque le bruit et les trépidations provenant d’usines dépassent les inconvénients normaux du
voisinage, des voisins sont en droit de réclamer aux sociétés exploitant ces usines la réparation du
préjudice qui leur ait ainsi causé”.
Dans le jugement Ramgutty and Co. Ltd. v Hanumanthadu [1981 MR 340], la Cour considère la
balance qu’il faut établir entre, d’une part, le besoin d’industrialisation et de développement pour le
progrès du pays, et d’autre part le besoin de maintenir la qualité de vie de chaque individu afin de le
préserver de tout trouble intolérable.
Esmein’s note to D. 965.J.321:
“Le voisin doit s’abstenir de tout ce qui cause aux autres un trouble qu’un homme normal ne peut
supporter sans que sa santé, son bien-être ou son travail en soient sérieusement gênés”.
Il est maintenant bien établi en France comme à Maurice que “l’exercice, même légitime, du droit de
propriété devient générateur de responsabilité lorsque le trouble qui en résulte pour autrui dépasse
la mesure des obligations ordinaires du voisinage’ (Cass. D. 1966, 435)”.
‘La vie en communauté implique une tolérance nécessaire dans les rapports humains ; chacun doit,
par une sorte de compensation, supporter les inconvénients normaux du voisinage’ (Dorasamy
Kauppamuthoo v Chotay Carrimbaccus [1995 MR 259]).
Dans l’affaire de Aubroo K & Ors v Municipal Council of Vacoas 2005 SCJ 260, la Cour a tranché
en faveur du défendeur car la Cour a trouvé que le plaignant n’avait pas pu établir que le trouble causé
par le défendeur dépassait les inconvénients normaux du voisinage. La Cour a pris en compte le fait
que le niveau sonore n’excédait pas la limite prescrite, il y avait d’autres activités commerciales dans
le voisinage, les autres membres de la famille du plaignant ne s’étaient pas plaints du trouble.
Il est donc clair que chaque cas se décide au cas par cas mais le fait reste que la Cour ne donnera pas
gain de cause au plaignant sauf s’il a établi avec certitude que le trouble excède les inconvénients
normaux du voisinage et constituerait donc une nuisance à toute personne raisonnable.
Concurrence parasitaire
Ferney Spinning Mills Ltd. v Independent Spinning Mills Ltd 2000 SCJ 334
La Cour suprême fait les observations suivantes :
« In the employment sector it may be relevant to point out that, just as an employer has the right to
hire and fire, an employee also enjoys the freedom to change his employment. However in pursuing
64
a business activity or exercising a skill these two inseparable economic and social partners encounter
certain restrictions in the nature of notice of termination of employment imposed by law. An employee
may, at the expiry of his contract of employment or after giving the required notice, freely seek
employment with a rival of his former employer unless he is bound by a covenant in restraint of trade
or has subscribed to a “clause de non-concurrence”. This follows from the general principle that one
is free to choose one’s employer and to move from one employer to another. Similarly employing a
former employee of a rival enterprise will not in itself be wrongful. However, the issue that is raised
in the present case makes it necessary to consider the circumstances when an enterprise can incur
civil liability for “concurrence déloyale” by employing workers from a competing enterprise.
Indeed , in France “faute” has to be established in a case based on “concurrence deloyale” –

“l’action en concurrence déloyale trouve son fondement dans les articles 1382 et 1383 du code civil,
lesquels impliquent l’existence d’une faute commise par le défendeur et également celle d’un
préjudice souffert par le demandeur (...)”(CA Versailles, 8 dec. 1994, D. 1995. Somm. 261, obs. Y.
Serra). There may be “concurrence déloyale” in certain circumstances, viz. where:
(1) the new employer incites the workers to leave their previous employer, for example, by offering a
higher salary, causing a large number of the cadres to quit, thus leaving the enterprise in a state of
disorder (Paris, 16 mai 1980, Gaz. Pal 1981. 1. Somm. 85),
(2) the new employer knowingly recruits an employee who is bound by a “clause de non-
concurrence” (Soc. 10 mai 1983, B V, no. 251),
(3) a “débauchage” disrupts a rival enterprise in circumstances where a number of experienced
workers left abruptly (Com. 4 janv., D. 1979, I.R. 172), and
(4) agents are sent to recruit the employees using “manoeuvres frauduleuses” (Com. 4 févr. 1975,
D. 1975, I.R. 80).
A defendant who instigates employees to leave a competitor and to join him can be liable for “faute”
- vide (Com. 22 déc. 1980 Bull. Civ IV no 437) where it was held that: “Une Cour d’appel qui relève
que le tiers des employés d’une société l’avait quitté ensemble, ce qui n’était pas le fait d’une
coïncidence et avait perturbé son fonctionnement pour être embauché par une autre société
concurrente, peut décider, ayant ainsi fait ressortir l’action concertée à l’instigation de celle-ci ayant
conduit à la désorganisation d’un service de la première société, que le comportement du nouvel
employeur présentait un caractère fautif.”
65
It is very relevant to point out that unlike the situation that obtains in France, I have not come across
any provisions either under our penal code or under our labour law sanctioning “le débauchage
fautif” or “le délit civil de débauchage”, respectively. An action for “concurrence déloyale” (unfair
competition) provides redress against unethical behaviour in the exercise of a competition when the
competition is itself permissible. In order to bring such an action the two pre-requisites are (1) an
act of competition, and (2) that the act has “un caractère de déloyauté”.
If the parties are not competitors in the exercise of their business, enterprise or profession, there may
still be civil liability but not for “concurrence déloyale”. To succeed in obtaining damages the
plaintiff must also prove prejudice resulting from the unfair manoeuvre used, showing “le lien de
causalité à la faute et le préjudice”. Articles 1382 and 1383 of our civil code are also very wide
indeed and their wings would extend to cover civil liability for “concurrence déloyale”, where it
amounts to “faute”. Liability for unfair competition would occur in the context of the present case
where, by unfair means, an enterprise disrupts the organisational setup of a rival enterprise by
offering to its qualified, trained and experienced employees, who usually form the backbone of the
manufacturing system or the method of production, more advantages for the performance of the same
job, thus luring them into leaving the rival enterprise. “Faute” will no doubt be found where the new
employer has participated in a concerted action resulting in prejudice being caused to the former
employer”.
L’Acropole Ltd. V. Gerbe D’Or Ltd. and Anor 1982 MR 153
Faits: The applicant company runs a bakery and a pastry factory and is seeking an interlocutory
injunction, pending a main action, preventing the two respondents from operating a pastry factory,
which the respondents propose to do almost next door, on the ground that the activities of the two
respondents would amount to unfair competition (“concurrence déloyale”) which could not be
adequately compensated by damages. The application is resisted. The case of the Applicant is that
the second respondent, Laval Lee Fye, is a shareholder of the applicant company and, at the time of
the application in September 1981, had been one of its employees over the previous five years.
La Cour explique: Some authors, in relation to French law, draw the distinction between
“concurrence illicite” (where the incriminated acts causing loss to another are in breach of specific
laws e.g. trading after hours permitted by law or using false weights or measures, acting in breach
66
of a lawful monopoly) and “concurrence déloyale” (where the incriminated acts result in winning
over the customers of another by means which may be either illegal, as in the case of “concurrence
illicite”, or else plainly tortious). The distinction is drawn on the ground that illegal competition does
not presuppose bad faith whereas unfair competition essentially does, in order to generate liability
under Article 1382 or 1383 of the Civil Code (vide e.g. Lalou, TraitéPratique de la
ResponsabilitéCivile, 5th Edition, paragraphs 928 et seq., Planiol et Ripert - Droit Civil - Vol VI
paragraphs 514, 590 and 591.)
The general rule appears to be that competition, unless regulated by law or precluded by a monopoly
established by law, is free. So that every individual may freely exercise an economic activity of his
choice, organise it freely and seek customers in competition with others even where this activity
inevitably has adverse consequences on a competitor. Any damage caused thereby remains
unproductive of any liability, the justification being the countervailing legality of free competition
and the freedom of enterprise and of human endeavour.
La Cour fait référence à l’affaire de la Cour de Cassation (Ch Com) en 1973 - D. 73.6 - Benarouche
v. Ouaknine :où la Cour de Cassation “quashed the decision of the Court d'appel on the ground that
- since the Court d'appel had found that (a) there was no law or regulation which prevented the
opening of a hairdressing saloon next to another and (b) Benarouche was not subject to any
obligation preventing him from competing with his former employer and since, additionally, there
were no circumstances which made the competition “déloyale” - there was no legal foundation for
the decision in terms of article 1382 or 1383 of the Civil Code”.
Mais la Cour note aussi qu’il existe des limitations quant à la “freedom of competition”: - il peut
exister une classification entre “whether the competition is, first, illegal or, secondly, anti-
contractual or, thirdly, disloyal”.
La Cour observe:
“In the first situation, no particular difficulty arises since it is the law itself which renders the
competition illegal and consequently tortious.
In the second situation, both doctrine and case law support the proposition that, as long as the
employee is bound by his contract of employment, competition by him vis-à-vis his employer is anti-
contractual. It is therefore tortious. In this situation, the competition is inherently in breach of the
67
contract of employment. The rights of the employer prevail over the employee's freedom to compete
- a freedom which he must be taken to have chosen to limit by entering into a contract of employment.
However, a contrary solution suggests itself when the contract is terminated. The employee then
recovers his entire freedom to compete. The former employee's right to work on his own account has
primacy over the protection of the former employer's business, unless the employee is subject to a
term in the contract of employment preventing him from engaging in a competing activity after the
termination of his contract. Two observations are here called for. In the first place, Professor Serra's
note does not consider the extent to which the Courts might be willing to give effect to contractual
terms restricting the former employee's future activities by reason of either the length of time or the
geographical area over which the terms are designed to operate. Secondly, the note does not consider
the situation (which appears to arise in the present application) where the contract does not relate
to full time employment but to part time employment where the employee ought, in principle, to be
free to exercise activities of his own outside the requirements of his contract of employment.
In the third situation, competition by a former employee, unless it is either illegal or anti-contractual,
could not be properly sanctioned except to the extent that it is disloyal or unfair. What is of relevance
in this third situation is that, unlike the case in the first two situations, the act of competition is itself
lawful but the means of exercising the competition should not be unlawful. The employee is here free
to compete but is under an obligation, like any other competitor, not to do so by unfair means.”
The Court stated in this case that: “As between the exercise of Lee Fye's (the respondent) freedom to
run a business in conjunction with another associate and the rights of the applicant company to be
protected in its own business, it would seem to me that the former ought to prevail and that any
unlawful damage that may eventually be caused thereby to the applicant company could best be
compensated by damages, should the competition turn out to be unlawful when the respondents start
operating”.
Diffamation
Mewasing v. H. Chundunsing & Ors 1995 SCJ 211

The Supreme Court said on the question whether words impugned can reasonably be construed as
referring to the plaintiff:
68
“The test to be adopted has been laid down by Viscount Simons L.C. in Knupffer v. London Express
Newspaper Ltd (1944) AC 116 at p. 119 as follows -
“Where the plaintiff is not named, the test which decides whether the words used refer to him is the
question whether the words are such as would reasonably lead persons acquainted with the plaintiff
to believe that he was the person referred to”.
La Sentinelle Ltd & Anor v. J. R. Dayal 2000 SCJ 92
One of the grounds of appeal was that the word impugned amounted in law to an insult and not to
defamation. The Supreme Court referred to Dalloz, Repertoire Pratique, VerboPresse, Note 682, in
respect of the difference between diffamation and injure as follows:
“La diffamation et l’injure ont un élément commun: l’une et l’autre supposent l’existence d’une
expression outrageante. La différence essentielle, c’est que la diffamation exige l’imputation d’un
fait déterminé, c’est-à-dire suffisamment précis pour que la preuve de son existence puisse en être
rapportée, et que, au cas d’injure, il n’y a qu’une allégation vague et indéterminée, parfois même
qu’une invective grossière.”
“Pour qu’il y ait délit de diffamation, il faut que l’imputation ou l’allégation incriminée porte sur un
fait précis et déterminé. De simples qualification, non accompagnées de l’articulation d’un fait, n’ont
pas le caractère d’une diffamation, qu’elle qu’en soit la gravité ,… En d’autres termes, l’allégation
ou l’imputation doit, comme l’a décidé la Cour de cassation, se produire “sous la forme d’une
articulation précise de faits de nature à être, sans difficulté, l’objet d’une preuve et d’un débat
contradictoire.””
Boodhoo v The Sun Printing Ltd & Ors 1992 SCJ 208
In a case of defamation based on article 1382 it is, first, incumbent upon the plaintiff to establish
"faute". But once this is done, it is for the defendant who sets up good faith as a defence to prove that
he was acting in good faith "surgie d'un ensemble de faits justificatifs."
69
The Supreme Court sitting on appeal on a judgment of the lower Court said the following on the
defence of good faith:
“In Walter v Boodhoo [1981 MR 131] Rault CJ explained that good faith in a case of defamation
was not per se a defence and that a defendant could not successfully raise it as a defence unless he
could also supplement it by “faits justificatifs” which negative his presumed “faute” and give a
foundation to his good faith.
The Learned Judge quoted the following passages from a note by Mimin reported in DP 1939.1.77
which was also referred to by the Learned Magistrate and which we deem it appropriate to reproduce:
« La bonne foi, dans les espèces précitées, comme dans la présente espèce, n'efface, ni l'élément
matériel de l'infraction, qui est le discours diffamatoire ou injurieux, ni l'intention – dolus generalis-
qui est la volonté tendue vers ce fait avec la perception de son caractère diffamatoire ou injurieux,
ni l'intention de nuire – dolus specialis- qui est la conscience du préjudice que le discours
diffamatoire ou injurieux va occasionner à la personne désignée. La bonne foi qui rend l'infraction
non punissable soutient donc une affinité avec les faits justificatifs de droit commun, la légitime
défense, l'autorisation de la loi, l'état de nécessité. Elle est un fait justificatif propre à la diffamation,
et qui s'apparente encore aux autres faits justificatifs généraux en ce que la jurisprudence laisse sa
preuve à la charge du prévenu. … Etant discernées les conditions de la bonne foi en cette matière,
on comprend que la Cour de cassation n'ait pas voulu se borner à écrire que la diffamation était
justifiée par la bonne foi. La formule eût provoqué des applications trop généreuses. En spécifiant,
depuis 1821 jusqu'à l'arrêt rapporté, que l'excuse de certaines imputations diffamatoires ou
injurieuses résulte de "faits justificatifs suffisants pour faire admettre la bonne foi", la Cour de
cassation se réfère à une bonne foi qualifiée, à une bonne foi surgie d'un ensemble de faits
justificatifs.”
b. Fait d’autrui
La charge de preuve est souvent difficile en matière délictuelle. Afin de faciliter les poursuites, la
loi prévoit donc une charge de responsabilité pour ceux qui ont des personnes sous leur
responsabilité.
70
c. Fait des choses
i. La responsabilité des parents
C’est un fait que (sauf cause contraire), les parents assument conjointement la responsabilité des
enfants mineurs et en assument ainsi conjointement le dommage qui résulte de leurs actes.
Les cas exceptionnels n’étant sans aucun doute un couple divorcé ou vivant sous le régime de la
séparation des corps. Afin d’invoquer la responsabilité de parents, au-delà d’être mineur, l’enfant
devra habiter avec eux et soit l’auteur du dommage.
Cependant, en toute circonstance, l’exonération peut être évoqué. Elles seront ici d’ordre de deux :
1. La force majeur (traité plus loin)
2. Les parents démontrent que le dommage n’est pas dû à un manque de surveillance
Question :
Jean est un enfant turbulent. Agé de 15 ans, il souhaite accompagner sa maman au

supermarché. Suite à une fausse manœuvre, il tombe et entraîne dans sa chute toute
une étagère de confiseries. Mons. Minion, le gérant du supermarché demande
réclamation à la maman de Jean. Celle-ci met en cause le magasin car selon-elle,
Jean ne l’a pas fait volontairement et les pots cassés font suite à un souci de
l’agencement des produits sur l’étagère.
Conseillez Mons. Minion.)
Arrêts pertinent :
Mangroo vs Dahal 1937 MR 43
Savanne Bus Service Co Ltd. vs Govinden 1964 MR 64
Emamally & Ors v Patron 1975 SCJ 34
Mauritius Union Assurance v. Municipal Council of Beau Bassin- Rose Hill 2011 INT 28
Supur v CEB 1988 MR 32
71
« It is no longer true to say that a gardien can only be exonerated where he proves l'existence d'une cause
étrangère imprévisible et irrésistible, (démontrant) par là même que la production du dommage ne peut être
attribuée au fait de la chose.
It is now settled that a gardien may content himself to prove that the chose for which he is responsible only
played a passive role in the accident which caused the damage”.
Isou Roland v Scott & Company Limited 1996 SCJ 98

note 13 Fasc. 150-2 of Jurisclasseur (op. cit.):
“Les dommages liés à la structure de la chose sont ceux qui, notamment, proviennent d’un défaut de
fabrication, d’un vice inhérent à la chose, la preuve du vice devant être rapportée.
En revanche, les dommages qui sont liés au comportement de la chose proviennent d’une utilisation
défectueuse ou simplement anormale de la chose ».
The evidence shows that the “chute” could prove dangerous owing to defective bolts and the absence
of safety barriers on the “chute”. This by itself would constitute, in the light of the principles, a “vice
inhérent à la chose”. This is confirmed by the statement of defence of Scott when, as referred to
earlier, Scott admitted that the “chute” was defective and did not have any safety protection.
Given the nature of the contract existing between S.T.C. and Scott, and the nature of the operation, it is clear
to my mind that the “chute” and the bags of rice have been “entre les mains” of Scott “depuis trop longtemps
pour qu’on puisse admettre qu’un autre ait pu conserver un pouvoir de contrôle” on the “chute” “même quant
à sa structure” (note 33 Fasc. 150-2 supra).
I therefore hold that Scott is solely liable for the accident as it had the “garde” of the granary and all
its equipment at the material time.
Computer Application and Management Ltd & Anor v Municipality of Curepipe

1997 SCJ 26
“This chain was precisely placed across the lane for a specific purpose - to prevent access from the
main road. I find that it played only a passive role and that it was in no way the ‘cause génératrice’
which provoked or caused the accident. The defendant cannot therefore be held responsible as the
‘gardien de la chose’’.
Animal
Fabien v Augustee 1958 MR 24
Le Plaignant a perdu un œil à la suite d’une attaque par un coq appartenant au défendeur. La requête
du plaignant est basée sur l’art. 1385 du CCM.
72
L’avocat du plaignant fit une plaidoirie comme suit:-
He submitted that assuming that it was proved that the animal belonged to the defendant it was not
necessary for the plaintiff to prove that the defendantor his “préposé” had committed a “faute” as is
required under article 1384; that the defendant can only avoid liability by proving that the damage
was the result “ soit de la force majeure, soit de la faute de la victime”. This proposition is clearly
borne out by the authorities.
Réné v Mauritius Turf Club 1990 MR 112

Le plaignant, un palefrenier, allègue avoir été blessé par un cheval appelé “Johnson” lorsqu’il se
trouvait près du paddock où le public a accès. Selon lui, le défendeur était le propriétaire et avait
l’usage du cheval au moment de l’accident puisque le cheval devait participer dans une course
hippique organisée par le défendeur. Il allègue avoir subi plusieurs blessures et une incapacité
permanente de 20% et évalue son préjudice à Rs 199,400
Le plaignant a fondé sa requête uniquement sur la base de l’article 1385 du Code civil qui prévoit
comme suit: -
“Le propriétaire d’un animal, ou celui qui s’en sert, pendant qu’il est à son usage, est responsable
du dommage que l’animal a causé, soit que l’animal fût sous sa garde, soit qu’il fût égaré ou
échappé”.
It is settled law that under article 1385 of our Code Napoléon–
(a) only the “gardien” of an animal is liable i.e. someone who has in effect “ un pouvoir de
commandement ” over the animal which is caracterised by “ le pouvoir d’usage, de contrôle et de
direction. L’usage, c’est le fait de se servir de la chose, dans son intérêt, à l’occasion de son activité…
la direction et le contrôle manifestent l’autorité du gardien… il peut l’utiliser à sa guise, de façon
indépendante, dans l’exercice de ses activités” – vide La Responsabilité Civile, Philippe le Tourneau
(3rd Edition) p. 722;
(b) there is a presumption that the owner of an animal is its “gardien” and it is for the owner to rebut
that presumption if he can. Similarly, there is a presumption that the “gardien” of an animal is liable
73
for the damage caused by the animal and it is for the “gardien” to rebut that presumption if he can,
by calling in aid one of the various defences open to him;
(c) it is the “commettant” and not his “préposé” who is a “gardien” of an animal entrusted to the
“préposé” since the latter, unlike the former, has no “pouvoir de commandement” over the animal.
Consequently, it has been invariably held that a professional jockey who is employed by the owner
of a horse to ride the horse on the latter’s behalf does not have “la garde” of the horse – see, for
instance, Dalloz, Jurisprudence Générale (1964) p.43.
The position appears to be different in respect of a well-renowned and experienced jockey (“une fine
ougran de cravache”) who is employed solely to ride a particular horse and is given no riding
instructions or a gentleman rider who rides a horse without being paid any remuneration and has no
“lien de préposition” with the owner of the horse;
(d) it is for the Court to decide as a question of fact who had “la garde” of an animal. The case law
in France relating to horse racing shows that depending on the particular circumstances of each
individual case, an owner (more often than not), a gentleman rider or a trainer (sometimes) or an
organiser of races (rarely) may be liable as “gardien” of a horse which caused damage to a spectator
– vide Dalloz (1914) DeuxièmePartie p. 203, Gaz. Pal. (1956).2 .p.86, RecueilDalloz (1954) p. 169
and La SemaineJuridique (1975), II, 18166.
After having examined the Rules of Racing of the defendant, especially those relating to the powers
of the stewards as opposed to those of nominators, I have without the slightest hesitation, come to the
conclusion, in the light of the principles of law already enunciated, that it was the owner of “Johnson”
who was also the nominator of the horse’s stable who had in the particular circumstances of the case
the “pouvoir effectif, autonome et réellement indépendant de direction et de contrôle” of the animal.
No doubt the defendant was responsible for the organisation of horse races, did have control over
the race track and did devise rules for the efficient running of those races, including certain important
powers of supervision over horses, nominators, jockeys and every other person associated in one way
or another with races. It cannot, however, be said nor has it been proved that, just because the horse
was on a race track and was subject to certain rules of racing imposed by the defendant for the proper
administration of horse racing, there had been an effective transfer of “garde” of the horse, even
74
momentary for the short period during which a race was scheduled to take place, from the owner of
the horse and nominator of the horse’s stable to the defendant.
For a transfer, momentary or otherwise, of “la garde” of the horse to have been effected, it was
necessary for the plaintiff to prove that the owner of the horse and nominator of the horse’s stable
had lost to the defendant “ l’usage, la direction et le contrôle” of the horse. This he manifestly failed
to do.
In any event, it is clear on the evidence already mentioned that the owner of the horse had through
his agent i.e. his jockey always had the “garde” of the animal in the sense he was always giving orders
to his horse and controlling it through his jockey although the horse was admittedly subject at the
same time to the racing rules of the defendant and was on the race track controlled by the defendant,
the more so in the light of the presumption which played against him as owner of the horse and which
had hardly been rebutted.
…
For all the reasons given, the plaintiff’s action is dismissed with costs as the plaintiff, as rightly
pointed out by learned Counsel for the defendant, has not been able to prove that the defendant, had
the “garde” of the horse “Johnson” at the material time.
Bulka and Anor v Medine Sugar Estate Co. Ltd 1992 MR 50

Une petite fille de 8 ans fut blessée par un tigre à Casela Nature Park. La requête était basée sur la
notion de faute, négligence et imprudence et en alternative sur la notion de garde des choses inanimées
prévue à l’art. 1384 al. 1 du CCM.
La Cour souligna le fait qu’elle avait payé un ticket pour y avoir accès et que la victime avait franchi
la barrière de sécurité.
La Cour observa que:-
However, the victim having been a paying visitor, it is clear that the plaintiffs cannot rely on any of
articles 1382 to 1385 of the Code.
I need only refer to Encyclopédie Dalloz, Droit Civil Vo "Responsabilité du fait des animaux" notes
49 to 51 the material parts of which read:
75
49. Comme les articles 1382 et 1383, ainsi que l'article 1384, alinéa 1er, l'article 1385 du code civil
est un texte propre à la responsabilité délictuelle, et par conséquent, il ne saurait être invoqué en
matière contractuelle, au mépris de l'interdiction du cumul entre la responsabilité délictuelle et la
responsabilité contractuelle...
50. Il faut, d'abord, pour exclure l'article 1385, être en présence d'un dommage causé par le débiteur
en vertu du contrat envers son créancier...
51. Il faut, ensuite, que le dommage causé par l'animal consiste en l'inexécution d’une obligation
contractuelle ... En fait, pour que l'article 1385 soit applicable dans de telles hypothèses il faut
supposer que le gardien de l'animal n'est pas tenu d'une obligation de sécurité, quant aux dommages
que pourrait éventuellement causer l‘animal, envers son créancier en vertu du contrat. Si donc, une
telle obligation existe, la responsabilité du gardien ne peut qu'être contractuelle. Elle sera délictuelle,
dans le cas inverse.
Cependant, sur une base humanitaire et avec l’accord des avocats des deux parties, la Cour décide de
trancher le litige sur une base contractuelle.
Incendie
New Island Clothing Ltd & Ors v. Albatross Insurance Co. Ltd 2006 SCJ 85
La Cour a dans cet arrêt résumé les principes applicables en matière d’incendie. Dans l’arrêt, les
demandeurs ont intenté une action contre l’assureur de Beta Industries Ltd, car suite à un incendie
qui s’est déclenché sur les locaux de Beta Industries Ltd, à Plaine Lauzun Industrial Estates, le stock,
les marchandises et les autres « fixtures » du 1er et 2e demandeurs ont été endommagés, plus
précisément à cause de l’eau qui a été utilisée par les sapeurs-pompiers pour éteindre le feu. Le 3e
demandeur étant l’assureur des 1ers et 2e demandeurs qui les a indemnisés.
La Cour explique ainsi:

“In fact, article 1384-7 of our Civil Code which is the equivalent of article 1384-2 of the French Civil
Code makes it incumbent on the plaintiff to prove ‘faute’ on the part of Beta Industries in order to
76
be able to succeed in its claim. Article 1384-7 deals specifically with claims arising from damages
caused by an ‘incendie’. Article 1384-2 was introduced in the French Civil Code by the Loi du 7 nov.
1922, as a derogation to the presumption of ‘faute’ which exists under article 1384-1. […]
It is not in dispute in the present case that the fire originated from the premises which were occupied
by, and under the control of, Beta Industries Ltd. which was thus the ‘détenteur de l’immeuble dans
lequel un incendie a pris naissance.’
But the following excerpts from Notes 89 and 91 of EncyclopédieDalloz Vol. IX Vo Responsabilité
Du Fait Des Choses Inanimées clearly express the need for the plaintiff to prove ‘faute’ on the part
of Beta Industries Ltd. in order to establish the defendant’s liability under article 1384-7 of our Civil
Code.
“89. L’aspect le plus contraignant du régime établi par l’article 1384, alinéa 2, du code civil réside
dans l’obligation pour la victime de prouver la faute du détenteur de la chose à l’origine de
l’incendie afin d’obtenir une indemnisation (Cass. 2e civ. 12 juill. 1955, D. 1955. 685; Cass. 1re
civ.7 oct. 1998, Bull. Civ I, no 286; Cass. 2e civ. 10 juin 1999, Resp. civ. Etassur. 1999, comm. No
286).
91. Outre la faute la victime devra établir le lien de causalité entre cette faute et le déclenchement
de l’ incendie (Cass. 2e civ. 3 oct. 1979, préc. supra, no 87; 11 janv. 1995, Bull. Civ. II, no 21; 18
juin 1997, Bull. Civ. II, no 198; 10 juin 1999, Resp. civ. et assur. 1999, no 287). Néanmoins, le simple
fait, pour le détenteur des locaux dans lesquels le feu s’est déclaré, de ne pas avoir respecté les normes
de sécurité, ce qui contribue à la propagation d’un incendie, suffit pour établir un lien de causalité
entre la faute et le dommage (Cass. 2e civ. 24 oct. 2002, no 01-11.325).”
Thus in Loyseau The Wife v Yemen Ltd. [1940 MR 84], the Court stated that ‘the mere fact that the
fire started on defendant’s land creates no presumption of a “faute” in law; nor does the mere fact
that the fire (which had accidentally started on defendant’s land) was not completely put out create
such a presumption; it is incumbent on the plaintiff to show something more; namely some act of
negligence or carelessness.’
Article 1384-7 would normally find its application where it is established that damages were caused
by the communication, or spreading of a fire which is attributable to the ‘faute’ of the defendant or
77
the ‘faute’ of the persons for whom the defendant is answerable. In the present case, however, the
damages were not caused by the communication of a fire but by the water used by the Fire Services
in dealing with the fire when the water flowed from Beta Industries Ltd. into the premises of the first
two plaintiffs.
It appears that the application of article 1384-7 (article 1384-2 of the French Civil Code) is not
limited only to damages caused by the communication of a fire but may be extended to cover damages
caused to third parties even in the absence of any communication of the fire. In that respect, we can
read the following from Jurisclasseur Civil Vol 14, Art. 1382-1386 Vo Droit de Réparation, Fasc.
124:
“46. Étendue des dommages concernés. La responsabilité de l’article 1384, alinéa 2, s’applique
littéralement aux dommages causés aux tiers par l’incendie né dans la chose du détenteur. … …
La généralité des termes de la loi implique cependant que tous les autres dommages découlant de
l’incendie initial se trouvent également visés.
53. Dommages ressentis hors de la chose où est né l’incendie. La jurisprudence fournit quelques
illustrations de dommages causés à des tiers sans qu’il y ait eu communication de l’incendie.
- déversement de l’eau utilisée par les sapeurs-pompiers pour lutter contre l’incendie chez les voisins
occasionnant des dommages au mobilier (Sentence de la Commission des affaires juridiques de
l’APSAIRD : 81-19, DJ 35). Dans une autre sentence, la Commission consultative et d’arbitrage,
s’agissant encore de dommages causés aux voisins par l’eau utilisée par les sapeurs-pompiers,
reconnaît que le fondement approprié est l’article 1384, alinéa 2, du Code civil mais que le recours
de la victime est voué à l’échec puisque les circonstances de l’incendie ne permettent pas de constater
une faute du détenteur de l’immeuble dans lequel l’incendie a pris naissance.”
A la lumière des observations faites plus haut, la Cour conclut “It follows from the above that article
1384-7 would still find its application in the present case although the damage to the property of the
first two plaintiffs was not caused directly by the communication or spreading of the fire to their
premises but by the seeping of the water used by the firemen”.
78
Toutefois, devant les faits portés devant la Cour, celle-ci conclut dans cette affaire: “The plaintiff has
failed to prove on a balance of probabilities any act of imprudence or negligence on the part of Beta
Industries Ltd. which may constitute ‘faute’ for the purpose of article 1384-7”.
La Cour explique dans cette affaire: “Even, where the cause of the fire has not been determined it is
still open to the plaintiff to establish the liability of the defendant under article 1384-7 as is explained
by the following from Jurisclasseur Civil (Supra) Notes 35 and 57:
“35. Évènement matériel à l’origine de l’incendie.

Lorsque la cause de l’incendie est inconnue, cela n’exclut pas nécessairement la responsabilité du
gardien de la chose. Celle-ci peut être engagée, sur la base de l’article 1384, alinéa 2, dans la mesure
où la preuve d’une faute ayant favorisé la propagation de l’incendie est rapportée.
57. Conception extensive de la faute. La faute à retenir n’est pas seulement celle qui est à l’origine
du sinistre ; le détenteur engage également sa responsabilité en cas de faute ayant contribué à
l’extension ou à l’aggravation du sinistre.”
Duke Haberdashes Ltd v. The Textile Industries Company Ltd 1981 SCJ 333
Heerah and Anor v. Abdool Hamid 1955 MR 134

ii. La responsabilité de l’enseignant
L’article 1384 énonce la responsabilité de l’enseignant. Celui-ci est tenu responsable pour les
dommages des élevés tant qu’ils sont sous sa responsabilité. L’exonération ne pourra être qu’évoqué
s’ils arrivent à prouver qu’ils n’ont pu empêcher que le préjudice se produisent. Pour rappel,
l’instituteur est tenu de démontrer qu’il n’a commis aucune faute dans l’exercice de ses fonctions.
Cependant, il faut que l’instituteur soit en présence des moyens nécessaires afin de surveiller les
élèves et ainsi éviter le dommage. Celui-ci peux aussi s’exonérer si la faute est de l’élève lui-même.
L’analyse de la cause à effet sera donc soit :
a. pour défaut de surveillance, ou,
b. par la faute exclusive de l’élève.
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Question :
A Narnia, plus précisément à l’Ecole du Gouvernement “Narnia Governement

School”, Zeus, un enseignant, reçut un appel urgent sur son portable alors qu’il était
en classe. Il laissa ses élèves de 10 ans sans surveillance pendant 5 minutes pour
répondre à l’appel. Arès en profita pour couper les cheveux de Aphrodite pour
plaisanter. Celle-ci réalisant ce qui se passait essaya tant bien que mal de l’en
empêcher et se blessa à la main avec la paire de ciseaux.
Aphrodite saigna abondement et sa maman voudrait votre conseil sur cette affaire.
iii. La responsabilité du commettant
Dans ce cas précis, la victime peut soit faire référence à l’article 1382 ou 1384 du CCM. Le
commettant et le préposé sont dans ce cas conjointement tenus responsables. C’est la règle de la
responsabilité in solidum. En effet, dès qu’il y a dommage de la part du préposé, la responsabilité du
commentant est engagé. En comparaison avec les pères et les mères et les instituteurs, il ne pourra
pas se libérer ici même s’il n’a commis aucune faute.
A noter que la poursuite peut être initié contre le commettant sans pour autant impliquer le préposé.
Tout comme sous l’article 1382, une poursuite peut être engagée contre le préposer sans impliquer le
commentant. Même si la victime peut le faire, ce ne sera le cas que rarement. Finalement, ayant eu à
prendre la charge seule, celui-ci peut se retourner contre le préposé par la suite.
iv. La responsabilité de l’artisan
Pour l’évocation de cette responsabilité, il faut qu’il existe un lien entre le l’artisan et l’apprenti.
Cependant, il faut qu’il existe une relation entre l’artisan et l’apprenti. Artisan ici impliquant une
formation professionnelle qui est transmise aux personnes sous sa responsabilité et donc sa
surveillance. La règle applicable est la même que pour les parents.
Parentale
1. Dhurmea v. Bhagea 1968 MR 43
2. Rabaille v. Boodhun 1978 MR 34
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3. Balloo v. CEB 1989 MR 276

4. Medine Sugar Estates Co. Ltd v. Anthony 1990 MR 217
Commettant-préposé
ACMS Ltd v. Blencowe 2014 SCJ 112
Beau Villa Ltd v. Chuckowree & Lamco Insurance Ltd 1992 SCJ 83
Boodhoo v. Taylor Smith & Co. 1971 MR 207
Cheong Chan Cheung Kooah v. Chamroo 1977 MR 50
Curé v. Universel Sound Equipment & Anor 1941 MR 28
Dina v. State Trading Corporation 2006 SCJ 48
Putten v. Sun Resorts 2011 SCJ 92
Rummun v. Sun Insurance 1992 SCJ 85
« La responsabilité édictée par l'article 1384, para 5, suppose six conditions ; il faut:
1. Qu'il s'agisse d'un domestique ou d'un préposé ;
2. Que le domestique ou le préposé ait commis une faute ;
3. Que cette faute ait été commise dans 1'exercice de fonctions ;
4. Que le maitre ou le commettant ait autorité et direction sur le domestique ou préposé au moment
du fait dommageable ;
5. Que celui qui a autorité et direction exerce celles-ci pour son propre compte ;
6. Que le maitre ou commettant n'agissent pas comme personnes morales publiques.”
Dookhy v. SBM 2007 SCJ 1

“La responsabilité du commettant est engagée par l’activité du préposé utilisant, à des fins
étrangères, les moyens mis à sa disposition, pourvu toutefois que le fait dommageable se rattache
par un lien de causalité ou de connexité à l’exercice des fonctions et que le préposé puisse être réputé
avoir agi pour le compte du commettant …” Dalloz, Code Civil, 73ême ed. Article 1384, note 27.
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“la responsabilité de ce dernier ne peut être retenue, lorsque le fait dommageable a trouvé sa source
dans un abus de fonctions de la part du préposé, ledit abus supposant nécessairement que cet
acte est étranger à la fonction.” Civ. 2ême sect. civ. 14 juin 1957, D. 1958. 53, note de M. Savatier.
Appasawmy v. Albatross 1997 SCJ 180
d. Fait des animaux

Il coule de source que le propriétaire d’un animal est tenu de sa responsabilité. Et ceci pendant son
usage ou pendant la perte de son usage, sous sa garde ou échappé.
Question :
Monsieur Dingo est propriétaire d’un chien de race nommé Buffy. Buffy se révèle
être très agressif en public et Monsieur Dingo doit être très vigilant quand il
emmène son chien faire sa promenade quotidienne. Récemment, Mons. Dingo a noté
que la chaîne de son chien est défectueuse mais a oublié de la changer et au cours de
sa promenade quotidienne, Buffy casse sa chaine et mord Madame Minnie qui
rentrait du travail. Madame Minnie souhaite intenter une action juridique contre
Buffy.
Conseillez Madame Minnie.
e. Le fait des bâtiments

Le propriétaire est responsable des bâtiments sous sa propriété qu’elle soit son état. De ce fait il est
aussi responsable du dommage que celui-ci causera que ce soit par son manque d’entretien ou vice
de construction.
Cependant, celui causant préjudice peut être exonéré dans des circonstances bien précises. Une
d’entre elles étant la force majeure.
4.0 Les causes d’exonération

Les causes d’exonération sont au nombre de trois. Elle sont comme suit:
1. Force majeure ou cas fortuit ;
2. La faute ou le fait de la victime ;
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3. Le fait d’un tiers.

L’expression “cause étrangère non imputable” englobe ces 3 termes.
La force majeure
Par définition, la force majeure est un obstacle constituant « l’irrésistibilité, l’imprévisibilité et
l’extériorité ». Un arrêt de l’assemblée plénière du 14 avril 2006 a défini la force majeure comme «
l’événement présentant un caractère imprévisible lors de la conclusion du contrat et irrésistible dans
son exécution ». Voir l’article 1148 en matière contractuelle et l’article 1384(6) en matière délictuelle.
La force majeure est un évènement extérieur imprévisible et irrésistible qui empêche une personne
d’accomplir son obligation.
La force majeure exonère à condition qu’elle se produise hors de la sphère dont le débiteur doit
répondre. Ainsi la rupture d’un wagon, d’une pièce défectueuse d’un automobile n’est pas une force
majeure :
Le cyclone, est-il considéré comme une force majeure? La solution figure dans un jugement de la
Cour Suprème de 1945: Osman & Co v Scott & Co. 1945 MR 15.
Selon ce jugement, une distinction doit être faite :
• Si le cyclone n’est pas imprévisible ou irrésistible, il ne constitue pas une force majeure.
• S’il est imprévisible et irrésistible, il constitue une force majeure.
Arrêt pertinent:
Fatehmamode H. B. & Co. v. United Docks 1979 SCJ 430

“It is true that cyclone Gervaise was a cyclone of great violence but a cyclone per se does not amount
to “force majeure”. It has to be shown that no fault or negligence can be imputed to the depositaire
and that the cyclone could not have been foreseen. […]
Mauritius is situated in the cyclonic zone and violent cyclones occur. It cannot be said that cyclone
Gervaise was an event which could not have been foreseen. In the circumstances the defendant was
at fault in keeping the goods which were perishable in a building which was not proof against cyclonic
water”.
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Ramkisto v. Sun Insurance Co Ltd 2002 SCJ 62
Socovia (Belle Vue) Ltee v. The Quarantine Authority & Anor 2006 SCJ 102
La faute de la victime
Exemple: écriteau: “chien méchant – interdiction d’entrer” – la victime entre quand même et se fait
mordre:
Si le fait ou la faute de la victime est la cause exclusive du dommage, il n’y a pas de problème, le
défendeur n’a rien à payer.
Seule la faute de la victime est prise en compte pour exonérer partiellement le défendeur et non son
simple fait (ne présentant les caractères de la force majeure).
Le fait d’un tiers

Si le fait d’un tiers est la cause exclusive du dommage, il n’y a pas de problème. Celui qui est
poursuivi sera totalement exonéré. Mais la victime pourra évidemment se retourner contre le dit tiers.
Si le fait d’un tiers n’est que la cause partielle du dommage et si la personne qui est seule poursuivie
a participé au fait contributif du dommage, elle pourra être condamnée envers la victime entièrement
du dommage (l’obligation in solidum).
Mais elle aura un recours contre le tiers – il y aura entre ces 2 personnes partage de responsabilité.
Pour les conditions du recours, voir ci-dessus (les co-auteurs).
Il est à noter que si le défendeur invoque le fait d’un tiers, il ne peut le faire que s’il met le tiers en
cause sauf si l’acte du tiers constitue une force majeure comme dans Jonas v Hardy 1970 MR 6.
Question :
Faites une analyse critique des causes d’exonération de la responsabilité délictuelle
6.0 Le lien de causalité

Un lien de causalité est le lien qui permet de déterminer la connexion entre le fait générateur et le
dommage. Ce lien de causalité doit être certain et est donc caduque en cas d’une impossibilité de
preuve. Un tel problématique est courante dans les affaires tels que la perte de gain ou perte de chance.
Afin de trancher, la Cour de Cassation parle d’une perte réelle qui peux être évalué économiquement.
Il existe quatre théories propres au lien de causalité, notamment :

a. La théorie de l’équivalence des conditions
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b. La théorie de la causalité efficiente ou directe

c. La théorie de la causalité proxima ou de la proximité de la cause
d. La théorie de la causalité adéquate
a. La théorie de l’équivalence des conditions
Cette théorie considère le fait générateur comme étant la cumulation de divers évènements. Tous les
évènements sont donc sur le même pied d’égalité.
Par exemple, la Cour de Cassation retient cette théorie dans une affaire le 07/04/2005 car pour les
juges dans ce cas précis, « l’hospitalisation a été rendue nécessaire, et le décès ne se serait pas produit
en l'absence de l'accident qui en était la cause certaine. »32.
Cette théorie est aussi connue comme la théorie de Von Buri qui implique que si une personne est
l’auteur d’un d’eux, elle doit réparer l’entier dommage, quitte à recouvrir pour partie contre les
auteurs des autres évènements.
b. La théorie de la causalité efficiente ou directe
Dans ce cas précis, sera pris en compte la part de chaque protagoniste dans le dommage causé.
c. La théorie de la causalité proxima ou de la proximité de la cause
Cette théorie est aussi connue comme la théorie de la causalité efficiente. Selon elle, dans la mesure
où plusieurs facteurs contribuent au dommage, il faut considérer celle qui est le plus proche du
dommage. L’avantage pour la victime sera qu’ici elle pourra choisir une cause parmi toutes celles
évoquées. Cependant, le risque est que la cause la plus proche dans le temps peut ne pas être celle
ayant causé réellement le dommage.
d. La théorie de la causalité adéquate
Cette théorie prend en compte tous les facteurs ayant contribué au dommage mais à des degrés variés.
Ainsi, il faudra analyser tous les facteurs afin de déterminer celui qui a vraiment mené au dommage.
Ainsi, seules peuvent être retenues comme causes celles qui devaient normalement produire le
préjudice : Von Kriest.
32
http://www.cours-de-droit.net/la-theorie-de-la-causalite-adequate-et-de-l-equivalence-des-conditions-a148491876
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Le partage de responsabilité
a) Responsabilité in solidum.
Lorsqu’il y a plusieurs co-auteurs, la victime peut, dans la plupart des cas, assigner, si elle le désire,
un seul des co-auteurs et celui-ci devra rembourser l’entier préjudice à la victime. C’est la règle
jurisprudentielle “in solidum”.
b) La proportion du partage.
Lorsqu’une faute a été retenue contre chacun des co-auteurs, la réparation se fait en proportion de la
gravité des fautes de chacun.
Si la responsabilité de l’article 1384(1) a été appliquée au co-obligé, aucune faute n’ayant été
retenue, la jurisprudence a recours au partage par parts viriles (sauf si on peut déterminer les
circonstances de l’accident).
Si un co-auteur responsable sous l’article 1384(1) se retourne contre un co-auteur fautif, le recours
est admis mais le principe de réparation est incertain. Dans un cas, la jurisprudence a admis que le
recours était possible pour le tout car il n’y avait pas de co-auteur mais auteur unique.
Question :
Faites une étude comparative des quatre théories possibles dans la détermination du
lien de causalité en matière délictuelle.
6.0 Le dommage
Afin d’invoquer une responsabilité, il faut qu’il y ait un dommage. Le dommage devra découler du
fait générateur de la responsabilité. Ce sera à la victime de prouver ainsi qu’il existe un lien de
causalité entre les deux. Comme mentionné plus tôt, la réparation du dommage peut se faire sous
forme de compensation ou par réparation en nature. Cependant, afin d’analyser le préjudice, celui-ci
doit être direct, actuel et existant.
Suivant le principe de statu quo ante, dans l’ordre de la responsabilité civile, celui commentant le
dommage a le devoir de faire une réparation au dépens du responsable et cette réparation doit replacer
les dommages comme s’ils n’avaient jamais existé.
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Les types de dommages prévues par le CCM sont comme suit :

a) dommage matériel,
b) dommage moral, et
c) dommage corporel
Dommage matériel
Par référence au dommage matériel, nous parlons ici du patrimoine de la personne lésée ; impliquant
ses biens. Le dommage peut inclure des dégâts, une perte subie, l’appauvrissement, le gain manqué,
perte de revenus de la victime.
Cependant il existe aussi des exceptions dans des scenarios tels que :
a) La perte d’une prime de voyage

b) Les frais menant aux calculs pour le dommage encouru
c) Les frais de transport d’une personne indemnisée
Dommage moral
En un sens large, la notion du préjudice moral recouvre plusieurs situations différentes les unes des
autres qui présentent cependant un double caractère commun :
1. Négativement, il n’y a pas d’atteinte à une valeur pécuniaire.
2. Positivement, il y a des préjudices très personnels.
E.g., une atteinte à la réputation, à l’honneur, au nom, au respect de la vie privée, préjudice esthétique,
préjudice d’agrément.
Arrêts pertinent :
Dommage moral
Saindrenan G A M and Anor v. Swan Insurance Co. Ltd. and Anor 2013 SCJ 487
Sakoor Dawood Patel v. Anandsing Beenessreesingh And SICOM Ltd 2011 PRV 79
Patel Sakoor Dawood & Anor v. Beenessreesingh Anandsingh 2008 SCJ 249
Textile Dyeing and Printing Industries Limited v. Khemun Mohunlall 1994 SCJ 263
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Rambaccussingh R & Ors v. Keenoo R. & Anor 2010 SCJ 296

Ramdharshan S.K. & Ors v. Cargo Handling Corporation Ltd 2010 SCJ 29
Sotramon Limited v. Bathilde L G 2008 SCJ 338
New Light Match Co. Ltd. v. Ono 1990 MR 164
Vithilingum S. v. Seagull Insurance 1999 SCJ 124

Il s’agissait en l’espèce d’une veuve qui réclamait réparation (de l’ordre de Rs.1,038,000 avec
intérêts et dépens) au défendeur à la suite d’un accident de la route qui a coûté la vie à son époux.
La demanderesse réclamait réparation pour le préjudice subi, tant matériel et moral, en son nom
personnel et au nom de son enfant mineur. Le défendeur était l’assureur de l’autobus qui était entré
en collision avec l’époux décédé. Le défendeur avait admis être responsable de l’accident.
Afin d’évaluer les « dommages patrimoniaux », la Cour pris en considération l’âge de l’époux, celui
de la demanderesse et de l’enfant au moment où l’accident s’est produit ; la profession des époux, le
salaire perçu par l’époux décédé et le montant qu’il versait au ménage familial. La Cour cita l’arrêt
Khurun & Ors v Pitot 1990 MR 214 où il est dit :
“the “dommages patrimoniaux” would include (1) the amount of any monthly “rente” not received
from the time of death up to the time of judgment and (2) a capital sum to compensate for future loss:
that sum is an amount which, if reasonably invested, will yield the sum which would have been
normally spent on the plaintiff(s) concerned by the de cujus: see Boodhoo v Ramsamy [ 1985 MR 1
]”.
Pour le dommage moral, la Cour s’appuya sur les principes édictés dans l’arrêt New Light Match
Co. Ltd. v. Ono afin d’évaluer le dommage moral.
La Cour ordonna au défendeur de payer Rs.294,150 à la demanderesse pour la perte de revenus et
Rs.80,000 à la demanderesse et Rs.30,000 à l’enfant mineur pour dommages moraux.
M. V. Moutou v. Mauritius Government Railways 1933 MR 102

M. le Conseiller Pilon (D.P. 1931.1.39) : « Pour obtenir en justice, la réparation d’un préjudice, il
ne suffit pas d’un intérêt, mais il faut pouvoir justifier d’un droit lésé ».
Le dommage corporel
Le dommage corporel se divise entre le dommage matériel et moral. Le premier ayant un caractère
économique tandis que l’autre met en exergue le dommage physique, la privation d’une activité
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sportive ou d’un préjudice esthétique. Ainsi, les compensations du dommage morales visent à réparer
les préjudices sans pour autant en toute circonstances satisfaire un acte diffamatoire, le chagrin ou
une perte entre autres.
Question :
« Pour que la cour conclût qu’il y a responsabilité civile délictuelle, il faut que soient
réunies trois, notamment :
a. la faute ou un fait dommageable,
b. le dommage,
c. le lien de causalité entre la faute et le dommage ».
Analysez la pertinence de ce fondement de la responsabilité civile délictuelle.
Arrêts pertinent :
Ebrahim Dawood Ltd. vs Centrale De Beau Bassin 1957 MR 363
Un employé du défendeur a acheté des marchandises du plaignant. Le plaignant poursuit le défendeur
pour non-paiement des marchandises. Le défendeur se défend en disant que l’employé n’avait pas le
pouvoir d’acheter des marchandises au nom et pour le compte du défendeur. La Cour en analysant
les faits conclut que le contrat de vente n’était pas valable. La Cour laisse sous-entendre qu’au cas où
le contrat n’est pas valable il est possible d’intenter l’action de in rem verso contre le défendeur qui
a été enrichi par les marchandises du plaignant. Toutefois, en l’absence de mention de l’action de in
rem verso dans la plainte, la Cour n’aurait pas pu indemniser le plaignant bien qu’il soit prouvé que
le défendeur a été enrichi injustement au dépens du plaignant.
Harper Tom v Maniram Raggoo & Anor 1997 SCJ 78

“Plaintiff’s claim for enrichissement sans cause is clearly misconceived .I need only refer to
Encyclopédie Dalloz - VerboEnrichissement Sans Cause at note 134:
“..... Mais on y trouve très clairement exprimée l’idée que l’action de in rem verso peut seulement
être intentée quand le demandeur n’a à sa disposition aucune voie de droit (en ce sens : ROUAST,
op. cit., nos 26 et s.; GORE, op.cit., no 188). De même, le tribunal civil de Mauriac le 20 mars 1952
89
(D. 1952. somm. 50 Gaz. Pal. 1952 1. 424) a refusé à un enfant qui travaillait dans la ferme de ses
parents l’action de in rem verso, alors qu’il pouvait se prévaloir du décret-loi sur le contrat de salaire
différé.”
In fact, we see at note 135 that l’appauvri may enter an action de in rem verso against the enrichi
even if he has a cause of action against the debtor with whom he has a contractual or legal
relationship but only in cases where the debtor is insolvent - there is no evidence to that effect
in the present case.
The same proposition is also set out in Marty et Reynaud - Tome 2 - Vol.1 at note 354 - it reads as
follows:
“Avec beaucoup de netteté quoi qu’on en ait dit, la Cour de cassation a posé comme condition de
l’action de in rem verso que l’appauvri ne jouisse «pour obtenir ce qui lui est dû d’aucune autre
action naissant d’un contrat, d’un quasi contrat, d’un délit ou d’un quasi délit». Cette formule
qui ne vise que les actions personnelles, doit certainement, par identité de raisons être étendue aux
actions réelles.”
“...Dans cet ordre d’idées il serait peut-être plus exact de dire que le règles concernant
l’enrichissement sans cause, de nature jurisprudentielle et manifestation caractéristique de
l’intervention du juge pour combler les lacunes de la loi, ne peuvent intervenir précisément que
dans la mesure où il y a lacune et se trouvent au contraire exclues quand il y a des règles
applicables.”
La Cooperative Centrale De Beau Bassin vs Mametlenferna Ltd. 1959 MR 201
La nullité ou rescision du contrat prononcée en justice a pour effet de remettre les choses dans 1'état
où elles se trouvaient avant la formation et l'exécution du contrat. Si le contrat avait reçu exécution
comme dans le cas présent où le défendeur avait déjà livré les marchandises à l’appelant, l'annulation
du contrat devrait entraîner des restitutions et des règlements de compte.
Lorsqu'une telle compensation n'a pas lieu et que des avantages ont été acquis, qui ne peuvent être
restitués, la partie qui en a bénéficié doit en payer la valeur, faute de quoi il y aurait enrichissement
sans cause.
En appel, la Cour décide que l’action « de in rem verso » était fondée et que le défendeur avait droit
à la compensation allouée par la Cour de District. L’appel fut rejeté.
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“In the case of Ebrahim Dawood Ltd. v. Co-operative Centrale de Beau Bassin, [1957 MR 363],
this Court dealing with a similar contract decided that "the transaction not being in accordance
with the provisions of the law relating to co-operative societies was invalid”. We are therefore
in presence of a contract of sale of goods which is null and void but which has been executed by
one party; we have to decide whether that party may be indemnified by exercising the action
de in rem verso.
In François Gore, L'enrichissement aux dépens d'autrui, at Nos. 148and 149, we read: -
148. Que la notion d'enrichissement injuste puisse intervenir en matière de nullités de contrat, c'est
un point qui nous parait, en principe, indiscutable. Un contrat nul est censé n'avoir jamais existé.
En vertu de la rétroactivité de l'annulation, les prestations que chacune des parties a fournies
doivent être restituées par l'autre . . .
149. En principe donc, la notion d'enrichissement injuste est susceptible de faire produire certains
effets aux actes nuls. C'est un point qui semble aujourd'hui certain. . . . Dans ces hypothèses
l'action de in rem verso ne va à 1'encontre d'aucune règle juridique . . .
We find in Planiol & Ripert, Droit Civil, 2nd Edn., Vol. 6, at paras. 320 and 321 :-
320. La nullité ou rescision prononcée en justice a pour effet de remettre les choses dans 1'état où
elles se trouvaient avant la formation et 1'exécution du contrat. Si le contrat n'avait encore reçu
aucune espèce d'exécution, aucune difficulté ne se présente. S'il avait reçu exécution, l'annulation
entraine des restitutions et des règlements de compte . . .
321. Les parties doivent se restituer respectivement ce qu’elles ont reçu ou perçu en vertu du contrat
. . . Lorsqu'une telle compensation n'a pas lieu et que des avantages ont été acquis, qui ne peuvent
être restitués, la partie qui en a bénéficié doit en payer la valeur, faute de quoi il y aurait
enrichissement sans cause . . . and in Encyclopéidie Dalloz, Droit Civil, Vo. Nullité, N. 172
Lorsque le contrat tout en étant illicite, n'est pas entaché d'immoralité, les tribunaux afin d'assurer
le respect de l'ordre public, laissent produire à la nullité, tous ses effets et admettent la répétition qui
fera disparaitre toute trace du contrat conclu. (See, also, Planiol & Ripert, OP. cit., Vol. 7, para.
764).
Where a valid contract had not been entered into through an infringement of one of the
provisions of the law, the Courts in France have ruled that though no common law action could
be taken yet a claim for indemnity was admissible. Decisions to that effect are reported in D.P.
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1902.2.397; D.P. 1928.2.28; Gaz. Pal. 1930.1.21; D. 1947. 384; S. 1949. 1. 48; Gaz.Pal. 1950. 1. 27;
Semaine juridique 1952. 9. 6953.”
Références :
- Répertoire de Droit Civil – Dalloz
- https://supremecourt.govmu.org/SitePages/HomePage.aspx
Activities :
Activity 1 :
M. Coco est le propriétaire d'une entreprise appelé « CocoPlus » produisant une variété de produits
alimentaires à base de noix de coco depuis 10 ans. Cependant, récemment, il a découvert qu’un
commerçant rival vient de lancer un produit en sachet à base de noix de coco comme lui et a donné
le nom de « Koko+ ». Mons Coco voudrait savoir s'il est possible de poursuivre son rival.
Que pouvez-vous conseiller à Mons Coco ?

Activity 2 :
A Narnia, plus précisément à l’Ecole du Gouvernement “Narnia Government School”, Zeus, un

enseignant, reçut un appel urgent sur son portable alors qu’il était en classe. Il laissa ses élèves de 10
ans sans surveillance pendant 5 minutes pour répondre à l’appel. Arès en profita pour couper les
cheveux de Aphrodite pour plaisanter. Celle-ci réalisant ce qui se passait essaya tant bien que mal de
l’en empêcher et se blessa à la main avec la paire de ciseaux. Aphrodite saigna abondement et sa
maman voudrait votre conseil sur cette affaire.
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UNIT 5 Statutes pertaining to education
1. Overview
2. Health and Safety Regulation
3. Les pouvoirs du chef d’entreprise
4. The Employees Relation Act
5. Further Reading
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5.0 Overview
Before indulging into education and its various components, it is essential to get acquainted with
some statutes which have a co-relation with the educational sector; particularly in the field of labour
and industrial law. For the sake of this chapter, both French and English will be used based on the
fact that “le contrat de travail” emerged from the French legal system while other laws are common
base.
Learning Objectives:
e) Provide learners with the laws co-related to education as a field
f) Assess the extent to which the Workers’ Rights Act and the Employees Relations Act are used
in the educational field
g) Analyse the Occupational Health and Safety Act
h) Develop an understanding of laws related to the educational sector
2.0 Heath and Safety Regulation

Dans un système de droit mixte comme le nôtre, nous avons hérité d’une part du Code Civil Mauricien
et d’autre part des lois d’inspiration anglaise. Il existe ainsi, les dispositions relatives au droit des
obligations, la responsabilité civile au droit du travail avec l’article 1780 et 1781 du Code Civil
Mauricien.
Pas moins de 2,200 personnes sont blessées annuellement soit par faute de négligence, imprudence,
manquement d’hygiène et de sécurité sur le lieu de travail. Il existe ainsi un devoir d’une part et
d’autre afin de réduire le taux d’insécurité au travail. Nous verrons ainsi les diverses obligations et la
faute du salarié dans l’entreprise ; par exemple si celui-ci oublie de porter un masque en utilisant les
produits chimiques dans le laboratoire du collège.
Il existe des lois relatives à la sécurité et à la santé des salariés dans l’entreprise. Mais il existe
quelques confusions à deux niveaux :
i) Au niveau de « l‘agreement »
ii) Au niveau de la définition de « worker »
On peut se poser la question à savoir quels sont les lois relatives à la protection de la santé, la sécurité
et l’hygiène du salarié dans l’entreprise.
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Il y en a plusieurs, les lois les plus importantes sont :

i) The Occupational Health and Safety Act (OSHA) 2005
ii) The National Pensions Act 1976
iii) The Workman Compensation Act 1938
Ainsi, la propriété, ventilation des machines, les laboratoires, les escaliers, les ascenseurs sont autant
de mesures à prendre afin que le salarié ne soit pas blessé sur son lieu de travail.
Il faut alors se référer aux sections 5, 6 et 14 de l’OSHA 2005 qui sont comme suit :
“5. General duties of employers
(1) Every employer shall, so far as is reasonably practicable, ensure the safety, health and welfare
at work of all his employees.
(2) The employer shall, so far as is reasonably practicable, in particular -
(a) (i) provide and maintain a working environment;
(ii) provide and maintain any plant or system of work;
(iii) maintain any place of work under his control, including the means of access to, or egress from
it, that is safe and without risks to health;
(b) ensure that use, handling, storage or transport of articles or substances is safe and without risks
to health;
(c) provide and maintain adequate facilities and arrangements for the welfare at work of his
employees;
(d) provide information, instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to ensure the safety and
health at work of his employees;
(e) ensure that any person not in his employment is not exposed to any risk to his safety or health.
(3) Every employer shall consult representatives of his employees who sit on the Safety and Health
Committee with a view to the making and maintenance of arrangements, which will enable him and
his employees to cooperate effectively in promoting and developing measures to ensure the safety
and health at work of the employees, and in checking the
effectiveness of such measures.
6. Special duties of employers

(1) Every employer of 50 or more employees shall -
(a) make a written statement of his policy with respect to the safety and health of his employees;
(b) make arrangements to give effect to the policy referred to in paragraph (a);
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(c) record the arrangements made under paragraph (b) in a register;

(d) review the policy referred to in paragraph (a) as and when required;
(e) provide such resources, as appropriate, having regard to the nature of his activities and the size
of his undertaking for the effective planning, organisation, control, monitoring and review of the
preventive and protective measures required to be taken by him under this Act.
(2) Every employer shall, so far as is practicable, ensure that any employee is provided with adequate
safety and health information, instruction and training -
(a) on being recruited into the employer’s undertaking;
(b) on being exposed to new or increased risks as a result of a transfer or change of responsibilities;
or
(c) on the introduction of new plant or a change relating to any process already in use within the
place of work.
(3) Every employer shall -

(a) establish appropriate procedures to be followed in the event of a fire, explosion or accidental
release of substances hazardous to health or a dangerous occurrence specified in the Twelfth
Schedule;
(b) appoint such persons as may be necessary to implement these procedures in so far as they relate
to the evacuation of the employees from the place of work.
(4) Every employer shall ensure that none of his employees has access to any area of the place of
work to which it is necessary to restrict access on grounds of safety and health, unless the employee
has received adequate safety and health information, instruction and training.
14. Duties of employees

(1) Every employee shall, while at work -
(a) take reasonable care for the safety and health of himself and of other persons who may be affected
by his acts or omissions at work;
(b) cooperate with his employer in the discharge of any duty or requirement placed upon the employer
under this Act;
(c) wear or use any protective equipment or clothing provided by the employer in pursuance of this
Act at all times when there is a risk of bodily injury against which the equipment or clothing affords
protection;
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(d) report forthwith to his employer the loss or destruction of, or defect in, the protective equipment
or clothing entrusted to him;
(e) not smoke at the place of work, except in an area demarcated for that purpose;
(f) use correctly safety devices provided under this Act;
(g) subject to section 48, not wilfully or recklessly make inoperative any guard provided on any
machinery;
(h) report forthwith to the employer or his representative any situation which, he has reason to
believe, could present a risk to his safety and health; and
(i) report forthwith to the employer any bodily injury sustained by him, as a result of an accident
arising out of, or in connection with, his work.
(2) Any person who wilfully or recklessly damages, interferes with or misuses anything provided in
the interest of safety, health or welfare in pursuance of this Act shall commit an offence.”
Question:
By making use of relevant examples, critically analyse sections 5, 6 et 14 of the
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 2005.
Après avoir vu les obligations qui pèsent sur l’employeur concernant l’obligation d’hygiène et de
sécurité, il reste à savoir qu’il existe des « implied duties » qui s’alignent à cette obligation d’hygiène
et surtout de sécurité sur le lieu de travail telle qu’elle est prévue de même par la « common law ».
Pas mal de décisions ont été rendues par le House of Lords et la Cour de Cassation en ce sens.
Avec le Workmen Compensation Act 1938 et les diverses « regulations » qui ont été promulgués, le
législateur a fait ainsi la part des choses en protégeant aussi bien l’employé que l’employeur.
Ces « regulations » sont :

1. The Factory Safety Workers Regulation 1942
2. The Factory’s Aloe Fiber Regulation 1946
3. The Labour Temporary Housing and Sanitary Arrangements Regulation 1948
Mais encore, il ne faut pas oublier le Workers’ Rights Act 2019 qui prévoit aussi les différents
« leave » quand le « worker » est souffrant ou malade ; ex : le « sick leave », le « maternity leave »,
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« casual leave ». A noter qu’il existe aussi la « common law » qui met en exergue des principes
applicables devant les tribunaux locaux.
In the case of Wright and Cassidy V/s Dunlop Rubber Company 1972 where the
manufacturer had informed the employees who were involved with the chemicals should
be screened but the employees failed to institute screening. The court held that the
employer has not acted reasonably and once the injury was foreseeable, the employer
should have taken all precautionary steps to protect their employees.
Note: Under the common law, the employer is not always liable and same is followed in our
domestic courts.
The case of O’reilly v/s National Rail 1966, the employees found an unexpected bomb
and they began to hit it with a hammer. The unexpected bomb, exploded and the
employees sued the employer. But under common law, the employer is not always liable
and the court held that the employer was not liable. If the employer took all reasonable
steps to secure the workers or employees security on the workplace, then he won’t be
liable.
In the case of case Latimer v/s AEC 1953, the factory was flooded after a heavy rainstorm
and an employee slipped and was injured, but the court held that the employer was not
liable, because he took all the reasonable steps when he put saw dust on the floor so that
the employees might not fall down.
We have seen that the employee had “une obligation d’hygiène et de sécurité” i.e, he has a duty of
care.
In the case of Paris v/s Stepney Borrow Council 1951, the employee had only one good
eye and he was asked by the employer to go below a car to clear rust. But rust fell into his
eye and he went blind completely.
The English Court held that since he was not provided with a mask, and since the
employer failed to take all reasonable steps and he was liable.
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It is important to know whether the employee was injured on the workplace or not.
Coming to the Mauritian context, in the leading case of Narain v/s Souchon 1964 MR 1993, the
accident occurred while a workman was travelling in a “corbeille” and an accident happened. The
issue was whether the accident occurred “out of and in the course of employment…”.
Based on the above, we can deduct that the employer is not always liable and this is what happened
in the case of Constance Lagnetté Sugar Company Ltd v/s Deenoo 1981 MR 238/SCJ where the
Supreme Court held that: “An employer who supplies a mask to a labourer with experience of work
in cane fields has no duty to verify that labourer wears the mask everywhere he works in the field”.
Whatsoever, an employer must comply with the different legislation provisions on Health and Safety
regulations on the workplace as held in the case if Lamode v/s Cargo Handling Corporation 1998 SCJ
415. In the case of Lum Chang v/s Lemaire 1996 SCJ 217, the Supreme Court held that “Every
employer shall so far as reasonably practicable ensure the safety, health and welfare at work of all his
employees”. Hence, if the employer took all reasonable steps, he won’t be liable such as in the case
of Heeraul v/s Société Plantation de Bois Chéri 138, SCJ 1994. Similarly, vide case Latimer v/s AEC
Ltd where the employer was not liable because he took all reasonable steps.
Finally, in the case of Berry v/s Stone Margalese Ltd, the Queen’s Bench Division held that: “The
employer has a duty to ensure that the protective equipment was not only supplied to combat the
noise, but also that they are also actually used.”
Question:
By making use of an example of your choice, compare and contrast the role of the
employee as opposed to the employer and vice-versa in the implement of the OSHA
2005.
3.0 Les pouvoirs du chef d’entreprise

La question se pose ici : est-ce que le droit du travail est basé sur une institution ou est-ce que le droit
du travail est basé sur le contrat de travail ?
Il existe deux écoles doctrinales depuis l’affaire Raman Ismaël V/s United Bus Service (UBS) 1926
SCJ 303. Selon la Cour Suprême :
« One School of thought favours the view that this power is inherent in the employer or management,
and is, as it were institutional and does not derive its judicial basis force from the contract of
employment. The other school thinks it derives its basis from the contract”
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En tout cas, en ce qui est des fonctionnaires, c’est le Local Government Commission Act 1975 dans
sa section 4 qui exerce ce contrôle disciplinaire :
“4. Powers of Commission
(1) Subject to this section and to the Local Government Act, the power to—
(a) appoint;
(b) exercise disciplinary control;
(c) remove from office or approve retirement; and
(d) select candidates for the award of scholarships or other similar privileges, shall, in relation to
local government officers, vest exclusively in the Commission.
(2) Subject to subsection (3), the Commission shall not, in the exercise of its functions, be subject to
the direction or control of any other person or authority.
(3) Nothing in this Act shall preclude the Supreme Court from exercising jurisdiction in relation to
any question whether the Commission has performed its functions in accordance with any law in
force or should not perform any function.
(4) The Commission may, subject to such conditions as may be prescribed, delegate any of its powers
under subsection (1) to the Chief Executive of any Municipal City Council, Municipal Town Council
or District Council.”
N.B : Voir dans ce sens Narainen v/ Minsiter of Local Goverment and Others SCJ 2016.
On peut aussi se demander comment la Cour Suprême réagira à savoir si les pouvoirs du chef
d’entreprise émanent du travail ou d’une institution.
Il existe deux arrêt important ou la Cour Suprême a soulevé cette notion ; c’est-à-dire les pouvoirs du
Che d’Entreprise. Il s’agit de UBS V/S Gokhool 1978 MR1 et Plaine Verte Cooperative Stone Society
Ltd v/s Rajabaleee 1991 SCJ 227.
Dans l’arrêt UBS v/s Gokhool, la Cour Suprême précise que les pouvoirs du Chef d’Entreprise entame
de l’institution et non pas du contrat de travail. Maintenant dans l’arrêt Plaine Verte Cooperative
Stone Society Ltd v/s Rajabalee, selon la Cour Suprême ; « la cour de Cassation qui maintient
formellement le principe que l’employeur demeure le seul juge de la bonne marche de l’entreprise et
des méthodes à adopter à cet effet, et que les juges de fond ne sauront substituer leur appréciation à
la sienne concernant les mérites professionnels du salarié… ».
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La Cour Suprême ajoute dans cette affaire que: « unless, it is shown that the employers complain
about the inefficiency of his employee are absolutely frivolous, vexatious and made in bad faith, the
court should not therefore substitute itself to the itself to the employer who keeps, the last word as to
how his business is to be run and managed ».
Ainsi la cour limite ces pouvoirs car ce contrôle et ces pouvoirs appartiennent au chef d’entreprise
aussi bien du domaine des sanctions disciplinaires qui sont imposées par l’employeur, des sanctions
qui peuvent aussi être des sanctions morales, voire parfois sous forme de « several warning ».
Il pourrait aussi y avoir d’autres sanctions (surtout en France) :
i. la mise à pied,
ii. la rétrogradation,
iii. la mutation et enfin,
iv. le déclassement.
Toutefois le licenciement du salarié, reste néanmoins la sanction la plus grave, sauf si l’employé est
de bonne foi. Par contre, la mise à pied est une sanction assez brève car la Cour Suprême précise dans
sa décision que : « an employer has no right to sentence his employee to starve » Dookaran v/s
Development Work Coorporation 1977.
Pendant longtemps, on se demandait si le salarié doit être rémunérer pendant la période où il a fait
l’objet d’une sanction telle qu’une mise à pied conservatoire ? En effet, dans l’arrêt Mamet Fils v/s
Victor 1980, dans sa décision, la Cour Suprême précise que le salarié n’aura droit à aucune
rémunération pendant la période d’une mise-a-pied. Alors que dans l’arrêt Development Work
Coorporation v/s Dookaran, la Cour Suprême prend une autre décision en prévoyant cette fois-ci que
le salarié suspendu doit être rémunéré.
Maintenant, le Workers’ Rights Act 2008 est beaucoup plus clair quant à la rémunération d’un salarié.
Question:
Faites une étude des divers moyens de sanction de l’employeur contre l’employé.
4.0 Le Employment Relations Act
The Employment Relations Act 2008 est venu remplacer The Industrial Relation Act de 1973. Avec
la nouvelle loi, on voit apparaitre la Comission of Concilaition and Mediation qui remplace le
Industrial Relation Comission. Ainsi, the Permanent Arbitration Tribunal va disparaitre et cède sa
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place sa place au Employment Relation Tribunal autre institution qui joue un rôle important avec le
National Renumeration Report.
Quoi qu’il en soit, la plupart des sections sont plus au moins intactes par rapport au Industrial
Relations Act tel que :
i. Registration of Trade Union
ii. Constitution and Administration of Trade Union
iii. Freedom of Association
iv. Collective bargaining
v. Strike and lockout
vi. Industrial Dispute
Il existe ainsi des « closed-shop » qui sont interdits en Grande-Bretagne et à l’ile Maurice. Dans ce
cas, un salarié se voit refuser l’embauche car il est affilé à un autre syndicat que celui de son nouvel
employeur et qui refuse de l’embaucher car le nouveau salarié refuse de se joindre au syndicat de son
employeur.
On verra des arrêts qui ont été rendus par la Cour Européene des Droits de l’Homme commandant
que les « closed-shop » soient interdits en Europe ; surtout en Grande-Bretagne depuis l’arrêt :
Young, James and Webster v/s UK 1981.
En ce sens, il est aussi essentiel d’analyser le rôle du Registrar of Association dont les pouvoirs sont
retirés du Registrar of Association Act. Cette personne peut en effet enregistrer, ou « cancel » un
« trade union ». Et en cas de litige, l’affaire sera entendue devant a Cour Suprême.
Afin de procéder dans cette analyse, il est essentiel de voir le rôle et le pouvoir du Premier Ministre
de l’ile Maurice concernant les grèves, prévoit le section 82 du Employment Relations Act 2008 :
82. Acute national crisis
(1) Where the duration of a strike or lock-out which is not unlawful is such that an industry or a
service is likely to be seriously affected, or employment is threatened, or where the Prime Minister is
of opinion that the continuance of the strike or lock-out may result in a real danger to life, health or
personal safety of the whole or part of the population, the Prime Minister may –
(a) apply to the Tribunal for an order for the establishment of a minimum service unless it is provided
for under section 81; or
(b) apply to the Supreme Court for an order prohibiting the continuation of the strike or lock-out.
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(2) Where the Prime Minister makes an application under subsection (1)(a), the Tribunal shall, within
48 hours, make an order on the number and occupations and departments necessary for the
maintenance of the minimum service and the order shall be complied with forthwith.
(3) Where the Supreme Court makes an order under subsection (1)(b), it shall refer the parties to the
labour dispute giving rise to the strike or lock-out to the Tribunal for arbitration.
(4) Where a labour dispute is referred to the Tribunal under subsection (3) the Tribunal shall hear
the case de die in diem and make an award within 30 days of the referral.
Registration of Trade Union

Tout d’abord, la première question qui se pose: “Are trade unions corporate bodies” ?
A l’île Maurice, la section 9 du Employment Relations Act 2008 prévoit que « Trade Union to be a
corporate body ». Under section 4-8 of Employment Relations Act 2008, the Registrar of Association
has powers to register or cancel trade unions to issue a certificate of registration within 7 days of the
registration of a trade union and to keep the register of Trade Unions including federations and con-
federations.
For a Trade Union to be registered, there must be office bearers: a president, a secretary, and these
people may represent the interest of the workman since the case of National Association of Local
Government Officer v/s Bolton Corporation.
A register of association may however cancel registration of a Trade Union for the following reasons:
i. Fraud
ii. Number of members is below 30
iii. The registrar of Association may refuse registration because according to his/her views,
the trade union will create chaos in Mauritius
The remedy is in the form of a judicial review i.e applicant is asking the Supreme Court in its original
jurisdiction to quash the order enacted by that Commission not to register his/her trade union.
In Mauritius, there is the leading case of Private Enterprise Employees Union v/s Industrial Relation
Commission, where the IRC refused to register a trade union and its decision was challenged because
according to applicant, section 13 of the Constitution protects “the right to form and belong to a trade
union”. However, the Supreme Court in its judgment gives a decision in favour of the respondent on
the ground that parliament also imposes reasonable restriction to protect order, rights and freedom of
people.
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Membership
Any person in Mauritius may be a member of a trade union. He may be a Mauritian, or foreigner
provided he has not been convicted for fraud of any offence during the three preceding years or has
committed dishonesty or is not a member of that trade union.
For young persons, s/he must be minimum 16 years to join a trade union but s/he cannot be an officer
or negotiator unless s/he is 18 years old or above.
Federation and Confederation

A number of Trade Unions may join to form a federation and a number of federation may group
together to form a confederation. These are encouraged by the International Labour Organisation
(ILO).
Question :
“Incorporating a trade union is a long and steady process”.
Discuss.
Closed-Shops
In England, there are closed-shops. It may prevent a worker to join a trade union of his/her choice
and same is again a breach of freedom of association. In Young, James and Webster v/s UK 1981,
the European Court of Human Rights had ruled that the legislation which allow compulsory
membership of a particular union was an infringement of freedom of association as it restricted the
freedom of the individual to join a trade union of their choice.
Legal representative of trade union

The worker may be represented by his legal advisor or a member of his trade union as provided under
section 64 of the Workers’ Rights Act 2019.
A representative of a trade union is important in case of a disciplinary committee in order to allow
any worker to enjoy a fair trial prior to his/her dismissal. However, in the case Retreaders v/s Marie,
where the employer refused that a member of the worker’s trade union, Jack Bizlall because of his
constitutional right as provided under section 8 of the constitution; “Right to property”. The matter
was heard before the Supreme Court which held that any person has a right to property under section
8 of the Constitution and thus the employer may refuse that Mr Jack Bizlall put his foot on the
premises.
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The Prime Minister and strike

In case of a strike, the Prime Minister may intervene according to section 82 of the Employment
Relation 2018 if in his opinion, the continuance of a strike or lockout may result in a real danger to
life, health or personal safety of the whole or part of the population, the Prime Minister may apply to
the Supreme Court to prohibit the continuance of strike or lockout and he may apply to the
Employment Relations Tribunal (ERT) for an establishment of a minimum service.
Trade Union and their recognition

It is important to note that our domestic law provides for the registration or not of a trade union.
Normally, trade unions are registered and they must be fully recognised under section 36, 37 and 38
of the Employment Relations Act 2008. It is important to note that any worker has a right to strike
whenever there is a labour dispute or that no agreement has been found. In the case of Sullivan v/s
Union of Artisan of the Sugar Industry 1978 MR 20, the Supreme Court held that “an unregistered
trade union has no legal entity and cannot sue as such”.
Agency Shop
Any trade Union shall claim or receive trade union fee provided that it is registered trade union; that
is, check-off agreement. Once a trade union has been registered, a deduction of trade union fee from
the wages of a worker shall be made provided the worker has consented in writing.
Section 43 of the Employment Relations Act 2008 provided that no trade union shall claim or receive
any trade union fee unless he is registered.
Collective bargaining
Collective bargaining is provided under section 2 of the Employment Relations Act 2008 which
provides that:
““collective bargaining” means negotiations relating to terms and conditions of employment or to the
subject-matter of a procedure agreement;”
In the leading case of Crafter v/s Veithc, Lord Wrights stated that: the right of workmen to strike is
an essential element in the principle of collective bargaining. The Supreme court held that trade
unions have no guaranteed right to an effective bargaining or right to strike to declare lockout.
Question :
Why is it important to join a trade union from the perspective of an educator?
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5.0 Alternative Dispute Resolution

Prior to any strive, any labour dispute may be referred first to the Commission of Conciliation and
Mediation (CCM) provided that parties to a labour dispute have negotiated first for a statutory period
of 90 days but no more.
Now, a deadlock may be reached by the parties. In this circumstance, any party aggrieved by a
rejection of the dispute may within 21 days of the date of the notice under section 65 (3) of the
Employment Relations Act 2008 appeal against the rejection to the Employment Relations Tribunal
(ERT) which will confirm the decision which has been made by the CCM or revoke the decision held
by the CCM which takes the form of an order within 60 days of receipt of the application of appeal.
The CCM refers to settle dispute with a view to reconcile parties with any recommendation.
The President of the CCM may even investigate as he thinks fit but there are two options:
a) An agreement (conciliation) has been reached by the parties to the dispute
b) No agreement has been reached by the parties to the dispute
A. An agreement (conciliation) has been reached by the parties to the dispute
That agreement is formed in writing and signed by the parties to the dispute which has the effect of a
collective bargaining and all proceedings must be completed within a period of 30 days. But an
extension may be granted.
B. No agreement has been reached by the parties to the dispute
The CCM may advise parties to dispute to a voluntary arbitration, or otherwise send the matter before
the ERT for arbitration.
In case the party to the dispute refuses voluntary arbitration, it may have recourse to strike or lockout
if the party is an employer/ee within 45 days of the submission of the report by the president of the
CCM.
Arbitration
There are very often disputes between workers, employees and employers. There is of course a right
of appeal from inferior court to superior court and eventually, a right of appeal before the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) provided condition leave has been granted by the Supreme
Court for final proceeding or by special leave.
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However, parties to an agreement may settle a memorandum of understanding and there is a clause
known as “la clause compromissoire” where the parties to a dispute decide to settle this dispute by
way of an alternative path.
This clause “compromissoire” is included in the agreement such that they will have to choose an
arbitrator by common agreement. In practice, the arbitrator is a barrister of 10 years of experience or
more. However, there may be obstacle as to the appointment of arbitrator due to some factors such
as the fees to be paid. Some Indian cases have declared that “interminable time consuming, complex
and expensive court proceedings impelled jurist to search for an alternative forum, less formal, more
effective and speedy for resolution of disputes avoiding procedural trap and this lead them to the
Arbitration Act 1940”.
Such that there is a now an alternative dispute resolution which is “simple, less technical and more
responsible to the actual realities of the solution”.
In Mauritius, arbitration and “la clause compromissoire” are borrowed from French law and there are
relevant articles in the CCM and Code de Procédure Civil (Art 1026-8 CPC).
The parties must abide to “la clause compromissoire” and the leading case in Mauritius is Carcasse
v/s CIB Pension Fund SJC 160 2009 where the Supreme Court held that the party who wants to use
“la clause compromissoire” had to bring the matter before the court first in order to be able to do so
as the Committee to which this problem had to be addressed mistook itself for another party and felt
that the parties are not in agreement, the matter cannot be referred to arbitration. The arbitrator will
listen to parties.
According to Article 1026-8 of the Code of Civil Procedure; “la sentence arbitrale n’est susceptible
d’execution force qu’en virtue d’une decision exequateur emanant du juge en chambre”.
Question :
Analyser “la clause compromissoire”.
The Employment Relations Tribunal (ERT)

The Permanent Arbitration Tribunal has been repealed under the Industrial Relations Tribunal 1973
and has been replaced actually by the ERT which is enacted under section 85 of the Employment
Relations Act 2008. It is constituted of a president, two vice-presidents, not more than 10 other
members and not more than 3 independent members who shall be appointed by the Minister of Labour
and Employment Relation.
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The dispute is settled by an award and according to section 2 of the Employment Relations Act 2008,
an award is “an award made by the tribunal”. In order to put an end to an industrial dispute according
to section 70 of the Employment Relations Act 2008, the ERT may enquire into a dispute and
thereafter give an award within a delay of 90 days.
The award is now binding on all parties to whom the award applies and it is even published in the
Government Gazette according to section 75 of the Employment Relations Act 2008. An award shall
have effect on the day of its publication. An award in Mauritius has a retrospective effect; i.e on the
date specified in the award. Awards and their effect may be extended to another employer and apply
to the whole industry as enacted by section 72, 73, 74 and 75 of the Employment Relations Act 2008.
The leading case is PSSA and Government of Mauritius v/s Franchette 1989 SCJ 95 where the
Supreme Court held that:
“Once an award is given, it becomes binding and it becomes part of the employee’s contract of
service…”.
Similarly, in Mauritius Union Insurance v/s GFA 2009 SCJ 190, where the Supreme Court held that:
an award of the PAT was held not to have a binding effect as a court judgment so that a party will not
be able to apply to a judge in chambers for the execution of the award.
An award is granted provided the parties are agreeable to it, which is made on conditional offer by
the employer. An award which had not been accepted by the workers etc… is a nullity.
In fact, an award must be concluded between the parties to the dispute. An award must be claimed by
the workers, or employee and it cannot be granted “d’office” by the President of the ERT. In case an
award has been granted, it must cover the whole area of the reference because an award is wrong if a
part of the dispute is not properly considered by the tribunal.
Question:
Assess the role of the Employment Relations Tribunal as a recourse to court
proceedings.
PART II – REGISTRATION OF TRADE UNIONS

4. Application for registration
(1) Any trade union shall, not later than 30 days after the date of its formation, apply to the Registrar
for registration.
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(2) An application for registration of a trade union shall be in the approved form and shall be
accompanied by –
(a) the prescribed fee;
(b) 2 copies of the rules of the trade union;
(c) a certified copy of the minutes of proceedings of the meeting approving the formation of the trade
union; and
(d) a statement of particulars, which shall include the address of the registered office of the trade
union.
(3) The Registrar may by written notice, within 14 days of the receipt of an application under
subsection (1), require the applicant trade union to provide any additional information which he may
reasonably require for the purpose of considering the application.
(4) The Registrar may, where the applicant trade union fails to comply with the requirements of
subsection (3), refuse the application.
5. Registration of trade unions
(1) The Registrar may register a trade union where –
(a) the requirements of section 4 have been complied with;
(b) the rules of the trade union comply with this Act and the Constitution of Mauritius;
(c) the name of the trade union is not the same as that of a registered trade union or does not bear
close resemblance to that of a registered trade union;
(d) in the case of a trade union of workers that has public officers as members, membership is limited
to public officers;
(e) the trade union of workers has a minimum of 30 members;
(f) the trade union of employers has a minimum of 5 members.
(2) The Registrar shall, not later than 30 days –
(a) after receipt of an application for registration; or
(b) after receipt of information requested for under section 4 (3), register or refuse to register the
trade union.
(4) Subsection 1(d) shall not apply in relation to the registration of a federation or a confederation
comprising civil service unions and other trade unions.
(5) Where the Registrar registers a trade union under subsection (2), he shall publish a notice of
registration in the Gazette and in 2 daily newspapers, specifying, inter alia, the address of the
registered office.
(6) Where the Registrar refuses to register a trade union, he shall, within 7 days of his decision, give
written notice to the applicant trade union stating the grounds of the refusal.
(7) An applicant trade union aggrieved by a decision not to register the trade union under subsection
(2) may, within 21 days of the written notice, under subsection (6), appeal to the Tribunal against
that decision.
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(8) Any other registered trade union aggrieved by a decision of the Registrar to register a trade union
may, within 21 days of the publication of the notice in the Gazette, appeal to the Tribunal against
that decision.
(9) The Tribunal shall hear and determine an appeal made under subsection (7) or (8) within 90 days
of the date of lodging of the appeal. (9A) An appeal under subsection (8) shall be heard in the
presence of the trade union registered under subsection (2).
(10) A trade union which has not obtained its registration, whether by the Registrar or on appeal,
shall be dissolved forthwith and be wound up within 30 days of the decision of the Registrar, or the
decision on appeal, as the case may be.
(11) Where a trade union is not wound up within the time specified in sub-section (10), every officer
of the trade union shall commit an offence and the trade union shall be wound up by the Registrar in
the prescribed manner. Amended by [Act No. 5 of 2013]
6. Certificate of registration
(1) The Registrar shall, within 7 days of the registration of a trade union, issue a certificate of
registration to the trade union.
(2) A certificate of registration shall be in the approved form and shall, unless the registration is
cancelled under section 7, be conclusive evidence that the trade union is registered.
7. Cancellation of registration
(1) The registration of a trade union may be cancelled on the ground that –
(a) the trade union has ceased to exist or function;
(b) the registration was obtained by fraud or misrepresentation;
(c) the membership of the trade union has fallen below the required minimum specified in section
5(1)(e) or (f);
(d) the trade union has persistently been infringing the requirements of its rules or Parts II and III of
this Act and has failed to remedy the default, within such time limit as may be specified in a notice of
default issued by the Registrar; or
(e) in the case of a trade union that has public officers as members, membership has not been limited
to public officers.
(2) Where the Registrar –
(a) receives an application from a registered trade union for the cancellation of another trade union
on any of the grounds specified in subsection (1); or
(b) after examination of returns submitted under section 25 has reasonable cause to believe that the
registration of a trade union should be cancelled, he shall, by written notice, require the trade union
to show cause, within such time limit as may be specified in the notice, why the registration should
not be cancelled.
(3) Where the Registrar is of the opinion that the registration of a trade union should be cancelled
on any of the grounds under subsection (1), or where the trade union fails to show cause, or objects
to the application for cancellation as required under subsection (2), the Registrar shall apply to the
Tribunal for cancellation.
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(4) Where, on an application under subsection (3), the Tribunal is satisfied that the registration of a
trade union should be cancelled, the Tribunal may adjourn the hearing so as to allow the trade union
to remedy the default or failure, or may direct the Registrar to cancel the registration of the trade
union.
(5) Where, after an adjourned hearing, the Tribunal finds that the trade union has not taken adequate
steps to remedy the default or failure, it shall direct the Registrar to cancel the registration of the
trade union.
(6) The Tribunal shall complete its proceedings within 90 days of the date of application for
cancellation under subsection (3).
(7) Where the Tribunal directs the cancellation of the registration of a trade union, the order shall
also provide for the disposal of the assets of the trade union as provided for in the rules of that trade
union or in the absence of such rules, as the Tribunal may order.
(8) Where the registration of a trade union is cancelled – (a) the Registrar shall publish a notice of
the cancellation in the Gazette and in at least 2 daily newspapers; (b) the trade union shall forthwith
cease to engage in any trade union activity; and (c) the trade union shall be wound up within 30 days
or such longer period as the Registrar may allow, after the date of publication of the notice in the
Gazette under subsection (a) or, where there is an application for judicial review, within 30 days of
the judgment of the Supreme Court confirming the order of the Tribunal, as the case may be.
(9) Where a trade union is not wound up within the time specified in subsection (8)(c), every officer
of that union shall commit an offence and the trade union shall be wound up by the Registrar in the
prescribed manner.
(10) Any party aggrieved by the decision of the Tribunal may apply for a judicial review and the
Supreme Court may stay execution of the decision of the Tribunal pending the determination of the
application.
8. Register of trade unions
(1) The Registrar shall keep a register of trade unions, including federations and confederations, in
the approved manner.
(2) Any interested person may, on written application to the Registrar and against payment of the
prescribed fee, at all reasonable times, inspect the register.
WORKER’S HANDBOOK
72. Every enterprise of 100 or more workers shall issue to every worker a handbook, which shall be
in a simple and clear language. The handbook may include the following –
(a) the mission statement of the organisation;
(b) the goals and objectives of the organisation;
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(c) the corporate culture of the organisation;

(d) the organisation’s performance and prospects;
(e) the organisational charts and its communication flow charts;
(f) the contractual terms and conditions of employment of the workers;
(g) the organisation policies and procedures;
(h) the training policy and career development prospects; and
(i) the disciplinary, grievance and dispute procedures.
73. Management shall avoid impersonal forms of communication, especially when dealing with
important and sensitive issues.
CONSULTATION
74. Consultation means jointly examining and discussing problems of concern to both management
and workers. Consultation between management and workers or their trade union representatives
about operational and other day-to-day matters is necessary in all establishments, whatever their
size. Large establishments shall have systematic arrangements for management and trade union
representatives to meet regularly.
75. Management shall after consultation with the trade unions concerned set up and maintain
appropriate consultative arrangements. The arrangements shall not be used to bypass or discourage
trade unions.
76. Consultation and negotiation are closely related but distinct processes. Management and trade
unions shall consider carefully how to link the two. It may often be advantageous for the same
committee to cover both. Where there are separate bodies, systematic communication between those
involved in the two processes is essential.
Activities:
Activity 1:
As a freshly appointed President of your school trade union, you have to discuss the role of trade
unions and the different recourses available in case of dispute. Based on this fact, evaluate the role of
Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) as recourse to litigation in case of dispute resolution.
Activity 2:
Trade Unions are vital for the success of an enterprise. Discuss
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UNIT 6 Education Sectors in Mauritius

1 Introduction
2 Education in Mauritius: a flashback into educational reforms
3 The Ministry of Education and Human Resources Tertiary Education and Scientific
Research
4 The powers and duties of the Minister of Education
5 Delegation
6 Measures in the pipeline
7 Recommended readings
8 Activities
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1. Overview
After having studied the various statutes pertaining to law in education, it is now essential to analyse
the established framework of the educational sector in Mauritius. However, it is to be noted that the
government of the day has merged the pre-primary, primary, secondary and tertiary education and is
known as the Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific
Research. It may hence happen that other government opt for a structure where on one hand the
Minister of Education overviews the pre-primary and primary sectors whereas on the other hand the
Minister of Tertiary Education overviews the tertiary sector.
Learning outcomes:
✓ Analyse the evolution of education in Mauritius
✓ Provide an insight of the institutional framework in force in Mauritius
✓ Understand the structure and role of educational institutions in Mauritius
2. Education in Mauritius: a flashback into educational reforms
Being a former British colony, the history of education started with the work of Missionaries. Since
the 1940s, due to the uplifting of Mauritius on the world map, education was seen as becoming a
“…major avenue for social mobility…” (Parsuramen, 1997) so as to construct a society which will
be able to match the new avenues. To support same, the government showed more concern for
education to empower the population.
Secondary education was fee-paying until 1976. Although the World Bank and International
Monetary Fund (IMF) proposed that a serious review of the current educational system be undergone
and proposed a serious “…review of free education…” (Parsuramen, 1997) due to a poor economic
atmosphere prevailing on a worldwide basis, the government insisted that secondary education should
remain free.
But, in 1982, a Commission of Enquiry was set up and a White Paper on Education was published in
1984. Based on this investigation of the educational system, the country showed clear improvement
at all levels since 1990 as there were: “…increased primary and secondary education facilities, an
ongoing teacher training programme and expanded opportunities for technical and tertiary
education” (Parsuramen, 1997).
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Following the Jomtien Conference in 1990 and the prevailing situation, in 1991, a Master Plan for
Education was prepared. Henceforth, to match expectations, review was regular with regard to the
curriculum both at primary and secondary level. Emphasis was laid on vocational and technical
spheres to embark on a reform for the capabilities of every student. It is to be noted that at this point
in time, the CPE ‘rat race’ ranking system to select those joining star schools was still in force.
After 2002, the CPE ranking system was abolished and was replaced by the grading system. As one
might argue, it was the embryo level of the grading system. The aim behind was to reduce the pressure
on student and the government seized the opportunity to construct new schools, convert the star
schools into Form 6 schools and adapt a curriculum which was geared towards the holistic
development of the Mauritian child. In line with this objective, in 2005, a review of the curriculum
from pre-primary to secondary levels was undertaken so as to align Mauritius to worldwide
development and to ensure that the focal point of education remains the child. The finality being the
abolition of the CPE and enhancing the holistic development of the child.
With a further reform entitled Education and Human Resources Strategic Plan 2008-2020 by the
Minister of Education, Culture and Human Resources, Dr. V. Bunwaree, the 21st century students’
concern began with the integration of ICT at primary level.
The government in power as from 2005 abolished the concept of having Form 6 schools and as from
2006, a National Curriculum Framework-Secondary (NCFS) was drafted and launched in 2009 with
the aim of ensuring a follow-up of the holistic skills with “…knowledge, skills, values and attitudes”
(UNESCO-IBE, 2006) inculcated at primary level.
Another document named Education Reforms in Action 2008-2014 followed in 2008. The aim was
still to encourage a “…transition to responsible adult citizenship…” (Ministry of Education and
Human Resources, 2014). This reform once more recognised the ongoing concern for the 21st century
reality to enhance the right aptitude and knowledge so as to work towards “…positive outcomes in
education, work, and other areas of life” (Ministry of Education and Human Resources, 2014).
As one has been able to assess, every new government has tried to provide another orientation to the
educational system and the current Nine-Year Schooling (NYS) reform was in the pipeline and is
more or less an adaptation of the Education Reforms in Action 2008-2014. Although the government
has changed, the educational system still keeps its privately-owned and publicly owned schools
following the same curriculum.
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3. The Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and

Scientific Research (MOEHRTESR)
In line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); particularly the fourth one, the government
of Mauritius is mandated to ensure that facilities are provided in order to achieve the vision and
mission of the MOEHRTESR. Same is as follows:
Vision:
To create the next generation of forward-looking and innovative leaders contributing to the
transformation of the Republic of Mauritius into a high ranking, prosperous nation.
Mission:
✓ Re-engineer the education and skills development system to construct a cohesive, inclusive
and productive society.
✓ Foster a holistic education that makes of learners’ upholders of values and resilient, globally-
minded citizens.
✓ Create an enabling environment for a higher education system that both generates and equips
learners with innovative, cutting edge knowledge and deep skills for increased competence in
a dynamic work environment.
✓ Sustain existing and motivating conditions towards the recognition of Mauritius as a major
regional and Continental Education Hub
Additionally, the MOEHRTESR provides a number of objectives which can be read as follows:
✓ “To ensure that ALL children aged 3 to 5 years in Mauritius have the opportunity to develop
their individual intellectual, socio-emotional and psycho-motor skills to the best of their
capacity in order to build the confidence and self-esteem in learning that will not only prepare
them for the next level (primary school) but, more importantly, lay the foundations for
learning that will support them throughout their lifetime
✓ To sustain equitable access to quality education, ensuring that all learners attain high levels
of achievement in Literacy, Numeracy, Information and Communications Technology and
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such essential Life Skills as sound human values, healthy lifestyle and so forth as the basis for
lifelong learning and good citizenship.
✓ To ensure that all students are given the opportunity to embark on and complete higher
secondary education for employability and higher and further education and training with
the required maturity and confidence
✓ To build a system that ensures a supply of quality personnel that work collegially with a strong
management and quality assurance system to improve and support learning achievement and
overall development of all learners
✓ To provide an efficient and effective TVET system of greater public esteem responsive to the
present and future needs by having a skilled and flexible workforce
✓ To make Mauritius an intelligent island, a Knowledge Hub to serve the Region and a Centre
for Higher Learning and Excellence
✓ To build a creative and competent Human Resource base for Mauritius for sustainable
national development.
✓ To develop the Ministry into an efficient, effective, and accountable functioning public
institution that exemplifies ‘best practices’ at all levels of the organisation”
In order to achieve the vision, mission and objectives the Ministry will have to deal with a number of
stakeholders at different levels.
As such, each structure has its own organigram. For example, the primary education structure
according to the Cyprus Ministry of Education and Culture is as follows will be as follows:
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Figure 1: Structure of the Department of Primary Education

Source: ( Cyprus Ministry of Education and Culture, 2019)
4. The powers and duties of the Minister of Education
As per section 3 and 39 of the Education Act 1957, the powers and duties of the Ministry are as
follows:
“(1) The Minister shall have control of the educational system of Mauritius and shall be responsible
for the general progress and development of such system.
(2) In particular, he shall ensure –
(a) the effective direction, development and co-ordination of all educational activities in Mauritius;
(b) the recruitment and training of teachers;
(c) the progressive development for all classes of the community of practical education suited to the
age, ability and aptitude of the pupil and relevant to the needs of Mauritius;
(d) the more effective teaching of English and the spread of the English Language in Mauritius;
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(e) the further education of young people and adults through the organisation of youth services,
continuation classes and adult education classes.
39) Power of Minister to make rules

Subject to any regulations made under section 38, the Minister may make rules relating
to –
(a) any matter which he may provide or approve under this Act or the regulations
made under it;
(b) the registration of school managers, principals and teachers;
(c) the administration and management of and discipline in all Government schools, and the
Mauritius Institute of Education;
(d) the holding of examinations;
(e) the books and registers to be kept and the returns to be made by all schools;
(f) the time-table and curricula of schools in receipt of public funds;
(g) the tuition fees in schools;
(h) the transfer of pupils from one school to another;
(i) the extent of private tuition by teachers wholly paid from public funds;
(j) the training of teachers;
(k) the duration of holidays in schools;
(l) the issue of certificates.”
5. Delegation
In ensuring a supervisory role and having the final say over the undertaking of the various
stakeholders, the Minister has the right to delegate his/her powers as per section 4 of the Education
Act 1957. Same can be read as follows:
The Infrastructure Management Unit

All or any of the powers and duties conferred or imposed on the Minister by this Act may, subject to
his control, be exercised by the Permanent Secretary and such other officers of the Ministry as may
be authorised by the Minister in that behalf.
As such, the Infrastructure Management Unit is mandated to ensure that proper infrastructure is
available to the pre-primary up to the secondary sectors. The followings are observed:
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Vision:
To create “safe and inspiring learning environments” in schools
The aspiration is to have state school environments that:
✓ support the needs of a modern education system;
✓ are inspiring places for teachers to teach in;
✓ provide parents with confidence as being safe environments for students; and
✓ give students a sense of pride and a desire to learn.
Mission:
To be seen as a high quality property management team that is responsive to changes in demand.
The IMU aims at having an excellent reputation in regard to:

✓ Implementation and monitoring of infrastructural projects
✓ Effective and efficient management of assets; ; and
✓ Building confidence and trust of stakeholders in the sector.
Objectives:
✓ Ensure that schools are safe and in good physical condition
✓ Ensure timely implementation of infrastructural projects
✓ Ensure proper communication with all stakeholders
Pre-Primary sector
The Early Childhood Care and Education Authority

The Early Childhood Care and Education Authority (ECCEA) is a body corporate which was
established in June 2008. It is handled by the Ministry of Education and Human Resources,
Tertiary Education and Scientific Research and aims at the promotion and provision of pre-
school education and services in the Republic of Mauritius.
The ECCEA formerly recognised as the Pre School Trust Fund, which was established in 1984
came into operation in June 2008 after the promulgation of the Early Childhood Care and
Education Authority Act 21 of 2007 which was proclaimed on 16 June 2008. The vision and the
mission of the ECCEA is as follows:
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Vision:
Provision of quality preschool education within a safe, inclusive and child friendly environment.
Mission:
The ECCEA aims at providing equal access for all children to quality pre-schooling including those
at risk of delayed development and disabilities and those coming from conditions of vulnerability,
through a child-centered and play-based approach, with the involvement of the parents.
Functions
The Authority shall –
• implement policies of Government with regard to early childhood care and education in the
Republic of Mauritius.
• implement projects, programmes and activities on early childhood care and education initiated
by the Ministry in collaboration with line Ministries, non-governmental organizations or local
and international agencies.
• set norms and standards for play equipment, play materials, play space, furniture, books and
children’s literature used by educational institutions.
• carry out the registration and supervision of educational institutions, their managers, educators
and other staff engaged in early childhood care and education.
• advise on the development of training programmes on early childhood care and education for
educators and other staff in educational institutions.
• administer payment of any form of grants to registered educational institutions and manage grants
in collaboration with the relevant Ministries.
• take such action as may be appropriate, in collaboration with relevant line Ministries and
authorities, to prevent any form of violence, including sexual abuse, negligent treatment,
maltreatment or exploitation, on young children.
The Authority shall have such powers as are necessary to enable it to effectively attain its objects and
discharge its functions and may, in particular, raise funds and secure financial and other support for
its activities.
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It is to be noted that the ECCEA overviews the different schools of Mauritius which are split into
Zones. For example, in 2017, according to the digest report of Statistics Mauritius, the coverage by
Zone is as follows:
Figure 2: Educational Zones in Mauritius

Source: (Statistics Mauritius, 2018)
Concerning the regulations, it is to be observe that the Early Childhood Care and Education Authority
Act as well as the National Curriculum Framework are tailored according to governmental vision.
Among others, this framework acknowledges the importance of stakeholders (parents, family,
community, etc… as well as national and international agencies. Additionally, the guiding principles
are those which go in line with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.
The main areas of learning while enhancing a holistic development, aim at providing all the means
for the child to develop appropriate care, affection, high quality learning experiences. Finally, the
expected result is the enhancement of learner capacity to become well balanced creative adults.
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Primary Sector
Just like the pre-primary sector, most schools go according to the syllabus tailored from the NCF of
the MOETESRHR. The exception will be for private fee-paying school. As such, as per its mission
and vision, the current government is facing the challenge of being able to create a system which
fosters innovation while meeting the holistic and inclusive criteria so as to include the 21st century
students’ where education will be available to youngsters despite their economic and social
background. One might suggest here, that system desires to gear education towards equal
opportunities though they may not have the right intellectual or financial means.
This new system proposes new avenues and new means of assessment which will contribute
hopefully, to the holistic development of the child.
The objectives of the system are as follows:

a. provide students with all the competencies and knowledge required for life
b. allow students to embark on various avenues
c. promote a holistic development of the child for him/her to match global challenges
d. ease the transition of students from the primary to the secondary level.
Upon a close analysis, one can see that there is a will to embark on a slow transition from the lower
secondary to the upper secondary.
Besides we can observe that:

a) at grade 6 students have been directed towards regional schools until grade 9
b) at grade 9, students will undergo an examination which will determine if they will be directed
towards:
i. Academies
ii. Regional Secondary schools
iii. Vocational schools
The changes seem to require a lot from the students as they have to:
a) take an examination at Grade 6. If they pass the examination they will be admitted in a
secondary school to study up to Grade 9 and if not they will be admitted in the extended
stream (formerly known as pre-vocational) of the same institution.
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b) be embarked on three different types of institutions depending on his/her choice after the Form
III national assessment examination.
The Nine-Year Continuous Education Schooling pillars

In order to succeed in any new system of policy making, stakeholders have to be involved at all levels.
These elements are analysed are as follows:
a. A review of the curriculum.

The curriculum will have to be reviewed to match the scopes widened with the introduction
of academic subjects (core subjects) together with non-academic ones (non-core subjects).
Having a blend of both aims at providing the student with the possibility of expanding his/her
holistic capabilities and thus match the needs of the 21st century learner.
b. New pedagogical means

The NYS will use new pedagogical tools adapted to the current situation. For example, using
new technology as a pedagogical tool will become a reality in every school.
c. New evaluation strategy

The proposed system will have new methods of evaluation. This would have as objective the
assessment of the aptitude of students from a holistic point of view.
d. Teachers’ empowerment
By means of the new evaluation tools, it is expected that teachers’ will be empowered and
will consequently enrich their teaching practice.
e. A learning environment
An environment which will, by making use of ICT, better contribute to remedial exercises.
f. Being accountable for the performance
It is also expected that by implementing this strategy, teachers will be more accountable
towards society for the performance of students.
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The Nine-Year Continuous Education Schooling major changes

With the rise of this new dawn in the educational system, major changes will be coming in the
following fields:
1. Supporting and enhancement programme as from Grade 1

As from Grade 1 (5 years old), the pupils will be offered “Remedial teachers” (2016) and
“Support teachers” as from 2017 so as to avoid students lagging behind.
2. Introduction of core, non-core and optional choices.

In 2017, students will be offered a wide range of choices, from academic to non-academic
ones.
a) Physical Education has been introduced at primary level as a possible stepping stone for
secondary level. It is to be pointed out that this subject is already examinable at secondary
level. Although not taught in all schools, one might note that the success of this subject has
resulted in it being proposed at primary level.
b) ICT is maintained but enhanced with technology becoming part and parcel of the learning
process.
c) Communication –which might go beyond the bookish approach but might also include skills
exercises- aims at easing adaptation of students at secondary level.
d) Arts as a means to allow the student to express himself/herself otherwise as this discipline
comprises music and drama. Drama and music, becoming a rising concern in stretching the
capabilities of the child by allowing him/her to express himself/herself in another way.
It is to be noted that the subjects currently being considered as “core” have been maintained.
3. From Certificate of Primary Education (CPE) to Primary School Achievement

Certificate (PSAC)
The aim behind this change is to wave off the pressure generally exercised at the age of 11 on
the student and “bring” it to the age of 14. The “A+” will be eliminated and be replaced by a
grading system.
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It is expected that at this age, students are in a better position to cope with competition and
thus will be able to better face examination as non-core subjects will also be evaluated.
Additionally, “communication skills” will also be evaluated by the Mauritius Examination
Syndicate and other non-core subjects will be evaluated step by step.
4. Regionalisation
Regionalisation is the only element from the actual system which will be maintained. Students
undergoing the PSAC will have to choose colleges according to their respective catchment
areas, as devised by the Ministry of Education.
5. Grade 7 instead of Form I

Reaching Grade 7, based on their academic performances (PSAC), students will be under the
obligation to join a regional secondary school. PSAC results will determine the choice of the
college.
6. Academies
The introduction of Academies is another new perspective which is being introduced. Eleven
national secondary schools will be transformed into “Academies”. The aim behind is to have
an elite as from Grade 10. Naturally their holistic development of the elite will also be
fostered.
7. Towards the extinction of the pre-vocational

In widening the scope of the student, the NYS will provide the holistic development of the
student at secondary level across the board: from main stream to pre-vocational. The NYS is
thus geared towards a uniform academic cycle and curriculum up to Grade 9. It is expected
that after undergoing the Form III national examination, the student will be in a better position
to choose the avenue which will suit his/her personality.
Consequently, the pre-vocational department will phase out as three additional years (from
Grade 7 to 9) are now provided to students. The three years are extended to four.
8. Regional scholarship
Excluding national scholarship, regional ones will also be allocated to students. Having more
scholarships will act as an incentive for the students who are of a lesser ability.
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9. The National Certificate of Education (NCE)

With the NYS, the Form III assessment will disappear and it will be replaced by the National
Certificate of Education. The NCE will be a complete certificate with academic and non-
academic fields.
10. Grade 9: What’s next?

Finally, after Grade 9, the choice for professional orientation will become larger. He/she might
opt for:
i) Regional school- stay where s/he has begun his/her studies as from Grade 7
ii) Academies- if s/he has well performed and is willing to join the elite
iii) Vocational school- to embrace a profession
It is to be noted that the above is also applicable to ZEP schools which lay much emphasis on its
mission statement. The mission statement which is itself based on reducing inequality and providing
equal access to everyone whichever his/her Zone. As such, these schools ensure that:
✓ Internal and external stakeholders are empowered

✓ Flexibility and autonomy on pedagogical front through networking of ZEP personnel and
benchmarking practices
✓ Evaluation and monitoring of processes on a regular basis
Secondary sector
As stated above, the NYS aims among others at bridging the gap between the primary and the
secondary sector. The current system is constituted of private school, fee-paying schools and well as
governmental schools. Furthermore, with the system in place the secondary schools have a pre-
vocational department which follows its own curriculum. Nevertheless, with the NYS, the pre-
vocational branch is in the phase-out pipeline.
The PSEA
The PSEA was established in 1976 and was entrusted with the mission of promoting and encouraging
education in the Private Secondary Education Sector.
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In its present mandate, PSEA acts as an enforcement agency by overseeing the standard of
infrastructure in Private Secondary Schools and school operations across the sector. In addition, it
manages the disbursement of grants under the New Comprehensive Grant Formula by assessing
school facilities and other parameters used as a basis for payment of grant elements and subsequently
effecting payment.
The Authority is also responsible for:

✓ Promoting and encouraging education in secondary or pre-vocational schools.
✓ Setting up and operating, with the Minister’s approval, schemes to provide aid.
✓ Controlling the manner in which and the purposes for which aid is made use of.
✓ Ensuring that the terms and conditions of employment of staff in secondary or pre-vocational
schools are fair and reasonable.
✓ The payment of grants properly accruing to secondary or pre-vocational schools.
✓ Registration and inspection of secondary or pre-vocational schools, their Rectors, Managers
and teachers.
Another interesting example is the one that applies to private secondary schools where power is being
delegated to the PSEA by virtue of section 7A of the Education Act 1957. Same may be read as
follows:
7A Powers of the Private Secondary Schools Authority
(1) Subject to subsection (2), the powers conferred and the duties imposed upon the Minister under
this Part shall, in respect of a private secondary school, be exercisable by the Private Secondary
Schools Authority.
(2) Notwithstanding subsection (1), to the extent that the powers referred to in subsection (1) relate
to:
(a) pedagogical inspection;
(b) the setting up of the Appeals Tribunal under section 25, these powers shall be exercisable by the
Minister.
With reference to the above, the organigram of the PSEA is provided on the next page.
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Figure 3: The PSEA organisation structure

Source: (Government of Mauritius, 2019)
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MEDCO
Still within the field of secondary schools, it is essential to refer to MEDCO schools which adopt
another structure according to the governmental vision of 1991. The idea of forming MEDCO schools
was the result of a workshop on the implementation of the Master Plan for Education held in June
1991. The Ministry of Education responded positively to this idea which was an innovation in
education and ensured a lot for the success for this project.
Objectives:
(i) to foster the development of and promote education and training including vocational and
technical;
(ii) to act as Consultants, Agents and Managers of secondary schools and to conduct research in the
secondary education sector;
(iii) to buy, construct, rent or lease and acquire by purchase or otherwise, develop all lands and
lease-hold rights of any land including state land buildings, for educational purposes; and
(iv) to trade in educational materials and equipment.
(v) to become employer of redundant/excess staff of private secondary schools and to absorb all
future redundant/excess teachers and non-teaching staff and to redeploy them in the State Schools
and Government Departments.
It is to be noted that the management of MEDCO is undertaken by a Board of Directors comprising

a Chairman appointed by the Ministry of Education and Human Resources.
Tertiary Education and Scientific Research Division

The vision of the new government is to ensure that Mauritius rises its intellectual capital level. As
such, more measures are being implemented and one of these is free education at tertiary level since
2019. However, it is essential to point out that the tertiary sector is overviewed by the Tertiary
Education Commission.
The Tertiary Education Commission

The Tertiary Education Commission has as objectives to promote, plan, develop and coordinate post-
secondary education in Mauritius and to implement an overarching regulatory framework to achieve
high international quality. It also has the responsibility to allocate government funds to the Tertiary
Education Institutions under its purview and to ensure accountability and optimum use of resources.
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The existing public sector universities are as follows:
➢ University of Mauritius (UoM),

➢ University of Technology (UTM),
➢ Mahatma Gandhi Institute (MGI),
➢ Rabindranath Tagore Institute (RTI),
➢ The Open University of Mauritius (OU), previously known as the Mauritius College of the
Air (MCA),
➢ Fashion and Design Institute (FDI),
➢ Université des Mascareignes (merger of Swami Dayanand Institute of Management and the
Institut Supérieur de Technologie).
Excluding the above, Mauritius also witnessed the rise of various private institutions and same goes
in line with the increased worldwide concern to raise intellectual capital. It is to be noted that these
institutions are generally their own awarding body and that courses range from Certificate to PhD.
For the sake of this element, TEC is mandated for institutional accreditation in order to ensure quality.
Consequently, the TEC is also responsible for the allocation of funds fostering planning and
coordinating the development of post-secondary education and training. This is why TEC has been
mandated to determine the recognition and equivalence of post-secondary qualifications. Back to this
concern raised with private institutions, it is to be noted that they generally operate on part-time basis
and with not so many cohorts. It being from a franchise or any other means, local partners are
generally involved in the course delivery.
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is the structure which caters for people
oriented towards skilled jobs in both existing and emerging economic sectors to be able to compete
globally. It is a perfect blend of in-service workers and fresher with their own educational background
and social characteristics.
The main provider of the TVET program is the Mauritius Institute of Training and
Development (MITD). The MITD offers various technical programs to provide human resource
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training to meet the needs of the world of work at the middle professional level. The MITD is also
the provider of National Diploma.
The MITD is also widely spread and has as at around 350 private training institutions, registered with
the Mauritius Qualifications Authority (MQA), which offer training, mainly in management and
information technology
TVET sector regulation is ensured by the Mauritius Qualifications Authority(MQA) which also
develops and maintains the national Qualifications Framework (NQF). The MQA is hence mandated
for the assurance of quality of all training (state or the private sector), and also deals with recognition
and equivalence of technical qualifications. Consequently, the MQA registers training institutions,
managers, program officers and trainers and approves courses as well as accrediting training
institutions and courses. The quality assurance mechanism allows for accreditation of the providers
of training, which ensures that courses delivered at different levels are evaluated for high quality
education and training.
The role of facilitator including design and management of the levy grant scheme is carried out by
the Human Resource Development Council (HRDC).
The MITD
The Mauritius Institute of Training and Development (MITD), just like the ECCA is a body corporate
established under Act 12 of 2009 which has taken over the activities of the ex-Industrial and
Vocational Training Board (ex-IVTB) and part of the ex-Technical School Management Trust Fund
(ex-TSMTF) as from 16 November 2009. The MITD operates under the aegis of the Ministry of
Education and Human Resources.
Objectives:
▪ to promote excellence in technical, vocational education and training;

▪ to promote research and enhance knowledge in technical, vocational education and training;
▪ to increase access to technical, vocational education and training through the setting up of
training centres;
▪ to promote exchange programmes and courses with other institutions in technical, vocational
education and training;
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▪ and to assist in the apprenticeship of persons who are, or will be, employed in commercial,
technical and vocational fields.
Vision:
To be the leader in human capital development in the region and beyond for global employability
Mission:
We provide and promote innovative and quality learning and certification services for the
development of a sustainable human capital.
It is to be noted here that the MITD strictly abides to the The Mauritius Institute of Training and
Development act 2009
The MQA
The Mauritius Qualifications Authority (MQA) was established as a body corporate under the
Mauritius Qualifications Authority Act 2001 and falls under the aegis of the Ministry of Education
and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research. The MQA is in service since
2002 and its main role as a regulatory body is to be the guardian of the National Qualifications
Framework (NQF) – a system designed to recognise the attainment of knowledge, understanding and
skills by people in Mauritius; to ensure compliance with provisions for registration and accreditation
of training institutions; to ensure that standards and registered qualifications are internationally
comparable; to recognize and evaluate qualifications for the purpose of establishing their equivalence
in the TVET sector and to recognize and validate competencies acquired outside the formal education
and training systems.
Vision:
Valued Qualifications for Employability & LifeLong Learning
Mission:
To continuously enhance good practices and relevant expertise to safeguard public interest in quality
education and training
The HRDC
Just as all various the avenues of the MOETESR, the Human Resource Development Council
(HRDC) was set up as a corporate body in 2003 as per the HRD Act 2003. The setting up of the
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HRDC was inspired after recommendations of a report on National Integrated Training Strategy,
prepared by an International Labour Organisation (ILO) consultant, whereby the need for an apex
body that would guide and provide the necessary thrust for human resource development in Mauritius
was felt.
HRDC has been vested with the responsibility of looking after and promoting the development of the
labour force in Mauritius in line with the requirements of a fast growing economy.
Vision:
A Creative and Competent Human Resource Base
Mission:
To develop institutional synergies for an integrated Human Resource Development Strategy
Objectives:
The objectives of the HRDC as spelt out in the HRD Act 2003 are to:
✓ Promote human resource development in line with national economic and social objectives;
✓ Stimulate a culture of training and lifelong learning at the individual, organisational and
national levels to enhance employability of the labour force and increase productivity; and
✓ Provide the necessary human resource thrust for a successful transformation of the country’s
economy into a Knowledge Economy.
Functions
The functions of the HRDC as spelt out in the HRD Act 2003 are to:
✓ Advise the Minister on the formulation of human resource development policies and
strategies;
✓ Administer, control and operate the National Training Fund;
✓ Establish linkages between the education and training systems and the workplace;
✓ Provide a forum for constant dialogue and consensus building among stakeholders on all
matters relating to human resource development;
✓ Take appropriate measures to reduce the mismatch between demand and supply of human
resource;
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✓ Commission research in the field of human resource development;

✓ Encourage employers to invest in staff training with a view to upgrading their skills and
acquiring new skills;
✓ Initiate and monitor studies on the relevance and impact of training activities in relation to
the socio-economic development of the country;
✓ Promote knowledge management and benchmarking at enterprise and national levels to
improve the effectiveness of human resource development;
✓ Identify and monitor the implementation of appropriate skills development and
apprenticeship schemes and programmes;
✓ Monitor the participation of employers, employees and job seekers in training programmes;
✓ Develop schemes for retraining and multi-skilling;
✓ Provide incentives for training institutions to acquire and upgrade their equipment and
facilities; and
✓ Perform such other functions as are necessary to further the objects of the HRD Council.
The Mauritius National Commission for UNESCO
Being a signatory of the UN Charter, Mauritius is ethically bound to follow international norms,
reports and recommendations. As such, the Mauritius National Commission for UNESCO (or Nat
Com), which falls under the aegis of the Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary
Education and Scientific Research, was established on the 25th October 1968.
Mauritius belongs to the Eastern Africa Cluster which comprises of 13 Member States (Comoros,
Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Tanzania,
Somalia, South Sudan and Uganda) and which falls under the purview of the Director of the Multi
Sectorial Office for East Africa, based in Nairobi, Kenya.
Mission:
Composition
The Nat Com Board comprises members from both Government and private organizations
concerned with education, science, culture and information and it can co-opt, in an advisory
capacity, individuals who can help in carrying out UNESCO’s mission.
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Functions
The function of the Mauritius Nat Com is to help to realize UNESCO’S goals through the
implementation of specific programmes at the national level. As a decision-making body, it has
the following main functions:
✓ to advise Government on the activities and programmes of UNESCO;
✓ to encourage the active participation of national, governmental and non-governmental
institutions and individuals in the formulation and execution of UNESCO’s programmes
and activities;
✓ to ensure that decisions taken by the UNESCO General Conference are executed at
national level;
✓ to assume (on its own or in collaboration with their bodies) the responsibility for the
operation of UNESCO projects in the country and for national participation in sub-
regional or international UNESCO activities;
✓ to assist in the preparation of: –
a. the draft Medium - Term Strategy for UNESCO (6 years);

b. Draft Programme and Budget (2 years) documents and forward relevant views and
comments to UNESCO; and
✓ to give directions to the Secretariat for the implementation of various activities
Objectives
In accordance with the Charter of National Commissions for UNESCO, the objectives of the Nat
Com are as follows:
✓ Contribute effectively in the formulation, execution and follow-up of its programmes;

✓ Encourage participation of national and governmental institution and various individuals
in the formulation and execution of UNESCO’s programmes so as to secure for the
Organization all the intellectual, scientific, artistic and administrative assistance that it
may require;
✓ Disseminate information on UNESCO’s programme and activities;
✓ Contribute to national activities relating to UNESCO’s programme and its evaluation.
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Quality Assurance and Inspection Division

In line with provisions made in the Education Act and SDG 4 for the promotion and maintenance of
high quality standards in secondary schools, an appropriate quality assurance mechanism had to be
implemented. The Quality Assurance and Inspection Division (QAID) was created so as to ensure
that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading
to relevant and effective learning outcomes. As at date, the division is fully operational with a
Director, and Senior Quality Assurance Officer and 20 Quality Assurance Officers.
The vision of the QAID has been articulated as follows: “to embed notions of quality into every aspect
of school life for effective and efficient education delivery and improved student outcomes in a
globally competitive environment”.
The core activities of the QAID include:
✓ Gauging the status of teaching and learning in secondary schools

✓ Identification of training needs through departmental meetings
✓ Support to educators through pedagogical advice tendered
✓ Monitoring of the Extended Program and implementation of curriculum changes.
✓ Facilitating the Continuous Professional Development of Educators
✓ Monitoring of the conduct of Grade 9 National Assessments
✓ Analysis of performance and writing up of subject reports for Grade 9 National Assessment.
✓ School profiling and reporting on the five school domains: Teaching and Learning, Student
Attainment, Leadership and Management and School Ethos and Climate and school
Infrastructure.
6. Measures in the pipeline
The Special Education Needs Authority Bill is still in the pipeline and the Explanatory Memorandum
stipulates that:
The object of this Bill is to provide for the establishment of a Special Education Needs Authority
which shall be responsible for –
(a) monitoring and facilitating the implementation of special education needs policies of the
Government;
(b) advising the Minister on the formulation of policies and on the criteria for the registration of –
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(i) special education needs institutions;

(ii) the teaching and non-teaching staff, and any other resource person, of special education needs
institutions;
(c) providing guidelines for the design and development of curriculum for special education needs;
(d) the harmonisation and promotion of programmes and policies for the education and holistic
development of persons with special education needs, in line with the Convention on the Rights of the
Child and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
➢ Nine Year Schooling brochure :

➢ Education Act 1954
➢ http://ministry-education.govmu.org/English/Pages/default.aspx
8.0 Activities
Activity 1 :
“The Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research
is legally bound to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal four, Quality Education by 2030 in
Mauritius”.
By making use of relevant information, discuss the viability of this statement.
Activity 2:
Assess the role powers and duties of the Minister of of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary
Education and Scientific Research
138
References
Cyprus Ministry of Education and Culture, 2019. Department of Primary Edcuation. [Online]
Available at: http://www.moec.gov.cy/dde/en/structure_dpt_primary_ed.html
[Accessed 10 April 2019].
Government of Mauritius, 2019. Private Secondary Education Authority. [Online]

Available at: http://psea.govmu.org/English/AboutUs/Pages/Organisation-Structure.aspx
[Accessed 13 02 2019].
Kistamah, S., 2010. Multisectoral coordination : The case of Mauritius. Moscow, Early Childhood Care and
Education Authority, Mauritius.
Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research, n.d. NYS
BROCHURE FRENCH.PDF. [Online]
Available at: http://ministry-
education.govmu.org/English//DOCUMENTS/NYS%20BROCHURE%20FRENCH.PDF
[Accessed 03 May 2016].
Ministry of Education and Human Resources, 2014. Education Reforms in Action 2008-2014, s.l.: Ministry of
Education and Human Resources.
Parsuramen, A., 1997. Master Plan for education for the year 2000: the Mauritian experience. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning.
Statistics Mauritius, 2018. Government of Mauritius. [Online]

Available at:
http://statsmauritius.govmu.org/English/StatsbySubj/Documents/Digest/Education/Digest_Edu_Yr17.pdf
[Accessed 13 04 2019].
UNESCO-IBE, 2006. World data on Education, s.l.: s.n.
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UNIT 7: International Legal Framework pertaining to education
1.0 Overview
2.0 The right to education in international law
3.0 International human rights instruments
4.0 Acceptance of international human rights norms
5.0 Legal framework for the protection of human rights at national level
7.0 Activities
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1.0 Overview
Before 1948, human rights protections existed primarily at the national level (in national
constitutions, for instance). That all changed in the aftermath of World War II where the United
Nations was explicitly established to: ‘maintain international peace and security’ and to promote and
encourage: ‘respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to
race, sex, language, or religion’.33 As part of it mission, in 1948, the international community adopted
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).34 Unit 7 deals with the relevant international
instruments compiled in the handbook published in 2019, by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).
Objectives
The objectives of the Unit are to:
• Understand and assess the relevant sections of the international Conventions, treaties and
Protocols pertinent to education will be assessed.
• underline their importance on the international front
• highlight their relevance to the Mauritian education system
Introduction
The UDHR is a milestone document declaring, for the first time, that the human rights contained
therein are a: ‘common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations’, and committing the
international community to promote, secure, recognise, and observe those rights.
Among its 30 articles, the right to education is recognised as a human right. It reads:
Article 26
(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary
and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and
professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be
equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the
strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and
shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
33
Charter of the United Nations (adopted 24 October 1945, entered into force 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS XVI (UN
Charter) Article 1.
34
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948) UNGA Res 217 A(III) (UDHR).
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(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their
children.
The UDHR, although not legally-binding in the sense of being a treaty, carries great political and
normative weight. Its normative value is reflected in the fact that it has inspired hundreds of
international, regional, and national human rights laws and instruments. As of 2018, the right to
education is guaranteed in at least 48 international and regional instruments. Mauritius has ratified
the UDHR on the 7th May 1949 in the GN No.100/1949.
2.0 The right to education in international law

The international human rights regime comprises mainly of human rights treaties. Human rights
treaties make up what is known as conventional human rights law. Treaties are multilateral
agreements concluded by international organisations and then opened up for ratification, accession,
approval, or acceptance by states.35 This process signals states’ consent to be legally bound by the
treaty. International human rights law has the following purposes to:
• set internationally agreed normative standards of conduct of states towards those living in
their jurisdiction
• delimit the normative content of each human right (owed to rights-holders) and the legal
obligations attached to implementing the normative content (the corresponding obligations of
duty-bearers)
• legally commit states to implementing their obligations at the national level, making human
rights a reality for all
Strictly speaking, human rights treaties (also known as covenants, conventions, protocols, or charters)
are legally-binding multilateral agreements between states (horizontal application). However, the
normative content of a human rights treaty is directed and owed to the people living in the jurisdiction
of the state party (vertical application). This means that under international law, only states can be in
breach of a treaty (not non-state actors such as individuals or business enterprises) and only states
can be held accountable for violations at the international level. Human rights treaties therefore
35
Ratification is a two-step procedure: first an authorised representative of the state signs the treaty, signalling its
intention to become legally bound by the treaty (this intention is not itself binding). The state then concludes the process
by ratifying the treaty. Acceptance and approval are synonymous with ratification. Accession has the same legal effect
as ratification but is concluded directly, without signing.
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require domestication, that is, they must be incorporated into the domestic legal order of the state
party in order to ensure enjoyment by rights-holders.
At the international level, there are nine core UN human rights treaties:
• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment (1984)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
Members of Their Families (1990)
• International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance
(2006)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006).
Some of these treaties are generic, for example, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights (1966)36 and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)68 which
apply to everyone, whilst other treaties are thematic and apply to specific groups, for example, the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)37 applies to
women and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)70 applies to people
with disabilities. In addition, instruments are adopted by UN agencies, such as the International
Labour Organisation and UNESCO.
Human rights, aspects of human rights, and issues concerning human rights are also dealt with in
other areas of international law, for instance, labour law, humanitarian law, refugee law, and criminal
law.
Region-specific human rights legal instruments also exist to strengthen the protection and enjoyment
of human rights by adapting human rights standards to regional contexts, taking into account shared
customs, values, cultures, and practices.
36
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3
January 1976) 993 UNTS 3 (ICESCR).
37
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976)
999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR).
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Although the primary source of international human rights law is human rights treaties, other sources
of international law known as soft law, which are material sources (legal instruments or other
documents) that do not give rise to binding legal obligations, have become increasingly important in
the practice of international human rights law. Soft law is often legal or quasi-legal in its content,
however, it cannot be legally enforced.
Acceptance of and compliance with such instruments and documents by a state is entirely up to the
state in question. If a state chooses to be bound by soft law, it is only bound in a moral or political
sense. This may sound like a downside to soft law but sometimes, its non-legally binding nature
means that states may be more likely to engage knowing that no hard obligations will follow, and it
may also allow for more innovative content.
Soft law comprises instruments, that are legal in character but do not impose legal obligations, and
documents (any document that is quasi-legal in character), such as: declarations, frameworks for
action, general comments and recommendations, guidelines, resolutions, recommendations, advisory
opinions, decisions of international and national bodies, and guiding principles. The most famous
example of soft law is the UDHR. Soft law has several functions, it:
• clarifies and interprets existing human rights law, for example, exegesis by United Nations
treaty bodies through general comments/ recommendations, and decisions by treaty bodies,
courts, and tribunals. These documents, although not legally binding, offer authoritative
interpretations of human rights treaties and its provisions
• offers guidance for best practice on the implementation of hard law, for example, guidelines,
recommendations, frameworks for action, and general comments/ recommendations
• adjusts the normative scope of human rights to cover emerging human rights issues, contexts,
or gaps in extant law, for example, guiding principles and declarations. This allows human
rights law to be applicable to changing contexts and circumstances so that human rights may
be meaningfully enjoyed
• norm emergence, setting, and acceptance through, for example, recognising and elaborating
the human rights of marginalised groups, for example, the United Nations Declaration on the
Rights of Indigenous Peoples38
• signals belief in what states believe to be the law (opinio juris), for example, UN General
Assembly resolutions and declarations
38
UNGA. Resolution 61/295. United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (adopted 2 October
2007) (Doc. A/RES/61/295.)
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3.0 International human rights instruments

The right to education is guaranteed in at least 48 international (including regional) legal instruments
and 23 soft law instruments (not documents). This section summarises the normative content of the
most important legal instruments, both hard and soft law.
United Nations core human rights treaties
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966, ICESCR)79 is of special
importance within the UN human rights legal framework. Together with the International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights (1966, ICCPR) and the UDHR, it comprises the International Bill of
Rights. Between them the ICESCR and ICCPR guarantee the full range of human rights recognised
in the UDHR, in treaty form.
Article 13 is the single most comprehensive provision on the right to education in international law.
It is also the most textually elaborated provision of ICESCR, reflecting its importance and the
expansive normative scope of the right to education. Article 13 reads:
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognise the right of everyone to education. They agree
that education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of its
dignity and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. They further
agree that education shall enable all persons to participate effectively in a free society, promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups,
and further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
2. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognise that, with a view to achieving the full
realisation of this right:
(a) Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all;
(b) Secondary education in its different forms, including technical and vocational secondary
education, shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and
in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;
(c) Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every
appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;
(d) Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible for those persons
who have not received or completed the whole period of their primary education;
(e) The development of a system of schools at all levels shall be actively pursued, an adequate
fellowship system shall be established, and the material conditions of teaching staff shall be
continuously improved.
3. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents and,
when applicable, legal guardians to choose for their children schools, other than those established
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by the public authorities, which conform to such minimum educational standards as may be laid down
or approved by the State and to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in
conformity with their own convictions.
4. No part of this article shall be construed so as to interfere with the liberty of individuals and bodies
to establish and direct educational institutions, subject always to the observance of the principles set
forth in paragraph I of this article and to the requirement that the education given in such institutions
shall conform to such minimum standards as may be laid down by the State.
Furthermore, Article 14 reads:
Each State Party to the present Covenant which, at the time of becoming a Party, has not been able
to secure in its metropolitan territory or other territories under its jurisdiction compulsory primary
education, free of charge, undertakes, within two years, to work out and adopt a detailed plan of
action for the progressive implementation, within a reasonable number of years, to be fixed in the
plan, of the principle of compulsory education free of charge for all.
Article 2 (2) of ICESCR guarantees non-discrimination with respect to the human rights contained
with the treaty. This means that Article 13 read with Article 2 (2) places obligations on States parties
to guarantee the right to education free from discrimination.
The right to education contained in ICESCR has been interpreted by the Committee on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) in various general comments, most importantly:
• General Comment 13: The Right to Education
• General Comment 11: Plans of Action for Primary Education
Other General Comments relevant to the right to education under ICESCR:

• General Comment 1: Reporting by States Parties
• General Comment 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations
• General Comment 5: Persons with Disabilities
• General Comment 6: The Economic, Social and Cultural rights of Older Persons
• General Comment 9: The Domestic Application of the Covenant
• General Comment 14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health
• General Comment 16: The Equal Right of Men and Women to the Enjoyment of all Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights
• General Comment 18: The Right to Work
• General Comment 20: Non-discrimination in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
• General Comment 21: Right of Everyone to Take Part in Cultural Life
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The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989, CRC) is one of the most widely ratified treaties of
all time (every state has ratified it except the United States). It applies to children, which the CRC
defines as everyone under the age of 18.
Article 28 of the CRC recognises education as a legal right for every child on the basis of equal
opportunity. The content of Article 28 largely corresponds to the content of Article 13 of ICESCR
with respects to obligations related to levels of education:
• free compulsory primary education for all (Article 28 (1) (a))
• progressive free secondary education, including vocational and technical education, that
should in any case be available and accessible to all (Article 28 (1) (b))
• accessibility to higher education on the basis of capacity (Article 28 (1) (c))
• available and accessible educational and vocational information and guidance (Article 28 (1)
(d))
However, as the CRC applies the right to education specifically to children, it contains additional
important content:
• an obligation on the state to take measures regarding school attendance and the reduction of
drop-out rates (Article 28 (1) (e))
• the administering of school discipline shall be in conformity with the dignity of the child
(Article 28 (2))
• the encouragement of international cooperation in matters related to education, in particular,
the elimination of ignorance and illiteracy and access to scientific and technical knowledge
(Article 28 (3))
Article 29 of the CRC comprehensively defines the aims of education and recognises the liberty of
parents to choose the kind of education they want to give to their children and the liberty to establish
and direct educational institutions, in conformity with minimum standards laid down by the state.
Additionally, the CRC prohibits discrimination in education (Article 2 (1) read with Articles 28 and
29).
Article 29 of the CRC has been interpreted by the Committee on the Rights of the Child in its General
Comment 1: The Aims of Education.
Other relevant general comments, include:
• General Comment 3: HIV/AIDS and the Rights of the Children
• General Comment 4: Adolescent Health and Development in the Context of the Convention
on the Rights of the Child
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• General Comment 5: General Measures of Implementation of the Convention on the Rights

of the Child
• General Comment 6: Treatment of Unaccompanied and Separated Children Outside their
Country of Origin
• General Comment 7: Implementing Child Rights in Early Childhood
• General Comment 8: The Right of the Child to Protection from Corporal Punishment and
Other Cruel or Degrading Forms of Punishment
• General Comment 9: The Rights of Children with Disabilities
• General Comment 10: Children’s Rights in Juvenile Justice
• General Comment 11: Indigenous Children and Their Rights Under the Convention
• General Comment 12: The Right of the Child to be Heard
• General Comment 14: The Right of the Child to Have His or Her Best Interests Taken as a
Primary Consideration
• General Comment 17: The Right of the Child to Rest, Leisure, Play, Recreational Activities,
Cultural Life and the Arts
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979, CEDAW)
interprets and applies the right to education in a way that considers the specific needs and
circumstances of women and girls. Article 10 of CEDAW is the most comprehensive provision on
women’s and girls’ right to education in international law. It sets forth the normative content in
relation to the elimination of discrimination against women and the ensuring of equal rights with men
in the field of education, including:
• the same conditions for career and vocational guidance, access to studies, and achievement of
diplomas at all educational levels, both in urban and rural areas (Article 10(a))
• the same quality of education, including: access to the same curricula, examinations, school
premises and equipment, and teaching staff with qualifications of the same standard (Article
10 (b))
• the elimination of any stereotyped concept of the roles of men and women by encouraging
coeducation, the revision of textbooks and school programmes, and the adaptation of teaching
methods (Article 10(c))
• the same opportunities to benefit from scholarships and other study grants (Article 10(d))
• the same access to programmes of continuing education, including literacy programmes,
particularly those aimed at reducing the gender gap in education (Article 10(e))
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• the reduction of female student drop-out rates and programmes for girls and women who have
left school prematurely (Article 10(f))
• the same opportunity to participate in sports and physical education (Article 10(g))
• access to educational information on health including advice on family planning (Article
10(h))
The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has issued an authoritative
interpretation of Article 10 in General Recommendation 36 on women’s and girls’ right to
education,104 which elaborates the legal obligations of states under CEDAW to eradicate the
discriminatory barriers preventing girls from enjoying their right to education and implement
measures to bring about equality in practice, and makes concrete and actionable legal and policy
recommendations which would bring states into compliance with CEDAW.
The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006, CRPD) interprets existing human
rights law in a manner that takes account of the specific situation of people with disabilities. It clarifies
and qualifies how all categories of rights apply to persons with disabilities and identifies areas where
adaptations have to be made in order that persons with disabilities can effectively exercise their rights,
as well as areas where their rights have been violated, and where protection of rights must be
reinforced.
Article 24 of the CRPD recognises the right of people with disabilities to education, without
discrimination and on the basis of equal opportunity, the state having the obligation to ensure an
inclusive education system at all levels, and lifelong learning.
The first part of Article 24 sets out the aims of an inclusive education system:
• full development of human potential and sense of dignity and self-worth, strengthening
respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms, and diversity
• development of the personality, talents and creativity of people with disabilities, as well as
their mental and physical abilities, to their fullest potential
• enable persons with disabilities to participate effectively in society
The second part addresses the various forms of discrimination that people with disabilities often
face. It:
• prohibits exclusion from the general education system and from free and compulsory
education
• provides that people with disabilities must be able to access inclusive, quality, free primary
and secondary education in the communities in which they live
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• requires that states provide reasonable accommodation and individualised support measures
The third part requires states to take appropriate measures to provide the learning of life and social
development skills to facilitate their full and equal participation in education, for instance, the
learning of Braille and sign language.
The fourth part requires states to employ qualified and trained teachers at all levels of education.
The fifth part requires states to ensure that people with disabilities are able to access general tertiary
education, vocational training, adult education and lifelong learning without discrimination and on
an equal basis with others.
Article 24 has been interpreted by the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in General
Comment 4—Article 24: Right to inclusive education.
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966, ICCPR), although it does not have a
comprehensive right to education clause, guarantees educational freedom (Article 18 (4)) and has an
autonomous non-discrimination clause (Article 26) which applies to: ‘any field regulated and
protected by public authorities.’
The Human Rights Committee has explained that:
‘when legislation is adopted by a State party, it must comply with the requirement of Article 26 that
its content should not be discriminatory.
In other words, the application of the principle of non-discrimination contained in Article 26 is not
limited to those rights which are provided for in the Covenant.’ On this interpretation, under the
ICCPR, there is an obligation to ensure that education laws and regulations are not discriminatory.
The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965,
ICERD)109 prohibits racial discrimination in the enjoyment of human rights, including economic,
social and cultural rights.
Article 5 guarantees the right to education of everyone, without distinction as to race, colour or
national or ethnic origin.
Article 7 encourages states to take measures to combat prejudices, which lead to racial discrimination
in the field of teaching and education and to promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among
nations and racial or ethnic groups.
United Nations: Declarations

The United Nations Declaration on Human Rights Education and Training (2011) recognises the
importance of receiving and providing education and training on human rights in contributing to the
promotion, protection and effective realisation of all human rights. Article 1 states that: ‘Everyone
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has the right to know, seek and receive information about all human rights and fundamental freedoms
and should have access to human rights education and training.’ The enjoyment of the right to
education is what enables enjoyment of human rights education and training. Article 2 specifies the
elements encompassed in human rights education. Articles 7-13 contain provisions on states and other
actors’ responsibilities in implementing human rights education.
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007)112 establishes a
universal framework of minimum standards for the survival, dignity, and well-being of indigenous
peoples. It elaborates on existing human rights standards as they apply to the specific situation of
indigenous peoples. Article 14 guarantees the right of indigenous peoples to all levels and forms of
education without discrimination as well as the right to establish their own educational institutions
and systems providing education in their own languages.
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious
and Linguistic Minorities (1992) sets essential standards to ensure the rights of persons belonging to
minorities. Article 4 (3) provides that:
‘States should take appropriate measures to allow persons belonging to minorities to have adequate
opportunities to learn their mother tongue or to receive instruction in their mother tongue.’ Article 4
(4) further states that the history, traditions, and cultures of minorities should be reflected in
education.
UNESCO normative instruments

The Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960, CADE)114 is the first instrument to be
dedicated, in its entirety, to the right to education. Unlike most human rights treaties, CADE does not
permit reservations.
Articles 1 and 2 define discrimination, understood as: ‘any distinction, exclusion, limitation or
preference which, being based on race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, economic condition or birth, has the purpose or effect of nullifying or
impairing equality of treatment in education.’
Article 3 lists the measures a state must undertake in order to eliminate and prevent discrimination:
(a) To abrogate any statutory provisions and any administrative instructions and to discontinue any
administrative practices which involve discrimination in education;
(b) To ensure, by legislation where necessary, that there is no discrimination in the admission of
pupils to educational institutions;
(c) Not to allow any differences of treatment by the public authorities between nationals, except on
the basis of merit or need, in the matter of school fees and the grant of scholarships or other forms
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of assistance to pupils and necessary permits and facilities for the pursuit of studies in foreign
countries;
(d) Not to allow, in any form of assistance granted by the public authorities to educational
institutions, any restrictions or preference based solely on the ground that pupils belong to a
particular group;
(e) To give foreign nationals resident within their territory the same access to education as that given
to their own nationals.
(d) Not to allow, in any form of assistance granted by the public authorities to educational
institutions, any restrictions or preference based solely on the ground that pupils belong to a
particular group;
(f) To give foreign nationals resident within their territory the same access to education as that
given to their own nationals.
Articles 4 and 5 sets out specific state obligations in terms of full realisation of the right to education
without discrimination. These largely echo the provisions of Article 13 of ICESCR and Articles 28
and 29 of the CRC, but specifies obligations to ensure that: ‘the standards of education are equivalent
in all public educational institutions of the same level, and that the conditions relating to the quality
of the education provided are also equivalent’, and also to: ‘provide training for the teaching
profession without discrimination’.
In addition to CADE, there is the Recommendation against Discrimination in Education (1960),
which provides for the same guarantees. The Recommendation, however, seeks to take into account
the difficulties that certain states might experience, for various reasons and in particular on account
of their federal structure, in ratifying CADE.
The Convention on Technical and Vocational Education (1989) enshrines the ‘right of equal access
to technical and vocational education’.
Article 1 defines technical and vocational education as: ‘all forms and levels of the educational
process involving, in addition to general knowledge, the study of technologies and related sciences
and the acquisition of practical skills, know-how, attitudes and understanding relating to occupations
in the various sectors of economic and social life’.
Article 2 provides that states: ‘shall guarantee that no individual who has attained the educational
level for admission into technical and vocational education shall be discriminated against’ and ‘shall
take appropriate measures’ to enable people with disabilities and other marginalised groups to benefit
from technical and vocational education.
Article 3 provides the basic content requirements as well as a list of elements to be taken into account
when providing and developing technical and vocational education programmes.
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Article 5 refers to teachers’ training and employment conditions in the field of technical and
vocational education, amongst other implementing provisions.
Under Article 4, states agree to periodically review the structure of technical and vocational
education.
The right to education in regional human rights law

Regional human rights law is a form of international human rights law. Region-specific human rights
legal instruments strengthen the protection and enjoyment of human rights by adapting international
human rights standards to regional contexts, taking into account shared histories, customs, traditions,
values, cultures, and practices. Regional human rights law also seeks to tackle region-specific issues
that impede the realisation of human rights.
Regional human rights law is created by regional intergovernmental bodies, made up of states, with
a mandate for the protection and promotion of human rights in the region. Like international human
rights law, regional human rights law applies to states.
There are 28 legally-binding treaties guaranteeing some aspect of the right to education at the regional
level.
Africa
The African human rights framework emanates mainly from the African Union (AU), formerly the
Organisation of African Unity.
The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (1981, Banjul Charter)156 contains a brief right
to education provision (Article 17), together with an overarching prohibition on discrimination
(Article 2). Article 25 provides for human rights education. The African Charter on the Rights and
Welfare of the Child (1990) sets out a much broader and more comprehensive right to education than
that provided for in the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. Article 11 states that every
child shall have the right to an education and prescribes measures that States must undertake as part
of their efforts to achieve the full realisation of this right, including regarding school discipline and
pregnant girls. It defines the aims of education and recognises the right of parents to choose the kind
of education they want for their children in conformity with their religious and moral convictions.
The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa
(2003) aims to eliminate discrimination against women and to ensure the protection of the rights of
women as stipulated in international declarations and conventions. Article 12 provides for their right
to education and training on the basis of the principles of non-discrimination and equal opportunity.
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It calls for the elimination of all stereotypes and the integration of gender sensitisation at all levels of
education curricula.
It refers to their protection against sexual harassment. It also provides for the promotion of literacy
and education among women and recognises the specific needs of certain groups of women including
women with disabilities and women who have left school prematurely (Article 12 & 23).
The African Youth Charter (2006) is the first legal framework in Africa to support national policies,
programmes and action in favour of youth development. It refers to the rights, freedoms and duties
of young people in Africa, including the right to education. Article 13 recognises the right of every
young person to education of good quality. It refers to multiple forms of education including non-
formal and informal. It defines the aims of education and establishes states’ obligations. It also
provides for gender equality and the use of African languages in teaching (Article 20).
The Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (2009,
Kampala Convention) guarantees, under Article 9 (2) (b), that internally displaced persons be
provided with adequate humanitarian assistance including education.
4.0 Acceptance of international human rights norms

Mauritius has signed and ratified most of the international human rights conventions.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Mauritius is committed to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights through its support for UN
resolutions dealing with Human Rights that have time and again unanimously affirmed and re-
affirmed the Declaration.
Major United Nations human rights conventions
Mauritius has ratified the six major human rights conventions that have been adopted by the General
Assembly of the United Nations and signed the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
The Human Rights Committee considered the fourth periodic report of Mauritius held on the 17 and
18 March 2005. The concluding observations of the Committee appear in CCPR/CO/83/MUS.
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International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 1966

(CERD)
The Committee set up under the Convention considered the 3rd and 4th periodic reports of Mauritius
submitted as one document in August 2000. The concluding observations of the Committee appear
in 01/05/2001CERD/C/304/Add.106.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
The Committee set up under CEDAW considered the combined third, fourth and fifth periodic reports
of Mauritius in August 2006. The concluding observations of the Committee appear in
CEDAW/C/MAR/CO/5.
Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment [CAT]
The outstanding periodic reports are being finalised and shall soon be submitted for presentation
before the Committee against Torture. Mauritius had the privilege of being visited by the
Subcommittee on the Prevention of Torture from 10 to 18 October 2007; in fact, Mauritius was chosen
by a drawing of lots as the first country to be reviewed by the Subcommittee under the Optional
Protocol to the Convention.
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
The Committee on the Rights of the Child considered the second periodic report of Mauritius in
January 2006. The concluding observations of the Committee appear in CRC/C/MUS/CO/2.
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)
Mauritius signed the CRPD on 25th September 2007. This Convention endeavours to elaborate in
detail the rights of persons with disabilities and set out a code of implementation. Countries that join
in the Convention engage themselves to develop and carry out policies, laws and administrative
measures for securing the rights recognised in the Convention and abolish laws, regulations, customs
and practices that constitute discrimination. As a change of perceptions is essential to improve the
situation of persons with disabilities, ratifying countries are to combat stereotypes and prejudices and
promote awareness of the capabilities of persons with disabilities.
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The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
Mauritius has also ratified the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and is in the process
of finalising the national periodic report as required under Article 62 of the African Charter.
Conventions under the aegis of the International Labour Organisation (ILO)
Thirty-five ILO Conventions have also been subscribed to by Mauritius, including Conventions No.
182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour, No. 138 on Minimum Age, No. 182 on the Worst Forms
of Child Labour, No. 100 on Equal Remuneration, No. 111 on Discrimination (Employment and
Occupation), and No. 159 on Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons). A
number of those Conventions have been incorporated in domestic labour laws.
The Rome Statute
The Rome Statute providing for the setting up of the International Criminal Court and the exercise
for the first time in legal history of international criminal jurisdiction against individuals for the worst
crimes against humanity, was ratified in 2002. Implementing legislation is being finalised.
The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child
The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child was ratified in 1992.
5.0 Legal framework for the protection of human rights at national level
The Mauritian Constitution, which is the supreme law of the land, sets out in its Chapter II, entitled
“Protection of fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual” a series of fundamental rights and
freedoms ranging from the right to life to the freedom of religion and of thought.
These rights and freedoms have existed and shall continue to exist in Mauritius without discrimination
by reason of race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for
the rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest.
Any citizen who believes that any provision of Chapter II has been, is being or is likely to be breached
with respect to him may apply to the Supreme Court for redress under section 17 of the Constitution.
The proviso to Section 17[2], however, renders the constitutional remedy one of last resort.
Our courts of law have generally adopted a wide and purposive interpretation of the Constitution:
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“There is ample authority for saying that a written Constitution should not be looked upon as
an Act of Parliament, but rather as a charter or covenant which must be given a purposive
interpretation.” - Duval v. Seetaram [1991]
The Constitution
The Constitution, although it does not expressly make mention of a right to education, nevertheless
provides in its section 14, for the protection of the freedom to establish schools. The right to education
is in practice fully guaranteed through the various Acts passed and regulations made to that effect.
Free education is also available to all, irrespective of nationality, race, caste, religion, place of origin,
political opinion, colour, creed or sex, without prejudice to the establishment of religious schools.
Article 3(b) reads:

“It is hereby recognised and declared that in Mauritius there have existed and shall continue to exist
without discrimination by reason of race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but
subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest, each and all of the
following human rights and fundamental freedoms – […] (b) freedom of conscience, of expression,
of assembly and association and freedom to establish schools”
Article 5(1)(f) reads:

“No person shall be deprived of his personal liberty save as may be authorised by law in the case of
a person who has not attained the age of 18 years, for the purpose of his education or welfare;”
Article 11(2) and (3) read:

“(2) Except with his own consent (or, it he is minor, the consent of his guardian), no person attending
any place of education shall be required to receive religious instruction or to take part in or attend
any religious ceremony or observance if that instruction, ceremony or observance relates to a
religion that he does not profess.
(3) No religious community or denomination shall be prevented from making provision for the giving,
by persons lawfully in Mauritius, of religious instruction to possess of that community or
denomination in the course of any education provided by that community or denomination.”
Article 14 relating to the Protection of freedom to establish schools, reads:
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“(1) No religious denomination and no religious, social, ethnic or cultural association or group shall
be prevented from establishing and maintaining schools at its own expense.
(2) Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be held consistent with or in
contravention of subsection (1) to the extent that the law makes provision –
(a) in the interests of defence, public safety, public order, public morality or public health; or
(b) for regulating such schools in the interests of persons receiving instruction in them, except
so far as that provision or, as the case may be, the thing done under its authority is shown not
to be reasonably justifiable in a democratic society.
(3) No person shall be prevented from sending to any such school a child of whom that person is
parent or guardian by reason only that the school is not a school established or maintained by the
Government.
(4) In subsection (3), the "child" includes a stepchild and a child adopted in a manner recognised by
law, and "parent" shall be construed accordingly.”
The Education Act 1957

Section 37 of the Education Act provides for education to be mandatory for all children up to the
age of 16.
Section 37 relating to Compulsory primary education reads:

“(1) Every child who has attained such age as may be prescribed for admission to a primary school
shall attend a primary school.
(2) Where the responsible party of a child referred to in subsection (1), without reasonable cause,
refuses or neglects to cause the child to attend primary school regularly, he shall commit an offence
and shall, on conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding 3000 rupees and to a term of imprisonment
not exceeding 2 years.”
Section 35 of the Education Act provides:

“State supported schools open to all -
All Government schools and all schools in receipt of a regular grant in aid from public funds shall
be open to pupils of any race or religion.”
This Act is supplemented by the Education Regulations 1957, which in regulation 52 provides:
“(1) A secondary school in Mauritius to qualify for registration as an approved secondary school
shall comply with the following conditions -
it shall not refuse admission to any pupil on the grounds of race or religion.”
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Early Childhood Care and Education Authority Act 2007

Section 4 (Objects of Authority) reads:
“The objects of the Authority shall be –
(a) to harmonise and promote integrated early childhood care and education policies, strategies and
programmes in line with recommendations of international and national institutions;
(b) to ensure that all programmes and policies for the education, care and development of the young
child in the Republic of Mauritius are in conformity with the Convention on the Rights of the Child;
(c) to help ensure a smooth transition of the young child from preschool to lower primary school.”
Section 4(1) of the Mauritius Institute of Education Act provides that the Institute shall provide
facilities for and engage in educational research, curriculum development and teacher education in
order to promote the advancement of learning and knowledge in the field of education and a teacher
education which is responsive to the social, linguistic, administrative, scientific, agricultural and
technological needs of Mauritius, amongst others.
Section 4 of the Tertiary Education Commission Act provides that the duties of the Commission
shall be to foster the development of post-secondary education and training facilities, amongst others.
Section 6 of the University of Mauritius Act entitled “No discrimination” provides: No

discrimination on account of nationality, race, caste, religion, place of origin, political opinion,
colour, creed or sex shall be shown against any person in determining whether he or she is to -
(a) Be appointed to the academic or other staff of the University;
(b) Be registered as a student of the University; or
(c) Graduate from, or hold any advantage or privilege of, the University.
Roles and Functions of the Ministry/Department

The Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research
(MOEHRTESR) is responsible for the development and promotion of the education system in
Mauritius.
It defines and formulates education and human resource development policies and promotes the
scientific research agenda. Further, it ensures that sound regulatory and monitoring mechanisms are
in place for greater effectiveness and efficiency of the system.
The key functions of the Ministry are to:
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• Provide policy guidelines for the development of the national curriculum frameworks for the
pre-primary sub-sector and the nine years of continuous basic education (Grades 1 to 9).
• Ensure the provision of quality education at the pre-primary, primary, secondary, technical
and vocational levels as well as at the post-secondary education level.
• Provide necessary support:
o through psychological and counselling services to learners and their families;
o to students with learning difficulties and those with Special Education Needs as part
of the Inclusion process;
o through scholarships to meritorious as well as needy students for post-secondary
education; and
o in terms of textbooks to all pupils of primary schools and to needy students of the
secondary sub-sector as part of an equity drive.
• Provide career guidance and counselling services to students.
• Promote continuous professional development as part of the lifelong learning process.
• Deal with the equivalence of qualifications across the levels.
• Monitor the performance of parastatal bodies operating within its aegis.

• The Education Act 1957
• UN human rights treaties
7.0 Activities
Activity 1:
Make an analysis of three UN human rights treaties.
Activity 2:
If you were to incorporate some international provisions into domestic law, what would it be? Justify
you answer by making use of relevant examples.
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Unit 8: Human Rights and Education

8.0 Overview
8.2 Introduction to human rights
8.3 The human right to education
8.4 Justifications to the right to education
8.5 Recommended reading
8.6 Activities
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8.0 Overview
Education is not a privilege. It is a fundamental human right. In this unit, an examination of the
importance of education as a fundamental human right will be conducted. As a human right, the right
to education means that everyone— children, adolescents, youths, adults, and older people—is
entitled to access quality education. Unit 6 presents education as a human right and is based on the
Right to Education handbook published in 2019, by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). This unit deals with questions such as: what is a human right, what
is education, what does it mean to have a right to education, what are the benefits of the right to
education for both individuals and the state.
Objectives
The objectives of this Unit are to
• Facilitate the realisation and universal enjoyment of the right to education.
• Increase awareness and knowledge of the right to education.
• Demonstrate how human right are guaranteed in international law.
• Show the primary benefits of the right to education is to the individual.
• Show the social benefits of education.
8.2 Introduction to human rights
'A right is not what someone gives you; it’s what no one can take from you.'
- Ramsey Clark.
-
Since World War II, the international community has committed itself to the promotion and
protection of human rights. One of the core purposes of the United Nations is:
‘promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without
distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion’39.
This commitment has led to the proliferation of human rights instruments, including laws and
declarations, which guarantee the human rights of everyone.
39
Charter of the United Nations (adopted 24 October 1945, entered into force 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS XVI (UN
Charter) Article 1 (3).
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The success of human rights is not just in the abundance of human rights’ legal instruments and their
adoption by states, but is also in how awareness, knowledge, and acceptance of human rights have
permeated down to the level of ordinary people. Today, awareness of human rights is widespread and
human rights are readily invoked.
However, despite the increasing familiarity with human rights and how easily we invoke human
rights, defining human rights is not an easy task. Many people will have an intuition of what is meant
by human rights. Some will think of human rights as rights guaranteed by law, for example, in
constitutions or international human rights treaties. For others, human rights invoke ideas about
justice and fairness. While others may think of human rights as unrealistic goals, arbitrary, or political
constructions.
According to James Nickel,40 human rights are generally held to have the following characteristics:
• human rights are rights: Human rights are not promises, privileges, or goals, they are rights.
Rights are entitlements.41 Human rights are usually ‘claim rights’, which means they impose
mandatory obligations on duty-bearers.42 They have two facets: the normative content (or
entitlements) owed to rights-holders and the corresponding obligations of duty-bearers
• human rights are plural: Human rights encompass a variety of protections, from the right to
freedom of speech and the right to a fair trial to the right to health and the right to education
• human rights are universal: Human rights apply to everyone by virtue of their status as
‘human’
• human rights are high-priority: Human rights cannot be ignored. They demand consideration
and compete with other concerns
40
Nickel, J. 2017. ‘Human Rights’, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
https://plato.stanford.edu/ archives/spr2017/entries/rights-human/
41
Wenar, L. “Rights”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
42
Ibid, section 2.1.2.
163
Definition: Human rights
Human rights are universal norms that describe standards of behaviour that help protect
everyone from political, legal, social, and economic abuses.
Human rights are probably most commonly thought of as legal rights. With the adoption of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948, UDHR),43 the international community codified and
adopted 30 human rights as a ‘common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations’.44
The UDHR has inspired an entire regime of law and currently there are more than a hundred
international and regional instruments on human rights, some of which are legally binding,
elaborating the human rights to which everyone is entitled on the basis of their ‘inherent dignity’.45
Human rights are also guaranteed under national laws. In fact, human rights as legal rights guaranteed
domestically predate their appearance in the UDHR, for example, in national constitutions such as
the Bill of Rights to the United States Constitution (1791)46 and the French Declaration of the Rights
of Man and the Citizen (1789).47 Today, many constitutions protect human rights. The right to
education is itself mentioned in 82% of national constitutions.48
That human rights are incorporated into international and domestic legal systems and are, as such,
legal rights, is an empirical statement that is not open to debate. The argument that human rights are
only legal rights is, however, more contentious.
There are various accounts of how human rights should be understood and how they are justified.
One of the most common accounts is to say they are grounded in morality. Arguments based on
43
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948) United Nations General Assembly Resolution
(UNGA Res) 217 A(III) (UDHR).
44
UDHR Preamble.
45
Ibid.
46
The Constitution of the United States. Amendments I-X.
47
Déclaration des droits de l’Homme et du citoyen de 1793.
48
Right to Education Initiative (RTE). 2017. Accountability from a human rights perspective: The incorporation and
enforcement of the right to education in the domestic legal order. Paper commissioned for the 2017/8 Global Education
Monitoring Report, Accountability in education: Meeting our commitments, p. 32.
164
morality tend to identify something about being human on which to ground human rights. Many
preambles to human rights treaties and even national constitutions seem to justify their content in
moral terms related to the dignity inherent in all people. For example, the preamble to the UDHR
recognises the: ‘inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human
family’. Similarly, article 3 of Mauritian’s Constitution49 concerns the fundamental rights and
freedoms of the individual. The State has the duty to respect them and to protect them. The rights and
freedoms enumerated hereafter are inviolable, inalienable and imprescriptible. They found all human
society and guarantee peace and justice in the world.
Debates on the nature of human rights are not just a philosophical enquiry without practical
implications. For the health of human rights, it is important that we all reflect on the distinct role they
play in protecting everyone from abuses and holding duty-bearers to account. If we cannot articulate
why human rights are worth defending, as ethical standards and not just legal standards, then
acceptance and adherence to human rights will likely never be as strong as it could be.
8.3 The human right to education
Education as a fundamental human right lies at the heart of UNESCO’s mission and is enshrined in
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and many other international human rights
instruments.
The right to education is one of the key principles underpinning the Education 2030 Agenda and
Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4) adopted by the international community. SDG 4 is rights-
based and seeks to ensure the full enjoyment of the right to education as fundamental to achieving
sustainable development.
Yet millions of children and adults remain deprived of educational opportunities, many as a result of
social, cultural and economic factors.
Education in itself is an empowering right and one of the most powerful tools by which economically
and socially marginalised children and adults can lift themselves out of poverty and participate fully
in society.
49
Constitution of Mauritius, 1968.
165
In order to do so there must exist equality of opportunity and universal access. Normative instruments
of the United Nations and UNESCO lay down international legal obligations which recognise and
develop the right of every person to enjoy access to education of good quality. This legal
framework is considered of great importance by Member States and the international community
in implementing the right to education.
UNESCO supports States to establish solid national legal and policy frameworks that create the
foundation and conditions for the delivery and sustainability of quality education. In turn,
governments must be held accountable to fulfil their legal and political obligations to provide good
quality education for all and to implement and monitor education policies and strategies more
effectively.
The preamble to ICESCR states that the human rights contained therein: ‘derive from the inherent
dignity of the human person.’ The Committee on the Rights of the Child, which oversees the
implementation of the CRC, states that the purpose of education is to: ‘promote, support and protect
the core value of the Convention: the human dignity innate in every child and his or her equal and
inalienable rights.’50 Because of this focus on dignity, the right to education necessarily emphasises
the importance of the individual, as all human rights do. Although it does not deny the instrumental
and societal benefits of education and indeed that these can be a source of human dignity, under
international human rights law, the individual is the primary beneficiary of education.51 The right to
education ensures that the individual is placed firmly at the centre of education frameworks.
Education as a human right has the following characteristics:
• it is a right: Education is not a privilege or subject to political or charitable whims. It is a

human right. It places mandatory demands on duty-bearers (particularly the state, but also
parents, children, and other actors). It identifies specific obligations on duty-bearers in relation
to specific entitlements of rights-holders
• it is universal: Everyone has the right to education without discrimination. This includes
children, adolescents, youths, adults, and older people
50
General Comment 1: Article 29 (1): The Aims of Education, (Doc. CRC/ GC/2001/1.) (CRC General Comment 1) para. 1.
51
CRC General Comment 1 para. 1.
166
• it is high priority: Education is a key priority of the state. Obligations to ensure the right to
education cannot be easily dismissed
• it is a key right: Education is instrumental in the exercise of all other human rights. It has
economic, social, cultural, civil, and political dimensions
The right to education places legal obligations on states when they make decisions regarding
education and the education system. It offers an internationally agreed normative framework for the
standards that states must not fall beneath with regards to the education of its citizens and non-
citizens. These standards delineate what states must do and refrain from doing in order to ensure the
dignity of the individual.
The right to education is broad and covers many aspects of education. This means that for the specific
areas related to education (as listed below), states must act within the boundaries permissible under
international human rights law (IHRL):
• the aims of education
• non-discrimination and equality in the education system free and compulsory universal
primary education
• available and accessible, free education at the secondary level, including vocational education
• accessible (on the basis of capacity), free education at the tertiary level
• fundamental education for those who have not received all or part of their primary education
• maintenance of an education system at all levels
• provision of a fellowship system
• the training of teachers, their status, and their working conditions
167
• educational freedom, that is, the freedom of parents to have their children educated in
accordance with their religious and moral convictions
• the freedom of individuals and organisations to set-up private schools
• quality education, including setting minimum standards regarding infrastructure and human
rights education
• safe and non-violent learning environments
• the allocation of adequate resources
• academic freedom at all levels of education
• the setting and content of the curriculum
• transparent and accountable education systems
The normative scope of the right to education is wide and includes matters that are foundational to
education. International human rights law deliberately leaves certain decisions to the state because
the state is ultimately best placed and has the legitimacy to make important decisions about education,
the only limiting factor being that the right to education and other human rights are respected and
realised. For example, the right to free and compulsory primary education can be implemented in
whichever way the state in question sees fit.
8.4 Justifications to the right to education
Under IHRL, when states ratify or accede to a human rights treaty guaranteeing the right to education,
they are legally bound to implement the provisions of that treaty. But why should states ratify treaties
containing the right to education in the first place? And why should states then implement the right
to education? There are compelling moral, political, economic, social, and pragmatic reasons for
states to legally protect the right to education of everyone in national law.
168
One way to classify the reasons why states should implement the right to education is to look at the
benefits of education to the individual and the external positive effects of education on wider society.
8.4.1 The benefits of education to the individual
'A well-educated, enlightened and active mind, able to wander freely and widely, is one of the joys
and rewards of human existence.'
— The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.52
Education in all its forms (informal, non-formal, and formal) is crucial to ensure human dignity. The
aims of education, as set out in IHRL, are therefore all directed to the realisation of the individual’s
rights and dignity.53
The ICESCR, the CRC, and the UNESCO CADE set out the aims of education from a human rights
perspective. The Committee on the Rights of the Child summarises them as: the holistic development
of the full potential of the individual, including development of respect for human rights, an enhanced
sense of identity and affiliation, and his or her socialisation and interaction with others and with the
environment.54
The very first aim of education stipulated by the ICESCR which the Committee on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights (CESCR) calls ‘perhaps the most fundamental’,55 is, ‘the full development of the
human personality and the sense of its dignity’.56 The CRC expands this to include development of:
‘talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential’.57
IHRL is clear that the primary purpose of education is to enrich and empower the individual.
Education is vital to an individual’s cognitive and physical development. It helps shape a person’s
52
General Comment 13: The Right to Education (Art. 13 of the Covenant), (Doc. E/C.12/1999/10.) (CESCR General
Comment 13) para. 1.
53
General Comment 1: Article 29 (1): The Aims of Education, (Doc. CRC/ GC/2001/1.) (CRC General Comment 1) para. 1.
54
55
CESCR General Comment 13 para. 1.
56
ICESCR Article 13 (1). Also guaranteed under UDHR Article 26 (2) and CADE Article 5 (1) (a).
57
CRC Article 29 (1) (a).
169
understanding of the world, how they think, their values, and their identity. Education also influences
the way a person experiences the world. It provides for the development of the knowledge and skills
that help people negotiate life and achieve the goals they set for themselves.
Education is also vital in ensuring that each individual can interact and shape the world around them.
The Committee on the Rights of the Child explains:
The goal is to empower the child by developing his or her skills, learning and other capacities, human
dignity, self-esteem and self-confidence.
“Education” in this context goes far beyond formal schooling to embrace the broad range of life
experiences and learning processes which enable children, individually and collectively, to develop
their personalities, talents and abilities and to live a full and satisfying life within society.58
The importance of developing the human personality to the fullest potential is so that each person can
flourish as an individual but also flourish within social environments. Identity, knowledge, skills,
language, values, etc. have social dimensions and are gained through social connections, for example,
through family, friends, and the wider community. The ability and skills to communicate, including
through technology, and take part in family, social, and community life are important, particularly
for informal learning.
Participating in community life also enhances a person’s capability to relate to others in various
situations and thus facilitates inclusion, tolerance, respect, and harmonious communities. In turn, a
person also learns from participating in social life.
8.4.2 Relationship with other human rights
'Education is both a human right in itself and an indispensable means of realising other human
rights.'
— The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.59
58
59
CESCR General Comment 13 para. 1.
170
Education is a social good in that it creates opportunities and provides choices to people. In this sense,
education is an end in itself. However, it is also a means to an end, because it helps to achieve
economic growth, health, poverty reduction, personal development, and democracy.
Therefore, the right to education should be characterised as an ‘empowerment right’. Such a right
‘provides the individual with control over the course of his or her life, and in particular, control over
… the state’.60 In other words, exercising an empowerment right enables a person to experience the
benefit of other rights: ‘the key to social action in defence of rights … is an educated citizenry, able
to spread its ideas and to organise in defence of rights’.61
Education enables people to make a contribution to society as independent and emancipated citizens.
Civil and political rights, such as freedom of expression, freedom of association, or the right to
political participation only obtain substance and meaning when a person is educated. Galbraith has
emphasised that
‘education not only makes democracy possible; it also makes it essential. Education not only brings
into existence a population with an understanding of the public tasks; it also creates their demand to
be heard.’62
In this sense, education is a threat to autocratic rule. Governments have used the education system
for building nations, for instance through the introduction of a national language. Often this happened
to the detriment of the languages and cultures of ethnic minorities and indigenous groups. For such
groups, the right to education is an essential means to preserve and strengthen their cultural identity.
Education enhances social mobility: it helps people to escape from discrimination based on social
status and to move up the social ladder. Moreover, education promotes the realisation of other
economic, social, and cultural rights, such as the right to work, the right to food, or the right to health:
an educated person will have a greater chance of finding a job, will be better equipped to secure his
or her own food supply, and is more aware of public health dangers. In general, education promotes
60
Donnelly and Howard, ‘Assessing National Human Rights Performance: A Theoretical Framework’ (1988) 10 HRQ 214,
215.
61
Donnelly and Howard (1988) 234–5.
62
Galbraith, The Good Society: The Humane Agenda (Houghton Mifflin, 1996).
171
the fulfilment of the right to an adequate standard of living; it provides people with access to the skills
and knowledge for full membership of society. From the perspective of the rights of the child,
education contributes to socialising children into understanding and accepting views different from
their own. In other words, education unlocks the enjoyment of other human rights and contributes in
an important way to the promotion of the essence of human rights, namely living in human dignity.
Finally, the right to education has a clear overlap with civil rights, such as freedom of religion and
the right to privacy: the freedom of parents to determine the (religious) education of their children is
not only part of the right to education but also of the freedom of religion63 and is an issue belonging
to people’s private lives. Similarly, the right to education is linked to the freedom of association
through the freedom to establish private educational institutions.
The interdependence of rights may also give rise to tensions and the need to weigh the different
interests that are at stake. For example, a controversial issue is whether the state can prohibit the
wearing of the headscarf in public educational institutions with a view to keeping the education
system free from any religious expressions, or whether such a ban would violate the freedom of
religion and expression of the student. In short, the right to education, through its links with other
rights, accentuates the unity, indivisibility, and interdependence of all human rights.
Education has further instrumental benefits to the individual. Education is often called a ‘multiplier
right’ meaning that it can unlock and increase enjoyment of other human rights. This is due to the
interdependent and interlinked nature of human rights. Human rights are plural and serve to promote
human dignity, meaning they are mutually reinforcing and naturally overlap with each other.
The interrelatedness of human rights and the importance of education is most clearly observed in the
fact that those who have received an education are more likely to be aware of the human rights they
are entitled to and how to claim them. Given the nature of education, the fact that it is empowering
and relevant in many domains of people’s lives, means that education plays a unique and almost
foundational role in the realisation of other human rights. This is amplified when education is directed
to empowering people to enjoy and exercise their rights and to respect and uphold the rights of others.
63
ICESCR, Art 13(3) and ICCPR, Art 18(4).
172
CIVIL AND
POLITICAL
RIGHTS
PHYSICAL AND
CULTURAL RIGHT TO
EMOTIONAL
RIGHTS EDUCATION
WELL-BEING
ECONOMIC
RIGHTS
Figure 8.1 Education as a multiplier right
The right to education and civil and political rights
Education plays a role in how individuals engage (or choose not to) in political and civic spaces and
thus impacts on their civil and political rights.
As Fons Coomans, a law professor and expert on the right to education, points out: ‘Civil and political
rights, such as freedom of expression, freedom of association or the right to political participation,
only obtain substance and meaning when a person is educated.’64 Added to this list could be: the right
to vote, the right to freedom of speech, the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, and
the right to family and private life. Education gives individuals the foundational knowledge and
provides the necessary skills to participate in political and public life, including debating,
understanding complex issues, critical-thinking, knowing and representing their own interests,
64
Coomans, F. 2007. Content and Scope of the Right to Education as a Human Right and Obstacles to its Realization,
Human Rights in Education, Science and Culture: Legal Developments and Challenges (edited by Yvonne Donders and
Vladimir Volodin), UNESCO Publishing, Paris, France; and Ashgate, Vermont, USA. pp.185-186.
173
holding duty-bearers to account, influencing decision-makers, and making informed choices.

Individuals also gain valuable skills and learnings from participating in political and civic life.
The right to education and physical and emotional well-being

The rights to life, health, and an adequate standard of living, including food, clothes, and shelter,
protect from degrading and harmful conditions affecting physical and emotional wellbeing.
Empirical evidence suggests that education leads to better outcomes in respect to physical and
emotional well-being. Education and maternal education in particular are known to:
• increase life expectancy65
• lead to better childhood nutrition66
• reduce child mortality67
• reduce illness and childhood illness68
• prevent and reduce HIV infection rates69
• reduce mortality from diseases70
65
Mackenzie, D. 2018. More education is what makes people live longer, not more money. New Scientist.
66
UNESCO. 2017/8. Global Education Monitoring Report 2017/8: Accountability in education - Meeting Our
Commitments. Paris. UNESCO, p. 256; Makoka, D and Masibo, P. K. 2015.
67
UNESCO. 2016b. Global Education Monitoring Report 2016: Education for People and Planet – Creating Sustainable
Futures for All. Paris, UNESCO, p. 82.
68
Ibid., p. 77.
69
UNESCO. 2015. EFA Global Education Monitoring Report: Education for All 2000-2015 – Achievements and Challenges.
Paris, UNESCO, p. 36.
70
Hahn, R. and Truman, B. 2015. Education Improves Public Health and Promotes Healthy Equity. Int J Health Serv. Vol.
45, No. 1, pp. 657-678.
174
• improve mental health71
• positively affect early childhood development72
• increase the likelihood of being happy73
The mechanisms thought to underlie the relationship between education and mental and physical
health include increasing:74
• a person’s ability to make healthier life choices based on relevant information, for example,
choosing healthier food and exercising more regularly
• a person’s ability to access and navigate the healthcare system: understand and comprehend
what their health needs are, advocate for herself and others, communicate and engage better
with care providers
• a person’s ability to seek medical advice and follow treatment, for example by taking
medicine at the right time and in the right dosages
• responsiveness to awareness-raising campaigns on health issues
Education is of particular importance to the physical and emotional well-being of marginalised

groups, for instance, women and girls. Girls who receive more education are less vulnerable to
harmful cultural practices, such as female genital mutilation and child marriage, are less likely to
become pregnant and young mothers, and are also less susceptible to gender-based violence against
women and girls.
71
World Health Organization and Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. 2014. Social determinants of mental health. Geneva,
World Health Organization, pp. 16-17.
72
McMahon, W. and Oketch, M. 2013. Education’s Effects on Individual Life Chances and On Development: An Overview.
British Journal of Educational Studies, Vol. 61, No. 1, p. 95.
73
Ibid., p. 96.
74
Center on Society and Health. 2014. Why Education Matters to Health: Exploring the Causes. Virginia Commonwealth
University.
175
According to the UNESCO Education for All Global Monitoring Report, a girl in a low-income
country receiving secondary education is 63% less likely to marry than a girl without education, and
has fewer and healthier children.75 Children of literate mothers are over 50% more likely to live past
the age of five and receive good nutrition.76 There are also significant health benefits for girls and
women, with considerable evidence that an increase in a mother’s education reduces the likelihood
of dying in childbirth.77
The right to education and socio-economic rights
This section describes the social and economic benefits produced by education for employment,
crime, health, and civic and political participation. Quality education results in positive outcomes in
these areas.
The fundamental outcome desired for education is that it will pass on to each child the information
and skills they will use throughout their lifetime. At its core, every school is a place where children
learn what adults in the community already know, a place for the transmission of knowledge.78 These
objectives are supported by common sense, practical needs, and by formal research about how
education works. These beneficial results occur because education has several basic cognitive
benefits. Schooling increases the facts known and understood by students in various academic
subjects. More importantly, education improves decision-making ability and reasoning skills.79 The
ability to gather information, identify choices, and consider the consequences of actions all improve
the longer students spends in school.80
75
UNESCO. 2013. Education for All Global Monitoring Report: Education transforms lives, section 5.
76
Ibid., sections 2 and 3.
77
Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report
2013/4, Teaching and learning: Achieving quality for all. Sonia Bhalotra with Damian Clarke. 2013. Educational
Attainment and Maternal Mortality, p. 13.
78
Hu, S. and W.W. McMahon, 2010. Higher Learning, Greater Good: The Private and Social Benefits of Higher Education,
Higher Education. 60(1): p. 123-125.
79
Means, M. and J. Voss, 1996. Who reasons well? Two Studies of Informal Reasoning among Children of Different
Grade, Ability, and Knowledge Levels. Cognition and Instruction. 14(2): p. 139-178.
80
Temple, J.A. and A.J. Reynolds, 2007. Benefits and Costs of Investments in Preschool Education: Evidence from the
Child-Parent Centers and Related Programs, Economics of Education Review. 26(1): p. 126-144
176
The cumulative impact of these educational benefits helps individuals to have more options for and
to make better decisions about their lives. Improved options and decision-making include better
choices about work, better risk assessment concerning deviant or criminal behaviour, and better
personal health choices. Thus, the cognitive-intellectual gains that children and youth make in school
contribute to the social and economic benefits derived from education for all members of society.
There are other “spill-over” effects from education that transform individual gains into social gains.
The personal, individual benefits of a good education have broad benefits for society when improved
“human capital” capacity – personal knowledge, skills, and judgment – is taken by the individual into
the workplace, the public square, and the home.
In short, effective education improves decision-making abilities that then help individuals stay out of
trouble and live better, healthier, and longer lives. As economist Milton Friedman wrote, “the
education of my child contributes to other people’s welfare by promoting a stable and democratic
society”.81
Education and work are deeply connected. Education provides individuals with the skills necessary
to find decent work and secure a fair wage. Work is a key way for individuals to lift themselves out
of poverty and militates against exclusion and marginalisation. Education and work interact to
empower individuals, particularly in exercising other human rights. For example, Fons Coomans
underscores the link with physical and emotional well-being: ‘an educated person will have a greater
chance of finding a job, will be better equipped to secure his or her own food supply and is more
aware of public health dangers.’82
Related rights that are positively impacted by education include: the right to freedom of assembly,
including the right to join a trade union, to collectively bargain in order to secure better working
conditions, including pay, and the right to social security. Education makes social security systems
81
Riddell, W.C., 2004. The Social Benefits of Education: New Evidence on an Old Question, in Taking Public Universities
Seriously, University of Toronto: Toronto, Canada.
82
Zimmerman, E., Woolf, S. H. and Haley, A. 2015. Understanding the Relationship Between Education and Health: A
Review of the Evidence and an Examination of Community Perspectives. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
Rockville, MD.
177
easier to access and navigate successfully, particularly for marginalised groups, such as people with
disabilities and people from certain socio-economic backgrounds.
Education also plays a role in reducing practices that are exploitative and harmful, notably:
• child labour, including hazardous work
• modern slavery, including trafficking
• prostitution and sexual exploitation
Further, educational achievement has dramatic economic benefits for individuals. Graduating from
college/university has historically been an important indicator for employers that a person is ready to
hold a job. Even today, college dropouts are more than twice as likely to be unemployed than people
who have attended college or achieved a tertiary education. The issue of quality education has
therefore become a societal human resources issue. This operates on the individual level in terms of
preparing youth for higher education and employment.83 The private, personal benefits of having a
good, stable job then combine to create broader social and economic benefits.
Government support for public education is thus crucial for individual employment, the broad
creation of human capital, and overall economic growth. Policies that boost government investment
in education can help reduce income inequality while expanding economic opportunity. States that
invest more in public education eventually reduce levels of income inequality between residents.
Society also benefits from improved education outcomes when individuals are employed with higher
earnings and the government collects greater tax revenue.
Moreover, education provides one of the best opportunities to reduce crime and its cost to society by
helping children to gain knowledge, skills, and character that help them avoid criminal activity.84 The
main reasons that well-educated people are less likely to engage in criminal activity are related to
83
Bernanke, B., 2007. The Level and Distribution of Economic Well-Being, in Comments before the Greater Omaha
Chamber of Commerce, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System: Washington, D.C.
84
Allan, E. and D. Steffensmeier, 1989. Youth, Underemployment, and Property Crime: Differential Effects of Job
Availability and Job Quality on Juvenile and Young Adult Arrest Rates, American Sociological Review. 54(1): p. 107-123.
178
their employment status and their perception of their own employability. Crime is more attractive to
individuals who are unemployed or under-employed, or who consider their prospects for permanent,
purposeful employment to be limited. Generally, studies show that the more formal education a
person receives, the less likely he or she is to engage in crime, especially violent crime.85 Levels of
criminal activity within a community are generally lower when the average level of education is
higher. The lack of quality education or incomplete education is a major contributor to
unemployment, crime, and incarceration.
The right to education and cultural rights

Education and culture are closely related. Education provides an enabling environment for cultural
diversity and allows for the realisation of the right to take part in cultural life.86 Access and
participation in cultural life greatly contribute to the development of the self: of one’s identity, sense
of belonging, personal enrichment, and personal expression. In addition, the promotion of cultural
diversity contributes to reinforcing understanding, respect, and tolerance towards others.
8.4.3 The benefits of education beyond the individual
‘Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world’.
— Nelson Mandela
Education can be transformative not just for the individual but also for the state and society. Education
is one of the most important mechanisms by which social groups, in particular indigenous peoples
and minorities, are maintained from generation to generation, passing on language, culture, identity,
values, and customs. Education is also one of the key ways states can ensure their economic, social,
political, and cultural interests.
Many, although by no means all, of the benefits to the state and society arise from the benefits to the
individual. That is, the benefits to the individual can spill over to others. For instance, an educated
and skilled person is more likely to find decent work and earn a higher income and therefore
85
. Lochner, L., 2004. Education, Work, and Crime: A Human Capital Approach, International Economic Review. 45(3):
p.811-843.
86
ICESCR Article 15 (1); CRC Article 31.
179
contribute, through tax, to the state, which can then allocate that revenue to public services. This is
not always the case, however, and states must not forego elements of the right to education in their
laws and policies because they return little benefit to the state and society.
Education can also be directed to achieve certain aims that, in turn, benefit wider society. For
example, states may use education as a tool to:
• promote economic growth through an educated and skilled labour force
• foster democratic and peaceful societies, by teaching tolerance, mutual respect, and respect
for human rights and encouraging participation and inclusion in decision-making processes
• encourage a rich cultural life, by promoting the learning of languages, the arts, sports, etc.
• help build a national identity, by directing the curriculum to teach national values, history,
and customs
• promote social justice aims. Education is well known as an equalising force that can be used
to reduce social, political, social, and economic exclusion and marginalisation, and combat
all forms of discrimination and promote equality
• overcome persistent and entrenched challenges, such as gender inequality
It should be noted that whilst states are required to create the conditions for the enjoyment of all
human rights, the pursuit of those conditions must not be at the expense of human rights. For example,
a state should focus on education as a key driver of sustainable economic growth, but it must also
ensure that each individual receives an education that focuses on their holistic development, meaning
that the education system cannot solely be geared towards the cultivation of a labour force.
180
The right to education and sustainable development
Education and sustainable development are intrinsically connected. Sustainable development is

aimed at the eradication of poverty, and therefore a number of the benefits mentioned above also
apply here. For example, education gives people a better chance of finding decent work, thereby being
a key means of lifting people out of poverty.
Education also helps people to realise that development should benefit people and communities as a
whole. It enables people to recognise that economic development should be pursued to provide long-
term benefits in line with human rights and the preservation and conservation of the environment.
In 2015, the international community committed to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,87
which is an expansion of the Millennium Development Goals,88 and which reflects the importance
states place on education in achieving sustainable development.
Sustainable Development Goal 4 on education sets out a number of targets that are rights-based,
which recognises that education for sustainable development and human rights education are vital to
achieving sustainable development.
Education also plays an important role in the realisation of environmental rights, that is, environment
which is a key component of sustainable economic growth. Education and the transfer of knowledge
on environmental issues are necessary to raise awareness and spur action at all levels of society and
amongst different actors including individuals, organisations, decision-makers, and so on. Indeed,
‘effective climate change education increases the number of informed and engaged citizens, building
social will or pressure to shape policy, and building a workforce for a low-carbon economy.’89 For
example, research suggests that girls’ education provides an effective strategy for mitigating the
effects of climate change. Investment in girls’ education can promote girls’ reproductive rights in
order to ensure equitable climate action and foster climate participation and female leadership.
87
United Nations General Assembly (UNGA). 2015. Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. New York, UNGA (Doc. A/RES/70/1.)
88
UNGA. 2000. Resolution 55/2. United Nations Millennium Declaration (Doc. A/RES/55/2.)
89
Ledley, T. S., Rooney-Varga, J. and Niepold, F. 2017. Addressing Climate Change Through Education. Environmental
Issues and Problems, Sustainability and Solutions.
181
Education also enables girls to develop life skills for a green economy that are necessary in the fight
against climate change.90
8.4.4 The right to education as a means for future action
The importance of education to the individual and the wider role of education for society has meant
that education has been a preoccupation of thinkers since antiquity. But education is much more than
philosophically interesting, it is also a practical activity. This means education issues are also of
interest to students, teachers, civil servants, politicians, and others.
There are many questions about education that have been the subject of debate over the centuries:
what should the aims of education be, how should education be implemented, how should students
be taught, should education focus on the acquisition of knowledge or skills, such as critical thinking,
for example?91
Education, its role, delivery, and aims, has evolved over time across societies, shaped by prevailing
attitudes and beliefs. In recent times, education has become universalised, that is, open and available
to everyone and not just elites. In 1948, states, in proclaiming that: ‘everyone has the right to
education’ in Article 26 of the UDHR, explicitly recognised their role in ensuring that everyone
enjoys the right to education. As a result, or perhaps because the UDHR reflected changing attitudes,
we now think of education as a matter of public policy and intrinsically linked to the modern functions
of the state. For example, in the United Kingdom, it used to be the case that education was largely
privately provided by the church. But religious provision is not universal and since the early-to-mid
twentieth century, public education systems that have the capacity to provide an education for
everyone regardless of background have increasingly become the norm (although private provision
is still prevalent; it now tends to be subsumed within the education system, rather than operating
outside of it).
With this move, states have assumed a role in determining the big questions that have occupied
thinkers in respects to education. This means that states, and therefore decision-makers, have a
90
Kwauk, C. and Braga, A. 2017. 3 ways to link girls’ education actors to climate change. Brookings Institution.
91
Phillips, D.C. and Siegel, Harvey. 2015. Philosophy of Education, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2015
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) and Sigel, H. 2018. Philosophy of education, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
182
responsibility to think and reflect on the fundamental questions that undergird states’ education
systems.
Education is not neutral. Decisions of philosophical, moral, and political importance have to be made,
which in turn shape the entire education system within a state. The state, as the primary unit of
organisation when it comes to education, must decide the following questions concerning the right to
education (as well as number of other education issues):
• what the aims of education are and how competing aims can be balanced
• what is taught as part of the curriculum, including if religious education or comprehensive

sexuality education should be taught
• how it is taught, i.e., which pedagogies
• who should teach
• the content of the curriculum, whether there should be any testing and if so, in what form and
what should be tested
• how education fits into the wider values and aims of the state
• how the education system should be organised and managed
• what the role of private actors should be
It is the case that there are probably no right answers to the above questions. Any decisions taken will
depend on the country context, available resources, and the values that shape underlying beliefs about
the nature and purpose of education. However, there are certain red lines that states have agreed,
through legal commitment to human rights treaties, not to cross. The right to education and human
rights in general guides action on these key questions.
For example, that the primary aim of all forms of education should be the full development of the
human personality.
183
Human rights also guide the process by which answers should be agreed. Human rights principles
such as participation, transparency, and accountability are key.
Currently, decision procedures for these types of questions are largely non-existent. Firstly, it is
common that state officials themselves do not consider these underlying questions about education
and thus the values and direction of the education system is not regularly evaluated or adapted.
Education systems are thus largely characterised by inertia or by piecemeal reform.
Secondly, the state must decide education priorities but with the consent and participation of all
stakeholders. However, the public are rarely consulted on such matters. Education sector planning,
implementing policies, plans, and laws should be subject to inclusive participation by all relevant
stakeholders. Whilst education must meet state aims, the state should also seek to have an education
system that all stakeholders have participated in shaping.
Everyone bears responsibility as active citizens to shape the education system, through existing
processes, from membership of student councils and parent teacher associations to exercising a
democratic voice in general, provincial, and local elections. This helps to make better, more rigorous,
more principled, more socially relevant, culturally pertinent, and more consistent policy decisions
when it comes to education.
5.0 Recommended Reading

Relevant Cases
Case Summary
D. Matadeen and Another Appellants V. M.G.C. Pointu and others Respondents & The
Minister of Education and Science and Another
Privy Council No. 14 of 1997
1) Reference Details
Jurisdiction: Judicial Committee of The Privy Council
Date of Decision: Delivered the 18th February 1998
Status of Case: Judgment of The Lords
184
2) Facts
This appeal concerns the constitutional validity of new Regulations for the Certificate of
Primary Education Examination ("CPE") issued by the Mauritius Examination Syndicate in
March 1995 and intended to apply to the examinations taken in November 1995 and
thereafter. The CPE is taken by all children in Mauritius at the end of Standard 6, their last
year in primary school.
There are four compulsory subjects: English, Mathematics, French and Environmental
Studies (formerly called Geography). Children who take the examination are ranked in order
of attainment
in these subjects. Ranking is a matter of great importance for a child's future because it
determines which secondary school he or she may attend. To obtain a place in one of the
more academically oriented schools (les bons collèges) it is necessary to be one of the first
2,000 boys or 2,000 girls.
The Regulations challenged in these proceedings provided for an optional fifth paper in one
of a number of Oriental languages. There had been such an optional paper since 1987 which
could be taken into account for the purposes of deciding whether a candidate qualified for
the Certificate of Primary Education ("certification"), but only the four compulsory subjects
counted for the purpose of ranking. The effect of the change made by the new Regulations
was that candidates who offered an Oriental language would be ranked on their marks in
English, Mathematics and the best two out of the other three papers. A candidate who offered
only the four compulsory subjects would be ranked on the results of those subjects as before.
The question of introducing Oriental languages into the CPE syllabus had been under
discussion for some years. In 1986 a Select Committee of the Legislative Assembly (as
Parliament was then called) recommended that an optional paper chosen from a number of
classic Oriental languages - Hindi, Urdu, Tamil, Telegu, Marathi, Mandarin Chinese and
Arabic - be added to the CPE for the purposes of both certification and ranking. To provide
an option for children disinclined to study an Oriental language, the Committee
recommended that a new subject to be called Cultures and Civilisations of Mauritius be
introduced. This did not prove practicable and as a result the recommendations of the
Committee, were only partially implemented. The optional paper in Oriental languages was
introduced for the purposes of certification but not for ranking. A new Select Committee was
185
appointed to reconsider the matter in 1991. In December 1993 it recommended the scheme
which was subsequently approved by the Government and adopted by the Regulations which
are the subject-matter of this appeal.
3) Law
By section 3(l) of the Education Act 1957, overall control of the educational system of
Mauritius is vested in the Minister of Education. Examinations are conducted by the
Mauritius Examinations Syndicate, a body established by the Mauritius Examinations
Syndicate Act 1984, but the examinations are to be such as may be directed by the Minister:
section 4(a). It was therefore the Minister who directed the amendment to the regulations by
which Oriental languages were to count for ranking in the CPE.
On 8th May 1995 Mr. M.G.C. Pointu, acting on behalf of his ten year old daughter Florie
Caroline, who was in Standard 5 at a Catholic school and had not studied an Oriental
language, commenced proceedings before the Supreme Court of Mauritius for redress under
section 17(1) of the Constitution, which reads as follows:- "Where any person alleges that
any of sections 3 to 16 has been, is being, or is likely to be contravened in relation to him,
then, without prejudice to any other action with respect to the same matter that is lawfully
available, that person may apply to the Supreme Court for redress." The plaint alleged
contraventions of sections 3 and 16, to which their Lordships will in due course refer. Mr.
Pointu was joined as plaintiff by a number of other parents of children in a similar position,
including several who were of Oriental race. The original defendants were the Minister of
Education and Science and the State of Mauritius as defendants. Later Mr. D. Matadeen, the
father of a girl who had been studying Hindi and some other parents who also wanted to
uphold the new Regulations, successfully intervened to be joined as additional defendants.
Their Lordships must now refer to the provisions of the Constitution upon which reliance
was placed. Chapter 1 consists of the first two sections. Section 1 declares that “Mauritius
shall be a sovereign democratic State ……” Section 2 provides that the Constitution is to be
the supreme law of Mauritius. Chapter II, consisting of sections 3 to 18, is headed "Protection
of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms of the Individual". This Chapter is evidently based
upon the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms ("the European Convention") but there are also significant differences in language
186
and structure and it cannot be assumed that particular sections were necessarily intended to
have the same meanings. As their Lordships have indicated, the plaint alleges that the CPE
Regulations contravene sections 3 and 16
3) Decision
The plaintiffs' case as originally pleaded was that the new Regulations would contravene
sections 3 and 16. It soon became apparent, however, that reliance upon section 16 (which
has no parallel in the European Convention) posed formidable problems. Subsection (2)
prohibits "discriminatory" treatment by persons performing public functions. This would
cover functions such as that of the Minister exercising his powers under the Education Act
1957. There is therefore no difficulty about applying section 16 to the making of the
Regulations. But "discriminatory" is defined in section 16(3) to mean the affording of
different treatment to different persons "attributable wholly or mainly to their respective
descriptions by race, caste, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex". The
discrimination upon which the plaintiffs relied did not fall within any of these descriptions.
The Supreme Court said that the weight of authority was against any application of section
16 outside the forms of discrimination mentioned in subsection (3), citing Union of
Campement Sites Owners and Lessees v. Government of Mauritius [1984] 100 and the
majority judgment in Peerbocus v. R. [1991 MR 91]. But in view of their opinion on section
3, the court did not find it necessary to reach a decision on whether section 16 had been
contravened.
The Supreme Court found the Regulations unconstitutional as contravening a "combined
reading of sections 1 and 3". Section 1 itself is not justiciable by application for redress under
section 17(l), which refers only to contraventions of sections 3 to 16. Strictly speaking,
therefore, the contravention must have been of section 3, interpreted in the light of section
1. Their Lordships have no doubt that the democratic nature of the sovereign state of
Mauritius is an important matter to be taken into account in the construction of any part of
the Constitution and in particular its guarantees of fundamental rights and freedoms.
The basis of the Court's decision was its interpretation of section 3 as containing a general
justiciable principle of equality; a constitutional requirement, enforceable by the courts, that
the law, or administrative action under the law, should treat everyone equally unless there
was a sufficient objective justification for not doing so. A similar principle has found by the
courts to exist in the constitutions of certain other countries, notably the United States of
187
America (where it has been derived from the "equal treatment" clause of the 14th
Amendment and the "due process" clause of the 5 th Amendment) and the Republic of India
(Article 14, which gives the right to "equality before the law" and "the equal protection of
the laws"). The Supreme Court referred to cases in both these jurisdictions and held that the
same principle could be deduced from sections 1 and 3 of the Constitution of Mauritius. It
was therefore unconstitutional, in the absence of objective justification, for the Regulations
to discriminate between those children who had been studying Oriental languages and those
who had not. The Court was of opinion that no objective justification could be found for
making the change at such short notice.
Although the enumerated rights and freedoms include "freedom to establish schools", which
no doubt implies that the State cannot forbid attendance at a duly established school, they do
not include a positive right to education or a right on the part of pupils to attend any particular
school or type of school. In this respect the Constitution differs from Article 2 of the First
Protocol to the European Convention ("No person shall be denied the right to education")
which was applied by the European Court of Human Rights in Belgian Linguistic (No. 2)
(1968) 1 E.H.R.R. 252. The position in Mauritius is similar to that in the United States: see
San Antonio School District v. Rodriguez 411 U.S. 1, 33 (1973) in which Powell J. said: -
"Education, of course, is not among the rights afforded explicit protection under our Federal
Constitution. Nor do we find any basis for saying it is implicitly so protected."
Since 1973 Mauritius has been a signatory to the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights. It is a well-recognised canon of construction that domestic legislation,
including the Constitution, should if possible be construed so as to conform to such
international instruments. Again, their Lordships accept that such international conventions
are a proper part of the background against which section 3 must be construe respondents
argue that the Covenant requires the application of a general principle of equality and that
the Constitution should therefore be read as containing one.
Their Lordships' conclusion is that sections 3 and 16, even if construed with section 1, do
not apply to inequalities of treatment on grounds falling outside those enumerated. Such
inequalities are not subject to constitutional review. The question of whether they are
justifiable is one which the Constitution has entrusted to Parliament or, subject to the usual
principles of judicial review, to the Minister or other public body upon whom Parliament has
conferred decision-making authority. Their Lordships will therefore allow the appeal and
188
dismiss the application for constitutional redress. The appellants are entitled to their costs
before their Lordships' Board from the respondents. The co-respondents must pay their own
costs. The costs order in the Supreme Court will stand.
189
Case Summary
Tengur S v Minister of Education & Anor

2002 SCJ 298
2002 MR 116
Jurisdiction: Supreme Court of Mauritius
Date of Decision: 13 November 2002
Status of Case: Judgment delivered by Hon. A.G. Pillay, Chief Justice
2) Facts
The plaintiff is the father of minor Neha Devi Tengur who is of Hindu faith and is in Standard
V at Hugh Otter Barry Government School run by the defendants. He alleges that next year
his daughter will sit for the Certificate of Primary Education Examinations and he expects
that, on the basis of her results, his daughter will get admission to any secondary school of
his choice, whether owned and managed by the defendants or the co-defendants receiving
grants-in-aid from the second defendant, without being subjected to any discriminatory
practice.
3) Law
In the light of our findings of fact, we move on to consider whether by knowing of, and
acquiescing in, the admission policy of the co-defendants which is subject to the overriding
principle of specificity, the defendants have acted in breach of section 16(2) of the
Constitution in the performance of the functions of their public office or public authority,
given the clear provisions of section 35 of the Act and regulation 52(1)(a) of the Regulations.
In the light of our finding that Catholics have, all other things being equal, an advantage over
non-Catholics in getting admitted to the secondary schools of the co-defendants on account
of the overriding principle of specificity inherent in the admission policy of those schools,
we consider that, in terms of section 16(3) of the Constitution, non-Catholics are afforded a
different treatment on account of their creed or religion vis à vis Catholics in that the latter
are accorded a privilege or advantage which is denied to non-Catholics.
190
We shall consider this issue, in the light of the provisions of the UNESCO Convention
against Discrimination in Education (“the Convention”), quoted by learned Counsel for the
plaintiff, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, to which
Mauritius is a signatory “as it is a well-recognised canon of construction that domestic
legislation, including the Constitution, should if possible, be construed so as to conform to
such international instruments. Again their Lordships accept that such international
conventions are a proper part of the background against which section 3 must be construed”
– vide Matadeen and Anor v Pointu and Ors [1998 MR 172] at page 185 and we hasten
to add that these observations apply equally to section 16 of the Constitution. Again, we
wish to point out that not a word was said in respect of either the Convention or the Covenant
by learned Counsel for the co-defendants, although we invited arguments thereon.
It is noteworthy that, under article 1 of the Convention, the term “discrimination” includes
any preference based on religion which has the purpose of impairing equality of treatment
and in particular of “(a) depriving any person or group of persons of access to education of
any type or at any level” and matters mentioned at paragraphs (b) and (d). It does not,
however, include, when permitted in a state
3) Decision
A perusal of the relevant provisions of the Constitution, the Convention and the Covenant
shows clearly that no express or implied derogation is allowed in respect of the overriding
principle of the specificity of the co-defendants’ schools. There is no doubt that there might
be historical, social, religious and cultural reasons for such a principle. There is equally no
doubt that the Catholic Church and the secondary schools of the co-defendants have made
throughout the years a valuable contribution in the educational field in Mauritius, as attested
to even by the plaintiff and that there has been an arrangement between the defendants and
the co-defendants over the years, whereby the latter were allowed to preserve and maintain
the principle of specificity inherent in their admission policy.
However, such an arrangement cannot, in our opinion, waive, dilute or render nugatory the
obligations of both defendants to enforce under the Constitution, on the one hand, and to
respect, protect and fulfil under the Convention and the Covenant, on the other, the right to
education of the plaintiff’s daughter, without any discrimination
We hold, therefore, that the overriding principle of specificity inherent in the admission
policy of the co-defendants is not a permissible derogation under the Convention, the
191
Covenant, the Constitution or the Act. Moreover, the overriding principle of specificity is
not, in our opinion, based on reasonable and objective criteria. It is not sanctioned by any
law, least of all by the Act, so that it is not “an intelligible principle having a reasonable
object sought to be achieved by the Legislature”
Consequently, the admission policy of the co-defendants which is governed by the
overriding principle of specificity constitutes, in our view, unlawful discrimination. It is
clear also that by knowing of, and acquiescing in, such an admission policy of the co-
defendants, the second defendant is acting in material breach of its international obligations
under both the Convention and the Covenant.
Moreover, we fail to see, as rightly submitted by both learned Counsel for the plaintiff and
for the defendants, how the implementation of the educational project of the co-defendants
requires giving an unfair advantage in their admission policy which is subject to the
overriding principle of specificity to pupils of Catholic faith, the more so as the co-
defendants do not practise, as they should, any discrimination against non-Catholics in the
recruitment of their teachers. We wish to observe that what we have said in respect of the
discriminatory admission policy of the co-defendants’ schools applies equally to other
private secondary-aided schools or approved secondary schools, which are managed and
administered by persons or bodies of other religious faiths, should they be allowed by both
defendants, on the ground of the specificity of their schools, to reserve about 50 per cent of
the seats available in Form I of their schools to pupils of their own faiths.
For the reasons given, we hold and declare that both defendants knew of, and acquiesced in,
the admission policy of the co-defendants which is governed by the overriding principle of
specificity and is likely to discriminate against the plaintiff’s daughter and both of them have
consequently acted in material breach of section 16(2) of the Constitution. With costs against
the defendants.
192
Case Summary
Belgium Linguistics Case - ‘In the case “relating to certain aspects of the laws on the
use of languages in education in Belgium” v Belgium’ (Application no 1474/62;
1677/62; 1691/62; 1769/63; 1994/63; 2126/64)
Jurisdiction: European Court of Human Rights.
Date of Decision: 23 July 1968
Status of Case: Decision at Merits
2) Facts
The applicants submitted, between 1962 and 1964, six applications on their own behalf and
on the behalf of their children, alleging that Belgian linguistic legislation relating to
education infringed their rights under the European Convention, namely Article 8 in
conjunction with Article 14, and Article 2 of the Protocol 1 of March 1952. All applicants
were inhabitants of Alsemberg, Beersel, Antwerp, Ghent, Louvain, and Vilvorde, which
belonged to the region considered by law to be Dutch-speaking, or of Kraainem.
3) Law
The applicants alleged a violation of Article 8 (right to respect for private and family life) in
conjunction with Article 14 (non-discrimination) of the European Convention on Human
Rights, and Article 2 of Protocol 1 to the European Convention on Human Rights of March
1952 (right to education). In particular the applicants sought to challenge the Acts of 27th
July 1955, 29th May 1959 and 30th July 1963 “relating to the use of languages in education”,
the Act of 14th July 1932 "on language regulations in primary and intermediate education",
and the Act of 15th July 1932 "on the conferring of academic degrees". Though the Acts of
14th and 15th July 1932 were repealed by the Act of 30th July 1963, they were still in force
when the Applicants brought their cases before the Commission and were challenged
alongside the newer legislation. Section 4 of the Act of 30th July 1963 was given particular
attention. It laid down that the language of education should be Dutch in the Dutch-speaking
region, French in the French speaking region and German in the German-speaking region.
In Kraainem, and five other communes on the outskirts of Brussels where the normal
193
language is Dutch, nursery and primary, but not secondary, education was allowed in French
if this was the child's maternal or usual language and provided that the head of the family is
resident in one of these communes.
4) Legal Arguments
The Applicants
The applicants, whose children totalled more than 800, asserted that the law of the Dutch
speaking regions where they lived did not include adequate provisions for French-language
education. They also complained that the Belgian state withheld grants from institutions in
these regions which did not comply with the linguistic provisions set out in the legislation
for schools and refused to homologate certificates issued by these institutions. Further, the
state did not allow the applicant’s children to attend French classes which existed in certain
places thereby obliging the applicants to enrol their children in local schools, contrary to
their aspirations, or send them further afield which entailed various risks and hardships.
The Government
The Government argued that the right to education in one’s own language was not included
in the Convention and the Protocol, and that the applicants did not belong to a national
minority within the meaning of Article 14.
5) Decision
The Majority The Court found by a majority of 8 to 7 that the Belgian Act of 2 August 1963
did not comply with Article 14 of the Convention read in conjunction with Article 2 of
Protocol 1 on the basis that it prevented certain children from having access to French-
language schools in the communes on the outskirts of Brussels solely because of the
residence of their parents. The Court found unanimously that there had been no breach of
Articles 8 and 14 of the Convention, and Article 2 of the protocol, with regard to the other
contested legislation and points at issue. In reaching its decision the Court considered that
the principle of equality of treatment enshrined in Article 14 was violated if the distinction
had no objective and reasonable justification, did not pursue a legitimate aim, and was not
proportionate to the aim pursued. Further to this, the Court opined that the right to education
implied the right to be educated in the national language, and did not include the provision
that the parent’s linguistic preferences be respected.
194
Dissenting Opinion (Holmbäck J., Maridakis J., Rodenbourg J., Ross J., Wold J., Wiarda
J. and Mas J.)
A joint dissenting opinion issued by Judges Holmbäck, Maridakis, Rodenbourg, Ross,

Wold, Wiarda and Mas noted that the conditions of access to French language schools
existing in the six communes were not discriminatory as they pursued a legitimate aim.
Case Summary
Horváth and Kiss v Hungary

Application Number: 11146/11 1.
Reference Details Jurisdiction: European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) – Court

(Second Section)
Date of Decision: 29 January 2013
Case Status: will be final according to conditions of article 44 para.
Facts of the Case

The case was brought by Mr Horváth and Mr Kiss, Hungarian applicants born in 1994 and
1992 of Roma origin. The case related to the education system in Hungary under which
children diagnosed with mental disabilities, including mild mental disabilities, are schooled
outside of mainstream schools, in separate “remedial schools”. These remedial schools have
a more basic curriculum, offering more limited options to their students, than their
mainstream counterparts. On 19 April 2001, the nursery that Mr Horváth was attending
requested a mental examination for him. He was tested on 17 May 2001 by an expert panel.
The expert panel told his parents that he would be sent to a remedial school even before the
examination. The results for different tests were disparate ranging from IQ 64 to 83. He was
diagnosed with a mild mental disability and sent to a remedial school. He was tested again
from time to time over the years. In 2007, the expert panel found that he had good results in
school but again diagnosed him with a mild mental disability and special educational needs
as a result of which he remained in the remedial school. His parents were not invited to
participate in the assessments, and it is unclear whether they were provided with information
regarding their rights, including the right to appeal. In September 1999, Mr Kiss started at a
primary mainstream school and the local pedagogical advisory service concluded that he had
learning difficulties "deriving from his disadvantaged social and cultural background." On
14 December 1999, the school requested a diagnosis from an expert panel and on 15 May
2000 the expert panel diagnosed him with a mild mental disability. The results of the tests
were disparate ranging from IQ 63 to 83. As a result, he was placed in a remedial school
despite protests from his parents. His parents were not informed of their right to appeal. He
was tested again over the years and despite good results at school the expert panel stated that
he should remain at the remedial school. Although the WHO standard for diagnosing a
mental disability is an IQ of 70 or below, the expert panel in each case took the standard to
be 86 between mild mental disability and sound intellectual ability and did not give any
reasons for the disparate results. In August 2005, both applicants were tested at a summer
195
camp by independent experts who found that they were not mentally disabled and were fit
for a mainstream school, though they found evidence of immaturity of the nervous system,
dyslexia or behavioural problems. They also noted that the diagnostic methods used should
be reviewed as the children could have performed better if the tests had not been designed
for the ethnic majority and also observed that education in a remedial school might
significantly reduce results of an intelligence test at the age of 13 or 14. On 13 November
2006, the applicants claimed damages in the first instance court from the expert panel, the
county council and the remedial school due to violation of the principle of equal treatment
amounting to a violation of their personality rights under section 76 of the Civil Code and
section 77(3) of the PEA. They claimed that they had been discriminated against on the basis
of their ethnicity and social and economic background and sent to a remedial school despite
having normal abilities because of the flawed diagnostic system which did not take into
account the social and cultural background of Roma children. They also claimed that their
constitutional right to a remedy had been violated because their parents had not been
informed of their right to participate in the proceedings or appeal findings. The court ordered
that they be tested by the National Expert and Rehabilitation Committee ("NERC"). The
NERC found Mr Horváth to have mild mental disabilities. In the case of Mr Kiss the NERC
found that he was not mentally disabled but had a learning impairment. In each case the
NERC noted that the expert panel should have noted that socio-cultural factors had played a
significant role, but that this was not taken into account. It concluded that both had been
provided with an education adequate to their abilities and found that the opinion of the
independent experts in 2005 was open to doubt. However, the court held that their rights to
equal treatment and education had been violated as the expert panel had not individualised
their cases to identify (i) their special needs; (ii) specific services that would help the
applicants; and (iii) the reasons why they needed a special education. While the expert panel
did not appeal, the appeal of the county council and the school was successful as the court
of appeal found that the lack of appropriate diagnostic tools did not have any connection to
their ethnic origin and that their personality rights had not been violated. The applicants
approached the Supreme Court for review asking them to establish that the misdiagnosis of
Roma children and sending them to remedial schools constituted discrimination based on
ethnic, social and economic background and that the appeal had been wrongly decided. In
August 2010, the Supreme Court found that there was no violation of the right to equal
treatment but noted that there were systemic errors in the diagnostic system and that the
applicants could approach the European Court of Human Rights to enforce the state's duty
to correct these. It also found that the expert panel's handling of the parental rights violated
Ministerial Decree no.14/1994 (VI.24.) MKM, and found the county council liable for this,
along with the expert panel.
3. Law
National laws:
• Ministerial Decree no.14/1994.(VI.24.) MKM on work of expert and rehabilitation
committees
• Ministerial Decree no. 4/2010.(I.19.) OKM on work of pedagogical expert services Civil
• Code (Section 76)
• Act no. LXXIX of 1993 on Public Education (Sections 4, 10, 30, 77, 121) (“the PEA”)
• After 2004, Act no. CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of Equal
Opportunities (Section 9 (indirect discrimination))
Regional laws:
• Articles 2 of Protocol No.1 read with Article 14 of the European Convention of Human
Rights ("ECHR")
196
4. Legal Arguments
Applicants' Arguments
The applicants argued that their education in a remedial school represented ethnic
discrimination in the enjoyment of their right to education in breach of Article 2 of Protocol
No.1 read with Article 14. This was a result of indirect discrimination which occurs when an
apparently neutral provision, criterion or practice would put persons of a specific racial or
ethnic origin at a particular disadvantage compared with others, unless it was objectively
justified by a legitimate aim and the means of achieving that aim were appropriate and
necessary. They argued that social deprivation was linked to the concept of familial disability
and they argued that the definition of mental disability as comprising social deprivation
and/or having a minority culture amounted to bias and prejudice. In addition, the tests had
been culturally biased putting Roma children at a particular disadvantage and their socio-
cultural disadvantaged background resulting from ethnicity had not been taken into account
and that the examination process had not been sufficiently individualised.
Respondent's Arguments
The respondent argued that the applicants had not been treated less favourably or differently
from other non-Roma children in a comparable situation; and if their treatment had been
different from other non-Roma or Roma children, it had an objective and reasonable
justification. They also argued that the tests administered measured the effect of cultural
deprivation on the mental development of children irrespective of ethnic origin, and these
factors concerned social development which fell outside the right to education or other rights
under the ECHR. They argued that there were procedural safeguards in place (although they
had not been followed in the case of the applicants). They also argued that the purpose of the
tests was to see whether the applicants could go to a mainstream school, and therefore could
not be regarded as a misdiagnosis simply because WHO standards had not been followed.
5. Decision
Article 2 of Protocol No.1
The court noted that the word "respect" in this provision implies some positive obligation on
the state. In the context of members of groups which have suffered past discrimination
having continuing effects, the right to education calls for the implementation of positive
measures to assist the members with any difficulties they encounter in following the school
curriculum, particularly when there is history of direct discrimination.
Article 14
The Court noted that:
(i) Discrimination means treating differently without an objective and reasonable
justification persons in relevantly similar situations.
(ii) Discrimination on account of ethnic origin is a form of racial discrimination.
(iii) Difference in treatment may take the form of disproportionately prejudicial effects of a
general policy which though couched in neutral terms, discriminates against a group.
This is indirect discrimination, and does not require any discriminatory intent.
(iv) Discrimination potentially contrary to the ECHR may result from a de facto situation.
The Court noted that when it comes to assessing the impact of a measure or practice on an
individual or group, statistics which appear on critical examination to be reliable and
significant will be sufficient to constitute the prima facie evidence the applicant is required
to produce (although they are not necessary for proof). When a rebuttable presumption that
the effect of a measure or practice is discriminatory has been established where indirect
discrimination is alleged, the burden of proof shifts to the state.
197
The Court noted that the Roma have become a specific type of disadvantaged and vulnerable
minority requiring special protection. It found on the figures presented to it that Roma
children have been overrepresented at the remedial school attended by the applicants due to
systematic misdiagnosis of mental disability and that therefore it can be observed that a
general measure exerted a disproportionately prejudicial effect on the Roma.
The Court further noted that this effect was noticeable even if it had a similar effect on other
disadvantaged groups as well and concluded that there was prima facie discrimination.
Further, taking into account the past bias in the placement of Roma children in special
schools, the court found that the state has a specific positive obligation to avoid the
perpetuation of past discrimination in allegedly neutral practices. On the facts, the Court
found it troubling that the tests departed from WHO standards and concluded that the tests
did not provide for necessary safeguards against misdiagnosis which should follow from the
positive obligations on the state. It also found that, at the very least, there was a danger that
the tests were culturally biased.
On the facts found by the domestic courts, the Court concluded that the expert panel and the
county council had not provided the necessary guarantees against misplacement; that there
was legal uncertainty as to the concepts of integrated education in the relevant period and
therefore that the tests could not be considered as sufficient justification for the applicants'
treatment, even if the tests themselves were not culturally biased. As regards the question of
parental consent, the court accepted the government's position that adequate remedies had
been provided in the domestic procedure.
Remedy
The applicants did not claim damages and the court held that the government was to pay the
applicants 4,500 Euros (EUR) jointly in respect of their costs and expenses, along with
default interest at the rate of three percentage points above the marginal lending rate of the
European Central Bank.
198
Sampanis and Others v. Greece (application no. 32526/05)
Jurisdiction: European Court of Human Rights – Chamber judgment
Date of Decision: 5 June 2008
1) Facts
The 11 applicants (Greek nationals of Roma origin) were living in Psari, an authorised
residential site near Aspropyrgos (Greece). The applicants brought the case out of concern
that the authorities’ failure to provide schooling for the their children during the 2004-2005
school year and the subsequent placement of their children in special classes, in an annexe
to the main Aspropyrgos primary school building, was a measure related to their Roma origin
of the children.
On 21 September 2004 the applicants visited, with other Roma parents, the premises of the
Aspropyrgos primary schools in order to enrol their children. According to the applicants,
the head teachers of two schools had refused to enrol their children on the ground that they
had not received any instructions on this matter from the competent ministry. The head
teachers allegedly informed them that as soon as the necessary instructions had been
received, they would be invited to proceed with the appropriate formalities. However, the
parents were apparently never invited to enrol their children.
The Greek Government claimed that the applicants had simply approached the schools to
obtain information with a view to the enrolment of their children, and that the head mistress
had told them what documents were necessary for that purpose. Subsequently, in November
and December 2004, a delegation of primary school teachers from Aspropyrgos had visited
the Psari Roma camp to inform and persuade parents of the need to enrol their children.
An informal meeting was convened on 23 September 2004 and it was decided, firstly, that
pupils at the age of initial school admission could be taught on the existing premises of the
Aspropyrgos primary schools, and secondly, that additional classes would be created for
older children, to prepare them for integration into ordinary classes. On 9 June 2005, 23
children of Roma origin, including the applicants’ children, were enrolled for the school year
2005-2006. According to the Government, the number of children came to 54.
In September and October 2005, from the first day of the school year, non-Roma parents
protested about the admission to primary school of Roma children and blockaded the school,
demanding that the Roma children be transferred to another building. The police had to
intervene several times to maintain order and prevent illegal acts being committed against
pupils of Roma origin.
On 25 October 2005 the applicants signed, according to them under pressure, a statement
drafted by primary school teachers to the effect that they wanted their children to be
transferred to a building separate from the school. Thus, from 31 October 2005, the
applicants’ children were given classes in another building and the blockade of the school
was lifted. Three classes were housed in prefabricated classrooms on land belonging to the
municipality of Aspropyrgos. In April 2007, the Roma children were transferred to a new
primary school set up in Aspropyrgos in September 2007.
3) Law
• European Convention on Human Rights Article 14 (prohibition of discrimination)
• European Convention on Human Rights Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 (right to
education)
• European Convention on Human Rights Article 13 (right to an effective remedy)
199
4) Legal Arguments
The applicants
The applicants complained that their children had been subjected, without any objective or
reasonable justification, to treatment that was less favourable than that given to non-Roma
children in a comparable situation and this constituted a violation of Article 14 (prohibition
of discrimination) in conjunction with Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 (right to education). They
further claimed a violation of Article 13 (right to an effective remedy).
5) Decision of the Court
The judgment was given by a Chamber of seven judges.
Article 14 taken together with Article 2 of Protocol No. 1

In respect of the Article 14 claim, the Court observed that it was not disputed that the
applicants’ children had missed the school year 2004-2005 and that preparatory classes had
been set up inside one of the primary schools in Aspropyrgos. It was also noted in regards to
the composition of the preparatory classes that they were attended exclusively by Roma
children and that the creation of the three preparatory classes in question had not been
planned until 2005, when the local authorities had had to address the question of schooling
for Roma children living in the Psari camp. Furthermore, the Government had not given any
example prior to the facts of the case of special classes being created inside primary schools
in Aspropyrgos, even though other Roma children had been enrolled there in the past. The
Court noted that even though the incidents of a racist nature that took place in front of
Aspropyrgos primary school in September and October 2005 could not be imputed to the
Greek authorities, it could nevertheless be presumed that those incidents influenced the
decision to place pupils of Roma origin in an annexe to the primary school.
The Court considered that there was a strong presumption of discrimination and that it was
for the Government to show that this difference in treatment was the result of objective
factors, unrelated to ethnic origin. The Court observed that whilst the evidence did not show
that the applicants had met with an explicit refusal by the school authorities, given the Roma
community’s vulnerability and considering that Article 14 requires in certain circumstances
a difference of treatment in order to correct inequality, the competent authorities should have
recognised the particularity of the case and facilitated the enrolment of the Roma children,
even if some of the requisite administrative documents were not readily available.
The Court noted, due to Greek law recognising the specific nature of the Roma community’s
situation and domestic legislation providing for the possibility of enrolling pupils at primary
school simply by means of a declaration signed by someone with parental authority, that this
obligation should have been particularly clear to the Aspropyrgos school authorities as they
were aware of the problem of providing schooling for the children living in Psari camp and
of the need to enrol them at primary school.
The Court considered that the competent authorities had not adopted a single, clear criterion
in choosing which children to place in the special preparatory classes. In addition, the Court
noted that whilst the declared objective of the preparatory classes was for the pupils
concerned to attain the level of education which would enable them to enter ordinary classes
in due course, there was no evidence that the preparatory classes facilitated this process.
Moreover, the Court was not satisfied that the applicants had been able to assess all the
aspects of the situation and the consequences of their consent to the transfer of their children
to a separate building. Reiterating the fundamental importance of the prohibition of racial
discrimination, the Court considered that the possibility that someone could waive their right
not to be the victim of such discrimination was unacceptable. Such a waiver would be
incompatible with an important public interest.
200
The Court concluded that the conditions of school enrolment for those children and their
placement in special preparatory classes resulted in discrimination against them and
constituted a violation of Article 14 of the Convention taken together with Article 2 of
Protocol No. 1 in respect of each of the applicants. Article 13 The Court found that the Greek
Government had not adduced evidence of the availability of an effective remedy and
therefore there had been a violation of Article 13.
201
Carl Henrik Blom v. Sweden, Communication No. 191/1985, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/OP/2
at 216 (1990)
Jurisdiction: UN Human Rights Committee, Thirty-second session
Date of Decision: 4 April 1988
Case Status: Concluded by the Human Rights Committee
2) Facts
During the school year 1981/82, the author attended grade 10 at the Rudolf Steiner School
in Goteborg, which is a private school. According to Decree No. 418 on Study Aid, issued
by the Swedish Government in 1973, a pupil of an independent private school can only be
entitled to public assistance if he attends a programme of courses which is placed under State
supervision.
The author states that the Rudolf Steiner School submitted an application on 15 October
1981 to be placed under State supervision with respect to grade 10 and above (the lower
grades were already in that category). After the local school authorities and the National
Board gave a favourable opinion, the decision to place grade 10 and above under State
supervision was taken on 17 June 1982, effective as of 1 July 1982. This meant that the
supervision was in force from the school year 1982/83 onwards, and not from autumn 1981,
as the school had requested.
On 6 June 1984, the author applied for public financial aid in the amount of SKr 2,250, in
respect of the school year 1981/82. By a decision of 5 November 1984, his application was
rejected by the National Board for Educational Assistance on the grounds that the school had
not been under State supervision during the school year 1981/82.
3) Law
National Law
• Decree No. 418 on Study Aid (1973)
• Act on Study Aid (1973)
International Law
• UN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966 (ICCPR), Article 2(3) and
Article 26 • UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education of 1960, Article 3(c)
and Article 5(b) • UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966,
Article 13
4) Legal Arguments
The Author
The author argued that the decision not to grant him public assistance was in violation of
Article 26 of the ICCPR. The author contended that he was subjected to discrimination as a
pupil of a private 2 school, as pupils of public schools are said to have received public
assistance for the school year 1981/82. This discriminatory treatment allegedly contravened
the basic idea of equality for all in education and it also allegedly interfered with the parents'
right to choose independent private schools provided for in Article 13 of the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and Article 5, paragraph 1(b) of the
UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education of 1960 to which Sweden is a
State party.
The author requested that the Committee condemned the alleged violations of Article 26 of
the ICCPR, invited the State party to take the necessary steps to give effect to its obligations
202
under Article 2, paragraph 3 urged the State party to discontinue the alleged discriminatory
practices based on the 1973 Study Aid Act.
The State
The State party submitted that, in relation to a violation of Article 26, the notion of
discrimination implies a comparison between two or more different groups or categories of
individuals and a finding, first, that one group or category is being treated differently from
another group or category and, secondly, that this different treatment is based on arbitrary
and unjustified grounds. Accordingly, different treatment does not constitute discrimination
when the distinction is based on objective and reasonable criteria.
The State party argued that there was no obligation under Article 26, or under any other
provision of the Covenant, to provide public financial support to pupils. Therefore, the State
is at liberty to decide whether to give such support and, if financial support is provided, to
set the conditions under which it should be granted. The State party further argued that a
school, like any other institution or activity in society, needed to be assessed for reasonable
standards of quality and whether it fulfils a need of society or the presumptive pupils. The
State party argued that it was equally justified if financial support is provided, that the State
take the necessary measures in order to assure itself that the facts and circumstances
underlying the decision have not subsequently changed. The State party argued this rationale
for the supervision of private schools and deciding the eligibility of pupils for public
financial support. The Government submitted that this does not constitute discrimination
within the meaning of Article 26.
5) Decision
On concluding that the communication was admissible, the Committee observed that the
main issue before it was whether the author was a victim of a violation of the Covenant due
to the alleged incompatibility of the Swedish regulations on education allowances with
Article 26.
The Committee observed that the State party's educational system provides for both private
and public education, and held that the State party cannot be deemed to act in a
discriminatory fashion if it does not provide the same level of subsidy for the two types of
establishment, when the private system is not subject to State supervision. As to whether the
author's claim that the failure of the State party to grant an education allowance for the school
year 1981/82 constituted discriminatory treatment due to the non-retroactive effect of the
State party’s decision of 17 June 1982, the Committee found that the State party could not
be expected to grant an allowance for any prior period and that the question of discrimination
does not arise.
Finally, the Committee noted, in regard to whether the processing of the school’s application
was unduly prolonged, that the evaluation of a school's curricula necessarily entails a certain
period of time, as a result of a host of factors and imponderables, including the necessity of
seeking advice from various governmental agencies. In the instant case the school's
application was made in October 1981 and the decision was rendered eight months later, in
June 1982. The Committee concluded that this lapse of time could not be deemed to be
discriminatory, as such.
Useful websites
ILO: <http://www.ilo.org/>
UNESCO : <http://www.unesco.org/>
International Network for Economic, Social & Cultural Rights: <http://
203
www.escr-net.org/>
Right to Education Project: <http://www.right-to-education.org/>
Centre for Economic and Social Rights: <http://www.cesr.org/>
Equal Rights Trusts <www.equalrightstrust.org>
Right to Education <https://www.right-to-education.org/>
6.0: Activities
Activity 1:
Analyse the benefits of education as a human right.
Activity 2:
“Education as a human right”. Discuss.
204
Unit 8: Dispute Resolution
1.0 Overview
2.0 Dispute Resolution Framework in Mauritius
3.0 Why option for ADR?
4.0 ADR process
5.0 Reference to ADR
6.0 Caselaw affecting ADR
7.0 Recommended reading
8.0 Activities
205
1.0 Overview
There is no single definition of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR). Whilst there are agreed types
of ADR, the term just realistically means a way of resolving a dispute without formally invoking the
courts or tribunals. Thus, ADR could range from an agreement by the parties to a third-party
intervening in the dispute to make findings of fact, in which case it may look not dissimilar to a court
case.
It is widely accepted that ADR involves two distinct types of resolution. These are known as
adjudicative options and non-adjudicative options92. ‘Adjudicative’ means that a person sits as an
adjudicator, i.e. a person independent of the parties will hear from the other parties and reach a
conclusion on the dispute and, in most instances, decide upon the remedy. To that extent, as has been
noted already, it could be questioned what the difference is between an adjudicative resolution and
litigation. The answer lies primarily in the lack of formality, speed, and cost93. The legal process is
complicated. However, ADR operates outside of the legal system and therefore the parties themselves
can decide what the rules are, without being bound by traditional understandings of the law and
process.
Non-adjudicative forms are much broader. They tend to rely on facilitating an agreement. A third
party may still be present, but their role is not to be determinative, but rather to try and bring the two
sides together, to understand the point of view of the others, and to work towards a settlement that
both are happy with. Non-adjudicative forms can therefore sometimes create situations where a party
does not think that they have ‘won’ or ‘lost’ because it is about identifying a compromise that both
are happy about and which avoids the requirement to spend considerable sums of money on litigation.
At the outset, it is important to understand the scale of ADR. It is tempting to think of ADR as being
‘local’ resolution of small-scale disputes. Whilst undoubtedly this will sometimes be the case, ADR
can involve vast sums of money. It is increasingly common for commercial cases to be settled via
ADR94.
It is equally important to recognize a second truth of ADR. That it is not new. By bringing together
all the forms of dispute resolution under the title of ‘ADR’ it is sometimes possible to believe that
ADR is a modern concept. Indeed, it was realistically not until the twentieth century that ‘ADR’
became a popular concept, it largely centring on the work of Frank Sander, a professor of law at
92
Susan Blake, Julie Browne, and Stuart Sime, The Jackson ADR Handbook (2nd edn, OUP 2016) 13, 16.
93
Ibid, 13
94
Lord Thomas of Cwmgiedd, ‘Developing Commercial Law through the Courts: Rebalancing the Relationship between
the Courts and Arbitration’ 2016 BAILII lecture. Available online at: https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-
content/uploads/2016/03/lcj-speech-bailli-lecture-20160309.pdf.
206
Harvard University95. However, some forms of ADR are much older. Arbitration, a form of arbitrative
justice, has been in existence for hundreds of years, having existed in ecclesiastical law since the
seventh century96. In the 1920s, English commercial arbitration was lauded as being the exemplar
that other countries, most notably the USA, should follow. There is no doubt, however, that in recent
years ADR has enjoyed a renaissance where its popularity has increased and where the judiciary
encourage it to be tried as an alternative to litigation97.
2.0 Dispute Resolution Framework in Mauritius
Dispute resolution in Mauritius occurs via the traditional system of litigation before the courts and
through alternative dispute resolution (ADR) procedures. A party may choose whether to apply to the
courts for redress, or opt to have such a dispute resolved through mediation, conciliation or
arbitration98.
Disposal of commercial disputes through the Commercial Division of the Supreme Court of Mauritius
is an inherent feature of Mauritius’s judicial system, which heard and disposed of more than 1,500
cases in 2016. The Mediation Division of the Supreme Court has also been actively involved in
facilitating the settlement of ongoing civil and commercial disputes. Since 2012, around 1,600 cases
have been referred to the Mediation Division of the Supreme Court, of which around 1,100 have been
settled99.
In November 2008, the International Arbitration Act 2008 (IAA), which is based on the UNCITRAL
Model Law, was enacted by parliament. With the coming into force of the IAA in January 2009, and
the conclusion of a host country agreement with the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) at The
Hague, the permanent representative of the PCA located in Mauritius is, as from September 2010,
called upon to intervene, for example, in cases of failure to constitute the arbitral tribunal, to appoint
the arbitrator if the parties have not done so, or if there is a challenge to the arbitrator.
As Mauritius is already a recognised jurisdiction for the setting up of global business licence
companies, an interesting feature of the IAA is that it also provides for the arbitration of disputes
95
Michael L Moffitt, ‘Frank Sander and His Legacy as an ADR Pioneer’ (2006) 22 Negotiation Journal 437–45.
96
Paul L Sayre, ‘Development of Commercial Arbitration Law’ (1928) 37 Yale Law Journal 595, 597.
97
ibid, 595.
98
https://thelawreviews.co.uk/chapter/1166488/mauritius
99
https://thelawreviews.co.uk/chapter/1166488/mauritius
207
under the constitution of global business licence companies incorporated in Mauritius. Furthermore,
all court applications under the IAA, which are made to a panel of three judges of the Supreme Court,
have a direct and automatic right of appeal to the JCPC.
At the domestic level, arbitration can be resorted to under the Code of Civil Procedure 1808, which
allows parties to refer any dispute for arbitration either before or after a dispute has arisen.
Mediation and arbitration procedures are also available at the level of the Mauritius Chamber of
Commerce and Industry (MCCI) and the LCIA-MIAC Arbitration Centre. The MCCI has, since 1998,
had its own permanent court of arbitration, the MCCI Arbitration and Mediation Center (MARC).
Under the Mediation Rules or Arbitration Rules of MARC, individuals, private-sector entities and
public-sector organisations can initiate arbitral proceedings in relation to both domestic and
international commercial disputes. The LCIA-MIAC Arbitration Centre was established in July 2011
which provides for various forms of alternative dispute resolution procedures (the more common
procedures Arbitration and Mediation) which are available to are Mauritian or international entities
that have no connection to Mauritius.
3.0 Why option for ADR?
Some of the reasoning behind this has already been discussed: it can be a cheaper, less formal, and
quicker way to resolve disputes. It can operate in a more flexible way than the law, particularly in our
legal system.
It could be said that the Mauritian Legal System (partly based on the English Legal System) is based
on the adversarial system of litigation. In essence this means that both sides separately prepare their
respective submissions and then they arrive in court and participate in a quasi-gladiatorial contest
until the tribunal of fact (in civil trials this usually being a judge) pronounces the winner.
Yet in recent times there has been an increasing debate as to whether the adversarial system is the
appropriate way of resolving all disputes. To an extent this was realized in specialist proceedings,
perhaps most notably in proceedings relating to the welfare of a child. Debates on the new legislation
regarding children makes clear that the best interests of the child must be the court’s paramount
consideration and this has led to the conclusion that in certain proceedings, most notably child
protection proceedings, the full adversarial system is unhelpful and that making the proceedings more
inquisitorial can be of assistance.
208
Even within ordinary litigation it is now becoming increasingly accepted that the adversarial system
is not always of assistance and that it inherently involves both extensive cost and delay100. It has also
been suggested that it involves a further disadvantage: an imbalance of power (which could be likened
to the ‘equality of arms’ principle contained within Article 6 European Convention on Human Rights
(ECHR).
The choice between using ADR or going to court may also turn on what the client is seeking to
achieve. It may be that one mode of dispute resolution is better at delivering the required result than
the other. By using ADR, any of the following may be achieved:
(a) a change in the way the other party behaves, or measures to prevent a similar problem arising
again;
(b) putting right a mistake;
(c) a promise that the other party will not do something;
(d) the repair or replacement of an item purchased;
(e) an apology, or an explanation; or
(f) compensation.
Court proceedings may result in:

(a) a prohibitory injunction (eg to stop tortious conduct/délictuelle);
(b) specific performance of a contractual obligation;
(c) rectification of a document, or rescission of a contract;
(d) the return of property (land or goods);
(e) compensation; or
(f) a declaration from the court about the respective rights of the parties.
3.1 Advantages of ADR
The shift away from the adversarial system must undoubtedly be considered a key advantage of ADR.
However, there are more tangible advantages in its use.
100
Geoff Davies, ‘Civil Justice Reform: Why We Need to Question Some Basic Assumptions’ (2006) 25 Civil Justice
Quarterly 32.
209
The courts are beset by delays. Whilst procedure rules seek to try and improve the situation, it must
be accepted that litigation can take a considerable length of time. This is particularly true of
complicated cases. This is the average length of time, meaning that for many cases it took
considerably longer. Even simpler cases took time. In instances it should be noted that this is the time
between claim and the main hearing. There will then be a further hearing before the judgment is
given. In many instances, waiting over a year for a resolution to a dispute is simply not possible. For
example, if the dispute is over a crucial factory part or the performance of a contract, considerable
losses could be incurred if the status quo continues for the year it takes for the matter to proceed
before the courts. ADR can be much quicker as it is, in essence, a case of ensuring that the parties
agree and that a suitable time can be found with the person who facilitates ADR. As there are a
considerable number of these, it is possible to move very quickly. Indeed, some forms of ADR now
take place online, meaning that the process is even quicker101. It is not just about speed, however. The
costs of ADR are usually much cheaper than litigation. While this year-long trial process has been
going on, there will have been considerable work undertaken by barristers and attorneys. Indeed, even
prior to the court action being commenced there will have been considerable legal costs incurred.
Where a dispute is over not very much money, it is quite possible that the costs of litigation will take
up most of, or indeed exceed, the money being disputed.
The informality of ADR also means that it is sometimes possible to go to the heart of the dispute,
whereas the adversarial nature of litigation requires each side to establish their case. Indeed,
adversarial systems tend to encourage so-called ‘satellite litigation’ where minor disputes start off
and encircle the principal dispute, causing additional costs and delays. ADR can puncture this by
encouraging people to concentrate on what is important to both parties. A final and yet very important
advantage, in some cases, is that ADR is generally confidential. As it is, in essence, an agreement
between parties, both can assist on confidentiality. This can be important where the dispute is
sensitive or where the issue at the heart of the dispute may cause reputational damage to one or other
of the parties. Whilst it is possible in some cases to have confidentiality within litigation, the clear
presumption is that litigation is public. This may be uncomfortable for either or both parties, meaning
that ADR becomes attractive.
3.2 Disadvantages of ADR
101
Julia Hörnle, ‘Online Dispute Resolution: The Emperor’s New Clothes?’ (2003) 17 International Review of Law,
Computers & Technology 27, 28.
210
It is easy to get caught up in the enthusiasm of ADR but there are disadvantages too. ADR requires a
degree of consent. In the absence of any law or rule to the contrary, both parties must agree to use
ADR rather than litigate. This is not always possible, particularly where disputes seem personal. In
the raw emotion of feeling ‘wronged’, people do not often want to think rationally and instead prefer
the idea of ‘vengeance’, even when the courts are not interested in that as a concept. A good example
of this is divorce.
There is also the disadvantage that it might end up in court in any event. Whilst it will be seen that
some forms of ADR are protected by the courts, in that they will not readily interfere with the ultimate
decision, that is not the case with all forms. It is quite possible that in non-adjudicative forms of ADR,
time and expense are incurred trying to identify a solution, only for it to collapse at the last minute or
be rejected. It will be seen that the courts may take notice of this, but ultimately they are unlikely to
reject litigation on this basis alone.
One of the advantages of ADR—informality—can also be a disadvantage. Whilst the legal system
can be overly prescriptive and traditional, it does have the advantage that there is an established set
of rules (both procedural and evidential) that neither side can influence. With ADR, the rules are
generally agreed between the parties and thus if there is any power imbalance, it is possible that they
may become skewed. Also, as ADR sits outside of the legal system, it is not affected by precedent.
Therefore, the mere fact that a similar case had resolution x before does not necessarily mean that the
second case will have the same resolution. Therefore, there is perhaps a degree of uncertainty with
ADR.
Finally, some of the advantages are arguably over-stated. Whilst it is said that ADR is quick and
cheap, it need not be. For example, for relatively minor disputes, the costs of ADR are likely to be
more than the costs incurred under the small claims track in the county court. Also, ADR usually
involves more work than for minor disputes. The small claims procedure requires the filing of the
claim form, acknowledgement of service (and submission of defence, where appropriate, although
that tends to be on the same form), and then the hearing. Some forms of ADR will require several
steps, meaning that even if the process is quicker, it may seem more protracted.
That said, it should be recognized that in many cases ADR is likely to be an appropriate alternative
to litigation, particularly where disputes are greater than the small claims track. The courts welcome
ADR as the civil courts are overwhelmed with work and struggle to process the volume of cases that
211
come before them. If they can encourage ADR, then this lightens the load before the courts. Where
the dispute is either minor or simple, the courts will often view this as a more preferable outcome102.
4.0 ADR processes
ADR broadly falls into adjudicative and non-adjudicative processes, depending on whether the
process results in a decision made by a third party neutral (adjudicative), or whether the process is
aimed at enabling the parties to reach an agreed settlement (non-adjudicative). The main types of
ADR process are:
(g) negotiation, either between the parties directly, or through their legal representatives;
(h) mediation, where a third-party neutral facilitates the parties in seeking a settlement;
(i) conciliation, which is similar to mediation, but may have a statutory framework depending on
the jurisdiction
(j) early neutral evaluation (‘ENE’), in which a third party neutral is appointed to evaluate all or
part of a dispute and to provide an opinion on the merits;
(k) expert determination (‘ED’), under which an expert is appointed by the parties to decide all
or part of a dispute;
(l) complaints and ombudsman schemes, which are frequently used to deal with problems raised
by customers or users of public services;
(m) adjudication, which is used to provide a speedy decision in construction industry disputes;
and
(n) arbitration, which is in effect a private form of litigation.
Table below sets out the key features of four types of ADR process. The various commercial dispute
resolution providers have put together a number of different dispute resolution models, together with
published rules, which allows parties to choose the one which is best suited for resolving their dispute.
Arbitration is intended to be a direct replacement for litigation, with an arbitrator making a decision
which is binding on the parties. Other ADR procedures provide a means of finding a solution, but
leave litigation open if the parties do not reach a compromise. For example, mediation can assist the
parties in focusing on the issues that are causing the problem, which in turn can help them in reaching
an agreement either of the whole dispute, or in relation to aspects of the dispute. If they do not reach
an overall compromise, litigation is available to decide the unresolved matters.
102
Alisdair A. Gillespie and Siobhan Weare, '19. Alternative Dispute Resolution' [2019] The English Legal System.
212
ADR procedures
Type Main features Suitable cases
Commercial arbitration Determination by professional Commercial cases Building
arbitrator. Complex and disputes Contracts with
potentially expensive arbitration clauses
procedure. Avoids court and
avoids appeals.
Adjudication in construction Speedy independent Non-payment for building
disputes adjudication of disputes work
involving builders. Enables
contractors to get paid without
delay. Not final.
Mediation (formal) Mediator facilitates Personal injuries Clinical
negotiation, but does not make disputes Professional
decisions. Aims at negotiated negligence General litigation
settlement or narrowing of
issues. Mediator often a senior
professional.
Community mediation Mediator acts as a facilitator. Neighbour disputes Antisocial
Usually adopts a more informal behaviour
approach than in formal
mediation. Mediator often
respected member of the
community.
5.0 Reference to ADR
Use of ADR is almost always voluntary, so usually rests on an agreement between the parties. The
parties can agree to use ADR either before or after a dispute arises. Contracting parties who anticipate
possible problems ahead may insert an ADR clause into their contract, sometimes as part of the
contract’s standard terms and conditions. See table below for typical clauses. Such a clause has to be
adhered to. If legal proceedings are commenced in breach of an agreement to use ADR, particularly
arbitration (for which, see the Mauritian International Arbitration Act 2008), the court is likely to
grant a stay of the proceedings or even an anti-suit injunction, and award costs on the indemnity basis.
213
ADR Contract Clauses

Type of clause Wording
Reference to arbitration Any dispute or difference arising out of or in connection with this
contract shall be determined by the appointment of a single arbitrator
to be agreed between the parties, or failing agreement within 14 days
after either party has given to the other a written request to concur in
the appointment of an arbitrator, by an arbitrator to be appointed by
the President or a Vice President of the Chartered Institute of
Arbitrators. The seat of the arbitration shall be England and Wales.
Rules for the arbitration The arbitration shall be governed by both the Arbitration Act 1996
and the Controlled Cost Rules of the Chartered Institute of
Arbitrators (‘the Rules’), or any amendments to those provisions. The
Rules are deemed to be incorporated by reference into this clause.
Mediation Any dispute arising out of or in connection with this contract shall,
at first instance, be referred to a mediator for resolution. The parties
shall attempt to agree upon the appointment of a mediator, upon
receipt, by either of them, of a written notice to concur in such
appointment. Should the parties fail to agree within 14 days, either
party, upon giving written notice, may apply to the President or the
Deputy President, for the time being, of the Chartered Institute of
Arbitrators, for the appointment of a mediator.
6.0 Caselaw affecting ADR
Ramloll Bhooshan Renovation & Building Ltd v. Ministry of Education & Human Resources,
Tertiary Education & Scientific Research103
The applicant, a builder, applied to the court for the appointment of an arbitrator to resolve a dispute
arising out of three contracts following the decision of the respondent to apply liquidated damages.
The respondent resisted the application on the ground that an appendix to the building contracts had
removed the reference of dispute to arbitration and substituted therefor reference to the competent
court of Mauritius.
103
2016 SCJ 517.
214
It was held that the dispute should be resolved by arbitration because including it in an appendix to
the contract was an unacceptable way of inserting an exclusion clause of such importance.
China International Water and Electrical Corporation v. The State of Mauritius & Ors104
The plaintiff wanted to bring a claim for damages for breach of contract, pertaining to the refund of
customs duties and value added tax (VAT) which the plaintiff has paid on the import of equipment
and other items. The plaintiff claimed that it was entitled to the refund of the customs duties and VAT
since the second defendant never made any reservation or exception in relation to the refund of the
said taxes in the contract.
The plaintiff initially triggered the arbitration clause in the contract and submitted a notice of
arbitration and subsequently entered an application before the judge in chambers under Article 1005
of the Code of Civil Procedure for the appointment of an arbitrator.
The defendants objected on the ground that the plaintiff did not resort to the proper procedure
provided for in the contract to initiate the arbitration proceeding. The defendant, however, intimated
that the plaintiff was not debarred from seizing the court to resolve the dispute. Counsel for the
plaintiff therefore withdrew the application before the judge in chambers.
A case was lodged before the Supreme Court to deal with the issue, which was, however, dismissed
on the ground that the plaintiff had failed to give the defendants and co-defendants a one-month notice
prior to lodging the case as required by law and the plaintiff was therefore precluded from proceeding
with the current claim.
Le Domaine des Alizees Ltee v. Building & Civil Engineering Co Ltd105

A dispute that arose between the parties based on a construction contract (the contract). The parties
triggered the arbitration clause in the contract and referred the matter to be resolved by an arbitral
tribunal. The applicant not being satisfied with the arbitration proceedings gave notice of his intention
to challenge the arbitral tribunal on the grounds of impartiality.
Subsequently both parties entered into an arbitration termination agreement. In clause 3 of the
arbitration termination agreement, the parties agreed to set up an escrow account with a sum of
27,878,690.62 rupees in respect of the amount allegedly owed under the certified payment valuation
relating to the contract minus any amount deducted as alleged liquidated damages.
104
2017 SCJ 3.
105
2017 SCJ 131.
215
The respondent caused to be served on the applicant a statutory demand since it claims that the sum
in the escrow account was agreed as a security for an undisputed sum owed to it by the applicant and
that sum is now due and demandable. The applicant on the other hand claims that the sum agreed to
be set up in the escrow account was merely done in good faith in order to satisfy the respondent that
the applicant would be in a position to discharge its obligations to pay the respondent should that be
the case.
The court agreed that clause 3 of the arbitration termination agreement did not imply in any way that
the sum requested by the respondent was undisputed, due and demandable but it was merely a comfort
for both parties to put an end to the workings of the arbitral tribunal and refer the dispute including
all contested amount to a court of law. The court thus decided to set aside the statutory demand by
the respondent.
Hewlett-Packard International Trade BV v. Happy World Ltd106

An appeal against an interlocutory judgment setting aside a plea in limine to the effect that the dispute
between the parties should be referred to arbitration under the Rules of Arbitration of the Chamber
of Commerce and Industry of Geneva, Switzerland. The current contract (second contract) between
the parties did not contain any such clause for arbitration and the learned judge sitting at first instance
held that an arbitration clause pertaining to a previous contract between the parties(the first contract)
could not be extended to be said to form part of a subsequent contract between the parties.
The jurisdiction of the court to hear the case was also questioned in light of the provisions of the
International Arbitration Act 2008 and the competence-competence principle. The court held that it
is only where a case initiated in a court of law is governed by an arbitration agreement that the court
must decline jurisdiction to hear the matter. Since in this case the contention is whether an arbitration
clause actually existed, the court was within its right to hear this matter.
The court also upheld the decision of the court of first instance and explained that should the intention
of the parties have been to the effect that the second contract should contain an arbitration clause, the
parties would have ensured that the such a clause would have been reflected in the agreement itself
or at the very least they would have supplemented the agreement by way of an annex to the agreement.
The dispute between Betamax Ltd against the State Trading Corporation of Mauritius
106
2017 SCJ 324
216
A contract of affreightment (COA) governing the transportation of petroleum products for Mauritius
over a period of 15 years by Betamax Ltd was signed between the State Trading Corporation
(STC)(state of Mauritius entity) and Betamax Ltd (Betamax) in November 2009. Following a change
of government after the 2014 general elections, the newly instituted government alleged that the COA
was one-sided, that it was entered into in breach of public procurement legislation and that colourable
devices had been resorted to so as to allocate the contract to Betamax. The STC therefore unilaterally
decided to terminate the contract.
Betamax referred the dispute for arbitration before the Singapore International Arbitration Centre
(SIAC). The preliminary objection to jurisdiction of the arbitrator raised by the STC has been
overruled by the arbitrator, the matter was fully argued by both parties before the arbitrator.
In June 2016 the SIAC rendered its arbitral award, reportedly to the effect that the STC was wrong
and acted in breach by rescinding the COA. The STC would have to pay damages amounting to
between US$115–125 million to Betamax for unjustified breach of contracts well as the legal cost
and cost of arbitration.
Following the decision of the SIAC, Betamax has made an application before the courts in Mauritius
for an order to enforce the arbitral award. The STC in turn has applied to the court for the setting
aside of the provisional order enforcing the arbitral award.
The STC has also notified its intention to appeal against the arbitral award delivered by the SIAC on
the grounds that the SIAC did not have jurisdiction to entertain the said arbitration procedure on the
ground that the dispute was a matter contrary to the public policy in Mauritius in light of Section 39
of the International Arbitration Award 2008.
Betamax has requested that the STC be ordered to deposit, in accordance with established practice,
an irrevocable bank guarantee for US$115 million plus interest of approximately 3 per cent per
annum, to cater for the eventuality that Betamax was to lose its case, which the STC has obstinately
objected and so far refused to provide.
As a result of this refusal by STC to provide the requested deposits, Betamax Limited has obtained
and injunction from a judge in state of Karnataka, in Mangalore, India ordering the New Mangalore
Port Trust not to let a petroleum ship containing 40,000 metric tons of petroleum product, ordered by
the STC, to be shipped out without his permission.
217
This matter is still under consideration by the relevant court.
Peepul Capital Fund II LLC and another vs VSoft Holdings LLC107
In the recent case of Peepul Capital Fund II LLC v VSoft Holdings LLC [2019] UKPC 47, handed
down on 19 December 2019, the Privy Council (on appeal from Mauritius) upheld the decision of the
Supreme Court of Mauritius which refused to set aside an arbitral award on the basis of alleged
breaches of natural justice and public policy.
The essence of the appellant’s case was that the sole arbitrator had improperly concluded, based on a
submission by the appellant’s counsel at the hearing, that the appellant had abandoned its defence to
the claim. Alternatively, it was alleged that the relevant submission by counsel had been preceded by
an inappropriate intervention by the sole arbitrator, and this had prevented the appellant from
presenting its case. However, the Privy Council rejected these arguments and held that the appellant’s
counsel had indeed made such a concession, and that the sole arbitrator’s intervention preceding the
concession had been appropriate.
The decision serves as a useful remainder of the high hurdle that an applicant will generally face
when attempting to challenge an award on the basis of natural justice or procedural irregularity. The
case also highlights an unusual feature of Mauritian arbitration law: decisions of the Mauritius court
in respect of challenges to an award may be appealed as of right to the Privy Council.
The dispute arose from an equity investment by the respondents (“Investors”) into the appellant
(“VSoft“), a company incorporated in Mauritius.
The relationship was governed by an investment agreement, which provided one of the Investors with
an option to exit its shareholding in VSoft in exchange for a minimum return on its original purchase
price (“Investment Agreement”).
107
[2019] UKPC 47
218
The parties subsequently terminated the Investment Agreement and entered a new agreement under
which the Investors agreed to surrender their shares in VSoft for an aggregate sum of US$17 million,
which was payable in three tranches and with interest (“Shareholders Agreement”).
The Investors surrendered their shares in VSoft but VSoft failed to pay the tranches due under the
Shareholders Agreement.
Cownie F, Bradney A, and Burton M, '11. Alternative Dispute Resolution' [2013] English Legal
System in Context
Cunningham-Hill S, and Elder K, '5. Alternative Dispute Resolution' [2019] Civil Litigation 2019-
2020
Gillespie A, and Weare S, '19. Alternative Dispute Resolution' [2019] The English Legal System
Herbert Smith Freehills LLP, 'Privy Council Dismisses Challenge To Mauritian Arbitral Award
Based On Alleged Breaches Of Natural Justice And Public Policy | Lexology' (Lexology, 2020)
<https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=ed2f8cd8-d537-4aa1-b60a-59c0ca66085a>
accessed 11 April 2020
Herring J, '10. Alternative Dispute Resolution' [2017] Legal Ethics
Sime S, '10. Alternative Dispute Resolution' [2019] A Practical Approach to Civil Procedure
Uteem M, 'Mauritius - The Dispute Resolution Review - Edition 10 - TLR - The Law Reviews'
(Thelawreviews.co.uk, 2018) <https://thelawreviews.co.uk/chapter/1166488/mauritius> accessed 11
April 2020
Wilson S and others, '18. Alternative Dispute Resolution' [2018] English Legal System
8.0 Activities
Activity 1:
Why should we use alternative dispute resolution (ADR)?
Activity 2:
How do mediation and arbitration differ?
Activity 3:
Can mediation and arbitration be combined?
219
220

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Unit 1: Introduction to Law

Unit 2: The importance of the Constitution in the Mauritian Education System

Unit 3: The role of contract law in the educational system

Unit 4 : The role of tort law in the educational system

Unit 5 : Statutes pertaining to education

3. Les pouvoirs du chef d’entreprise…………………………………………………….....… Pg 98

Unit 6: Education sectors in Mauritius

Unit 7: International Legal framework pertaining to Education

Unit 8: Human Rights and Education

Unit 9: Dispute Resolution

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO LAW

2. The Concept of Law

3. Sources of Law in Mauritius

4. Sources of International Law

practical aspects of law.

1.1 Learning outcomes:

By the end of the unit, students should be able to:

- Explain the concept of law

- Analyse the different characteristics of law

- Elaborate on the different fields of law

2. The Concept of Law

certain way and provide for sanctions in cases of deviant behaviours.

fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual.

Article 3 reads as follow:

Fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual

following human rights and fundamental freedoms -

deprivation of property without compensation,

3. Sources of Law in Mauritius

British kept the application of the different Codes.

The main sources of Law in Mauritius are:

- Primary and Secondary Legislation

3.1 The Constitution

that this law should be void, to the extent of its inconsistency.

Judicial Committee of the Privy Council4.

3.2 Primary and Secondary Legislation

laws in Mauritius. Article 45 (1) reads as follows:

Committee Stage, Report Stage and Third Reading.

3.2.1 First Reading

3.2.2 Second Reading

3.2.3 Committee Stage

the opposition are implement.

3.2.4 Report Stage

further debate about it.

3.2.5 Third Reading

Tribunals to make regulations for their good functioning.

3.3 Judicial Decision

to understand and make reference to the latter interpretation of the law.

material element test (ii) the intellectual element test.

3.4.1 Material Element

3.4.2 Intellectual Element

1. Elaborate on the various stages of the law making process in Mauritius.

4. Sources of International Law.

Judicial Decisions & Writings of Scholars.

4.1 Treaties & Conventions

Treaties have the following characteristics:

- Treaties or Conventions can be bilateral or multilateral.

in force are binding on the parties that have agreed to it.

not expressed their will to be bound by it.

a treaty on slavery will be void).

4.2 Customary International Law

of being binding on states8.

4.3 General Principles of Law