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ScienceDirect
Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 240 – 251

Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment, EENVIRO 2016, 26-28 October 2016,
Bucharest, Romania

CFD modelling of flow interaction in the breathing zone of a virtual

thermal manikin
Martin Ivanova*, Sergey Mijorskia
a
Technical University of Sofia, FPEPM, Department: ”Hydroaerodynamics and Hydraulic Machines”, Sofia 1000, Bulgaria

Abstract

The presented work partly reveals the development stage of a Virtual Thermal Manikin (VTM), equipped with additional
breathing functionality. The methods used are based on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) flow simulations and analysis.
Real thermal manikins, as well as the VTMs, represent modern, highly complex tools for assessment of the occupants’ thermal
comfort, as well as for analyses of indoor air quality in real or virtual enclosed environment. Also, real thermal manikins can be
equipped with auxiliary devices that mimic human activities such as breathing, sweating, sneezing, coughing and others. Recent
research indicates the development of an advanced compact pneumatic system, designed for implementation in the thermal
manikin, capable of simulating the breathing related processes in humans. That is why the development of supplementary
functionalities of the VTMs is considered as an important factor in the described research area. Thus, the presented case study
reveals CFD based model of human body, with steady state breathing phases simulating the real human breathing processes. The
results considering the flow interaction in the breathing zone showed good visual illustration and representation of the real
physical processes.
© 2017
© 2017Published
The Authors. Published
by Elsevier by Elsevier
Ltd. This Ltd.
is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
and Environment
Peer-review 2016.
under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy
and Environment 2016
Keywords: Computational Fluid Dynamics, Indoor Environment, Indoor Air Quality, Virtual Thermal Manikins, Experimental Studies, Breathing
Cycle

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +359-893-69-07-80

E-mail address: m_ivanov@tu-sofia.com

1876-6102 © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment 2016
doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.1093
 Martin Ivanov and Sergey Mijorski / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 240 – 251 241

1. Introduction

The main function of the human respiratory (breathing) system is to get oxygen into the human body and to take
out waste gases. The function itself is called “respiration” (breathing), and it is a vital function of all living
organisms, including human beings. Breathing is considered to be the movement of air into and out of the lungs. A
healthy adult human being normally breathe 10 to 15 times per minute, at low activity level or during relaxation.
Also, about 6 x 10-4 m3 of air is exchanged between the lungs and the environment, during one normal breathing
cycle [1]. At the end, this corresponds to inhalation and exhalation of more than 12.9 m 3 of air per day.
Consequently, the inhaled indoor air contains a wide variety of organic and inorganic compounds, which
normally are not present in the outdoor air. The biggest part of them is considered as pollutants, emitted by different
indoor sources, like: building materials, furniture and textile materials, TV sets and other domestic electronic
appliances, cleaning agents, cooking and other home activities, heating with wood and fossil fuels, indoor plants,
cigarette smoke, as well as the occupants themselves and their pets. The long time exposure to these pollutants and
the significant amount of inhaled/exhaled air could develop a serious risk for the occupant’s health, comfort,
productivity, and performance.
All the mentioned facts contribute to the recent development of different experimental and numerical
technologies for indoor air quality and thermal comfort assessment. The thermal manikins have an important role in
this area, because they represent accurate models of the human body, and are able to simulate different metabolic
rates as well as some human activities such as breathing, sweating, sneezing, coughing and others [2, 3, 4]. They are
used to study the free convection flows in different conditions, without unnecessary exposure risk to the human
occupants themselves [5, 6]. But still, the experimental studies with real thermal manikins are inflexible, cost and
time consuming, requiring highly specialized labor. That is why the use of VTMs, especially for environmental
design and parameters prediction, is considered as an appropriate alternative.
The development of VTMs models has a lot of challenges, and basically is not an easy task, due to the diversity
of thermal and flow parameters, which has to be accounted for. The development goes even more complicated when
breathing functionality has to be added to the model. Milestones of the design process include the following:

x The surface boundary layer, which should include the conjugate heat transfer and sweat characteristics in
transient conditions, for more accurate representation of real human body surface. The study of Yang [7], has
detailed both processes for VTM.
x The high level of the transient character, the complexity of the aerodynamics of the generated breathing flow and
the corresponding air chemical components and contaminations. Detailed work in this direction is presented in
Gupta [8].
x The high complexity of the nasal valve geometrical characteristics, as well as the individual physiology and the
corresponding flow resistance. Detailed analysis is presented in Nigro [9].
x In addition to all the above, the modelling of actual human body thermal mass, core temperature and fluctuation
of the surface temperature could generate significant modeling complexity. Probably the most popular model
accounting the thermal properties of the human body is still the IESD-Fiala model, developed in 1998 by Dr.
Dusan Fiala [10]. It is a multi-segmental, multi-layered representation of the human body with spatial
subdivisions which includes a detailed representation of the anatomic, thermo-physical and thermo-physiological
properties of the human body [11]. His model concerns the heat transfer processes that occur inside the human
body, like the blood circulation, metabolic heat generation etc. It also concerns surface processes, like free and
forced surface convection, radiation, skin moisture evaporation, etc.
x There also exist certain requirements that need to be addressed when VTM modelling is performed. Such
requirements are proposed and described by Nilsson [12] in his work, where the development of computer
manikins is described. Additionally, there are proposed CFD benchmark tests for manikin comfort level
assessment.
x In recent years, VTM studies have moved forward by including breathing functionalities. It is presented partly in
the work of Xiangdong [13]. The study concerns the air flow patterns in different manikin’s legs positions, during
exposure to diverse outdoor wind conditions. In the study, different model setups are visualized by particle
tracking method. Also, experimental data is used for validation of the resultant inhale flow patterns.
242 Martin Ivanov and Sergey Mijorski / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 240 – 251

The mentioned studies suggest that breathing function is still rarely modeled, especially the exhalation/inhalation
process, and more efforts are placed in the thermal functionality simulation. There is a need for additional numerical
study for clarification of the breathing functionality design in the VTMs development. That is why the interaction
between exhalation and inhalation driven flows with free convective flow from the buoyancy driven forces, is of a
special interest in the presented paper.
The authors suggest a case study of the interaction between the breathing flow and the free convection flow from
the heated manikin’s surface for two steady state breathing phases, under controlled room conditions. The steady
state phases are considered as Inhale phase and Exhale phase. In order to define the baseline conditions for the study,
a free convection driven flow with no breathing interaction is modelled as well. These three cases will provide
comprehensive analyses of the processes, occurring in the different breathing phases, and will significantly help in
the further implementation of breathing functionality in the VTMs.

2. Objective and tasks of the presented study

The global objective is to analyze the breathing flow interaction with the free convection flow around virtual
breathing thermal manikin. Based on the global objective, the following tasks are defined:
x To construct a simplified 3D model of the standard nasal geometry.
x To construct VTM model with different breathing phases functionality, based on steady state CFD techniques.
x To investigate and compare the flow patterns in the VTM’s breathing zone under three different phases, (free
convection flow, inhale phase and exhale phase).

x 3.3D geometry modelling of the manikin

The comprehensive 3D female manikin was remodeled and adapted for the purpose of the study. It has an
approximate surface area of 1.8 m2 and height of 1.65 m. The nasal valve opening was constructed according to the
study of [14, 2]. As shown in Fig.1, the opening nasal area was 7.3 x 10 -5 m2. The normal to the nasal opening was
specified to 45 degrees from the vertical body axis. Additionally, exhaust walls from the nasal valve to the nose end
were inclined to 15 degrees according to [14, 2].
Also for the purpose of the study, a rectangular shaped room was built to bound the virtual thermal manikin. With
gross dimensions of 4 x 4 meters and height of 3 meters, there was only one opening specified at the ceiling level
with an area of 0.08 m2. As the aim of the study was to model not mechanically ventilated space under equilibrium
conditions, there were no HVAC components added to the model.
The manikin was placed in the center of the room and in order to reduce the computational load, a symmetry
plane was introduced through the central line splitting the space into two completely identical sections.

Fig. 1. 3D model and nasal valve geometry details

 Martin Ivanov and Sergey Mijorski / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 240 – 251 243

4. Numerical discretization

The computational domain of the room was discretized with snappyHexMesh utility [15], part of an ENGYS®
(www.engys.com) enhanced version of the CFD code OpenFoam® (www.openfoam.com). The numerical grid was
generated with totally of 1 140 000 poly-mesh control volume elements. A visualization of the mesh is illustrated in
Fig.2.
The base cell size was defined to 4 x 10-2 m and in order to capture the nasal valve geometrical features the
maximum level of cells refinement reached to 6.25 x 10 -4 m. The computational mesh parameters where selected
based on the authors’ experience. The presented work is considered as a preliminary assessment of the flow
characteristics around the virtual thermal manikin. A further detailed assessment will be made, as a part of breathing
manikin design, including a study for grid convergence, based on the Richardson extrapolation method (or others)
and a detailed analysis of the y+ values of the manikin surfaces. Additionally, the current mesh is well refined at the
surface layer of the manikin, with a first layer height of 6.25 x 10 -4 m. Further details for the type of the elements
included in the poly-mesh are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Poly-mesh details.

Type of the elements [%]
hexahedral 94
polyhedral 3
prisms 2
wedges <1
tetrahedral <1

Fig. 2. Numerical discretization in the symmetry plane.

5. Numerical model setup

2.1. Solver

In the study, three steady state (a fully developed numerical solution that doesn’t change in time) simulations
were performed. All three phases of the human breathing cycle were included: inhaling, exhaling and no breathing
244 Martin Ivanov and Sergey Mijorski / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 240 – 251

(the free convection flow case). In all the cases the ENGYS® enhanced version of the CFD code OpenFoam® has
been used to solve the 3D steady state RANS equations in combination with the Shear Stress Transport (SST) k-ω
turbulence model [16]. Each model was run in steady state mode for 9000 iterations to achieve convergence of the
solutions. But, as the flow solution is based on the buoyancy solver, there could be small fluctuations of the solution
even under steady state conditions, especially in the more refined zones of the numerical discretization model. So,
all flow fields were averaged for additional 1000 iterations in order to smooth any small flow fluctuations in the
most refined zones of the domain.
Steady-state solver for the buoyant turbulent flow of incompressible fluids buoyantBoussinesqSimpleFoam [17],
was implemented in all simulations. Semi-implicit method for pressure-linked equations (SIMPLE) algorithms was
employed for the iterative procedure of solving velocity and pressure fields’ equations. Detailed information for the
SIMPLE algorithm implementation in OpenFoam® is given in [18]. The relaxation factors, which control the under-
relaxation in order to improve the stability of the computation in steady-state cases, are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Under-relaxation factors.

Equation Relaxation Factor
Pressure 0.3
Velocity 0.7
Temperature 0.7
Turbulent kinetic energy 0.7
Specific rate of dissipation 0.7

The material properties of the modeled fluid were modified as well. Details of the air parameters are given in
Table 3.

Table 3. Material Properties.

Property Value
Fluid name Air
Density 1.204 [kg/m3]
Dynamic viscosity 1.82 10-5 [kg/(m.s)]
Kinematic viscosity 1.51 10-5 [m2/s]
Specific Heat 1006.0 [J/(kg·K)]
Ref Pressure 101325 [Pa]
o
Reference Temperature 20 C]

5.2.Turbulence model

The SST k-ω turbulence model is used in the presented study. This is a two-equation eddy-viscosity model. The
shear stress transport model formulation combines the use of a k-ω formulation in the inner parts of the boundary
layer, but also switches to a k-ε behavior in the free-stream regions of the computational domain.
All this makes the model directly usable close to the wall through the viscous sub-layer, and also can be used as a
Low-Re turbulence model without the need of damping functions. However, the SST k-ω model does produce a
large turbulence levels in stagnation regions or regions with strong acceleration, where a large normal strain can be
observed. A more detailed comparison between different RANS turbulence models can be found in [19].

5.3.Initial and Boundary conditions

The specified solution initialization is presented in Table 4. Also, in Table 5 and Fig.3 are given all the different
boundary conditions set up in the CFD simulations.
 Martin Ivanov and Sergey Mijorski / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 240 – 251 245

Table 4. Fields initialization.

Equation Initialization Value / Vector
Relative Pressure 0 [Pa]
Velocity 0.0 0.0 0.01 [m/s]
Temperature 20[oC]
Turbulent kinetic energy 0.1 [m2/s2]
Specific rate of dissipation 0.1 [1/s]

Nasal valve air flow was calculated based on the study of Samuel [14]. The total flow rate for both inhaling and
exhaling were approximated according the following formula:

Q = (ΔP.π.r4) / (8.η.L) (1)

Where:

x Q, total flow rate during inhaling and exhaling, m3/s;

x ΔP, pressure in the range of 40-80 Pa, selected value of 60 Pa;
x L, approximated nasal valve length, 0.33 m;
x r, approximated nasal valve radius, 0.11 m;
x η, kinematic viscosity, m2/s;
x η20, η at 20oC, 1.51 10-5 m2/s, [20];
x η36, η at 36oC, 1.66 10-5 m2/s, [20].

Table 5. Implemented boundary conditions.

Boundary Name Boundary Conditions Inhale Free Exhale

convection
flow
No Slip Walls Fixed surface temperature, 20 [oC] Yes Yes Yes
Vent Opening Fixed temperature and pressure, 20 Yes Yes Yes
[oC] and 101325 [Pa]
Thermal manikin Fixed heat flux as per Fig.3 Yes Yes Yes
Nose inlet Inlet flow rate, 6.29x10-4 [m3/s] at No No Yes
36 [oC]
Nose outlet Outlet flow rate, 6.91x10-4 [m3/s] Yes No No
Symmetry Symmetry plane Yes Yes Yes

Also in the same study, it is given a Reynolds number approximation for the nasal valve zone:

Re = 2.r.Q.ρ/η (2)
246 Martin Ivanov and Sergey Mijorski / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 240 – 251

Fig. 3. Implemented boundary conditions.

The turbulent characteristics of the flow at the nose inlet are approximated by substituting in equation (2) the
calculated air flow rate for the exhaust air. Thus, the turbulent intensity was calculated as 6.8%.
The VTM’s surface boundary conditions, in terms of specified heat fluxes, were adopted from the study of
Nilsson [21]. The heat transfer coefficients were fixed over the different body parts and the heat fluxes were
calculated considering the total surface areas of each manikin element. Total heat release rate was 110 W for the
whole manikin surface.

6.Results and discussion

The velocity and temperature fields of the numerical solutions for all three simulated steady state cases are
presented comparatively in Fig.4 to 10. Two different section views are illustrated, first one is at the symmetry plane
(in Fig.4 and 8) and the second is perpendicular to the symmetry plane, placed at the center of the thermal manikin
(in Fig.5 and 9).
Additionally, in Fig.6 and 10 are illustrated combined 3D view sections with close up for more detailed analyses.
Also, in Fig.7 is represented a comparison of the streamlines generated from the air velocity field, based on the
Runge-Kutta method.

6.1.Air velocity fields

The velocity field figures demonstrate clearly that there is an impact of the breathing generated flows over the
free convection along the thermal manikin surface boundary layer. This impact is much less in the inhale phase,
while in the exhale phase it is clearly more significant. Fig.4 shows that during inhalation the effect over the free
convective flow is localized in the breathing zone, not causing significant alteration of the velocity plume above the
manikin head. In the opposite case, during exhalation, a significant breaking of the manikin’s free convection flow is
observed. This breaking also altered the head top plume flow by causing visible velocity reduction. The same effect
is shown in the perpendicular section views in Fig.5.
Martin Ivanov and Sergey Mijorski / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 240 – 251 247

Fig. 4. Velocity fields – section at the symmetry plane.

Fig. 5. Velocity fields – section perpendicular to the symmetry plane.

Fig. 6. Velocity fields – 90 degrees section, 3D views.

248 Martin Ivanov and Sergey Mijorski / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 240 – 251

The influence of the exhaled air flow over whole manikin boundary layer is also empowered by the effect of the
air entrainment in the breathing zone. This effect is observed at head level and above the manikin shoulder in Fig.6.
In Fig.7, the exhale streamlines show the significant deflection of the buoyancy flow in the breathing zone and the
corresponding air entrainment from the zone below manikin’s head towards the exhaled flow direction.

Fig. 7. Velocity streamlines – 3D views.

6.2.Air temperature field

The illustrated phenomenon in the velocity fields can be observed again in the temperature plots in Fig.10. In the
case of simulated inhalation, there is no significant impact over the thermal plume above manikin’s head. But, in
case of simulated exhalation, there is an evident reduction of the temperature and visible alteration of the back zone.
This effect is better observed on the 3D temperature field view in Fig.10, where it is shown the evident alteration of
the thermal environment in the breathing and shoulders zones.

Fig. 8. Temperature fields – section perpendicular to the symmetry plane.

 Martin Ivanov and Sergey Mijorski / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 240 – 251 249

Fig. 9. Temperature fields – section at the symmetry plane.

Fig. 10. Temperature fields – 90 degree section, 3D views.

6.3.Discussion over modeling approach and further model improvements

In general, the results show good correlation with the real physical phenomena considering both flow interaction
fields – during inhalation and exhalation. In the presented steady state conditions, the computational time is
significantly less than in transient simulation modes. Also, the boundary conditions are more simplified, and the
results illustrate more indicatively the impact of the breathing generated flow over the free convection flow.
However, the steady state conditions may over-predict this impact. Implementing transient conditions would
illustrate much more precisely the dynamic of the processes and the turbulent air flow would be better predicted in
the breathing zone of the VTMs. This is considered as the main further development of the presented model. Also,
steady state simulations are limited in possibilities for implementing more advanced modeling techniques such as
Large Eddies Simulation (LES) and Detached Endies Simulation (DES). Additionally, the dynamic effect of the
VTM’s surfaces cooling and core temperature reductions should be considered.
Further work of improvement of the presented breathing VTM should include actual 3D model geometry of
physical thermal manikin with detailed inlet/outlet geometry of the breathing system. This would allow validation of
the numerical results with experimental measurement data.
250 Martin Ivanov and Sergey Mijorski / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 240 – 251

Performing Spatial Grid Convergence (SGC) study, which includes error estimation calculations and Richardson
Extrapolation [22], as well as using more advanced modeling techniques like LES or DES is recommended as well.
Incorporating model such as Fiala [11], for accounting for human body thermal mass, core temperature and
fluctuation of the surface temperature will also give significant improvement of the presented model.

7.Conclusions

A CFD based study of the interaction between the breathing flow and the free convection flow from heated
virtual manikin’s surface for two steady state breathing phases, is performed under controlled room conditions.
The results show in general good visual illustration of the real physical phenomena. The thermal and velocity
plumes above the virtual manikins are considerably affected by the steady state breathing flow simulation in both
phases – inhalation and exhalation phase.
However, it is considered that the steady state conditions may over-predict the stated impact. Implementing
transient conditions in these simulations will further improve the presented model and will give a more accurate
representation and a possibility for a more accurate prediction of the dynamic processes in the VTM’s breathing
zone.
The results achieved in the presented study are considered as a valuable approach for the integration of different
techniques, designed for additional breathing cycle simulation functionalities in VTM models.

Acknowledgements

The presented study is supported by “RDS” at TU-Sofia, as part of the activities under the "Perspective leaders"
project, with Contract № 161ПР0004-02, entitled: "Integration of schematic solution of pneumatic system, for
simulating the breathing cycle of human occupants, in virtual model of breathing manikin".

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