Analysis and Design for Pipe Flow

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 Resistance to Flow in Rough Pipes
 In engineering practice, any energy loss due to both fluid
friction and wall roughness is often referred to as a major
head loss, hL, or simply a major loss. We can determine this
loss by measuring the pressure in the pipe at two locations a
distance L apart, see the Figure.

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 If we apply the energy equation to a control volume
extending between these two points, then for steady
incompressible flow, since no shaft work is done, the pipe is
horizontal, zin= zout = 0, and Vin= Vout = V, we have

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 This head loss creates a pressure drop
over the pipe's length L, because the
pressure must do work to overcome the
frictional resistance that creates this loss.
For this reason, the pressure at the
entrance will have to be greater than at
the exit. Of course, if the fluid is an ideal
fluid, then hL=0, since frictional
resistance will not occur, and the
pressure at both ends would be the
same.*
* Here we are neglecting the small
difference in pressure caused by the
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weight of the fluid. See the Figure.
 Laminar Flow
 For laminar flow, the major head loss occurs within the
fluid. It is due to the frictional resistance or shear stress
developed between cylindrical layers of fluid when they slide
past one another with different relative velocities.

 For a Newtonian fluid, this shear stress is related to the

velocity gradient by Newton's law of viscosity, τ=μ (du/dy).

 In our previous lecture, we were able to use this expression

to relate the average velocity of flow in the pipe to the
pressure gradient Δp/L.

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 The result is Eq. 9–24, V=(D2/32μ)(Δp/L). With it, and Eq. 10–1,
we can now write the head loss in terms of the average velocity
as

 Notice that the loss increases as the internal diameter of the pipe
decreases, since the losses vary inversely with the square of D.
 This head loss is due to the viscosity of the fluid and so it is
produced throughout the flow.
 Any mild surface roughness on the wall of the pipe will
generally not affect laminar flow to any appreciable degree, and
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so it will have little effect on the loss.
 For convenience later on, we will express Eq. 10–2 in terms of
the Reynolds number, Re=ρVD/μ, and rearrange it in the form

where

 This term f is called the Darcy friction factor, or here we will

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simply call it the friction factor.*
 For laminar flow, it is seen to be a function only of the Reynolds
number, and it does not depend upon whether the inner surface
of the pipe's wall is smooth or rough; rather, the friction loss is
produced only by the viscosity of the fluid.
 Some engineers use a less popular Fanning friction factor or
friction coefficient, which is defined as Cf = f/4.

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 Turbulent Flow
 Unlike laminar flow, there is no
analytical means for determining the head
loss in a pipe due to turbulent flow, and so
it must be determined by experiment. This
is done by measuring the pressure drop
over the length L, either with two pressure
gages, as in the Figure a, or by using a
manometer, see the Figure b.
 Such experiments have shown that this
pressure drop depends upon the pipe
diameter D, the pipe length L, the fluid's
density ρ, viscosity μ, average velocity V,
and the roughness or average height ε of
the protuberances from the pipe's inner
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surface.
 In order to reduce the number of
experiments necessary to
understand how all these variables
relate to Δp, it is necessary to do a
dimensional analysis.
 Actually, this was done in Example
8–4, where it was shown that Δp is
a function g1 of three dimensionless
ratios, namely,

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 Further experiments have shown that it is reasonable to
expect the pressure drop to be directly proportional to the
length of the pipe—the longer the pipe, the greater the
pressure drop, and so the ratio L/D can be factored out of the
function g1, and so we have

 Finally, using this result and applying Eq. 10–1 to determine

the head loss in the pipe, realizing that γ=ρg, yields

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 For convenience we have incorporated the factor 2, in order
to express hL in terms of the velocity head V2/2g.
 In other words, our unknown function is now g3(Re, ε/D)=2g2.
 The fact that for a given Re the head loss is also directly
proportional to the velocity head, as established here, is
something that has also been confirmed by experiment.
 If we compare the above equation with Eq. 10–3, letting the
friction factor represent

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 Then we can express the head loss for turbulent flow in the
same form as we did for laminar flow, that is,

 This important result is called the Darcy–Weisbach equation,

named after Henry Darcy and Julius Weisbach, who first
proposed its use in the late 19th century.
 It was derived by dimensional analysis, and it applies to fluids
having either laminar or turbulent flow.

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 In the case of laminar flow, the friction factor is determined
from Eq. 10–4; however, for turbulent flow we must
determine the friction factor relationship f = g3(Re, ε/D)
through experiment.
 The first attempts at doing this were made by Johann
Nikuradse, and then by others, using pipes artificially
roughened by uniform sand grains of a specific size so that ε is
well defined.
 Unfortunately, for practical applications, commercially
available pipes do not have a uniform well-defined roughness.
 However, using a similar approach, Lewis Moody and Cyril
Colebrook were able to extend the work of Nikuradse by
performing experiments using commercially availableOzgur
pipes.
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 Moody Diagram
 Moody presented his data for f=g3(Re, ε/D) in the form of a
graph plotted on a log–log scale. It is often called the Moody
diagram.

 To use this diagram it is necessary to know the average

surface roughness ε of the pipe's inner wall.

 The table above the Moody diagram on the inside back cover
gives some typical values of ε, provided the pipe is in fairly
good condition.

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 However, realize that through use, pipes can become
corroded, or scale can build up on their walls, and this can
significantly alter the value of ε or, in extreme cases, lower
the value of D.
 It is for this reason that engineers must exercise conservative
judgment when choosing a value for ε.
 Once ε is known, then the relative roughness ε/D and the
Reynolds number can be used to determine the friction factor
f from the Moody diagram.
 When using this diagram, notice that it is divided into four
different regions, depending upon the Reynolds number.

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Understanding Laminar and Turbulent Flow

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9A-uUG0WR0w

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 Laminar Flow
 Experimental evidence indicates that if laminar flow is
maintained, the friction factor will be independent of the
roughness of the pipe and, instead, will vary inversely with
the Reynolds number in accordance with Eq. 10–4, f=64/Re.
 This is to be expected, since here the Reynolds number is
low, and the resistance to flow is caused only by the laminar
shear stress within the fluid, see the Figure a.

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 Critical Zone and Transitional Flow
 If the flow in the pipe is increased just above the Reynolds
number of Re=2300, then the f values are uncertain (critical
zone) because the flow becomes unstable.
 Here we have transitional flow, where the flow can switch
between laminar and turbulent, or be a combination of both.
 When this is the case, it is important to be conservative and
select a somewhat high value of f.
 Turbulence will begin to develop within some regions of the
pipe, but along the wall, the slower moving fluid will still
maintain laminar flow.

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 This laminar sublayer will become thinner as the velocity
increases, and eventually some of the rough elements on the
pipe wall will pass through this sublayer, see the Figure b,
and so the effect of surface roughness will begin to become
important. And so, the friction factor will become a function
of both the Reynolds number and the relative roughness.

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 Turbulent Flow
 At very large Reynolds numbers, most of the rough elements
will penetrate through the laminar sublayer, and so the
friction factor then depends primarily on the size ε of these
elements, see the Figure c. For very rough pipes, high ε/D,
notice that the curves of the Moody diagram tend to quickly
flatten out and become horizontal. In other words, the values
for f become less dependent on the Reynolds number, and
instead become strongly influenced by the shear stress near
the wall instead of within the fluid.

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