Your Face Betrays You - A Fantasy Theme Analysis of Lie To Me PDF

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Electronic Theses and Dissertations Electronic Theses and Dissertations
4-2016
Your Face Betrays You: A Fantasy Theme Analysis

of Lie To Me
Caroline Campbell
Abilene Christian University
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ABSTRACT
Research concerning the consequences of edutainment has revealed that television
shows have the capability to influence audience members. As the lines between education
and entertainment are becoming increasingly blurred, viewers may not be aware of how
watching such shows impacts them. Lie to Me is a popular edutainment television series that
educates viewers about the power of micro expressions. Ekman has dedicated a large part of
his life to the development of research related to micro expressions. The show’s main
character, Cal Lightman, portrayed Paul Ekman’s special talents and knowledge through his
ability to detect micro expressions. The first three episodes of the first season of Lie to Me
did the best job of portraying the show’s overall appeal and role as an edutainment series. In
this thesis, I analyze each of these episodes using the narrative paradigm, narrative
probability, narrative fidelity, and fantasy themes to answer three important research
questions about the influence of edutainment.

Your Face Betrays You: A Fantasy Theme Analysis of Lie To Me
A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of the Graduate School
Abilene Christian Univeristy
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Arts
Communication
By
Caroline Campbell
May 2016
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I give thanks to my committee, Dr. Lemley, Dr. Cardot, and Dr. Lakey, for their
guidance, leadership, and support throughout this study. Dr. Lemley introduced me to the
study of rhetoric and genuinely pushed me to work hard and never give up. I have enjoyed
learning about the study of nonverbal communication from Dr. Cardot, who continuously
helped develop my interest in this field of communication. Dr. Lakey has unceasingly
instilled a desire in me to learn and an interest in the application of popular culture to the
field of communication. His love and encouragement have been unwavering.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1
History of Studying Facial Expressions.........................................................................2
Ray Birdwhistell ................................................................................................4
Albert Mehrabian ...............................................................................................6
Paul Ekman ........................................................................................................7
Facial Expressions .........................................................................................................9
Edutainment .................................................................................................................12
Lie to Me ......................................................................................................................17
Rhetor...............................................................................................................18
Context .............................................................................................................19
Plot Summary ..................................................................................................21
Methodology ................................................................................................................22
Narrative Paradigm ..........................................................................................22
Narrative Probability ........................................................................................25
Narrative Fidelity .............................................................................................26
Fantasy Themes ...............................................................................................27
II. EDUTAINMENT AND EDUCATION ......................................................................31
Analysis........................................................................................................................33
Character Themes ............................................................................................33
The Scholar ..........................................................................................34

The Truthful Type ................................................................................36
The Relatable Person ...........................................................................37
The Respectful Person .........................................................................38
Setting Themes.................................................................................................39
Research Facilities ...............................................................................39
Halls of Justice .....................................................................................42
Action Themes .................................................................................................45
Research ...............................................................................................45
Discovery .............................................................................................46
Rhetorical Visions............................................................................................47
The Search for Truth ............................................................................48
Secrets ..................................................................................................50
Motive over Facts ................................................................................52
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................55
III. EDUTAINMENT AND ENTERTAINMENT ............................................................57
Analysis........................................................................................................................59
The Tactless Trickster ..........................................................................60
The Blunt Being ...................................................................................62
The Outrageous One ............................................................................64
Setting Themes.................................................................................................67
Patriotism and Sports ...........................................................................68
Celebrity References ............................................................................69

Action Themes .................................................................................................71
Investigation.........................................................................................72
Sneakiness ............................................................................................73
Justice...................................................................................................74
Employee Relationships.......................................................................76
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................78
IV. EDUTAINMENT AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE .......................................................80
Analysis........................................................................................................................82
The Deception Detector .......................................................................83
The Liar................................................................................................86
Setting Themes.................................................................................................89
Family ..................................................................................................89
Action Themes .................................................................................................93
Denial ...................................................................................................93
Righteous Deception ............................................................................94
Intrusive Parenting ...............................................................................95
Inaccuracy of First Impressions ...........................................................98
Conclusion .................................................................................................................100
V. CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................................102
Education ...................................................................................................................103
Character Themes ..........................................................................................104
Setting Themes...............................................................................................104
Action Themes ...............................................................................................105
Rhetorical Visions..........................................................................................106
Entertainment .............................................................................................................106
Setting Themes...............................................................................................107
Action Themes ...............................................................................................108
Behavior .....................................................................................................................110
Setting Themes...............................................................................................110
Action Themes ...............................................................................................111
Narrative Probability and Fidelity .............................................................................112
Conclusion .................................................................................................................114
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................118
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Lying is such a central characteristic of life that better understanding of it is

relevant to almost all human affairs.
- Paul Ekman,
Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage1
No one tells the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. Deception
consistently creeps into conversation without much thought. In fact, Paul Ekman himself
claims that “the average person statistically tells three lies per ten minutes of conversation.”2
No one can deny the pervasiveness of deception, and as a result, scientists spend significant
time studying deception and its indicators. Television shows have even picked up on the
significance of deception and choose to educate viewers about this phenomenon through
entertaining shows, such as Lie to Me, which focuses on deception detection. Lie to Me
depicts how producers use entertainment education to influence their viewers.
As the lines between education and entertainment are becoming increasingly blurred,
viewers may not be aware of how watching such shows impacts them. Negative side effects
can occur when viewers are subconsciously exposed to educational messages that may not be
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1. Paul Ekman, Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage (New
York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2009), 23.
2. “Lie to Me, the Dramatization of Cutting Edge Behavioral Science,” Ekman International,
accessed August 10, 2015, http://www.ekmaninternational.com/paul-ekman-international-plc-
home/lie-to-me.aspx.
1
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completely accurate. The media’s fictional portrayal of social science theory can cause
confusion and mislead viewers when they do see the difference between facts and fiction.
Research pertaining to edutainment is increasingly important because edutainment
reaches a large audience and therefore has the ability to affect a large number of people. Lie
to Me has several million viewers, meaning the information in this show can impact a huge
group of people. Lie to Me also appeals to viewers because the topic of this show applies to
the lives of every individual. In this thesis I will analyze the “educational” television show
Lie to Me by looking at education, entertainment, and behavioral change. These topics help
display the power of edutainment in this television series by presenting the show’s ability to
effect audience members in powerful ways.
History of Studying Facial Expressions
Rarely have academics identified another person as having influenced the study of
nonverbal communication so profoundly as Charles Darwin in the late 1800s. Specifically,
Darwin focused on the expression of emotion through nonverbal behavior in both animals
and humans. Psychoanalyst Ana Mrovlje wrote that “Charles Darwin was one of the first
scientists who had carefully observed and recorded nonverbal behavior.”3 And scholars today
still use Darwin’s studies as a starting point for their own inquiries. Darwin wrote that “the
movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin may have been, are in
themselves of much importance for our welfare.”4 These movements provide assistance in
the process of communication.
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3. Ana Mrovlje, “Facial Expressions as Reflection of Inner Emotional State,” Slovenian Journal
of Psychotherapy 8, no. 1/2 (2014): 114.
4. Charles Darwin, The Expression in the Emotions of Animals and Man (New York: D. Appleton
and Company, 1886), 365.
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Indeed, nonverbal communication researchers Arvid Kappas, Eva Krumhuber, and
Dennis Kuster stated, “the most fruitful starting point for any narrative on facial behavior is
the publication of Charles Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.”5
In this publication, Darwin focused on the similarity in emotional expression between
humans and animals. Psychologist Colwyn Trevarthen said that after much investigation,
Darwin made “the argument that human expressions of feeling were largely innate.”6 The
ability to create these expressions was not the only innate ability Darwin found. According to
psychologists Maria Guarnera, Zira Hichy, Maura I. Cascioa, and Stefano Carrubbac, “from
a Darwinian perspective, the ability to recognize emotional facial expressions is innate.”7
This discovery was a huge stepping-stone in the study of nonverbal communication because,
as Kappas, Krumhuber, and Kuster suggested, “it was very important for Darwin to
demonstrate that emotional expressions were not unique in humans but instead had clear
precursors in humans’ ancestral past.”8 After Darwin’s groundbreaking research was
published, numerous scholars based their own work off his findings; however, the work of
Ray Birdwhistell, Albert Mehrabian, and Paul Ekman, three scholars who carried on
Darwin’s study on nonverbal communication, were particularly important to my analysis in
this thesis.
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5. Arvid Kappas, Eva Krumhuber, and Dennis Kuster, “Facial Behavior,” in Nonverbal
Communication, ed. Mark L. Knapp and Judith A. Hall (Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2013), 134.
6. Colwyn Trevarthen, “Emotions in Infancy: Regulators of Contact and Relationships with
Persons,” in Approaches to Emotion, ed. Klaus R. Scherer and Paul Ekman (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum, 1984), 130.
7. Maria Guarnera, Zira Hichy, Maura I. Cascio, and Stefano Carrubba, “Facial Expressions and
Ability to Recognize Emotions from Eyes or Mouth in Children,” Europe’s Journal of Psychology
11, no. 2 (2015): 183-96. doi:10.5964/ejop.v11i2.890.
8. Kappas, Krumhuber, and Kuster, “Facial Behavior,” 134.
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Ray Birdwhistell
Ray Birdwhistell has highly influenced the study of nonverbal communication.
According to Peter A. Anderson, Birdwhistell was “one of the founders of the field of
nonverbal communication.”9 He has developed important concepts within nonverbal
communication. For example, Brenda Farnell said that “Ray Birdwhistell emerged as an
early pioneer, coining the term ‘kinesics’ to describe his microanalytic approach.”10
Birdwhistell began studying kinesics in 1952. According to Knapp, “Birdwhistell began his
systematic empirical study of body motion in the early 1950s,” and his study continued for
several decades.11 Knapp also said that Birdwhistell’s “life work has been describing the
structural units of movement.”12 To best describe this movement, he had to create a specific
unit of measurement, which he termed the “kine,” the smallest distinguishable component
found in a stream of body movements. Anderson stated that Birdwhistell “used a linguistic
model to study kinesics and established the kine as the basic unit of behavior.”13 This
measurement system has been widely accepted and is still used today. Knapp wrote that
“Birdwhistell's notation system for body movement is undoubtedly the most comprehensive
system available.”14 He took important steps to create this system, and in doing so laid the
foundation for nonverbal communication studies. One of these steps was analyzing
individual bodily movements. According to Birdwhistell, “the isolation of gestures and the
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9. Peter A. Anderson, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (Mountain View, CA:
Mayfield Publishing Company, 1999), 1.
10. Brenda Farnell, “Birdwhistell, Hall, Lomax and the Origins of Visual Anthropology,” Visual
Anthropology 16, no. 1 (2003): 49. doi:10.1080/08949460390182818.
11. Mark L. Knapp, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction (New York: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston Inc., 1972), 93.
12. Knapp, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, 92.
13. Anderson, Nonverbal Communication, 21.
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attempt to understand them led to the most important findings in kinesic research.”15
However, these findings would likely not have been possible without the aid of verbal
communication.
Although Birdwhistell specialized in nonverbal communication, verbal
communication played an integral role in his research. According to Knapp, “Birdwhistell
feels that the whole system of body motion is comparable to spoken language.”16
Birdwhistell used verbal communication as an aid when studying nonverbal communication.
Knapp wrote that “Birdwhistell transcribed conversations and other communication events
and then specifically studied nonverbal activity, which accompanied verbal behavior.”17 And
Donald L. Bidwell and Mark V. Novas argue that “Ray Birdwhistell's Kinesics and Context
(1970) . . . has contributed significantly to the study of Nonverbal Human
Communication.”18 Not only has it contributed to nonverbal communication research, but
also to communication research as a whole. Therefore, to understand communication fully,
scholars must understand both verbal and nonverbal communication. When he was beginning
to study nonverbal communication, Brenda Farnell wrote that Birdwhistell “envisioned a
discipline that would parallel The Origins of Visual Anthropology linguistics but deal with
the analysis of visible bodily motion.”19 To create this, Birdwhistell went as far as to analyze
some of the smallest muscles in the human body.
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15. Ray L. Birdwhistell, Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication (New
York: Ballantine Books, A Division of Random House Inc., 1970), 103.
17. Ibid., 105.
18. Donald L. Bidwell and Mark V. Novas, “Innovative Instruction in Speech: Nonverbal
Communication,” Communicator 3, no. 2 (1972): 4.
19. Brenda Farnell, “Birdwhistell, Hall, Lomax and the Origins of Visual Anthropology,” Visual
Anthropology 16, no. 1 (2003): 49-50. doi:10.1080/08949460390182818.
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While studying kinesics, Birdwhistell became specifically interested in the human
face, creating a system for understanding the significance of facial expressions. He wrote that
“while the human face alone is capable of making some 250,000 different expressions, I have
fifteen placement symbols plus eleven special markers sufficient to record the significant
positions of all the faces I have seen.”20 Other scholars later picked up on and further
developed this study of facial expressions. After Birdwhistell’s discoveries in the 1950s,
Albert Mehrabian made equally important contributions to the field in the 1960s.
Albert Mehrabian
Nonverbal communication research would not be where it is today without the
contributions made by Albert Mehrabian. According to Remland, Mehrabian was “one of the
first social scientists to investigate nonverbal communication systematically.”21 Most of his
life was spent investigating and progressing this research. Anderson noted that Mehrabian
spent time developing the principles of nonverbal communication through the study of
human subjects.22 Mehrabian is still well known for breaking down what percentage of a
message is influenced by spoken words, tone of voice, and body language. According to
Mehrabian, during interpersonal communication, fifty-five percent of a message is
communicated through the face.23 This statistic shows the important of facial, nonverbal
cues. Remland stated that “Mehrabian was one of the first to conduct laboratory experiments
of people sending and interpreting nonverbal messages.”24 Through these experiments, he
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20. Birdwhistell, Kinesics and Context, 9-10.
21. Martin S. Remland, Nonverbal Communication in Everyday Life (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 28.
22. Anderson, Nonverbal Communication.
23. Albert Mehrabian, Silent Messages, 2nd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1981).
24. Remland, Nonverbal Communication in Everyday Life, 150.
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found some interesting information. Knapp wrote that Mehrabian “provides us with some
information concerning the role of status in kinesics communication.”25 However, Mehrabian
did more than just study kinesics. Anderson suggested that Mehrabian studies proxemics to
analyze and understand interpersonal attitudes.26
Although Birdwhistell and Mehrabian each made meaningful contributions to the
study of nonverbal behavior, many scholars argued that Paul Ekman has made the most
significant contributions to this sub-field of communication since the time of Darwin. For
example, Kappas, Krumber, and Kuster stated that
it is the success of the work of Paul Ekman and his associates that has revived
the interest in Darwin a century later. Ekman has arguably also shaped and
channeled how we think about emotion, nonverbal behavior, and Darwin’s
contribution.27
Therefore, to completely understand the study of nonverbal behavior, it is critical that we
review Paul Ekman and his impressive work.
Paul Ekman
Ekman highly valued Darwin’s research and used it as a starting point for his own
contributions. According to psychologist Daniel Goleman,
Paul Ekman carries on the scientific lineage begun by Charles Darwin, who
read the legacy of our evolutionary past in the signals of love and hate, fear
and anger, which to this day pass across the faces of humans and animals
alike.28
Ekman has dedicated a large part of his life to the development of research related to micro
expressions. Goleman also wrote that “for decades [Ekman] has been a leading scholar of the
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26. Anderson, Nonverbal Communication.
27. Kappas, Krumhuber, and Kuster, “Facial Behavior,” 136
28. Daniel Goleman, introduction to A Conversation between the Dalai Lama and Paul Ekman,
by the Dalai Lama and Paul Ekman (New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC, 2008), x.
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experimental study of emotion and the unquestioned expert on his specialty, the universal
facial expressions of emotion.”29 Ekman was an intelligent man with an extensive list of
accomplishments. He has had a part in either writing or editing fourteen different books, and
was recognized by the American Psychological Association as one of the twentieth century’s
one hundred most influential psychologists.30 This recognition stemed from the significant
time and effort Ekman put into his research. Columnist and blogger Christopher Shea
suggested that Ekman worked as a psychology professor emeritus and has studied human
facial expressions for 40 years.31 In the past, he studied videoed facial expressions of people
living in New Guinea, Japan, and Brazil. He used these tapes to support many of his theories
concerning facial expressions. Ekman’s claims about micro expressions were “based on
careful analysis of thousands of hours of videotapes of interviews with adults, [from which]
he developed a theory to explain how lies differ, why some lies fail while others succeed, and
whether lying is always wrong.”32 He believed the people he selected to study were the
perfect subjects because they were indigenous groups who had not been exposed to
“modern” cultures. According to Kappas, Krumber, and Kuster, Ekman conducted a study
in which photographs of Americans were shown to participants in several

countries, including Japan and Brazil, but also to members of the Fore tribe in
New Guinea which had before this encountered almost no contact to the
outside. Ekman and his colleagues showed their subjects photographic
representations preselected to depict six emotional states. Ekman et al.
reported that all of them were well recognized.33
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29. Goleman, introduction to A Conversation between the Dalai Lama and Paul Ekman, x.
30. Goleman, introduction to A Conversation between the Dalai Lama and Paul Ekman, x, xiv;
and Siri Schubert, “A Look Tells All,” Scientific American Mind, October/November, 2006.
31. Christopher Shea, “The Liar’s ‘Tell’,” Chronicle of Higher Education 61, no. 7 (2014), 1.
32. Paul Ekman, Why Kids Lie: How Parents Can Encourage Truthfulness (New York:
Macmillan, 1989), 7.
33. Kappas, Krumber, and Kuster, “Facial Behavior,” 136.
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These findings helped prove the universality and innateness of facial expressions. If even
isolated societies used the same facial expressions as those connected with the rest of the
world, then scholars could conclude that these expressions were universal and innate. And as
Colwyn Trevarthen wrote, “these New Guineans did not show any facial expressions that we
had not seen before; there were no unique facial expressions.”34 After Ekman came to this
realization,
he catalogued more than 10,000 possible combinations of facial muscle

movements that reveal what a person is feeling inside. And he has taught
himself how to catch the fleeting involuntary changes, called micro
expressions, that flit across even the best liar's face, exposing the truth behind
what he or she is trying to hide.35
Ekman used this research to create his own method for reading micro expressions. According
to Knapp and Hall, “the impact of Paul Ekman was enormous also because of
methodological developments, such as the development of the anatomy based Facial Action
Coding System (FACS), together with Wallace Friesen.”36 This coding system has
significantly advanced scholarly understanding of facial expressions. FACS has many
functions including its use by psychologists. FACS can be used to detect depressions as well
as gaging pain in patients who are unable to speak.
Facial Expressions
As I have already noted, communication relied heavily on the use of facial
expressions, which depicted emotion. Psychoanalyst Robert N. Emde wrote that “emotional
expressions exist in the human as a universal ‘language,’ one that is clarified and modulated
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
34. Trevarthen, “Emotions in Infancy,” 130.
35. Shea, “The Liar’s ‘Tell’,” 1.
36. Kappas, Krumber, and Kuster, “Facial Behavior,” 137.
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by speech.”37 Experts examined facial expressions to analyze human emotion. According to
Ekman and Friesen, “emotions are shown primarily in the face, not in the body.”38 The face
could show vital signals to those around us by displaying emotion. Likewise, engineers Reda
Shbib and Shikun Zhou wrote that “thoughts and emotional states can be well expressed
through facial expression.”39 This was proven to hold true all over the world. The Paul
Ekman Group’s official website stated that “seven emotions have universal signals: anger,
fear, sadness, disgust, contempt, surprise and happiness.”40 All humans felt and portrayed
these emotions through facial expressions. Since Ekman first published his findings, both
scholars and the media have paid a great deal of attention to the study of the universality of
emotional expression. Ekman’s study of infants helped to prove the innate status of facial
expressions. Psychologist Howard Leventhal stated that “this universality is seen in
development of emotion in the normal and blind infant.”41 Whether blind or not, each infant
expressed emotion through the same facial cues. Therefore, many scientists concluded that
all humans naturally expressed emotion through facial expression from the time they are born
through the entirety of their lives.
These emotions were displayed both voluntarily and involuntarily. Mrovlje wrote that
“when we are experiencing a genuine emotion, we usually do not think about the message we
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37. Robert N. Emde, “Levels of Meaning for Infant Emotions: A Biosocial View,” in Approaches
to Emotion, ed. Klaus R. Scherer and Paul Ekman (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1984), 80.
38. Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, Unmasking the Face (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall, 1975), 7.
39. Reda Shbib and Zhou Shikun, “Facial Expression Analysis using Active Shape Model,”
International Journal of Signal Processing, Image Processing & Pattern 8, no. 1 (2015): 9.
doi:10.14257/ijsip.2015.8.1.02.
40. “Micro Expressions,” The Paul Ekman Group official website, accessed June 8, 2015, http://
www.paulekman.com/micro-expressions/.
41. Howard Leventhal, “A Perceptual Motor Theory of Emotion,” in Approaches to Emotion, ed.
Klaus R. Scherer and Paul Ekman (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1984), 273.
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are conveying with our face.”42 Therefore, it made sense that in discussing his and Friesen’s
research, Ekman wrote that “our studies of facial expression suggest that the great majority
of expressions of felt emotions last between ½ second and 4 seconds, and those that are
shorter or longer are mock or other kinds of false expressions.”43 People also had the ability
to demonstrate false emotion through facial movements. When thinking of an example,
imagine a time when someone laughed at something that was not funny or put on a fake
smile. Mrovlje also stated that “when producing a voluntary facial expression, we become
much more aware of our expression, because of the conscious attention we bring into making
a voluntary facial expression.”44 People often used voluntary facial expressions to mask true
emotion. However, even when displaying false emotion, true emotion leaked through by way
of micro expressions because a majority of people was not able to stop micro expressions
from showing through. Ekman suggested that only about ten percent of people were able to
stop facial leakage and avoid deception detection.45 According to The Paul Ekman Group’s
official website, “micro expressions are very brief facial expressions, lasting only a fraction
of a second. They occur when a person either deliberately or unconsciously conceals a
feeling.”46 Thus, micro expressions occurred naturally, without thought, or as Mrovlje said,
they appeared as “spontaneous emotional expressions . . . that appear quickly, apparently
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42. Mrovlje, “Facial Expressions as Reflection,” 115.
43. Paul Ekman, “Expression and the Nature of Emotion,” in Approaches to Emotion, ed. Klaus
R. Scherer and Paul Ekman (Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1984), 333.
44. Mrovlje, “Facial Expressions,” 115.
45. Ekman, “Expression and the Nature of Emotion.”
46. “Micro Expressions,” 1.
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without choice, although they may be changed by choice or habit.”47 Micro expressions
showed the masked emotion behind the voluntary facial expression.
Understanding and detecting micro expressions benefited society. As Shbib and Zhou
wrote, “facial expressions have demonstrated to be a strong tool in identifying a human
emotional state and as well his response to a state or a product.”48 In fact, critical security
agencies used the detection of micro expressions. According to Mrovlje, the “detection of
micro expressions is becoming a popular tool in the field of national security, and it is
considered to be an extremely effective technique in detecting lies, repressed emotions and
menacing behavior.”49 Organizations used differing techniques to detect these expressions.
For example, Shbib and Zhou suggested that “several methods have been developed towards
strong facial expression analysis, using several image acquisition, recognition and
classification techniques.”50 As the detection of micro expressions became more popular,
informing the public about micro expressions also became more important. Perhaps the
simplest and most popular way to educate the public was through mass mediated channels.
Edutainment
For the past several decades, one of the most significant channels of entertainment
and communication in U.S. households has been television. Indeed, according to Jennifer B.
Gray, communication scholar, “television is the most pervasive mass mediated channel in the
United States.”51 Television reached a larger number of people than most would assume.
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48. Shbib and Shikun, “Facial Expression Analysis,” 9.
50. Shbib and Shikun, “Facial Expression Analysis,” 21.
51. Jennifer B. Gray, “Entertaining Health: The Current and Future State of Edutainment in U.S.
Health Campaigns,” Florida Communication Journal 36, no. 2 (2008): 16.
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Singhal and Rogers suggested that “a highly rated television program is viewed by up to 30
million people in the United States, so the impacts can be considerable.”52 As the popularity
of television rose, the lines between entertainment and education became increasingly
blurred. Communication researchers Pierre Balloffet, Francois H. Courvoisier, and Joelle
Lagier suggested that “an approach combining education and entertainment appears to be a
current trend.”53 This trend was growing so large that it was given its own name; television
shows that incorporated educational messages within an entertaining narrative were referred
to as “edutainment.” Seongwon Park and Duk-Shin Oh, information systems researchers,
explained that “as a compound word of education and entertainment, edutainment refers to
learning content that enables learners to have fun while learning.”54 This trend was on the
rise for quite some time. Deborah L. Larson, professor of media, journalism, and film, wrote
that “E-E (education entertainment), or the process of designing and implementing mediated
messages to both entertain and educate has been making strides into the entertainment market
for several decades.”55 Over the years, E-E has continued to form and adapt to new
technologies. And as Arvind Singhal wrote,
EE has also been widely modified, adapted and enhanced by creative media
professionals in television, radio, film, print, theatre and new digital media.
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52. Arvind Singhal and Everett Rogers, Entertainment-Education: A Communication Strategy for
Social Change (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1999), 16.
53. Pierre Balloffet, Francois H. Courvoisier, and Joelle Lagier, “From Museum to Amusement
Park: The Opportunities and Risks of Edutainment,” International Journal of Arts Management 16,
no. 2 (2014): 4-5.
54. Seongwon Park and Duk-Shin Oh, “An Exploratory Study on the Content Design of Mobile
Edutainment for Preschool Children,” International Journal of Software Engineering & Its
Applications 11, no. 8 (2014): 56. doi:10.14257/ijseia.2014.8.11.05.
55. Deborah L. Larson, “Advancing Entertainment Education: Using The Rosie O’Donnell Show
to Recognize Implementation Strategies for Saturated Markets,” Communication Theory 19, no. 2
(2009): 107.
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The tide of EE research and practice is on the rise – with increasing intensity
and extensity.56
As the popularity of edutainment rose, its impact on society grew. Singhal and Rogers,
communication scholars, proposed that edutainment worked to “entertain and educate, in
order to increase audience members’ knowledge about an educational issue, create favorable
attitudes, and change overt behavior.”57 Similarly, Gray suggested that “entertainment media
can be of educational influence.”58 Television shows influence the audiences who are
invested in the series, or as Atkinson, Bellic, and Sumnall concluded, “young people did
perceive television to exert an influence upon audiences.”59 Television can influence
audience members in various ways. The mass media used edutainment to create awareness
and therefore change, and Singhal suggested that edutainment “is a communication strategy
to bring about behavioral and social change.”60 Edutainment’s ability to create such drastic
change makes it an important and relevant research topic.
Numerous shows from the “edutainment” category have been highly successful at
educating viewers on a wide range of issues. According to cognitive scientist Cirigliano,
“educators have successfully used various forms of entertainment media to inform the public
about a wide range of subjects.”61 This range of subjects appealed to multiple audiences.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
56. Arvid Singhal, “Introduction: Fairy Tales to Digital Games: The Rising Tide of Entertainment
Education,” Critical Arts: A South-North Journal of Cultural & Media Studies 1, no. 27 (2013): 2-3.
doi:10.1080/02560046.2013.766971.
57. Singhal and Rogers, Entertainment-Education, 9.
58. Jennifer B. Gray, “Entertaining Health,” Florida Communication Journal 36, no. 2 (2008):
17.
59. Amanda Marie Atkinson, Mark Bellic, and Harry Sumnall, “Young Peoples’ Perspective on
the Portrayal of Alcohol and Drinking on Television: Findings of a Focus Group Study,” Addiction
Research & Theory 21, no. 2 (2013): 91. doi:10.3109/16066359.2012.687795.
61. Matthew M. Cirigliano, “Exploring the Attitudes of Students Using an Edutainment Graphic
Novel as a Supplement to Learning in the Classroom,” Science Educator 21, no. 1 (2012): 29.
! 15
Health professionals Moore, Onsomu, and Abuya, wrote, “E-E has been used in television
sitcoms and other communication channels to educate audiences about political, social, and
health topics.”62 Several shows exemplified the wide variety of topics discussed through
edutainment. For example, as Singhal and Rogers stated, “Hollywood television producer
Norman Lear attacked racial and ethnic prejudice in the United States through his popular
1970's CBS series, All in the Family.”63 But ethnic prejudice was not the sole issue discussed
through edutainment. Edutainment was also used for teaching new languages. Psycholinguist
Bird suggested that the implementation of subtitles in movies was effective during the
language learning process.64 However, even more topics were covered through edutainment.
Burzynska, Binkowska-Bury, and Januszewicz wrote that
ER and Scrubs may serve as an educational material for the fresh students of
Medicine and the rest of medical personnel. As opposed to House M.D. and
Grey’s Anatomy which mainly concentrate on professional ethics and
teamwork skills. [sic]65
While most viewers did not watch shows for the purpose of gaining such information,
Singhal and Rogers wrote that “entertainment television can be used to educate young
viewers without making the educational content subtle, and still attract large audiences.”66
When large audiences watched edutainment shows, behavioral changes occurred. Singhal
and Rogers also argued that “entertainment education programs have been found to be very
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
62. Dayksha Moore, Elijah O. Onsomu, and Benta A. Abuya, “Entertainment-Education for
Starting HIV/AIDS Discussions and Reducing Stigma: African American College Students’
Reactions to the Film Yesterday,” Journal of Best Practices in Health Professions Diversity:
Education, Research & Policy 4, no. 1 (2011): 566.
64. Stephen A. Bird, “Language learning Edutainment: Mixing Motives in Digital Resources,
RELC Journal 36, no. 3 (2005). doi:10.1177/0033688205060053.
65. Joanna Burzynska, Monika Binkowska-Bury, and Pawel Januszewicz, “Television as a
Source of Information on Heal and Illness – Review of Benefits and Problems,” Progress in Health
Sciences 5, no. 2 (2015): 176.
! 16
efficient in achieving relatively low-cost behavior change.”67 However, edutainment can do
more that just change behavior. According to communication researchers Brusse, Fransen,
and Smit, “entertainment-education (E-E), seems to be a promising solution for influencing
the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of audiences.”68 Viewers were more likely to talk
with others about educational issues entrenched in a show. This dialogue helped create social
change. While edutainment shows benefited viewers, creating behavior change was not an
easy task. According to Singhal and Rogers,
start-up costs for entertainment-education programs are typically high, and

such programs take a relatively longer time to produce than do strictly
entertainment programs, in part due to the time and costs of formative
evaluation research.69
On top of start-up costs and production time, Singhal and Rogers stated that “formative
evaluation research is crucial to the success of entertainment-education.”70
Shows had to be assessed during early release to find information about how to make
revisions for improvement of the show’s effectiveness. Feng Wang and Michael J. Hannifan
defined this research as
a systematic but flexible methodology aimed to improve educational practices

through iterative analysis, design, development, and implementation, based on
collaboration among researchers and practitioners in real-world settings, and
leading to contextually-sensitive design principles and theories.71
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67. Ibid.
68. Elsbeth D. Asbeek Brusse, Marieke L. Fransen, and Edith G. Smit, “The More You Say the
Less they Hear: The Effect of Disclosures in Entertainment-Education,” Journal of Media
Psychology: Theories, Methods, and Applications 27, no. 4 (2015): 159. doi:10.1027/1864-
1105/a000135. !
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid.
71. Feng Wang and Michael J. Hannafin, “Design-Based Research and Technology-Enhanced
Learning Environments,” Educational Technology Research and Development 53, no. 4 (2005): 6.
! 17
This research played a role in understanding the continuity or discontinuity of a show.
Formative evaluation research also took time and money to implement, meaning more work.
On top of this research, Singhal and Rogers wrote that “a balance between artistic creativity
and communication research is needed in producing effective entertainment-education
programs.”72 The inclusion of both entertainment and education in one coherent show
necessitated an equilibrium between creativity and accurate information. This equilibrium
provided the perfect balance for edutainment purposes.
Lie to Me
As I previously introduced, Lie to Me was a popular edutainment television series.
According to Paul Ekman’s website,
the television series Lie to Me, based on the work of Paul Ekman, aired on the
FOX network from 2009 to 2011. It ran for three seasons (a total of forty-
eight episodes), and has aired in over 60 countries worldwide.73
Throughout the show’s short life, it encountered great success. Paul Ekman’s website stated
that “the series . . . won a People’s Choice Award for Favorite TV Crime Drama in 2011.”74
Tvseriesfinale.com wrote that “after three seasons on the air, . . . FOX officially cancelled Lie
to Me after 48 episodes.”75 However, all three seasons are still available on Netflix. While the
lifespan of the show was not particularly long, Lie to Me remained successful, and much of
its success was attributed to its producers.
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73. “Lie to Me,” Paul Ekman Group, accessed June 8, 2015, http://www. paulekman.com/lie-to-
me/.
74. Ibid.
75. “Lie to Me: FOX TV Show Cancelled, No Season Four,” tvseriesfinale.com, May 11, 2011,
http://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/lie-to-me-canceled-season-four-19870/.
! 18
Rhetor
Lie to Me’s producers highly influenced the show. Tv.com stated that the show was
“created by Sam Baum, and executive-produced by Baum, Brian Grazer, David Nevins and
Steve Maeda. The series was produced by Imagine Television and 20th Century Fox
Television.”76 Baum had a busy and successful career. Including Lie to Me, he has produced
five television series.77 Grazer also found success as the chair for Imagine Television, the
producer of at least 50 movies and half a dozen television series, and winner of an Academy
Award.78 Television producer Nevins also added his expertise as the CEO of Showtime
Networks to the creation of Lie to Me.79 Maeda, a television writer and producer, has written
episodes of nine different series and has co-produced nine television series since 2000.80
Some of the producers had an interest in the concepts behind Lie to Me before the creation of
the show. Hollywood Reporter suggested that Grazer and Baum’s fascination with facial
expressions and deception detection led them to produce this show, and this influenced the
success of the series.81 Ultimately, as both the executive producer and writer, Baum served as
Lie to Me’s primary rhetor. Baum not only had the vision to create this show, but he also
researched the information presented in the show and made any final decisions.
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76. “Lie to Me,” TV.com, accessed June 8, 2015, http://www.tv.com/shows/lie-to-me/.
77. “Samuel Baum,” The New York Times, accessed August 7, 2015, http://www.
nytimes.com/movies/ person/608188/Samuel-Baum/filmography movies/person/608188/Samuel-
Baum/filmography.
78. Russell Crowe, “Brian Grazer,” Time, May 3, 2007, http://content.time.com/time/specials/
2007/time100/article/0,28804,1595326_1595332_1616687,00.html.
79. Nellie Andreeva, “David Nevins Upped to CEO of Showtime, Matthew Blank Remains
Chairman,” Deadline, June 11, 2015, http://deadline.com/2015/06/david-nevins-showtime-ceo-
matthew-blank-chairman-1201441114/.
80. “Steven Maeda,” IMBD, accessed August 7, 2015, http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0535348/.
81. “Story is a Lie, and Fox Buys It,” Hollywood Reporter, accessed August 7, 2015,
www.hollywoodreporter.com/.news/story-is-a-lie-fox-151415.
! 19
Context
The show’s writers, directors, and producers did not conjure Lie to Me’s storyline out
of thin air; rather, writers Nellie Andreeva and Kimberly Nordyke stated that Lie to Me was
inspired by real-life behavioral scientist Paul Ekman . . . [centering] on

deception expert Cal Lightman (Roth), who runs a private agency contracted
by the FBI, police, law firms and private citizens when they hit roadblocks in
their searches for the truth.82
The show’s main character, Cal Lightman, portrayed Paul Ekman’s special talents and
knowledge. According to Paul Ekman’s website, “Dr. Lightman was based loosely on Paul
Ekman; analyzing facial expressions, speech, and involuntary body language, he could read a
spectrum of feelings – hidden resentment, sexual attraction, jealousy were easily spotted.”83
By using Ekman’s life as inspiration, the producers easily developed the plot.
The show’s premise was simple:
The Lightman Group is headed by Dr. Cal Lightman and his partner Dr.
Gillian Foster who is a gifted psychologist. She brings balance to the
partnership by thinking about the overall picture while Lightman focuses on
the details. Together they make an invincible team with insight into human
behavior.84
The Lightman Group used Ekman’s real life research to read people’s emotions in their facial
expressions. According to Paul Ekman’s website, “the team displayed extensive knowledge
of micro expressions and the Facial Action Coding System while solving cases.”85
The producers worked to insure they understood Ekman’s research and could
accurately portray it on television, taking vital steps to make sure the show accurately
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
82. Nellie Andreeva and Kimberly Nordyke, “Fox Shows Faith in ‘Lie to Me’ with a Series
Pickup,” Hollywood Reporter, September 23, 2008, http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/fox-
shows-faith-lie-me-119662.
83. “Lie to Me,” Paul Ekman Group.
84. “Lie to Me,” TV.com.
! 20
educated its viewers. Ekmaninternational.com stated that “Dr. Paul Ekman [was] engaged by
FOX as the Scientific Consultant throughout the production of the program.”86 Although this
was helpful, Sam Baum took this process a step further. Paul Ekman’s website stated that
“writer/director Sam Baum spent a year in research and development studying Ekman’s
work, meeting with him on numerous occasions before creating the show.”87 This work was
vital to the educational aspect of the show.
Although the producers conducted research to align Lie to Me with reality, some
discrepancies did exist. The Paul Ekman website stated that “in Lie to Me, Cal Lightman and
the Lightman Group take on individual cases.”88 However, this was not the case for Ekman.
Instead, his group’s website said they “do not routinely take on individual cases; it happens
only under special circumstances.”89 The show also embellished reality. According to
Ekman’s website,
although Lie to Me tended, over time, to exaggerate Cal’s skill at catching

liars, the show did a great job at showing viewers how much is revealed
without words, how hard people try to cover up the truth and how complicated
motivation for doing so can be.90
Although embellishment occurred, Lie to Me also provided accurate and educational
information. Embellishments include actions that are based in science but go beyond the
bounds of reality. Sometimes science isn’t flawed, it is possibly unrealistic to assume that
this perfect scenario would occur, which often led to the successful use of micro expressions.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
86. “Cutting Edge Behavioral Science for Real World Applications,” Ekman International,
accessed June 14, 2015, http://www.ekmaninternational.com/.
88. Ibid.
89. “The Truth about ‘Lie to Me’: Separating Fact from Fiction,” Paul Ekman Group, accessed
June 8, 2015, http://www.paulekman.com/lie-to-me/.
90. Ibid.
! 21
Plot Summary
Each episode of Lie to Me followed the same basic plot structure. The Lightman
Group, headed by detection deception experts Cal Lightman and Gillian Foster, worked for
governmental agencies to solve or prevent crime. The show told viewers that, in his past,
Lightman conducted extensive research in multiple countries to understand the science
behind micro expressions. Lightman and Foster and their gifted employees used meticulous
practices to analyze micro expressions and discover the truth.
Throughout the show, the rhetors also developed side plots. For example, the
producers emphasize Lightman’s relationship with his teenage daughter, Emily. This focus
shed light on the intricacies of how personal relationships might work when a father
recognized each lie told by his daughter. The producers also focused on two of Lightman’s
employees, Eli Loker and Ria Torres, who worked closely with Lightman and Foster. Loker
learned the science behind reading micro expressions, while Torres picked up on micro
expressions naturally as part of her response to abuse she faced while growing up. Although
Lightman worked hard to find the truth, it became painfully obvious that he consistently told
lies to pursue what he believed to be best. Many characters in the show found Lightman to be
strange and questioned his science.
The first three episodes of the first season of Lie to Me did the best job of portraying
the show’s overall appeal and role as an edutainment series. While I am only discussing three
episodes here, all episodes depict micro expression in a way that can achieve similar
outcomes to the first three episodes. I have chosen to analyze these episodes because they
explained the basic plot of the show and gave a detailed explanation of micro expressions
and their importance. Additionally, these episodes set up the premise of the series and gave
! 22
detailed information that must be understood to fully grasp the show’s basic concepts. For
example, the pilot episode started with a detailed description of micro expressions, which
was vital to fully understanding the function of these facial movements. The following two
episodes then worked to build the basic setting and plot of this narrative. In my analysis, I
will explain the purpose of these episodes by using the narrative paradigm as a guiding
theoretical framework.
Methodology
The narrative paradigm, narrative probability, narrative fidelity, and fantasy themes
each played an important role in this analysis of Lie to Me. These elements created a
successful framework for this analysis. Each component of this methodology enhances this
analysis’ ability to accurately answer the research questions that will be proposed.
Narrative Paradigm
Kenneth Burke, American literary theorist, declared that “man is the symbol using
animal.”91 And as an extension of this idea that society used symbols within narratives to
make sense of the world, narrative theorist Walter R. Fisher
holds that symbols are created and communicated ultimately as stories meant
to give order to human experience and to induce others to dwell in them in
order to establish ways of living in common, in intellectual and spiritual
communities in which there is confirmation for the story that constitutes one’s
life.92
The use of symbols in storytelling was central to Fisher’s narrative paradigm. Fisher defined
narrative as “a theory of symbolic actions – words and/or deeds – that have sequence and
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
91. Kenneth Burke, “Definition of Man,” in Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life,
Literature, and Method (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1966), 3.
92. Walter R. Fisher, “Narration as a Paradigm of Human Communication,” in Human
Communication as Narration: Toward a Philosophy of Reason, Value, and Action (Columbia, SC:
University of South Carolina Press, 1987), 63.
! 23
meaning for those who live, create, or interpret them.”93 Fisher also defined the word
“paradigm” in writing that “by paradigm, I refer to a representation designed to formalize the
structure of a component of experience and to direct understanding and inquiry into the
nature and functions of that experience – in this instance, the experience of human
communication.”94 Fisher’s definition provided a foundation for understanding his narrative
paradigm.
Fisher first proposed the narrative paradigm in 1984.95 Kathleen G. Roberts,
communication and rhetoric scholar, wrote that “Fisher first formalized the narrative
paradigm as an alternative conceptual framework for understanding communication. In
response to the rational world (rhetoric) and dramatist paradigms that were introduced before
the narrative paradigm, he asserts the narrative paradigm.”96 When the narrative paradigm
was introduced, it quickly gained the attention of scholars. Communication professor Barbara
wrote that, “critics were drawn to the paradigm because it focuses on how the intratextual
reality of an account is shaped by its employment of characters and events.”97 In this
situation, intratextuality took place when all parts of a narrative were coherent and formed
truth. Critics were also interested in this paradigm because it expanded traditional theories.
According to Fisher,
the precise way in which the narrative paradigm goes beyond traditional social
scientific theories is in the concept of narrative rationality, which provides
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
93. Walter R. Fisher, “Narration as a Human Communication Paradigm: The Case of Public
Moral Argument,” Communication Monographs 51, no. 1 (1984): 2.
94. Ibid.
95. Ibid.
96. Kathleen G. Roberts, “Texturing the Narrative Paradigm: Folklore and Communication,”
Communication Quarterly 52, no. 2 (2004): 130.
97. Barbara Warnick, “The Narrative Paradigm: Another Story,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 73,
no. 2 (1987): 172.
! 24
principles – probability and fidelity – and considerations for judging the

merits of stories, whether one’s own or another’s.98
Throughout history, humans have told and listened to stories and were therefore naturally and
inherently embedded in an environment in which the narrative paradigm thrived.
Human nature easily linked people to the narrative paradigm. One of Fisher’s four
presuppositions within the narrative paradigm was that humans were essentially
storytellers.99 Thus, the narrative paradigm directly connected with the natural desire of
humans to produce stories, whether real or imaginary. Fisher stated that “the narrative
paradigm . . . has relevance to real as well as fictive worlds, to stories of living and to stories
of the imagination.”100 Although the narrative paradigm made room for the imagination, it
also focused on the rational. Rhetorician Carl R. Burgchardt wrote that “narratives are moral
constructs that are inherently egalitarian because everyone has the ability ‘to be rational in
the narrative paradigm.’”101 However, narratives were not always dependable. Even when
people heard a persuasive narrative that made sense, there was still some possibility that
persuasion would not occur. Melissa Hobart, communication professor, wrote that “the key
concept of the paradigm is narrative rationality, a combination of narrative probability, and
narrative fidelity.”102 In order for persuasion to occur, a story must contain two critical
elements, the first of which was narrative probability.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
98. Walter R. Fisher, “The Narrative Paradigm: An Elaboration,” Communication Monographs
52, no. 4 (1985): 349. doi:10.1080/03637758509376117.
99. Fisher, “Narration as Human Communication Paradigm,” 7.
100. Ibid.
101. Carl R. Burgchardt, “Narrative Criticism,” in Readings in Rhetorical Criticism (State
College, PA: Strata, 2010), 289.
102. Melissa Hobart, “My Best Friend’s Brother’s Cousin Knew This Guy Who . . . : Hoaxes,
Legends, Warnings, and Fisher’s Narrative Paradigm,” Communication Teacher 27, no. 2 (2013): 90.
doi:10.1080/17404622.2013.770155.
! 25
Narrative Probability
Narrative probability was essential to the act of persuasion. Lawyer J. Christopher
Rideout said that “narrative probability is the feature of narratives that lends them much of
their plausibility, that makes them structurally convincing.”103 Narrative probability regulated
the coherence of a story. When a story hung together in a logical manner, it had coherence.
Fisher stated that
narrative probability refers to formal features of a story conceived as a

discrete sequence of thought and/or action in life or literature (any recorded or
written form of discourse); i.e., it concerns the question of whether or not a
story coheres or “hangs together,” whether or not the story is free of
contradictions.104
Scarce contradictions within a narrative led to consistency and therefore the possibility of
persuasion. According to Rideout, narrative probability would “contribute to a story’s
plausibility, to its ‘making sense’ . . . not because the story necessarily corresponds in a direct
way to ‘what really happened,’ but rather because the story seems whole, complete, and
consistent in its meaning.”105 Stories that logically made sense related to the audience more
clearly. Fisher wrote that
some stories are better than others, more coherent, more “true” to the way
people and the world are – in fact and in value. In other words, some stories
are better in satisfying the criteria of the logic of good reasons, which is
attentive to reason and values.106
Coherence could be seen within multiple facets of a narrative. For example, when looking for
coherence, advertising researchers Alan J. Bush and Victoria D. Bush asked: “how consistent
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
103. J. Christopher Rideout, “A Twice-Told Tale: Plausibility and Narrative Coherence in
Judicial Storytelling,” Legal Communication and Rhetoric: JALWD 10 (2013): 71.
104. Fisher, “The Narrative Paradigm,” 349.
105. Rideout, “A Twice-Told Tale,” 71-72.
106. Fisher, “Narration as a Human Communication Paradigm,” 10.
! 26
are the characters and their actions throughout the story?”107 A natural and plausible narrative
increased the likelihood of persuasion. However, coherence was not the only critical element
of a narrative. Fisher’s paradigm argued that rhetors must also take narrative fidelity into
consideration.
Narrative Fidelity
Narrative fidelity was also essential to the act of persuasion. Narrative fidelity
focused on truth. According to Fisher, “narrative fidelity concerns the ‘truth qualities’ of a
story, the degree to which it accords with the logic of good reasons: the soundness of its
reasoning and the value of its values.”108 Value and truth directly linked people to narratives.
Fisher also stated that, epistemologically, narrative fidelity "is a matter of truth according to
the doctrine of correspondence. Though the most engaging stories are mythic (probability),
the most helpful and uplifting stories are moral (fidelity)."109 These moral stories related
directly to the lives of those in the audience. Narrative fidelity looked at the external
consistency of a story and occurred when a narrative aligned with the audience’s experiences
and understanding of reality. According to Fisher, narrative fidelity had to do with “whether
or not the stories they experience ring true with the stories they know to be true in their
lives.”110 In order for narrative fidelity to occur, stories heard and stories lived must have
coincided with one another. People would work to seek out narratives that matched the
stories in their own lives. Therefore, Fisher stated that the narrative paradigm recognized “the
existence and desirability of genius in individuals or the capacity of people to formulate and
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
107. Alan J. Bush and Victoria D. Bush, “The Narrative Paradigm as a Perspective for Improving
Ethical Evaluations of Advertisements,” Journal of Advertising 23, no. 3 (1994): 36.
108. Fisher, “The Narrative Paradigm,” 349-50.
109. Fisher, “Narration as a Human Communication Paradigm,” 16.
110. Ibid., 68.
! 27
adopt new stories that better account for their lives or the mystery of life itself.”111 People
naturally looked for external narratives that corresponded with their own personal narratives.
Fantasy Themes
Fisher’s narrative paradigm led Bormann to create symbolic convergence theory,
which is often used as a framework for fantasy theme criticism. Sonja K. Foss is well known
for her thorough explanation of the fantasy theme criticism. According to Foss, “Bormann
extended the notion of fantasizing discovered by Bales into a theory (symbolic convergence
theory) and a method (fantasy-theme criticism) that can be applied not only to the study of
small groups but also to all kinds of rhetoric in which themes function dramatically to
connect audiences with messages.”112 Rhetorician Craig Engstrom states that “fantasy-theme
analysis was developed by Ernest Bormann, who used earlier discoveries in group interaction
processes known as dramatizing and fantasizing to further develop a theory known as
symbolic convergence theory.”113 Fantasies are the most important unit of a fantasy theme.
According to Bormann, a fantasy is “a creative and imaginative interpretation of
events that fulfills a psychological or rhetorical need.”114 Bormann writes that “the term
fantasy in the symbolic convergence theory is a technical term and should not be confused
with another common usage of the term which is of something imaginary, not grounded in
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111. Ibid., 67.
112. Sonja K. Foss, Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice (Long Grove, IL: Waveland
Press, 2009), 97.
113. Craig Engstrom, “Promoting Peace, Yet Sustaining Conflict? A Fantasy-Theme Analysis of
Seeds of Peace Publications.” Journal of Peace Education 6, no. 1 (2009): 23.
doi:10.1080/17400200802658332.
114. Ernest G. Bormann, “The Critical Analysis of Seminal American Fantasies,” in The Force of
Fantasy: Restoring the American Dream (Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL: Southern Illinois
University Press, 1985), 5.
! 28
reality.”115 Bormann, Cragan, and Shields say that fantasies “can be translated because
meaning, emotion, value, and motive for action are present in the communication.”116 In fact,
people use fantasies for important reasons. Bormann states that “consciousness-creating
communication involves the sharing of fantasies to generate new symbolic ground for a
community of people.”117 Bormann recognized the power fantasies had in creating the term
“fantasy theme.” Foss writes that “a fantasy theme is the means through which the
interpretation is accomplished in communication,” and has often discussed the importance of
these themes.118 For example, Foss states, “the basic unit of analysis of symbolic
convergence theory and fantasy-theme criticism is the fantasy theme.”119 Multiple fantasy
themes exist, which Engstrom explains in writing that “a fantasy-theme critic tries to
demonstrate how fantasy themes come together by first charting them into three referential
categories: character, action and setting.”120 After the critic has located such themes he or she
draws conclusions through the use of rhetorical visions. Bormann writes that “a rhetorical
vision is a unified putting-together of the various scripts which gives the participants a
broader view of things.”121 Thus, people use fantasy themes to organize and understand
complex artifacts. Bormann states, “when we share a fantasy, we make sense out of what
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
115. Ernest G. Bormann, “The Symbolic Convergence Theory of Communication: Applications
and Implications for Teachers and Consultants,” Journal of Applied Communication Research 10, no.
1 (1982): 52.
116. Ernest G. Bormann, John F. Cragan, and Donald C. Shields, “Defending Symbolic
Convergence Theory from an Imaginary Gunn,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 84, no. 4 (2003): 368.
doi:10:80/0033563032000160990.
117. Ernest G. Bormann, John F. Cragan, and Donald C. Shields, “An Expansion of the
Rhetorical Vision Component of the Symbolic Convergence Theory: The Cold War Paradigm Case,”
Communication Monographs 63, no. 1 (1996): 2.
118. Foss, Rhetorical Criticism, 98.
119. Ibid.
120. Engstrom, “Promoting Peace, Yet Sustaining Conflict?,” 23.
121. Bormann, “The Critical Analysis of Seminal American Fantasies,” 8.!!
! 29
prior to that time may have been a confusing state of affairs.”122 Thus, fantasy theme
criticism helps critics draw important conclusions through a systematic process.
In this thesis, I use Fisher’s narrative paradigm to guide my analysis of the first three
episodes of season one of Lie to Me through identifying and discussing character themes,
setting themes, action themes, and rhetorical visions. Foss, wrote that “character themes
describe the agents or actors in the drama, ascribe characteristics and qualities to them, and
assign motives to them.”123 While character themes play an important role in my analysis of
Lie to Me, they are not the only important fantasy theme I will examine in this thesis. Setting
themes also contribute to my analysis. Foss wrote that “statements that depict where the
action is taking place are setting themes.”124 Finally, action themes also play an important
role. Foss said that “action themes . . . deal with the actions in which the characters in the
drama engage.”125 In each section of my analysis, I will follow my discussion of action
themes with a discussion of rhetorical visions. According to Foss, a rhetorical vision is “a
swirling together of fantasy themes to provide a particular interpretation of reality.”126 This
process will bring organization to my analysis of the show’s purpose and effectiveness.
I divided my analysis by the episodes I analyzed in each chapter. In chapter two, I
analyze episode one of the first season of Lie to Me, specifically looking at character themes,
setting themes, action themes, and rhetorical visions to answer the question: How does Lie to
Me attempt to convince viewers to believe they have gained knowledge while being
entertained? In chapter three, I analyze episode two of the first season of Lie to Me, titled
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
122. Ibid., 9.
123. Foss, Rhetorical Criticism, 99.
124. Ibid.
125. Ibid.
126. Ibid., 100.
! 30
“Moral Waiver.” I analyze character themes, setting themes, and overall episode themes to
answer the question: How does Lie to Me attempt to persuade viewers to adopt favorable
attitudes towards an educational message? In chapter four, I analyze episode three of the first
season of Lie to Me, titled “A Perfect Score.” Again, I analyze character themes, setting
themes, and overall episode themes to answer the question: How does Lie to Me attempt to
persuade its viewers to adopt overt behavioral changes? This analysis will reveal how Baum
worked to provide education and entertainment and inspire behavioral changes through the
power of edutainment in Lie to Me.

CHAPTER II
EDUTAINMENT AND EDUCATION
The truth is written on all of our faces.
- Cal Lightman, Lie to Me Season 1, Episode 11
The truth is always available to those who are willing to search for it. The truth
cannot be hidden from the faces of liars, and it is possible to learn how to find that truth.
Chapter two analyzes episode one of the first season of Lie to Me to answer the question:
How does Lie to Me attempt to convince viewers to believe they have gained knowledge
while being entertained?
Each episode of the show is complex, filled with both cases and interpersonal
relations, but before getting into the analysis I will summarize the cases to help you
understand the context surrounding each theme I discuss. In the pilot episode of Lie to Me,
writer Sam Baum argues that society is not always eager to tell the truth. The Lightman
Group is hired by the Democratic National Committee to investigate a congressman’s
personal life and by the Mayor of D.C. to investigate the murder of a high school teacher.
Foster first receives a call from the Democratic National Committee, requesting that she look
into Congressman Zeb Weil, who is about to become the new chairman of the House Ethics
Committee, but has been frequenting a nightclub that offers escort services. Foster interviews
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1. This and all other dialogue and plot references in this chapter come from: Lie to Me. Episode
no. 1, first broadcast 21 January 2009 by Fox, directed by Adam Davidson and written by Samuel
Baum.
31
! 32
the congressman while Lightman watches behind a screen. When Foster questions him about
his schedule from the previous Friday night, he lies to her. Torres goes to the strip club and
interviews an escort named Melissa, who reveals that the congressman is a regular, but that
their relationship is not sexual. News breaks about the congressman’s use of an escort
service, but the congressman shows disgust about the idea of having sex with Melissa. Torres
investigates to find out more about his reaction and finds evidence online that proves Melissa
is the congressman’s daughter. The team eventually learns that the congressman had hired a
private investigator to find her, and when he found out she was working as an escort, began
visiting her every Friday and giving her money in an attempt to convince her to quit. He does
not want the press to know who she is because he does not want to ruin her reputation.
Lightman lets the congressman throw away his career to protect his daughter and the
relationship he hopes to form with her.
At the beginning of the episode, Lightman also receives a call from the Mayor of
D.C., asking him to look into a case about a high school teacher, Mrs. McCartney, whom
they believe was murdered by a student, James Cole, a devout Jehovah’s Witness who was
caught fleeing the murder scene. Lightman and his partner, Foster, question James about the
murder and determine that he lied about never having been to Mrs. McCartney’s house.
Lightman and Foster then interview James’s fellow high school students and notice that one
girl, named Jaquelin, appears particularly emotional during her interview. Lightman also
believes the principal is hiding something. Lightman and Foster head to James’s parents’
house to search the boy’s room, and they notice James’s passion for photography. During
their search, James’s mother is evasive and his father becomes angry, finally telling
Lightman and Foster to leave. After some digging, Lightman and Foster go back to James’s
! 33
parents’ home for a chat, and Mrs. Cole shows Lightman and Foster photographs James had
taken of Mrs. McCartney through her home window and later hidden in his room. Lightman
shows the photographs to James, and the boy admits that while spying on Mrs. McCartney
and taking photographs, he saw her lying dead in her house and ran. In James’s stack of
photos, Foster finds a picture of Mrs. McCartney having an argument with someone in a car
just hours before she was murdered, so Foster and Lightman meet with the school principal
to show him the photo and ask who drives the car. He recognizes the car but pretends he does
not know who owns it. Lightman finds out that the car belongs to Jaquelin. During a second
interview with Jaquelin, she denies murdering Mrs. McCartney but breaks down, admitting
that she is pregnant with the principal’s baby. She confesses that when Mrs. McCartney
found out, the principal murdered her to keep from getting caught. The principal is then
arrested for his crime and walks out of the school in handcuffs. While the story of a
successfully handcuffed criminal is entertaining, the episode’s purpose goes much deeper.
Analysis
People often view learning as a tedious and dull process that involves intentional
focus to retain knowledge. Although Lie to Me appears to be a lighthearted and entertaining
show, writer Sam Baum uses this series to educate viewers in an exciting and unexpected
way. This analysis discusses the process Baum uses by looking at character themes, setting
themes, action themes, and rhetorical visions from the show to provide a deeper
understanding of the way Baum incorporates education into this entertaining show.
Character Themes
Baum uses characters as tools to create audience trust in Lie to Me’s message. Once
the show’s characters have an air of credibility, they are able to gain the audience’s trust and
! 34
provide the audience with knowledge. “the scholar,” “the truthful type,” “the relatable
person,” “the attractive person, and “the respectful person” were character themes Baum uses
to enhance character credibility and educate audience members. Each of these character
themes attracts audience members and encourages them to openly receive knowledge
presented by the show’s characters.
The Scholar
Dr. Lightman provides an air of credibility that convinces viewers they are gaining
knowledge while watching the pilot episode of Lie to Me. At the beginning of the episode,
Baum uses Lightman’s extensive and revolutionary research to immediately establish his
credibility as he educates Department of Homeland Security officers on deception detection
tactics. One of these officers mentions the three years Lightman spent studying tribes in the
African jungle. His simple ability to train such specialized and advanced agents encourages
Lie to Me’s viewers to trust his expertise. In addition to his role as the world’s leading
deception expert, Baum also captures the audience’s trust and attention by explaining that
Lightman had founded a firm called The Lightman Group six years prior to the pilot episode.
Through this privately owned company, he and his co-owner, Gillian Foster, provide
assistance to various public authorities including the FBI, the Department of Homeland
Security, the Democratic National Committee, and the Drug Enforcement Agency.
Baum also mentions Lightman’s prior work experience, which enhances his
credibility. Baum makes it obvious that Lightman has worked at the Pentagon, worked for
the FBI, founded the deception detection program for the Department of Defense, and
created the TSA deception diagnostic test. Lie to Me’s producers, Brian Grazer and David
Nevins, portray Lightman’s authority through his interaction with the Transportation Security
! 35
Administration (TSA). Not just anyone could walk through and take complete control over
the TSA. Lightman also proves his credibility through the success of his company when he
leaves Torres, a TSA officer, a briefcase full of cash as her signing bonus. This large sum of
cash represents the significant success of The Lightman Group.
The trust the audience has in Foster through her connection with Lightman and the
Lightman Group causes them to have confidence in the knowledge she dispenses throughout
the pilot episode. Viewers also trust Foster because of her previous career as a psychologist.
In a 2012 study, psychologist Michael W. Firmin and his colleagues suggest that the majority
of people view psychologists as trustworthy.2 Psychologists are paid to understand others,
and so Baum’s choice to assign Foster’s character a previous career as a psychologist makes
her appear relatable and honest.
Lightman and Foster’s scholarly persona encourages the audience to view them in an
educational light. This persona also helps heighten their credibility. When discussing
credibility, communication professors Brann and Himes say that it “can affect [audience
members’] perceptions of the content being delivered or even whether they will continue to
return to the source for information.”3 Baum finds it important that this intellect is
established early in the show to help convince viewers to believe they are gaining knowledge
while also being entertained.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
2. Michael W. Firmin, Richard A. Wantz, Hannah J. Holmes, Melissa Stolzfus, Brigitte N. Ray,
and Ellen F. Geib, “Undergraduate College Students’ Perceptions of Psychologists,” North American
Journal of Psychology 14, no. 2 (2012): 376.
3. Maria Brann and Kimberly L. Himes, “Perceived Credibility of Male versus Female Television
Newscasters,” Communication Research Reports 27, no 3 (2010): 247.
doi:10.1080/08824091003737869.!
! 36
The Truthful Type
Lightman’s motivation to search for truth provides an additional air of trustworthiness
to his character. He appears trustworthy because he always searches for the truth, even when
accepting a lie would be easier and please those who hired him. For example, assistant US
attorney Hutchinson wants to try James Cole as an adult using any possible evidence that will
make him look guilty. His agenda is to pin this murder on James rather than to find the truth.
In contrast, Lightman continues to search for the truth, even though he can easily close the
case and claim that James is guilty. Instead of taking the easy way out, Lightman works hard
to find the truth about Mrs. McCartney’s murder.
Loker also played an important role in gaining the audience’s trust. Early in the
episode, Lightman explained that Loker practiced radical honesty, meaning he always spoke
the truth about what was on his mind. For example, when Torres first joined the Lightman
Group, Loker told her that he would like to sleep with her. In this scene, Baum clearly
introduced the fact that Loker did not hold back any information, no matter how sensitive it
was. This sense of openness and honesty helped the audience trust the information they
received throughout the episode.
Together, Lightman and Loker’s focus on the truth constructs a “trustful” character
theme that is critical to this episode. They view the truth not only as important, but also as a
central aspect of their lives. Their careers revolve around a search for the truth and radically
imposing truth upon themselves, and the central role of truth in these characters’ lives helps
audience members to trust the information they provide. And when audience members trust
information from the episode, they are more likely to learn and retain key pieces of that
! 37
information. Therefore, Baum’s construction of the “truthful type” character theme helps
convince viewers to believe they have gained knowledge while also being entertained.
The Relatable Person
In addition to Baum’s choice to make Foster a psychologist, Baum also helps her gain
the audience’s trust through her relatable nature. She shows this characteristic throughout the
pilot episode several times, including when she is discussing James’s situation with his
mother. Foster states:
Everything you are doing makes perfect sense. You are afraid for your son
Mrs. Cole and when we experience fear we try to exercise whatever kind of
control we can even if it makes things worse. That’s why you lied to us
before. It may help you feel better, but it’s not helping your son because right
now the only people who believe James is innocent are in this room. I know
that you have the courage to move past your fear and tell us the truth.
The language Foster uses empowers Mrs. Cole to do the right thing while trusting Foster to
handle the situation effectively. Baum makes viewers feel that if a woman can trust Foster
with the fate of her son, they can trust her to provide credible information throughout the
episode.
Foster’s demeanor also plays a role in gaining the trust of the audience. Any time
Foster speaks, she uses a calm and composed tone. She seems to continually encourage those
around her and rarely becomes flustered or emotional. She never participates in unnecessary
drama and always looks to validate the emotions of others. For example, when Lightman
states that he needs to go home to see his teenage daughter Emily because she is going on a
date that night, Foster validates Lightman’s insecurity but also tells him that he should trust
his daughter to make good decisions.
Baum easily relates to “average people” through Foster’s participation in acts that
associate her with every day people. Although she is highly intelligent and works for a
! 38
successful company, she enjoys the simple things in life just like anyone else. For example,
she is frequently pictured enjoying cheap junk food. While working in an upscale office, she
also slurps on a large orange slushee and enjoys a cup of chocolate pudding. She states that
she does things that make her happy, including reading romance novels. These acts help the
audience relate to and trust her character.
The Respectful Person
In the pilot episode of Lie to Me, Baum portrays Lightman as a man who makes
important decisions based on respect. Lightman is able to relate to Congressman Zeb Weil
because he understands the importance of having a positive relationship with his daughter.
Therefore, Lightman chooses to respect the congressman’s decision to keep the information
about the congressman’s daughter being an escort a secret. Lightman also shows respect to
Foster. Lightman knows that Gillian’s husband is lying to her, but because he respects Foster
and her decisions, he chooses to keep his mouth shut rather than bringing up the situation.
These respectful actions play a critical role in gaining the respect of the audience. Audience
members are more likely to trust information from characters they view with respect.
Psychologist Elander and bioethicists Beach and Haywood write, “trust develops in
relationships, in part due to the presence of respect.”4 Therefore, these characters’ respectful
actions increase the willingness of audience members to gain information while watching this
entertaining show.
Baum’s use of “the scholar,” “the truthful type,” “the relatable person,” and “the
respectful person” creates narrative fidelity and narrative probability. Narrative probability is
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
4. James Elander, Mary C. Beach, and Carton Haywood, Jr., “Respect, Trust, and Management of
Sickle Cell Disease Pain in Hospital: Comparative Analysis of Concern-Raising Behaviors,
Preliminary Model, and Agenda for International Collaborative Research to Inform Practice,”
Ethnicity and Health 16, no. 4-5 (2011): 405. doi:10.1080/13557858.2011.555520.!
! 39
enhanced because these themes make the show structurally convincing. Viewers can connect
with the show logically because of the consistency of the use of these themes throughout the
episode. Each of these character themes is seen through multiple characters, and these
character themes are consistent with experiences of viewers. Narrative fidelity is enhanced
when the audience can directly relate to these themes. Most people have personal experiences
with someone who is scholarly, truthful, relatable, or respectful, meaning they can directly
relate to this show.
Setting Themes
Baum uses setting themes as a tool to create audience trust in Lie to Me’s message.
Once the show’s settings have an air of credibility, they can be used to gain the audience’s
trust and provide the audience with knowledge. “Research facilities” and “halls of justice”
are setting themes Baum uses to enhance the credibility of messages the show’s characters
send and educate audience members. Both of these setting themes catch the attention of
viewers and encourage them to openly receive knowledge presented through the show’s
settings.
Research Facilities
Baum uses “research facilities” to help viewers gain knowledge while also being
entertained. “Research facilities” are home to the discovery of knowledge that leads to truth.
Baum uses these facilities to frame the way viewers think about information people present.
Certain “research facilities” are depicted as being more credible than others.
The main research facility Baum portrays in this episode is the Lightman Group
office, located in Washington D.C. This location plays an important role in building
credibility. D.C. is the capital of the United States and home to all three branches of the
! 40
federal government. The credibility of this monumental location enhances the reliability and
importance of the Lightman Group.
When characters first walk into the Lightman Group office, it is evident that this
upscale office is unique. A collage of black and white photos that portray multiple facial
expressions cover one of the large white walls in the entryway. Another collage of multiple
facial expressions fills a wall in Lightman’s office. Each photo is marked and labeled with
specific facial muscles used for certain micro expressions. Due to the extreme detail and
general curiosity of the photos, Loker states, “have I mentioned that your office looks like it
belongs to a serial killer?” To which Lightman responds, “several times.” Bright lighting and
perfectly green plants adorn the large white walls and huge glass windows of the office. This
large facility is filled with sophisticated technology. The secretary is seen using a Mac
desktop computer. However, this technology does not compare to the equipment located in
the research rooms. Large screens used to watch video evidence and interview recordings
hang on the walls. A compartment on the wall by one of these screens is filled with
technology that produces multiple flashing lights and contains too many buttons to
comprehend. Lightman even has a man working the technology for him while he analyzes
video on the screen. Baum uses this facility’s classy appearance in an attempt to persuade
viewers of the Lightman Group’s success, which could lead to a growth in credibility.
Several important conclusions are made within this refined and chic D.C. research
facility. While in the office, Loker, Foster, and Lightman discover that Jaquelin has been
frequently visiting the school nurse. In the same setting, they later learn that Jaquelin is
pregnant. While in the office, the Lightman Group also studies video of James’s interview.
This setting is home to the conclusion that James has sexual feelings for Mrs. McCartney. In
! 41
this same research facility, Foster and Lightman analyze a picture taken by James on the day
of the murder. They conclude that the owner of the car in the photo likely holds information
about Mrs. McCartney’s murder. At the office, Loker discovers that the car belongs to
Jaquelin. Ultimately the discoveries made in The Lightman Group office lead to justice at the
end of the episode.
In the other case featured in this episode, Foster questions Congressman Zeb Weil
about his whereabouts on Friday nights in a questioning room at the office. Afterwards,
Foster, Lightman, and Torres examine the video of the interview and discover that the man is
lying. In the office, Torres later discusses the information she gains from the escort the
congressman has been visiting with Foster. It is in this setting that they recognize a positive
relationship between the congressman and escort. Afterwards, in this same research facility,
they learn that news has broken related to the congressman’s Friday night excursions. Later
in the episode, Torres digs for information while in the office. She finds that the escort is the
congressman’s biological daughter, and that he has been visiting her to convince her to make
a lifestyle change. The conclusions made in the Lightman Group office again result in the
discovery of truth. By using this setting for so much of the episode, Baum works to convince
Lie to Me’s viewers to believe information based on the fact that it is discovered in an office
that appears credible.
The presence of research facilities throughout the pilot episode contributes to
audience members’ feelings that they have gained reliable information. When viewers feel
invited into “research facilities” throughout the show, they are more likely to believe
information they hear. “Research facilities” positively frame information and expertise that
leads audience members to believe the knowledge Baum provides.

! 42
Halls of Justice
Baum also uses the setting theme “halls of justice” to convince viewers to believe
they have gained knowledge while being entertained. This setting theme exists to bring
trustworthy information to viewers’ attention. Baum uses “halls of justice” to show the
positive results that stem from the use of deception detection. He also uses these halls to
provide audience members with information about the meaning of specific micro
expressions.
Questioning rooms inside the Lightman Group office and the jail are places that lead
to justice. In the opening scene of this episode, Baum shows viewers a bright room with
blank white walls and a large one-sided mirror. Inside this room is a criminal in an orange
jumpsuit, his lawyer, and Lightman. Lightman gains information that saves numerous lives
and convicts the man at fault. It is in this location that viewers first learn about the
importance of micro expressions. Baum uses the camera angles to assist with this learning
process. The camera zooms into each part of the criminal’s face to ensure viewers see his
micro expressions, and these expressions are slowed down so they are easy to notice. Baum
creates this scene to educate viewers, not only on the meaning of several micro expressions,
but also about their value in creating justice. This setting seamlessly gives Baum the
opportunity to educate his viewers about the usefulness of micro expression detection.
Lightman is successful in finding the location of the pipe bomb and has it removed before
anyone is injured. If Lightman had not used micro expressions to detect deception, the pipe
bomb would not have been found.
Baum also uses Lightman’s time in the jail’s questioning room with James to educate
viewers. Once again the camera focuses in on James’s micro expressions to emphasize
! 43
deception, such as James’s eye movement as he answers Lightman’s questions. This setting
focuses on micro expressions and provides Lightman with the opportunity to point out and
explain the meaning behind the facial movements. Later in the episode Lightman meets with
James again in the same questioning room. However, this time Lightman brings the photos
James had taken of Mrs. McCartney. It was at this time, in this same questioning room that
James admits to spying on Mrs. McCartney. He tells Lightman that he has sexual feelings for
her and previously gave into temptation. However, he also states that he did not know she
was dead when he was spying. He admits that when he was leaving, he saw the blood and ran
around the front of the house to call 911, but that the police were already there. When he saw
the police, he ran because he was scared. It is in this moment that the truth is revealed. This is
an important moment in solving the Mrs. McCartney’s murder case, and this setting provides
a key backdrop for Baum to provide the audience with information about micro expressions.
Lightman follows up on James’s case when he meets with Jaquelin for questioning at
the second district station. She is brought in because her license plate matches the car in the
picture James had taken. After several minutes of denial, Jaquelin admits that she knows who
murdered Mrs. McCartney but will not provide Lightman with the information he needs. It is
not until Lightman pretends that James had hung himself in his jail cell that Jaquelin decides
to talk. In this setting she admits that she and Principal Castle are seeing one another and that
she is pregnant with his baby. Mrs. McCartney had seen them together and threatened to
report him. Principal Castle told Jaquelin that he would talk to Mrs. McCartney and
everything would be okay, but instead he murdered her. With this confession, the second
district becomes a “hall of justice.” James is set free, and Principal Castle is arrested. He
pleas guilty and is sentenced to thirty years in prison. Baum uses this setting as a channel for
! 44
the truth. Audience members learn to recognize the “halls of justice” and trust the life-
changing information provided at these places.
The Lightman Group office also serves as a “hall of justice” for the congressman.
When the Lightman Group discovers the congressman’s secret, he pleads for them to keep
that information to themselves. He does not want to betray Melissa and have her become
known as “the congressman’s whore daughter.” While at the Lightman Group office,
Lightman makes things right by honoring the congressman’s wishes. Torres tells Lightman
that the chairman is on the phone and asks what they are going to say about the congressman.
Lightman replies, “nothing,” revealing that he will hide the congressman’s secret to protect
the man’s relationship with his daughter.
Baum uses the “halls of justice” to convince viewers to believe they are gaining
knowledge while being entertained. These halls portray the positive results that occur
through the use of micro expressions and also provide viewers with an opportunity to view
micro expressions and learn their meaning. In this episode, all success would have been void
if deception detection had not been used. Baum’s decision to emphasize the success that
comes from the detection of micro expressions persuades audience members to view this
aspect of nonverbal communication as even more credible than they did before watching the
show. Baum’s emphasis on credibility heightens the likelihood that viewers will continue to
pay attention to specific micro expressions and their meaning throughout the show.
Baum’s use of “research facilities” and “halls of justice” create narrative probability.
Narrative probability occurs when “a story coheres or ‘hangs together,’ whether or not the
! 45
story is free of contradictions.”5 “Research facilities” and “halls of justice” consistently work
together to create reliable and logical outcomes.
Action Themes
Action themes also play an important role in entertaining audience members. The
action themes “research” and “discovery” help promote the show’s educational value by
inviting the audience to become part of an exciting process of discovery.
Research
Baum uses the action theme “research” as a tool to create audience trust in this
episode’s educational message. “Research” throughout the show depicts the credibility of
information and the quality of investigation the Lightman Group participates in. Framing the
Lightman Group’s research as leading to valuable and high-quality information gives the
audience a prime opportunity to grasp knowledge.
An intense research venture takes place alongside each case the Lightman Group
takes on in this episode. During the case surrounding Mrs. McCartney, research is rampant.
Foster and Lightman interview James, James’s parents, James’s classmates, and James’s
principal. Loker talks to the school’s nurse and looks for connections outside of school
between Jaquelin and James. The Lightman Group also analyzes video of their interviews.
Lightman and Foster tour the home of James’s parents. They also run background checks on
both parents and look into their whereabouts on the night of the murder. They even look at
car registrations to find each vehicle’s owner. “Research” is also widespread throughout the
congressman’s case. The Lightman Group interviews the congressman and analyzes the
video footage of his interview. Torres conducts online research that leads to findings that the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
5. Walter R. Fisher, “The Narrative Paradigm: An Elaboration,” Communication Monographs 52,
no. 4 (1985): 349. doi:10.1080/03637758509376117.
! 46
congressman has been searching for his daughter. Torres also meets with the escort who the
congressman sees each week. Later the Lightman Group analyzes the news release
addressing the congressman’s alleged crime.
Baum inserts this action theme prevalently within this episode. The use of “research”
displays Baum’s commitment to accurate information, which is necessary for proper
education to take place. The use of research provides viewers with an opportunity to gain
adequate information while also enjoying the plot line of this show.
Discovery
Discoveries during a case and the Lightman Group’s ability to uncover new
knowledge are an exciting part of the plot. However, “discovery” also plays a role in
audience education. Discovering information presents the audience with the opportunity to
grow and retain knowledge.
The process of “discovery” leads to positive outcomes during this episode’s cases.
Through their research process, the Lightman Group makes many discoveries. During the
case surrounding the death of Mrs. McCartney, they discover James’s decision to stalk Mrs.
McCartney. They also discover Jaquelin’s relationship with the principal and her pregnancy.
In the end, they discover Principal Castle’s motive and decision to murder Mrs. McCartney.
“Discovery” also takes place throughout the Lightman Group’s case surrounding
Congressman Weil. The Lightman Group’s research leads them to make numerous
discoveries. They discover the congressman’s presence at the club each Friday evening. They
then discover his previous search for his daughter. Later, they discover that the escort is his
daughter, and that he has been visiting her in an attempt to convince her to make life
! 47
changes. In the end, they discover that the congressman values his relationship with his
daughter over his career or reputation.
The process of “discovery” is widespread throughout this episode. “Discovery”
provides the audience with an opportunity for educational growth as the positive outcome of
the use of micro expressions and proper research. The Lightman Group is able to participate
in the exciting process of “discovery” when they implement deception detection tactics.
“Discovery” shows audience members the positive outcome of the detection of micro
expressions. Viewing successful and profound discoveries can encourage audience members
to pay more attention to educational messages in the show so that they too can experience
their own positive “discovery” process.
Baum’s use of “research” and “discovery” create narrative probability and narrative
fidelity. Narrative probability occurs during this episode because “research” leads to
“discovery” logically in a way that makes sense. “Research” leads to the Lightman Group’s
numerous discoveries. Narrative fidelity occurs because these themes are relatable to the
lives of viewers. Conducting research, even on a small level, and then making a discovery is
something that all people have participated in.
Rhetorical Visions
Rhetorical visions are a tool that can create audience trust in Lie to Me’s message.
Once themes build viewers’ trust that the show, they can provide them with knowledge. “The
search for truth,” “secrets” and “motive over facts,” are rhetorical visions that enhance Lie to
Me’s credibility and educate audience members. These overall episode themes catch the
attention of audience members and encourage them to confidently receive knowledge
presented through the show’s themes.

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The Search for Truth
The rhetorical vision “the search for truth” helps convince viewers to believe they are
gaining knowledge while being entertained. If the audience views this episode as a search for
truth, they might participate in their own exploration for truth while watching the show.
Audience members are more likely to believe information they understand to be true.
The entire basis of the show is a quest for truth. This is displayed immediately when
Baum informs the audience that Lightman’s career and years of research are dedicated to
finding the truth. A large portion of the show takes place in the Lightman Group’s office.
This location is designed in a way that promotes truthfulness. Cameras are everywhere, white
walls symbolize truth and purity, and bright lights make it a place where hiding or deceit is
not an option. Lightman puts one hundred percent of his being into finding the truth. When
Foster tells him to pursue things that make him happy, Lightman responds, “truth or
happiness, never both.” He finds the truth to be so important that he is willing to lose his
happiness in exchange for the truth.
Lightman also takes bold action against dishonesty. He goes as far as to call out
random strangers when they lie to him. For example, Lightman confronts a man who takes
the parking space he is waiting for. Afterward, Foster tells him, “congratulations. One liar
down, six and a half billion to go.” Lightman recognizes that liars are everywhere and that he
has to take information from others with a grain of salt. For example, Foster describes
Lightman’s view of truth by saying, “he assumes you’re a liar if you’re a homo sapien.”
When Foster is leaving for a case, Lightman even tells her, “charge them by the lie and we
can retire tomorrow.” Lightman’s reluctance to trust information persuades viewers that
because he is naturally skeptical, the information he articulates is true. When viewers see
! 49
Baum’s dedication to exposing the truth, they are likely to be more open to accepting
information from the show.
The Lightman Group is willing to go to great lengths to find the truth. They are
willing to put themselves in awkward positions due to the importance of truth. For example,
Loker is so dedicated to radical honesty that he puts himself into an uncomfortable situation.
This occurs when he first sees Torres and says, “I would like to sleep with you.” Torres then
asks him how he is in bed. He responds, “fair.” Most men would feel highly embarrassed to
openly reveal such intimate information. However, Loker does so easily because of the high
value he places on honesty. Torres also willingly puts herself in an uncomfortable position to
find out the truth about the congressman. She visits the club the congressman allegedly
frequents and speaks to the woman he has been seeing. Torres goes undercover pretending
that she is there with her boyfriend as his birthday present. She event goes as far as to ask the
woman if she and her boyfriend can become one of her regulars. Although this situation
seems awkward and uncomfortable, Torres willingly enters that setting during her quest for
the truth. When thinking about this club, Lightman states, “well we all pay for sex one way
or another. At least hookers are honest about the price.” This statement once again reiterates
his value of the truth. The sacrifices Lightman’s employees make to find the truth reflect the
dedication and credibility of the company.
Lightman is also willing to partake in socially unusual actions during his quest for the
truth. This occurs when Lightman and Foster visit Principal Castle in his Jackson High
office. He notices that the principal recognizes the car in the picture of Mrs. McCartney
having an argument. Lightman begins questioning Principal Castleman, asking if the car
belongs to him, or if he is romantically involved with Mrs. McCartney. He notices that the
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principal begins to get defensive and he decides to apologize. He says, “oh, I’m sorry I really
am. We have to consider everything and I’m sorry if I’ve offended you. You know I’m very
sorry, very sorry. If I offended you I, I’m sorry. I have offended you and I’m so sorry, I’m so
sorry. It’s not a good thing really. Well I apologize.” The entire time he is apologizing, he is
shaking the principal’s hand to gauge the man’s skin temperature, acting socially awkward in
an attempt to find the truth. Afterward Foster asks, “what’s with the rain man routine?”
Lightman then explains that when intense fear kicks in, a physiological flight response occurs
and blood flows from the extremities to a person’s legs so they will be ready to run. The
principal’s hand was ten degrees colder when he shook it the second time, meaning he had
recognized the car they were questioning him about and became scared. Lightman gains this
important information simply by acting in an embarrassing fashion.
“The search for truth” can persuade viewers that they are gaining credible
information. Viewers see the Lightman Group office setting, Lightman’s lifelong dedication
to the discovery of truth, his bold action against dishonesty, and the company’s willingness to
go to great lengths to find truth in an effort to persuade audience members they are receiving
trustworthy information. And when people view information as trustworthy, they are more
likely to remember and use that information in the future.
Secrets
“Secrets” are also themes that contribute to the education of viewers. “Secrets”
throughout the show emphasize Baum’s understanding of the importance of knowledge and
the effects it can have on others. Therefore, his understanding of truth’s importance helps
him gain the audience’s trust.

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Mr. and Mrs. Cole keep a secret about their son in an attempt to protect him, and
Foster has to convince them to share this secret for James’s benefit. Mr. and Mrs. Cole
inform Foster and Lightman that they found sexual photos of Mrs. McCartney that James had
taken. Mrs. Cole states, “we found these hidden in his room before the police came and
searched his things.” They felt the photos would make their son look guilty, so they took the
photos and hid them for their son’s protection. Little do they know, these photos are the key
to James’s freedom. Once they relinquish these photos to the Lightman Group, a turning
point in James’s case occurs, which leads to justice.
Foster’s husband walks into the Lightman Group office and tells his wife, “sorry I’m
late. I had a bunch of work I had to finish before leaving.” The couple then leaves together to
grab dinner. Torres, with a confused look on her face, turns to Lightman and says, “her
husband just lied to her. He was lying when he said he got held up with work.” Obviously
irritated, Lightman replies, “don’t you have work to do?” Torres then persists, “you’re not
going to tell her he is lying?” Lightman proceeds to change the subject and ignore Torres’s
question. Later in the show, the audience finds that her husband is lying about doing drugs.
Lightman feels the need to control the spread of this sensitive information.
Congressman Weil got a woman pregnant during college and agreed to a closed
adoption. But he later hires a private investigator to find his daughter and begins visiting her
weekly at the club where she works. He attempts to convince her to make a change and stop
working at the club, but he keeps his true identity a secret from Melissa because he does not
want to force her to “confront an answer that she clearly isn’t looking for.” He recognizes
that keeping this secret will meet his needs as a father without intruding on Melissa’s
emotions. While digging for information, the Lightman Group also finds out the truth about
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the congressman’s true relationship with Melissa. Congressman Weil begs them not to reveal
his secret. He says, “I have already betrayed her once. I won’t do it again.” The congressman
is willing to give up his position in office to keep his ability to have a relationship with his
daughter. As a father, Lightman recognizes the importance of this relationship and agrees to
keep the congressman’s secret.
The rhetorical vision “secrets” adds to viewers’ belief that they are gaining
knowledge while being entertained. “Secrets” serve positive and negative purposes
throughout the show. While truth is important, characters understand the power that truth
holds. At first, Mr. and Mrs. Cole kept James’s photos a secret because they understood the
power this information would have against him in court. Lightman does not reveal the truth
about Foster’s husband because he knows the detriment that it could cause to their marriage,
and Lightman keeps the congressman’s true relationship with his escort a secret to protect the
congressman’s ability to have a connection with his daughter. The most powerful thing about
truth is knowing what to do with it.
Motive over Facts
Education occurs through the use of “motive over facts,” which can convince viewers
to believe they are gaining knowledge while being entertained. Audience members need to
see the importance of understanding all sides of a story before drawing conclusions. This
episode depicts the success that can occur when facts are considered alongside motive.
Motive over fact is first seen in the first scene of this episode. Lightman sits in a
bright, white walled questioning room with a man in an orange jumpsuit and that man’s
lawyer. The criminal, lawyer, and other onlookers notice that Lightman is asking the man
questions. They know the man has already been questioned without making a peep. His
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lawyer previously instructed him to remain quiet. However, they do not realize that
Lightman’s motive is not to get the criminal to answer. Rather, he wants to simply watch the
man’s nonverbal communication to find the location of the pipe bomb this man planted. If
onlookers had known Lightman’s motive, they would have had more confidence in his ability
to find the pipe bomb’s location. If the criminal and his lawyer had known Lightman’s
motive, they also would have approached the situation differently. Others are unaware of
Lightman’s tactics and therefore make incorrect assumptions about the outcome of
Lightman’s time with the criminal.
When researching the McCartney murder, Assistant US Attorney Hutchinson is only
interested in facts, while Lightman focuses on motives. Hutchinson focuses on the fact that
James was at the scene of the crime, had motive and means, ran from the police, and failed a
polygraph test. However, Lightman gives attention to James’s motivation for being at the
house, running from the police, and failing a polygraph test. When Lightman looks into
James’s motives, Hutchinson states, “you are making wild guesses that have no basis in hard
evidence.” Hutchinson again displays his faith in fact over motive during another
conversation with Foster. Foster states, “the question is never simply if someone is lying. It’s
why.” She then says, “a polygraph only tells you if someone is feeling guilty. It doesn’t tell
you what they are feeling guilty about. The guilt James felt had nothing to do with the
murder.” Hutchinson ignorantly replies, “look, you want to ignore the evidence, fine.” If
Lightman and Foster had only looked at the facts, the true murderer would not have been
arrested. When Lightman takes time to look deeper into James’s case, he finds that his
motive for being at Mrs. McCartney’s house late at night was not because he had murdered
her, but rather because he was attracted to her and frequently stalked her, taking pictures that
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he could later fantasize about. Baum uses this scenario to depict the importance of looking at
deception from all angles.
The importance of analyzing motive is apparent when Foster interviews James’s
classmates. A particularly popular looking boy in a red hoodie says, “he talked a bunch of
crap about Mrs. McCartney,” and “the kid’s a freak, I mean, I can’t remember exactly but
I’m sure I’ve heard him say something psycho about her.” Foster replies, “you wouldn’t just
be saying that because you got suspended for hitting him in the face?” If Foster had
examined this student’s account of James without considering his motive, she would have
been more likely to assume James’s guilt.
Guilt and motive once again come into conflict when Foster and Lightman take a trip
to the airport. Lightman looks fearful and is carrying a suitcase full of cash. However, his
motive is not what one would assume when viewing these facts. Lightman went to the airport
to see if Torres, a potential job candidate, would be able to identify the partial fear expression
he displayed. After pulling him out of the line, finding the cash, and being told “you need to
come with us,” Torres states, “when you leaned out of line I could tell you were jacked up
about something.” Lightman explains that he purposefully flashed her a partial-fear
expression. Lightman and Foster then explain that they would like to hire her to work for the
Lightman Group. Fact suggests that the pair is breaking a law and trying to hide their
criminal activity. However, when motive surfaces, Torres realizes that she is being offered a
new career.
The importance of “motive over fact” becomes apparent throughout Congressman
Weil’s case. The facts exposed in the news show that the congressman, who served as Chair
of the House Ethics Committee, visited a sex club weekly and spent over eighty-two
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thousand dollars on the services of a single escort over only a few months. Without a true
understanding of motive, most people would suggest that these facts point to unethical
behavior. Even Loker states, “why would a guy spend eighty-two thousand dollars on an
escort he’s not having sex with.” To understand his motive, the Lightman Group does some
digging. They find that rather than having sex with the escort, he is visiting her because she
is his daughter. The importance of motive truly outweighs fact in the congressman’s
situation.
“Motive over facts” can convince viewers that they are gaining knowledge during the
entertainment process. This theme helps viewers understand the importance of questioning
facts when looking for the truth. “Motive over fact” also helps viewers see that the
educational information they receive from the Lightman Group is likely more trustworthy
than information they might receive from a source that only looks at facts, meaning the
source is missing half of the picture.
“The search for truth,” “secrets,” and “motive over facts” creates narrative fidelity
and narrative probability. Narrative fidelity is concerned with a narrative’s ability to relate to
audience members, and “the search for truth,” “secrets,” and “motive over facts” each occur
regularly within society and are prevalent in a vast majority of people’s lives. Narrative
probability is concerned with a story’s ability to logically make sense to the audience. As
seen in Lie to Me, the Lightman Group’s search for truth, the reasoning behind keeping
secrets, and their need to consider motives over facts each contained consistent internal logic.
Conclusion
My analysis of character themes, setting themes, action themes, and rhetorical visions
helps answer the question: How does Lie to Me attempt to convince viewers to believe they
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have gained knowledge while being entertained? Character themes such as “the scholar,”
“the truthful type,” “the relatable person,” and “the respectful person” enhance the show’s
credibility, quality of information, and trust. Putting education-promoting material into
themes makes the show’s credibility, information quality, and honesty easier to identify.
The setting themes “research facilities” and “halls of justice” also affect the
credibility of information. “Research facilities” positively frame information and expertise
that lead audience members to believe the material. “Halls of justice” portray the positive
results that occur through the analysis of micro expressions, which emphasizes the usefulness
and reliability of these deception detection methods.
Action themes such as “research” and “discovery” show viewers the usefulness of
accurate knowledge about the power of deception detection. The action theme “research”
displays Baum’s commitment to accurate information, which is necessary for proper
education to take place. The action theme “discovery” shows audience members the positive
outcome of the detection of micro expressions, which can encourage audience members to
pay more attention to educational messages so they too can experience their own positive
“discovery” process.
The rhetorical visions “the search for truth,” “secrets,” and “motive over facts” also
helps answer this question. “The search for truth” depicts the value Baum assigns to credible
information. “Secrets” shows that the show recognizes that the most powerful thing about
truth is knowing what to do with it. And “motive over facts” educates viewers by showing
the show’s trustworthiness. Ultimately, Lie to Me attempts to convince viewers to believe
they are gaining knowledge while being entertained through the use of character themes,
setting themes, action themes, and rhetorical visions.

CHAPTER III
EDUTAINMENT AND ENTERTAINMENT
Unpleasant truths, human morality, a mustache on a woman – three things

we’d all prefer to ignore.
- Cal Lightman, “Moral Waiver”1
Although the truth is not always what people want to hear, it can be quite
entertaining. Entertainment and truth play a hand-in-hand role throughout this next episode.
This chapter analyzes episode two of the first season of Lie to Me, titled “Moral Waiver,” to
answer the question: How does Lie to Me attempt to persuade viewers to adopt favorable
attitudes towards an educational message?
The Lightman Group splits into two teams to tackle different cases during this
exciting episode of Lie to Me. Foster and Loker pair up to investigate freshman basketball
star and hottest NBA prospect, Earl White, who has allegedly been given a fifty-thousand-
dollar bribe to play for Carver State. At the same time, Lightman unexcitedly works with the
natural lie detector, Torres, to uncover the truth about Sergeant Russell Scott, who has been
accused of raping one of the women in his platoon.
First, Lightman and Torres take a trip to Fort Mead where they meet with a soldier
named Sheila Lake. Lake accuses Sergeant Scott of raping her while serving in the desert,
but the sergeant seems innocent, and even passes a polygraph test. Three days before the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
no. 2, first broadcast 28 January 2009 by Fox, directed by Adam Davidson and written by Samuel
Baum.
57
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sergeant is set to deploy, Sergeant Scott’s boss looks to the Lightman Group to solve the
mystery. While Lake recounts the rape, Lightman notices a gestural slip that indicates
deception. However, a previous harassment report supports Lake’s claims. Lightman and
Torres then meet with Sergeant Scott. While Torres drills him with questions, Lightman
analyzes his every move. Sergeant Scott becomes overwhelmed with anger at the accusations
being made, and Lightman stops the interview. While dismissing the sergeant from
questioning, Lightman comes on to the man. The sergeant reacts with surprise rather than
disgust, convincing Lightman that Sergeant Scott is not the power assertive rapist Lake has
claimed he is.
Back at the office, Lightman meets with three of Lake’s platoon mates. The women
end up watching the video of Lake’s recount of the rape, but they have no emotional
response to the video. This lack of emotion suggests they do not believe one word of Lake’s
accusation. Lightman discovers that Sergeant Scott has a criminal record and was granted a
moral waiver to join the Army and confronts Lake about her false accusation, but Lake
emotionally claims she did the right thing. Lightman puts the pieces together, finally
recognizing that Lake is trying to create justice for a platoon mate named Rebecca Metz, who
served under and was raped by Sergeant Scott. Metz filed the harassment report, but then
went AWOL and refused to testify because she did not think anyone would believe her.
Lightman and Torres help Metz reveal the truth through a fixed polygraph test, and justice is
served.
Meanwhile, Foster and Loker meet with Jeremy Levine, a man from Carver State’s
athletic association. He explains that Howard Taft, an alumni booster, allegedly paid White
fifty thousand dollars to play basketball for Carver State. Foster and Loker decide to meet
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with Taft over dinner to discuss the allegations. Afterward Loker goes to the office to analyze
the recording of their dinner conversation. He specifically looks at the stress in Taft’s voice
and notices that Taft lies when denying the bribe. Foster and Loker remain confused because
they cannot find proof that White spent any significant amounts of money. Foster and Loker
look into a video of White for any helpful clues. They notice that each time he discusses
playing pro ball he shows signs of anger by thrusting his chin forward. They then recognize
that several pictures of White playing basketball reveal that he is in pain. The two confront
White about their findings and learn that he has degenerative arthritis, meaning he will spend
his last good year of basketball playing in college. White took the bribe because he would
never be able to play pro ball and make the amount of money possible if he had been allowed
to play pro ball without first playing a year in college. Foster tries to help White financially
by putting the fee charged by the Lightman group into a trust, which will pay for the rest of
his education. This episode can be analyzed by looking into character themes, which depict
the way Baum use characters as a form of entertainment.
Analysis
Baum creates a brilliant story to entertain viewers. This analysis discusses character
themes, setting themes, action themes, and rhetorical visions in “Moral Waiver” to provide a
deeper understanding of the way Baum incorporated entertainment into this educational
show.
Character Themes
Baum frequently uses characters to draw audience members into a new social world.
When characters are entertaining, they more effectively capture the attention of audience
members. Tian and Hoffner suggest that when viewers become involved in an entertaining
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show, “members put themselves in the place of a character and vicariously participate in the
character’s experience.”2 Baum stresses the entertainment values of trickery, bluntness and
outrageousness, which are apparent in this episode. The character themes shown in this
episode are “the tactless trickster,” “the blunt being,” and “the outrageous one.” Each of
these character themes plays an important role in entertaining Lie to Me’s viewers.
The Tactless Trickster
Episode two of Lie to Me is filled with trickery that strategically provides
entertainment for the audience. Lightman is highly participative in hoaxes throughout the
episode. Lightman and Torres go to a home to find Rebecca Metz. Her grandfather opens the
door and claims that Rebecca is not home. Lightman notices the grandfather is lying through
a gestural slip. He then asks to borrow the elderly man’s cane. He grabs the metal cane and
walks into the home uninvited. Lightman picks up a stack of newspapers and loudly throws
them to the ground. He then shouts out for help in his best old man voice and tosses the cane
to the ground, which makes a loud rattling noise. Lightman then continues to groan as he
hears Rebecca calling out to her grandfather and running down the staircase. As Lightman
and Rebecca make eye contact, Lightman lets out one more little “help,” to show Rebecca
that it had been him all along. This will not be his last time to use deceit during his search for
the truth.
Baum also portrays trickery through Lightman when he tricks three female soldiers
who come to the Lightman Group for an interview. He tells them he wants to conduct
individual interviews and takes one of the women, purposefully leaving the other two in a
room alone. In this room, a video of their comrade Lake making formal rape allegations
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
2. Qing Tian and Cynthia A. Hoffner, “Parasocial Interaction with Liked, Neutral, and Disliked
Characters on a Popular TV Series,” Mass Communication & Society 13, no. 3 (2010): 252.
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against Sergeant Scott is paused on a large screen. The women eagerly pick up the remote
and play the video. Lightman knows that the women will not be able to resist playing the
video and watching the allegations for themselves. Foster is surprised that the women turned
the video back on, but Lightman knows it is simply human nature. With this knowledge, he
sets up a camera to record the women’s reactions to the video.
Lightman does not actually bring the girls in to interview them as they had expected,
but to watch them view the rape allegations made by their comrade. He states, “I didn’t bring
them in to hear them talk. I brought them in to watch them listen.” Lightman had planned to
video the women to see their reactions to Lake’s allegations. When he plays the video back,
he notices a complete absence of emotion on the women’s faces. This lack of emotion reveals
that they do not believe what their comrade is saying. They know that the rape never
happened. Lightman is able to reveal this information through a simple trick. However, a
more thoughtful trick is next on his agenda.
Near the end of the episode, Lightman also works with Rebecca Metz to trick
Sergeant Scott into revealing the truth about the rape. They decide to implement this plan
when Metz states, “the truth isn’t good enough for these people.” Lightman responds, “who
said anything about the truth?” Lightman gives Metz Valium so that she can lie without
being caught by the polygraph. They plan to have Metz claim that Sergeant Scott forced her
to drive lead in the convoy for a week because she refused to have sex with him one time.
This trick goes through without a hitch because the sergeant responds by saying that as long
as they were dating he never made her drive lead. Her safety was in his charge, meaning that
he traded her safety for sex. Lightman uses a trick that the audience finds entertaining to
reveal the truth during a difficult situation. Lake’s job was to say “yes sir” to anything her
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sergeant asked for, including sex. Lightman helps reveal that Sergeant Scott had traded
Lake’s safety for sex. While trickery plays an important role in entertainment, it is not the
only character theme the audience enjoys.
Baum uses “the tactless trickster” character theme throughout the episode. This
character theme helps audience members build a favorable attitude toward Lightman. Once
this favorable attitude is developed, audience members are more likely to view the
educational messages he shares positively. Tricks help the Lightman Group gain and share
important information in an entertaining way. Lightman uses abnormal methods of gaining
information and persuading others. Although he deceives others, he uses deceit for highly
moral reasons. This use of trickery helps audience members retain information presented
throughout the episode.
The Blunt Being
Loker feels that the only way to be truly honest is to openly state all of his thoughts,
which prevents him from hiding the truth throughout the show. But Loker’s pledge to radical
honesty also causes him to make several entertainingly blunt statements. One of these
statements is made when Loker goes with Foster to Carver State to talk to White and a man
from the Athletic Association named Jeremy Levine. Levine explains that he would like the
investigation to be kept quiet. He proceeds to say, “Earl is a good kid. He lost his mom last
year. He’s raising his brother on his own.” Loker bluntly replies, “plus he is going to go pro
this spring and you don’t want any bad press for the ‘one and done’ rule.” Levine ignores that
statement and says, “making kids go to college for a year before they turn pro forces them to
take high school more seriously.” In reply to Levine’s half-truth, Loker responds, “it also
forces young super stars to play a year of college ball jacking up ratings and revenues.”
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Foster can tell that Levine is confused by his blunt statements and responds with an
explanation of Loker’s pledge of radical honesty. These blunt statements provide the
audience with comic relief during an otherwise serious conversation.
Throughout the rest of the episode, Loker makes other blunt, but entertaining
statements. For example, due to his radical honesty pledge, Loker has a difficult time hiding
his attraction to Torres. While working on research in the office, Loker and Torres have a
conversation about their jobs, during which Loker tells Torres that he has never been with a
Latino woman before, insinuating his attraction. Torres quickly tells Loker not to push it and
leaves the room. While at a coffee stand later in the episode, Loker makes another
entertainingly blunt statement. As Foster reaches for a muffin in front of the stand worker,
Loker says that she should not get a muffin there. He states, “they taste like sofa cushions
covered with the moldy nuts your grandmother used to keep in a little jar.” Episode viewers
can not help but smile at his blunt and vivid statement.
Lightman’s blunt personality also provides entertainment throughout the episode. His
straightforward personality comes out when he visits Fort Mead with Torres. When
Lightman finds out that Sergeant Scott is not being court martialed, he immediately states
that he will not be able to help him and walks away. Lightman is easily willing to stand up to
a high-ranking officer and tell him that if he is not searching for the truth, he should save the
government’s money. Then when he is told that the sergeant passed a polygraph test,
Lightman states, “yeah well I bet his grandmother didn’t think he did it either. That’s equally
reliable.” Lightman’s ability to bluntly state his thoughts to the officer provides this episode’s
audience with entertainment.

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Lightman’s blunt nature also shows through during conversations with Torres. When
a harassment report is found that backs up Torres’s beliefs but denies Lightman’s, a micro
expression crosses Torres’s face. Lightman sees the expression and states, “you know,
generally it’s not a good idea to call your boss an idiot.” He puts a pen in her face and points
out the places micro expressions had appeared. He sees both contempt and disgust when she
realizes the findings of the report. As Torres stumbles across her words in an attempt to
explain herself, Lightman cuts her off and says, “apology accepted.” Later Lightman tells
Torres that he believes Sergeant Scott has raped a different woman. He notices another micro
expression on Torres’s face and calls her out for being embarrassed. When Foster gets onto
him for being so blunt, he says, “she’s the one making snide remarks. Look at her face.”
Throughout the episode, blunt statements help bring the truth to viewers’ attention in an
exciting, entertaining, and sometimes cringe-worthy way. Loker and Lightman’s use of
bluntness grab the audience’s attention and help them focus on and retain educational
information. Baum uses bluntness as a character theme and shows the audience what it is like
to constantly know what others around them are thinking. When the audience relates with the
characters, they are more likely to accept the information provided by these characters.
The Outrageous One
Baum uses outrageous situations to entertain the audience. At the beginning of
episode two, Lightman receives a large foam package. As he cuts the package open, fog
seeps out of the opening, which indicates the presence of dry ice. The lid falls off, Lightman
reaches into the white foam box, and he pulls out a large egg. With egg in hand, Lightman
walks into a room full of Homeland Security officers who are eagerly awaiting his opinion of
their new hand-held polygraph test. As Tom Whitmore, the new TSA Deputy, reaches out to
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shake Lightman’s hand, he returns the gesture by instead placing the large egg in the man’s
hands. He explains that the egg was a lie detector, first used by West Africans. When they
were on trial, they held the egg in their hands. If they broke the egg they were considered
guilty because it was a sign of anxiety. Lightman then goes on to explain that the egg and the
Homeland Security’s new handheld polygraph both suffer from the same issue. Rather than
detecting deception, both of the polygraphs detect a rise in emotion of any type. Lightman
further exemplifies this when he calls his attractive secretary, Mrs. Cooper, into the room. He
uses her to show the agents that when the subject feels sexual arousal for the woman who
asks the questions, he fails the polygraph test. The egg and the handheld polygraph both have
the same drawback. This is further displayed when the TSA agent holding the egg realizes
how much money Homeland Security lost developing the device and he accidently breaks the
egg because of his anger. Lightman uses this outrageous and highly entertaining example to
explain that the only way to accurately detect deception is through analysis of the face.
A similarly outrageous situation occurs after Torres questions Sergeant Scott about
his alleged rape. Lightman stops the questioning when he sees that the sergeant is becoming
emotional. He goes behind the man’s chair, puts his hands on Scott’s shoulders, thanks him
for his time, and then strokes the side of his face and head. Touching and especially stroking
a stranger is an outrageous thing to watch a professional do. As the sergeant begins to exit the
room, Lightman grabs the man’s bicep and compliments his physique. After blatantly hitting
on the sergeant, Lightman asks the man if he would like to mix business with pleasure and
grab drinks together later. In shock, the sergeant calmly denies being gay and tells Lightman
that his comments are inappropriate. After the sergeant leaves, Torres questions Lightman
about what just happened, and he jokingly responds by saying that he loves a man in
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uniform. The audience likely finds this situation outrageous for several reasons. Lightman
serves as a highly masculine figure whom the audience would not have expected to see
hitting on another man. The ease and comfort that Lightman feels while acting in a way that
is unnatural for him is equally outrageous. Although this situation is highly outrageous, it
serves an important purpose. Foster reveals that most men who participate in a rape that is
unplanned, only occurs one time, and involves no additional violence, are considered to be
power-assertive rapists. These men are known for being obsessed with masculinity and need
others to view them as manly. A man who fits this profile would have reacted to Lightman’s
advances with disgust. However, the sergeant only reacted with surprise, which reveals that
he is likely innocent. Lightman uses this outrageous and entertaining tactic to determine a
man’s innocence. Although Lightman is not always the most professional man, his character
is not portrayed as homosexual, which catches the audience off guard and creates an
outrageous situation. Lightman’s actions are also seen as outrageous because asking a man he
is investigating to go on a date is utterly inappropriate.
Another scene during this episode provides the audience with entertainment through
an outrageous situation. Lightman and Foster drop by a food stand for a snack. After making
their order, Lightman notices the worker touching the food without a glove. He proceeds to
ask the man if he has washed his hands. The man says yes and then rubs his sweaty neck with
his hand. Lightman notices this manipulator and calls the man out on his lie. He then
proceeds to ask the man if he has been to the bathroom that day. When he recognizes that the
man had both been to the bathroom and gone to work without washing his hands he calls out
loudly, “anybody else want a side of feces? Anybody? Side of feces?” People who are eating
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the food make disgusted faces and set down the food they had ordered from the stand. This
entertaining scene displays Lightman’s outrageous comments made in public.
Outrageous actions provide entertainment that persuades viewers to adopt favorable
attitudes towards this educational message. Lightman helps people understand his point and
prove people’s innocence when he uses whimsical and attention-grabbing actions that many
view as outrageous. This character theme shows that situations that might seem mindless
actually have an impact on audience members. When associating information with
entertaining and memorable actions, audience members are more likely to view the
information positively.
“The tactless trickster,” “the blunt being,” and “the outrageous one” each help create
narrative probability and narrative fidelity. While they are entertaining, each of these themes
also builds narrative probability because all parts of these themes work consistently and
logically. These character themes build narrative fidelity, meaning they can correspond with
viewers’ own personal narratives. Most individuals experience people who play tricks,
people who have blunt personalities, and people who do outrageous things.
Setting Themes
Baum incorporates entertaining setting themes to amuse viewers of “Moral Waiver.”
He entertains by connecting with his audience through the use of “patriotism and sports” and
“celebrity references.” If a setting connects to the interests and appeals of audience members,
they easily gain interest in the narrative. American interest in these events is shown through
the number of attendees. More than 1.8 million people are estimated to have attended
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Obama’s 2009 inauguration.3 In the 2014-2015 NCAA season, 32,510,647 attended
basketball games.4 Each of these forms of entertainment has a massive fan base.
Patriotism and Sports
With “Support the Troops” stickers prevalently riding on car bumpers, patriotism
flying high, and freedom ringing, Baum noticed the importance of the military to United
States culture. This episode aired in 2009 when Obama sent a large number of extra troops to
Afghanistan. Most civilians do not have the ability to see life on a military base, but the
general public can see representations of that life through popular entertainment – from video
games to television, figurines to movies, and more. Baum uses this setting, which is a good
choice because of Americans’ commitment to patriotism.
When Lightman and Torres are approaching Fort Mead, several troops march in
straight lines to the sound of their sergeant’s gruff directions. The army vehicle Lightman
and Torres ride toward the fort in has no windows or doors. Miles of dirt and a few gangly
weeds are the only visual scenery outside on this hot day. They can see that camouflage
uniforms and matching rifles cover the bodies of the men and women on base. They watch
several gunmen lay in the dirt at a shooting range practicing their aim. They hear a man yell,
“take fire” as loud gunshots resonate across the wide-open fields of dirt. It is in this setting
that Lightman and Torres begin their search for the truth.
From the war zone to basketball’s zone defense, spaces of contest have a special
place in the heart of United States citizens. Simply observing television ratings and the
excitement of March madness is enough to convince most people of the sport’s importance to
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3. Caitlin Stark, “By the Numbers. Presidential Inaugurations,” CNN Politics, retrieved from
http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/17/politics/btn-presidential-inaugurations/.
4. National Collegiate Athletic Association, “Men’s Basketball Attendance Up Slightly in 2014-
15,” retrieved from http://fs.ncaa.org/Docs/stats/m_basketball_RB/Reports/attend/2015.pdf/.
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and impact on U.S. culture. According to sports researchers Southall, Nagel, Amis, and
Southall, “as the United States’ largest intercollegiate athletic event, the National Collegiate
Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I men’s basketball tournament consistently generates
high television ratings.”5 Because of this widespread success and popularity, Baum makes a
smart choice by incorporating the entertainment value of college basketball into his setting
choices for this episode. A collegiate basketball setting provides entertainment to Lie to Me’s
viewers.
Basketball practice is full of action as Foster and Loker walk into GWCU’s gym.
Athletic men run back and forth on the yellow accented court, working hard in preparation
for their next big game. As Foster and Lightman watch, the players show off their agility and
strength by dunking and moving the ball quickly and accurately around the court. This
setting surrounds the deception in an important case. Foster’s own love for the game comes
out as she watches the men practice. This case depicts a freshman basketball player who is
forced to play college ball before entering the NBA. He accepts a bribe from an alumni
booster when he realizes that he physically will not be able to play basketball after that year
due to degenerative arthritis. As it holds a special place in the heart of Americans, viewers
likely find basketball in this episode to be entertaining.
Celebrity References
Baum scatters pictures of celebrities throughout this episode’s setting. These pictures
entertain audience members as they learn about micro expressions. Viewers’ familiarity with
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5. Richard M. Southall, Mark S. Nagel, John M. Amis, and Crystal Southall, “A Method to
March Madness? Institutional Logics and the 2006 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division
I Men’s Basketball Tournament,” Journal of Sport Management 22, no. 6 (2008): 677.
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these people and their history helps to make a connection and draw them into the story line.
Social scientist Van Elteren claims that
celebrity politicians . . . are now so much in the public limelight, positioned

within cross-currents of assertion, persuasion, denial and counter-assertion
that in many instances complete honesty would be very naive, if not
politically suicidal.6
Celebrities’ frequent lies provide the perfect opportunity for Baum to include these men and
women and boost the entertainment value of the episode.
Several times after the camera zooms in on micro expressions, the same expressions
are shown to viewers on the faces of celebrities in pictures. For example, after Lightman
points out Lake’s mouth shrugs, which suggest deception, the same expression is displayed
in pictures on the faces of four famous celebrities, including Bill Clinton and George W.
Bush. Another instance occurs when Foster and Loker confront White about his pain. When
he denies the accusation, the team supports their knowledge by comparing a picture of his
face while in pain to pictures of several other athletes experiencing pain, including the
famous Tiger Woods. What Foster refers to as “the primal face of pain” is depicted on all
three celebrity faces as well as White’s face. Celebrity photographs are used one last time
when Lightman and Torres analyze the strange smile on Metz’s face in the pictures taken of
Sergeant Scott putting his arm around her. Lightman recognizes her expression as a masking
smile. Lightman then compares her pictures to pictures of Mrs. South Carolina hiding fear
from the judges and Sarah Palin hiding fear from the press. The expressions are once again
identical.
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6. Mel Van Elteren, “Celebrity Culture, Performative Politics, and the Spectacle of ‘Democracy’
in America,” Journal of American Culture 36, no. 4 (2013): 269. doi:10.1111/jacc.12049.
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Baum includes celebrity references to provide relevant entertainment to viewers. The
viewers’ prior knowledge of these celebrities enhances the entertainment quality of the show
by connecting the plotline with places and ideas that carry their own inherent entertainment
value. Political scientist Lawler states that “being a celebrity is a sort of gift of public
opinion.”7 Baum’s use of celebrities leads to an entertaining setting for “Moral Waiver.”
Baum uses “patriotism and sports” and “celebrities” to enhance entertainment in the
episode “Moral Waiver.” Viewers are more likely to feel entertained when things they
already enjoy, value, or find interesting are inserted into a television show. The use of the
military, collegiate basketball, and celebrities can easily provide viewers with entertainment.
“Patriotism and sports” and “celebrity references” played a role in narrative
probability and narrative fidelity during this episode. Narrative probability occurs when a
story hands together in a logical manner. The narrative surrounding these themes can easily
occurred in real life. These setting themes also lead to narrative fidelity. “Patriotism and
sports” and “celebrity references” connect to the lives of viewers on a deep level due to the
weight these themes have on American culture.
Action Themes
Action themes play an important role in entertaining audience members. Baum uses
action themes prevalently throughout this episode. The action themes “investigation” and
“sneakiness” help promote the show’s entertainment value by inviting the audience to
become part of an exciting process of discovery.
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7. Peter A. Lawler, “Celebrity Studies Today,” Society 47, no. 5 (2010): 419.
doi:10.1007/s12115-010-9353-z.
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Investigation
Investigations of Taft, White, Sergeant Scott, and Lake occur in this episode, creating
suspense as viewers imagine what outcomes are possible. Suspense frequently leads to
feelings associated with entertainment. According to communication specialist Alice E. Hall,
“emotions related to suspense (i.e., fear and worry) were associated with enjoyment of the
story’s ending when it was resolved.”8 This type of entertainment is used during
“investigation.”
Foster and Loker work to investigate Taft and White’s case. The investigation process
includes interviews, vocal analysis, micro expression analysis, and past game footage
research. Foster and Loker realize Taft’s vocal analysis indicates guilt. However, they are not
convinced because White’s spending records have not increased, as they would have
suspected if he had been receiving large sums of money.
Lightman and Torres investigate the situation surrounding Sergeant Scott and Lake.
The duo goes back and forth on their opinions about the guilty party. This indecisiveness
creates suspenseful feelings for viewers. They first believe the sergeant to be guilty, but then
notice Lake’s deception leakage. However, Torres is not convinced of the sergeant’s
innocence.
Baum’s need to create entertainment leads him to use the action theme
“investigation.” Investigations naturally create an air of suspense that is entertaining to
viewers. The process of investigation gains the audience’s attention and attempts to increase
audience members’ commitment levels to the show.
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8. Alice E. Hall, “Entertainment-Oriented Gratifications of Sports Media: Contributors to
Suspense, Enjoyment, and Appreciation,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 59, no. 2
(2015): 621.
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Sneakiness
Baum also incorporates the action theme of “sneakiness” into this episode in his
attempt to entertain his viewers. Lake’s platoon mates and Lightman both partake in the
entertaining action theme “sneakiness.” Just like “investigation,” “sneakiness” creates
suspense as audience members wonder if characters will be caught in their sneaky acts.
Two of Lake’s platoon mates sneak around while they visit Lightman’s office. Their
curiosity gets the best of them when they are left alone in a conference room. They
suspiciously look around to make sure no one is watching and then pick up the remote from
the table and click the play button. In that moment, the women decide to turn on the video of
an interview that they were not invited to watch. Viewers look on in amusement as they
wonder how the women will react to the video. The audience then realizes that the women
are being recorded as they watch the video footage, which is itself a sneaky action taken by
the Lightman Group.
Lightman also participates in a sneaky action near the end of the episode. As he
prepares Metz for her polygraph test, he instructs her to lie about not refusing to have sex
with Sergeant Scott so that he will reveal the truth about their relationship, stating, “never let
the facts get in the way of the truth.” Lightman does something to stop the polygraph test
from picking up on Metz’s deception, but his method is unidentified until the end of the
show. Viewers are likely intrigued when they realize the polygraph test did not pick up on
Metz’s lie. It is not until later that Lightman reveals how Metz beat the polygraph test.
Baum uses “sneakiness” as an action theme throughout the episode. “Sneakiness” can
easily create suspense, which heightens audience members’ enjoyment. Investigation tactics
help the Lightman Group gain and share important information in an entertaining way.
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Baum’s choice to use “sneakiness” is wise because it leads to suspense, which is an aspect of
entertainment.
“Investigation” and “sneakiness” are two entertaining action themes prevalent
throughout this episode. Each of these themes can create suspense. Baum makes a good
choice when he implements these themes because viewers can easily find entertaining
properties in episode filled with suspense. “Investigation” and “sneakiness” naturally play on
human emotions that can lead to entertainment. Additionally, because many people have
been in a situation where they participated in a sneaky activity, “sneakiness” can easily
correspond with the experiences of viewers’ own personal narratives, creating narrative
fidelity. Narrative fidelity also occurs within “investigation.” Just as the Lightman Group
takes on investigations, viewers have likely participated in their own search for knowledge.
Therefore, audience members are able to relate to this action, which frequently occurs
throughout the episode. The consistency between actions in this episode and actions in the
lives of viewers line up, creating narrative fidelity.
Rhetorical Visions
“Justice,” and “employee relationships” enhance entertainment in this episode. Each
of these rhetorical visions creates audience entertainment and encourages viewers to watch
each new episode of the show. Rhetorical visions lead to a mutual understanding of
entertainment that can unify viewers.
Justice
Both cases taken on by the Lightman Group in this episode share a common theme.
Each situation includes a person who feels he or she has been wronged and people who are
willing to use unethical practices to seek justice. Most people have been in situations that
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were disappointing because they did not receive what they believe they deserved. Audience
members are likely entertained when they relate the actions they took in similar
circumstances to the bold actions taken by Lake and White.
Lake sacrifices herself in an attempt to create justice for Metz, who does not feel she
will be able to convince the commander that Sergeant Scott committed sexual assault. Lake
lies to create justice for Metz within this episode. When referring to this case, Lightman says,
“she lied but then said she was protecting her platoon mates. No deception leakage. What if
Lake didn’t lie about everything? What if she lied about the victim, but not the crime?” Then
he asks, “what if the real victim is too scared to come forward?” The system does not protect
Metz from Sergeant Scott. Therefore, Metz feels that the system will not believe her story.
Metz decides to leave the military, which puts justice in the hands of her platoon mates.
Similar to Metz, White also feels betrayed by the system. He is forced to spend his
last good year of health playing collegiate rather than pro ball. This situation affects him on a
personal level. Not only will he lose his opportunity to be a professional basketball player,
but he will also lose the salary that accompanies a professional contract, which he needs to
support his younger brother. He also loses his future. He now has no ability to play
professional ball and no ability to pay for college. He attempts to create justice for himself
because he also feels failed by the system. In his search for justice, he accepts a financial
bribe from an alumni booster. He then lies about the bribe in an attempt to right a wrong, but
his attempt at creating justice fails. However, the Lightman Group decides to create justice
for White by putting their fee from his case into a trust that can pay for his college tuition at a
different institute.
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The quality of entertainment in this episode is enhanced through the rhetorical vision
of “Justice.” Viewers likely find interest and amusement in the lengths characters are willing
to go to get what they deserve or what they think others deserve. “Justice entertains audience
members by allowing them to form their own opinions about “justice” being served in the
show and waiting to see how the cases come to a close.
Employee Relationships
Entertainment comes to life through the dichotomy of Lightman and Foster’s
relationships with Torres. These relationships catch the audience’s attention and likely
surprise viewers several times. The complicated relationships Lightman and Foster have with
their employees keep the audience interested and entertained.
Torres is able to naturally pick up on micro expressions. She does not have formal
training or know the science behind these expressions. Foster has grace with her through her
learning process, while Lightman is not particularly fond of his new employee. This leads to
the difference in relationships Torres has with Lightman and Foster. But after Lightman sees
Torres’s ability when using the machine, he lets her join him during his case.
Throughout their time together, Lightman teaches Torres many aspect of deception
detection. However, his teaching style is gruff and often times demeaning. When speaking to
Torres, Lightman says, “oh look, now you’re embarrassed. Well, you have every reason to
be. You did get it wrong didn’t you.” Foster responds in an irritated voice, “Cal!” Even
though Foster interrupted, he continues, “what? She’s the one making snide remarks, look at
her face.” Frustrated and defeated, Torres mumbles, “how do people work here?” At the end
of the episode, Lightman explains to Torres the reason he is so hard on her. He states, “when
you don’t know the science, you don’t see the whole picture. People can get hurt.”
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Foster and Loker help Torres through her rough relationship start with Lightman.
Foster frequently stands up to Lightman for Torres. At the beginning of the episode, Foster
tells Lightman that Torres is impressive during her micro expression training. Lightman
responds, “is this another attempt to get me to take Ms. Torres under my wing? Loker also
acts as an aid of encouragement toward Torres. For example, he discusses Lightman’s
opinion of her lack of education with Torres. She asks Loker, “you’re saying I can’t learn the
science?” Loker responds, “I’m saying you didn’t have to. That’s got to be irritating to a guy
who spent two decades trying to see what you were born seeing.” Later in the episode Foster
encourages Lightman to go a little easier on Torres. When he acts rudely toward Torres,
Foster encourages Torres that things will work out and she needs to give it time. For
example, after Lightman calls Torres out for a micro expression she makes, Foster tells her,
“hang in there.” However, when Torres questions Lightman, Foster steps in and defends
Lightman.
Foster’s relationship with Loker also provides the audience with entertainment. Foster
frequently becomes annoyed with Loker’s acts of radical honesty and makes comments to
relieve social tension. This first occurs during Foster and Loker’s trip to the GWCU gym. As
they speak to Jeremy Levine, Loker makes numerous impolite comments. Foster apologizes
on Loker’s behalf and explains his issue with half-truths. Foster’s frustration with Loker
returns later in the episode. When she and Loker are on their way to speak with Taft, Foster
asks Loker, “does your radical honesty pledge mean you have to say everything you think?”
He tells her, “it’s the only way to be truly honest.” She then instructs him, “let’s turn it off
while we’re working, shall we?” Foster’s annoyance with and embarrassment from Loker’s
radical honesty pledge can entertain audience members.

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Rhetorical visions emphasize the importance of entertainment during this episode.
“Justice” and “employee relationships” play an attention-grabbing role in “Moral Waiver,”
spiking viewers’ interest, curiosity, and amazement, which leads to the creation of
entertainment. Viewers who are amused are more likely to enjoy the show and tune in again.
“Justice” and “employee relationships” in this episode align with standards for narrative
probability. These rhetorical visions are constructed logically and make sense to viewers.
Lightman and Foster’s relationships with Torres also follow a consistent and coherent pattern
that viewers can follow. Audience members likely experience moments where they have to
fight for their own “justice” or engage in interesting “employee relationships.”
Conclusion
My analysis of character themes, setting themes, action themes, and rhetorical visions
helps answer the question: How does Lie to Me attempt to persuade viewers to adopt
favorable attitudes towards an educational message? Character themes such as “the tactless
trickster,” “the blunt being,” and “the outrageous one” help answer this question by bringing
methods of entertainment to light. “The tactless trickster” provides entertainment and helps
audience members build a favorable attitude toward Lightman. Once this favorable attitude is
developed, audience members can more easily view the educational messages he shares
positively. “The blunt being” is also entertaining. Blunt statements help bring the truth to
audience members’ attention in an exciting, entertaining, and sometimes cringe-worthy way.
Loker and Lightman’s blunt personalities grab the attention of the audience and help them
focus on and remember educational material. “The outrageous one” also plays a role in this
episode’s audience entertainment. When associating information with entertaining and
memorable actions, audience members are more likely to view the information positively.
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Setting themes also bring attention to entertainment within this episode. “Patriotism
and sports” and “celebrity references” are a source of entertainment for viewers. “Patriotism
and sports,” are central to United States culture. Viewers are more likely to feel entertained
when topics they already enjoy, value, or find interesting are incorporated into a television
show. “Celebrity references” also provide entertainment by drawing on popular culture
surrounding viewers.
Action themes throughout this episode have the ability to provide entertainment to
audience members. Baum uses “investigation” and “sneakiness” during this episode. These
themes help to create suspense, which heightens audience members’ level of enjoyment.
These themes naturally play on human emotions that can lead to entertainment. Rhetorical
visions such as “justice” and “employee relationships” play a role in Lie to Me’s audience
entertainment. These themes can easily grab the audience’s attention and build interest and
curiosity, leading to entertainment.

CHAPTER IV
EDUTAINMENT AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
We’re the Federal Government. We record everything.

- NASA Director Schaumburg1
False beliefs may lead to irrational behavior. But the truth can create rational
behavioral change. Lie to Me’s third episode shows viewers the impact of the truth. With this
in mind, chapter four analyzes episode three of the first season of Lie to Me, titled “A Perfect
Score,” to answer the question: How does Lie to Me attempt to persuade its viewers to adopt
overt behavioral changes?
After the death of a seventeen-year-old girl named Danielle Stark, Lightman and
Torres meet with an FBI agent who informs them that her body was recovered in Rock Creek
Park. Danielle’s mother, a federal judge who has been shortlisted for the Supreme Court, was
alone in her chambers during the murder and no one can verify her whereabouts during that
time. Due to the mother’s situation, they must proceed carefully. Lightman and Torres meet
with the FBI agent and Judge Kathleen Stark. When they watch the film of their interview
with Judge Stark, they notice that her face does not reflect the emotions of her words.
Lightman and Torres visit the memorial for Danielle and notice that she still does not look
sad. Lightman sticks chewing gum onto a hot light bulb to create a loud and startling pop
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no. 3, first broadcast 4 February 2009 by Fox, directed by Adam Davidson and written by Samuel
Baum.
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when the bulb explodes. He watches the judge’s face during the pop and sees no signs of
surprise, revealing her use of Botox, which paralyzes the facial muscles.
During the service, Lightman and Torres continue to look for the killer. Lightman
pays particular attention to an especially popular girl named Riley. She shows asymmetrical
sadness, meaning her emotion is not real. He also mentions that popular people are better
liars than most. After the memorial, they confront Riley about her lie. She claims that
Danielle was getting drugs from another kid at the school. Lightman convinces the school’s
headmistress to announce a fake campus-wide locker search. During the check, Lightman
looks at the students’ expressions and picks out the student who sold Danielle drugs. He
admits to selling her ADD medication, adding that most kids at the school use it to heighten
their SAT scores.
Back at the office Torres reports to Lightman, telling him that they found footage of
the Judge which proves her innocence. She also provides Lightman with Danielle’s academic
record. Records show that Danielle improved her SAT score, but that she had taken the test
the day after her murder. Apparently, her mother had hired her teacher to take the SAT for
Danielle to improve her score. When the teacher confronted Danielle, asking what score she
wanted on the SAT, Danielle did not know what she was referring to and threatened to
expose her teacher’s con. When Lightman realizes that Riley also had the teacher take her
SAT, they bring her in for questioning. They believe that Riley killed Danielle because she
had threatened to expose the cheating scandal. Riley’s father stops the questioning and takes
the blame for his daughter saying that he was guilty of murdering Danielle. Lightman knows
that he is lying and convinces him to share the truth about Riley. He confesses that Riley had
attempted to stop Danielle from revealing the truth and did not mean to kill her. Riley had
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told her dad what she did and he had attempted to take the blame. However, thanks to the
Lightman group, the truth was revealed.
During this episode, Foster and Loker also meet with the Deputy Chief of NASA who
believes a test pilot named Commander David Markov purposefully crashed a plane. In an
interview with Foster and Loker, he claimed to have been disoriented and ejected from the
plane just before it smashed into the ground. When analyzing video of Markov, Foster
notices a mood change and believes he could be taking anti-anxiety drugs. After interviewing
his wife, they learn that Markov has been under pressure when working to become the first
pilot of the new plane. It is obvious that his wife is also hiding something. They have NASA
run a drug test for anti-anxiety medication on Markov. When the test results come in, they
are positive for the drug and prove he had been on the drug during the time of the crash. The
investigation proves that the disorientation he experienced was a side effect of the drug,
which leads Markov’s wife to admit that she had secretly been giving drugs to her husband
without his knowledge.
Analysis
Most people do not enjoy when others tell them to change their behavior. However,
Lie to Me viewers likely do not recognize that this show works as an agent for behavioral
change. Baum uses “A Perfect Score” to create behavioral change in a way viewers will
accept. This analysis discusses fantasy themes such as character themes, setting themes,
action themes, and rhetorical visions from this episode to provide a deeper understanding of
the way Baum persuades audience members to make overt behavioral changes. Baum
encourages viewers to look for signs of deception, avoid lying, interact positively and
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patiently with family members, parent less intrusively, and avoid judging others off of initial
impressions.
Character Themes
Baum uses characters as agents for behavioral change. When viewers notice
characters’ behaviors and the positive or negative consequences of those behaviors, they
likely feel persuaded to adjust their own behavior accordingly. “The deception detector” and
“the liar” are character themes Baum uses to persuade viewers to alter their behavior. Each of
these character themes plays an important role during this episode.
The Deception Detector
Throughout this episode, Baum uses the characters as tools who point out deception
and describe micro expressions. Character themes can help identify Baum’s method of
creating overt behavioral change among audience members. It is possible that Lie to Me’s
audience members will begin looking for micro expressions and other signs of deception
during their everyday life. This show can easily spike their interest in micro expressions,
leading to audience interest in gaining more knowledge about these expressions.
Lightman provides numerous explanations of deception throughout the episode. At
the beginning of the episode, he talks to his daughter on the phone. Emily tells her father that
she will be sleeping over at her friend Katie’s house that night. Lightman notices depiction
leakage in her voice and explains the signs of dishonesty to Foster. He says, “you heard that
right? Word repetition and her vocal pitch went up when she was talking about staying at
Katie’s.” This description of vocal deception leakage can change audience member’s
behavior by causing them to begin looking for this type of vocal deception in their own
conversations.
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Later, while viewing the video of an interview with Danielle’s mother, Lightman
continues to point out signs of deception leakage. He explains that sadness on a person’s face
should be particularly visible on the subject’s forehead and eyes. Due to the lack of
movement on the judge’s face, Lightman believes she is not truly sad about Danielle’s
murder. His explanation encourages viewers to take note of expressions on others’ foreheads
and eyes. This behavioral change will help viewers recognize true signs of sadness.
While studying the faces of those attending Danielle’s memorial, Lightman focuses
on a particularly popular girl named Riley who speaks in front of the gathering. He explains
the connection between popularity and the ability of popular people to make others believe
their lies. He then mentions the asymmetrical sadness Riley displayed when she talked about
her relationship with Danielle. Torres responds by saying, “when a person’s facial expression
is not symmetrical on both sides of the face, it is likely that they are pretending to feel the
emotion.” This reference might influence audience members to look out for an exhibition of
the same emotion.
Lightman notices deception again when he and Torres confront Danielle’s teacher
about taking the SAT for her students. The teacher proclaims, “I do not have to listen to
this!” and then proceeds to slam her hand on the table. Lightman explains that if she had been
truly outraged at their allegations, she would have both yelled and slammed her hand against
the table at the exact same time. Lightman easily picks up on the teacher’s awful gestural
timing. After seeing this, viewers might want to look for similar gestural timing flaws when
encountering those who might feel upset.
A video camera catches Danielle’s expression reflected off a trophy case when her
teacher asks what percentile she would like to hit on the SAT. Lightman and Torres bring the
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video to their office and analyze Danielle’s reaction. When they see Danielle raise her
eyebrows, which lasts less than a second, they understand that the emotion she felt was
surprise. She did not have any clue what her teacher was talking about. By pointing out this
micro expression, viewers might be more likely to watch the faces of others for that
particular eyebrow movement.
When talking with the head mistress, Torres asks if she thinks the students’ use of
drugs to compete academically has anything to do with the murder. The head mistress
defensively denies Torres’ suggestion and proceeds to gently rub her hands together. Torres
explains that when a person caresses her hands together, she is using a self-comforting
gesture in an attempt to reassure herself because she does not believe what she is saying.
After viewing this scene, audience members might be more likely to look for similar actions.
After interviewing Commander David Markov, Foster describes his use of a
spontaneous correction. When describing his cruising altitude, Markov says, “I was at a
cruising altitude of 10,000 feet, actually 10,500.” Loker states that such corrections are a sign
of truthfulness. Foster later interviews Markov’s wife. She and Loker both notice a sign of
deception called a false start. This false start occurs when Foster asks Mrs. Markov if she has
noticed a change in her husband’s mood in the last few weeks. When Mrs. Markov responds,
she starts to say yes, but then says no. Foster and Loker proceed to point out a slip of the
tongue that occurs later in the interview. Mrs. Markov states, “I mean, he has been under a
lot of pressure lately but I, he has handled it just fine.” Mrs. Markov first says “I” instead of
“he,” indicating that she is handling the pressure well and he is not. After viewing these
scenes, Lie to Me fans might search for the same type of behavior in those they interact with
on a daily basis.
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Baum uses “the deception detector” to influence audience members to make overt
behavioral changes. Not only can this character theme influence listeners to look out for
signs of deception, it also can encourage them to overtly change their own behavior to avoid
deception leakage of their own. Audience members can easily become conscious of their own
facial expressions and work to control them. Through these examples, Baum asks viewers to
look at the world in a completely new way. By pointing out and describing micro expressions
in detail throughout the episode, Baum empowers audience members to actively search for
these momentary expressions during daily conversations.
The Liar
Throughout this episode, Baum uses the characters as tools to show the negative
consequences of lying. These consequences are used to create an overt behavioral change
among audience members. Audience members who view the negative consequences of
telling lies might be less likely to deceive others.
The character theme “the liar” makes its first appearance at the beginning of this
episode when Emily calls her father. She informs him that she will be sleeping over at her
friend Katie’s house. Later that night, Emily is brought to her father’s office by police
officers. The officers tell Lightman that Emily had thrown a party and that they had found
more than one hundred kids at Emily’s mother’s home. Not only does Emily’s lie lead to
police involvement, but Lightman also requires Emily to come to his office every day after
school and organize a closet until her mother returns. Emily’s lie breaks her father’s trust and
results in undesirable consequences. Baum shows the audience the negative consequences of
lying through Emily’s dishonest actions.

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At Danielle’s funeral, Riley lies about feeling shocked that Danielle is dead. When
she speaks at the memorial she pretends to feel sad about the death of her friend and even
says that she is not sure if she wants to attend Princeton. Lightman remembers that the more
popular a child is, the better he or she is at lying. Riley’s lies obstruct justice and cause her
father to risk imprisonment for the rest of his life. Riley’s lies also cause the Lightman Group
to spend more time and effort solving this murder case. Baum uses Riley’s deception to
exemplify the complications deception can cause.
“The liar” makes another appearance when Foster interviews Mrs. Markov about her
husband’s crash. Mrs. Markov appears to be an innocent and blameless spouse. However, the
Lightman Group sees the truth behind her pretty face. Mrs. Markov lies to Foster about
noticing a change in her husband’s behavior. She also attempts to deceive Foster when
discussing his ability to handle the pressure during the competition for the X48 pilot slot. At
the end of the episode, the Lightman group finds out that Mrs. Markov has been giving her
husband antianxiety medication without his consent. Therefore, she begins telling more lies
to cover up the fact that she has deceived her husband. Baum uses Mrs. Markov to portray
the turmoil that can occur when a person gets caught in a web of lies.
The headmistress of Strivers Magnet School also participates in her fair share of
deception during this episode. She explicitly denies the link between drug use and academic
competition at her school. Torres later confronts the headmistress in the school parking lot
about the school’s increased national academic ranking since she began working there. She
then asks to see Danielle’s academic records and the transcripts for all honor roll students.
The headmistress then lies once more, suggesting that she believes the school’s academic
incentives do not play a role in Danielle’s murder. However, the headmistress knows there is
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a link between drug use and academic competition as well as a link between the murder and
academic competition. The headmistress’s denial of such accusations only slows the
investigation process. Baum uses the headmistress’s deception to show a negative effect that
can occur when a person lies for his or her own personal safety, rather than the safety of an
entire group of people.
Baum portrays Riley’s father as the next liar in this episode. After Riley murders
Danielle, she confesses her wrongdoings to her father. The Lightman Group brings Riley into
a facility for formal questioning. While Torres questions the girl, Lightman, Riley’s father,
and an FBI agent watch the questioning from the other side of a one-way mirror. When
things in the questioning room become intense, Riley’s father stops the questioning and tries
to take the blame for the murder. He attempts to save his guilty daughter’s life by deceiving
the FBI. However, Lightman notices his deception and proves the father’s innocence. He
helps the man understand that he cannot protect his daughter from the consequences of her
actions. Baum uses this situation to show viewers that the negative consequences of lying,
even when one might believe it is for a good reason, can easily outweigh the negative
consequences of telling the truth.
Baum uses the character theme “the liar” to persuade audience members to make
overt behavioral changes. He shows the negative effects caused by deception through
multiple scenarios, from lying to have fun, to lying to save oneself from negative
consequences, to covering up a lie with more lies, to lying for job security, to lying to protect
another person. He bombards viewers with lies that lead to undesirable situations to persuade
them that lying does not have suitable results. According to negotiation expert Gino and
psychologists Ayal and Ariely, when exposed to the dishonesty of others, individuals are
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more likely to avoid future dishonest actions because they understand the probability of
experiencing negative consequences.2 In the same way, viewers are exposed to the negative
consequences of dishonest actions, which contribute to a persuasive message about the
importance of changing their behaviors to avoid dishonesty.
Baum’s use of “the deception detector” and “the liar” created narrative probability
and narrative fidelity. Specifically, “the deception detector” creates narrative probability by
continuously resulting in similar outcomes and providing an opportunity for viewer
education to take place. “The liar” helps create narrative fidelity. All people have experience
with deception. Audience members can directly relate with “the liar” because they hava also
experienced situations in which they were persuaded to lie.
Setting Themes
Baum uses a setting theme to create behavioral changes in the lives of his viewers.
When audience members observe a specific setting theme and recognize the impacts of that
theme, they likely feel persuaded to overtly change their behavior. “Family” is the setting
theme Baum uses most persuasively when presenting viewers with the idea of making
behavioral changes. This setting theme plays an important role during this episode.
Family
Baum uses “family” as a metaphorical setting theme to inspire overt behavioral
change in viewers. Changes in family relationships are depicted through Lightman and
Emily’s predicament, Riley and her father’s position, Danielle and her mother’s situation,
and Mr. and Mrs. Markov’s predicament. Watching the relationship change that occurs
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2. Francesca Gino, Shahar Ayal, and Dan Arily, “Contagion and Differentiation in Unethical
Behavior: The Effect of One Bad Apple on the Barrel,” Psychological Science 20, no. 3 (2009): 393.!
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between these families influences viewers to change the way they interact with their own
families.
After the police bring Emily to her father’s office, Lightman tells her she must come
to his office each day after school and organize a room filled with artifacts and other
miscellaneous items from his dissertation research. The messy room Emily is told to organize
symbolizes organizing her life. As Emily organizes this room, she also organizes her life and
makes amends with her father. When Emily first sees the room, it appears to be a dark space
cluttered with disorganized boxes, papers, and other unidentifiable objects. As Emily begins
to organize the room, she expresses to Loker her feeling that Lightman is a hypocritical
father. Loker explains to Emily that Lightman is probably just scared about her getting hurt.
At this moment, Emily not only begins organizing this room, but she also starts the process
of understanding where her father is coming from.
Later in the episode, Baum again depicts Emily’s growth process. The room appears
significantly more organized but not yet perfect. At this point, Emily apologizes to her father
for lying to him. However, she is not sorry about throwing the party and does not completely
understand her father’s point of view. In another scene, Emily talks to Foster about her
situation. Foster explains to Emily that Lightman restrained himself from confronting her
when she lied even though he knew she was deceiving him. Foster then says, “if he said
something every time you lied to him, he knows he’d lose you.” This is a moment of
realization for Emily. While she is organizing the room, her understanding of her father is
also coming together. At the end of the episode, Lightman finds that Emily has completed the
organization process of the once chaotic room. However, this is not the only progress Emily
has made. She also tells her father, “I know what you were saying before about girls my age.
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And, considering, I guess you do a pretty good job of restraining yourself from calling me a
liar every time you know I’m up to something.” At this point both the organization of the
room and Emily’s relationship with her father come together to create a positive outcome.
Baum’s use of the correlation between setting development and family development can
create overt change in his viewers. Audience members see a growth of self-improvement and
understanding in Emily as she organizes her father’s research materials. These viewers can
easily recognize that completing difficult tasks can lead to self-growth. Viewers who notice
this might choose to challenge themselves with difficult tasks in an attempt to grown and
learn.
“Family” is another setting theme used as a backdrop for Baum’s plotline about Riley
and her father’s relationship. When Riley is trying to stop Danielle from revealing her
teacher’s unethical practices, she accidentally kills Danielle. After this accident, Riley tells
her father about her mistake. Although Riley has committed a horrible crime, her father
chooses to continue to show his love by attempting to protect Riley from the consequences of
her crime. Not only does he ignore Riley’s behavior, but he also takes several actions in an
attempt to cover up the crime. He supports Riley when she speaks at the memorial, he
pretends to help in the search for a suspect, he discusses the sizeable reward the school will
be giving out for any information related to the murder, he cooperates with the Lightman
Group’s requests, and in the end he is willing to go to jail in place of his daughter. Riley was
likely scared to tell her father the truth. However, when she told him her mistake, instead of
condemning her or turning her in to the police, he was willing to attempt to overcome the
difficult situation and grow alongside his daughter. Audience members who view this
situation might be more likely to be patient with and trust their family members.
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Setting also plays a role related to “family” in the case of Mr. and Mrs. Markov. Mr.
Markov enters a highly competitive training program for the X48 pilot slot. This competition
negatively affects his relationship with both his wife and his children. Mrs. Markov explains
this when she says, “you were so anxious all the time. I was scared. The kids were scared.”
The setting her “family” is put in causes her to make a drastic decision. Without her
husband’s knowledge, she begins giving him an anti-anxiety medication. Side effects from
this medication cause him to crash a NASA aircraft, almost losing his life. When he learns of
his wife’s deceit, he feels shocked and angry. But his wife reminds him, “how have you been
feeling lately, about me, about the kids?” The teary-eyed man replies, “better.” The couple is
able to reconcile a situation that almost caused Mr. Markov’s death.
Baum uses these “family” settings in an attempt to persuade viewers to make overt
behavioral changes. Lightman and Emily, as well as Mr. and Mrs. Markov are able to deal
with difficult situations and family conflict. In the end, these trials make their “family”
relationships even stronger. Lightman and Emily gain a better understanding of one another,
Riley is made aware of her father’s loyalty, and Mr. and Mrs. Markov create a family
environment that is happier and healthier for them and their children. Baum uses this setting
theme to encourage viewers to work through “family” issues in search of a more positive
outcome. Viewers who notice the relationship adjustment that occurs between these families
are likely influenced to alter the way they interacted with their own family members.
Baum’s use of “family” helps create narrative fidelity. Most people live within a
family unit and have personal experience trying to understand family members, being
frustrated with deceiving family members or family members who are going through a rough
times, or having family members who would sacrifice their lives for someone in their family.
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Therefore, viewers’ experience with “family” is critical to Baum’s work in creating narrative
fidelity in this episode.
Action Themes
Avoidance of the truth occurs prevalently throughout this episode. Baum incorporates
the action themes “denial” and “righteous deception,” which contribute to persuasive
messages about overt behavioral changes in audience members. After viewers observe the
outcomes of “denial” and “righteous deception,” they might be less likely to partake in
similar actions due to the way Baum frames these themes.
Denial
“Denial” is a form of deception or lying that specifically relates to the rejection of
truth or allegations that can lead to negative consequences. Baum uses “denial” during Mr.
Markov’s case, and it is consistently ineffective during this episode. Mrs. Markov denies a
change in her husband’s behavior. She also denies her husband’s inability to cope with the
pressure of his pilot competition. However, her attempt to cover her husband’s stress is not
effective. The Lightman Group continues their investigation and finds that Mrs. Markov is
secretly giving her husband anti-anxiety medication. Mrs. Markov’s use of “denial” does not
have a positive outcome.
Baum also uses “denial” during the case surrounding Danielle’s murder. Riley denies
not being sad or surprised that Danielle has been murdered. Riley also denies murdering
Danielle. However, these feeble attempts to cover the truth are unsuccessful. The Lightman
Group ends up proving Riley’s guilt. The headmistress denies a connection among the
school’s rigorous academic standards, drug use, and Danielle’s murder. However, the
Lightman Group also proves the connection among these elements.

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Baum uses the action theme “denial” throughout this episode. Viewers consistently
see the negative outcomes of “denial.” Although multiple characters use “denial,” it never
ends well for them. Viewers who notice the consistent negative outcomes of “denial” might
be less likely to participate in “denial” than they would have been before seeing this episode.
Righteous Deception
Baum displays deception’s use in a positive and righteous way. He uses this type of
deception carefully in his quest for the truth. Viewers who notice the use of “righteous
deception” can easily grasp the difference in ways characters are using deception and change
their behavior by only using deception in a righteous way.
During Danielle’s murder case, Lightman uses “righteous deception” when talking to
Riley after Danielle’s memorial service. He tells Riley that it is easy to see deception when
someone’s eyebrows have been thinned. He asks her if she had recently plucked her
eyebrows. Lightman completely makes up that fact. It is not true. However, he uses this
“righteous deception” to find the truth about Danielle’s death. Lightman also deceives
Riley’s father when he tells him that he is using the Stratton-Meyerhoff personality test.
While this test does not exist, he uses this deception to prove the man’s innocence by getting
a true reaction to a picture of Danielle when she is found dead.
Baum uses “righteous deception” throughout this episode. Viewers who notice the
use of “righteous deception” likely come to understand that deception has a place and a
purpose in life and can be used correctly to create positive outcomes. Audience members
who see the ethical use of deception can easily decide to implement this same style of
research into their lives when searching for the truth.

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Baum’s use of “denial” as well as “righteous deception” plays a role in creating
narrative fidelity and narrative probability. Baum’s use of “denial” logically makes sense.
Several characters participate in “denial,” and their actions lead to negative consequences.
“Righteous deception” creates a coherent narrative during this episode. This action theme is
used when, for ethical reasons, the truth does not need to be revealed. The reasons why
characters chose to employ “righteous deception” are free of contradictions. These themes
also relate to the lives of audience members, or add to the narrative’s fidelity. Most viewers
suffer negative consequences when caught in the act of “denial.” Many viewers also use
deception in an ethically appropriate fashion, for the betterment of others or society.
Rhetorical Visions
Ultimately, rhetorical visions crafted from character, action, and setting themes,
contribute to a persuasive message about making overt behavioral changes. “Intrusive
parenting” and “inaccuracy of first impressions” are the two primary visions that can
persuade viewers to alter their behavior. When viewers observe the consequences of these
visions, they are more likely to adjust their behavior to avoid similar results. Lightman and
Danielle’s mother each battle their own temptations to intrude on their daughters. The results
of these intrusions bring out obvious consequences.
Intrusive Parenting
Throughout this episode, viewers see the struggle of how much a parent should
intrude in his or her child’s life when safety is on the line. Lightman is an expert deception
detector, meaning he easily catches on to his daughter’s lies. Early in this episode when
Emily calls her father, he knows that she is lying to him about staying the night at her
friend’s house. However, Foster convinces him to let it go instead of calling her out on the
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lie. When referring to the conversation, Foster states, “I heard a typical teenager in the
process of forming her self-identity.” To which Lightman responds, “That’s psychobabble,
that is. She was lying.” Foster then says, “Emily needs to have her own secrets. That’s not
the same thing as lying.” Lightman later finds that instead of staying the night at her friend’s
house, she had thrown a party at her mother’s place. He decided to trust his daughter even
when it was difficult, and his trust was broken. He punishes Emily by having her spend each
day after school in his office, organizing a room so he can keep an eye on her. Lightman’s
temptation to act intrusively is heightened by a case he is working on in which a girl named
Danielle, who is only a year older than Emily, was murdered.
When organizing a room in her father’s office, she finds a picture of Lightman
smoking marijuana in Morocco as part of a research project aiming to prove the universality
of emotion. She feels that her father is being hypocritical by getting mad at her for throwing a
party when he had previously used drugs. Loker explains to her that her father is scared
because she is at the prime age for abusing alcohol, experimenting with drugs, or contracting
a sexually transmitted disease. Then, when Lightman enters the room Emily is organizing,
she apologizes to him for lying. Lightman accepts her apology and asks her to remember this
situation next time she wanted to have a party. She quickly replies, “I’m not sorry that, just
that I lied to you about it.” Lightman responds by reminding Emily of the trouble a girl her
age can get into. He tells her she should not care about being popular and making new friends
if all they care about is having a place to drink or get high. Emily snaps back at her father by
pulling out the picture she found of him using marijuana in Morocco. Lightman’s lack of
understanding for his daughter creates tension in their relationship.

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Emily complains to Foster that her dad will never let her do anything fun, and Foster
explains that Lightman had known she was lying when she said she was going to stay at
Katie’s house. She then says that Lightman knows if he says something every time Emily lies
to him he will lose her. Emily takes this message to heart. At the end of the episode she tells
her father, “I know what you were saying before about girls my age. And, considering, I
guess you do a pretty good job of restraining yourself from calling me a liar every time you
know I’m up to something.” Lightman responds, “well, I’m sorry I always know.” Emily
shook her head. With a slight smile on her face she said, “you don’t always know.” Although
Emily and Lightman are able to understand one another, Lightman’s temptation to partake in
intrusive parenting puts strain on his relationship with Emily. While this situation puts stress
on the relationship, it ends up benefiting them because they gain a better understanding of
each other.
Danielle’s mother also participates in intrusive parenting. She is obsessed with image,
which includes her daughter’s academic success. While her daughter’s GPA put her at the
top of her class, her SAT scores were barely average. She created a fake email account and
pretended to be her daughter. She emailed Danielle’s teacher asking her to take the SAT in
her place. She had heard rumors that this teacher had done the same for other students and
wanted to improve Danielle’s test scores without her knowledge. Danielle found out and was
furious with her mother when she came home from school. She said that her mother did not
trust her. Danielle threatened to expose her teacher, which is why Riley murdered her. Based
on the way Baum develops this storyline, if Danielle’s mother had not parented in an
intrusive way, Danielle would likely still be alive.

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The rhetorical vision “intrusive parenting” can persuade viewers to make behavioral
changes. By watching the negative effects of intrusive parenting play out on screen, viewers
are likely persuaded to avoid experiencing similar negative effects. Child development
experts Taylor, Eisenberg, Spinrad, and Widaman state that “intrusive, insensitive, or
controlling parents likely undermine the development of independent coping skills and
discourage children’s independent behaviors.”3 And developmental psychologist Clincy
states, “intrusive parenting behaviors have been associated with less optimal child
outcomes.”4 After watching this, audience members might begin to associate “intrusive
parenting” with similar negative consequences. This knowledge can also persuade parents to
overtly modify their behavior, which can help to develop their children’s autonomy through
the use of more sensitive and understanding parenting methods.
Inaccuracy of First Impressions
“Inaccuracy of first impressions” can create overt change in the audience’s behavior.
The prevalence of this inaccuracy can persuade the audience not to judge or make decisions
about others based on first impressions. Throughout the episode, Baum depicts several first
impressions that are inconsistent with the nature of a person’s true character.
The first inaccuracy occurs when Lightman meets Danielle’s mother. She does not
want to answer Lightman’s questions and feels uncomfortable about being recorded. She also
does not show sadness when discussing her daughter’s death. She seems more concerned
with Danielle’s academic success than anything else. After surprising Danielle’s mother with
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3. Zoe E. Taylor, Nancy Eisenberg, Tracy L. Spinrad, and Keith F. Widaman, “Longitudinal
Relations of Intrusive Parenting and Effortful Control to Ego-Resiliency during Early Childhood,”
Child Development 84, no. 4 (2013): 1146. doi:10.1111/cdev.12054.
4. Amanda R. Clincy, “Trajectories of Intrusive Parenting During Infancy and Toddlerhood as
Predictors of Rural, Low-Income African American Boys’ School-Related Outcomes,” African
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 83, no. 2-3 (2013): 194. doi:10.1111/ajop.12028.!
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a bursting light bulb and seeing no reaction on her face, Lightman concludes that she is
hiding her age with Botox. His initial impression was that Danielle’s mother was not sad. But
after some research, he recognizes that even though she was sad, this emotion is not
displayed on her face due to Botox’s ability to paralyze the facial muscles. If Lightman had
trusted his initial impression of Danielle’s mother, he might not have found the true
murderer.
When Foster and Loker first meet Markov, they are suspicious that he intentionally
crashed the plane. They are apprehensive to trust him because his father had defected from
the USSR in 1972. However, Foster states, “there is another possibility. It’s called a
hysterical black out. It sometimes happens just before someone tries to take their own life.”
She assumes that he was attempting to commit suicide and changed his mind at the last
moment when he ejected from the aircraft. She believes he may have been depressed, leading
to his suicide attempt. After doing some digging, she and Loker discover that Markov had
not crashed the plane on purpose. His wife had been secretly giving him anti-anxiety
medications. A side effect from this medication is to blame for the crash. If Foster and Loker
chose to stick with their first impression rather than properly investigating the situation, the
truth would not have surfaced.
The rhetorical vision “inaccuracy of first impressions” shows the ability of the show
to create overt behavioral changes. The decisions characters make about whom to trust plays
a role in their willingness to socially interact with those people. Researchers Moshe, Maital,
and Linz write that “of course, first impressions can sometimes be inaccurate and,
consequently, misguide our behavior in a less desirable manner.”5 If the Lightman Group had
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5. Moshe Bar, Maital Neta, and Heather Linz, “Very First Impressions,” Emotion 6, no. 2 (2006):
269.
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trusted their first impressions of many characters, they would not have found the truth. This
rhetorical vision displays the show’s ability to persuade viewers not to base their beliefs
about others on first impressions.
The prevalence of “intrusive parenting” as well as “inaccuracy of first impressions”
leads to narrative fidelity within this episode. These themes ring true with the lives of
audience members. At some point in virtually every teenager’s life, they are likely to feel
intruded upon by their parents. Audience members are able to connect with “intrusive
parenting” through this experience. Most people have also experience with at least one first
impression that ended up being inaccurate. The personal experiences audience members have
with these themes improve the narrative fidelity of this story.
Conclusion
This analysis of character themes, setting themes, action themes, and rhetorical
visions answers the question: “How does Lie to Me attempt to persuade its viewers to adopt
overt behavioral changes?” The character themes of “the deception detector” and “the liar”
can lead to overt behavioral changes in viewers. These character themes show viewers the
positive outcomes of deception detection and the negative outcomes of lying, which can
convince viewers to alter behavior to avoid negative consequences and search for positive
ones. The setting theme “family,” can also influence behavior change in viewers. “Family”
can lead to viewers’ willingness to work through “family” issues in search of a more positive
outcome.
Action themes such as “denial” and “righteous deception” can lead to overt
behavioral changes in audience members because viewers who notice the consistent negative
outcomes of “denial” might be less likely to participate in “denial” than they would have
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been before seeing this episode. Audience members who see the ethical use of deception can
easily decide to implement this same style of research into their lives when searching for the
truth.
The rhetorical visions “intrusive parenting” and “inaccuracy of first impressions” can
also influence behavioral changes in audience members. The “intrusive parenting” vision can
influence parents to overtly modify their behavior by helping develop their child’s autonomy
through the use of more sensitive and understanding parenting methods. The “inaccuracy of
first impressions” vision can influence viewers’ willingness to base their beliefs of others on
first impressions. Therefore, this analysis reveals how a variety of rhetorical tools in Lie to
Me can persuade viewers to adopt overt behavioral changes.

CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
As an educational and entertaining television show, Lie to Me had the ability to
impact multiple aspects of audience members’ lives. Understanding how edutainment
impacts viewers helped people understand the way their surroundings influenced their lives.
The messages Baum constructed and communicated through Lie to Me provided a perfect
example of the capabilities of edutainment. The elements in Lie to Me contributed to such a
strong narrative that the possibilities for increased persuasion were heightened.
In chapter one, I overviewed important literature that framed my analysis of Lie to
Me. The history of studying facial expressions set the foundation for an academic discipline
that eventually led to the discovery of micro expressions. Darwin, Birdwhistell, Mehrabian,
and Ekman each played a valuable role in the development of nonverbal communication.
Ekman’s research contributed significantly to understanding facial expressions, and in turn
detecting emotions. Even more specifically, micro expressions, or “very brief facial
expressions, lasting only a fraction of a second,” were useful when searching for deception.1
Today, micro expressions have been inserted into the edutainment industry.
Seongwon Park and Duk-Shin Oh explained that “as a compound word of education
and entertainment, edutainment refers to learning content that enables learners to have fun
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1. “Micro Expressions,” The Paul Ekman Group official website, accessed June 8, 2015, http://
www.paulekman.com/micro-expressions/.!
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while learning.”2 Because of television’s prominence in US households, edutainment had the
ability to reach the masses. Deception detection through micro expressions is only one of the
many educational messages disseminated through edutainment. Lie to Me is a popular
edutainment show with a plot centered on the use of micro expressions. This show is based
on research done by social scientist Paul Ekman. Samuel Baum, the show’s creator, writer,
producer, and main rhetor, fueled his own personal interest in deception detection by
conducting research on the topic that he used to bring life to Lie to Me. This show followed a
detection deception agency that took on interesting cases in search of the truth. In the
chapters that followed, I analyzed Lie to Me through the narrative paradigm. Fisher suggested
that his paradigm was based on the human need to act as storytellers.3 He also argued that
stories must contain narrative probability, narrative fidelity, must be consistent, and occur in
a way that relates to the lives of audience members – to be persuasive. In each chapter, I used
Bandura’s fantasy themes to analyze three separate episodes of Lie to Me and answer
research questions related to education, entertainment, and behavior change.
Education
Lie to Me falls into the edutainment category, meaning it provides educational value
to its viewers. In chapter two, I used fantasy themes to analyze the show and answer the
question: How does Lie to Me attempt to convince viewers to believe they have gained
knowledge while being entertained? I used character themes, setting themes, action themes,
and rhetorical visions to answer this thought-provoking question.

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2. Seongwon Park and Duk-Shin Oh, “An Exploratory Study on the Content Design of Mobile
Edutainment for Preschool Children,” International Journal of Software Engineering & Its
Applications 11, no. 8 (2014): 56. doi:10.14257/ijseia.2014.8.11.05.
3. Walter R. Fisher, “Narration as a Paradigm of Human Communication,” in Human
Communication as Narration: Toward a Philosophy of Reason, Value, and Action (Columbia, SC:
University of South Carolina Press, 1987), 7.
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Character Themes
The character themes “the scholar,” “the truthful type,” “the relatable person,” and
“the respectful person” each played an important role in the viewers’ education process.
Lightman and Foster each functioned as “the scholar” through credible personae that would
make it more likely for viewers to believe information these characters presented. “The
truthful type” also contributed to viewer education. Lightman dedicated his life to a search
for the truth, and his employee, Loker, pledged to always be radically honest. If audience
members viewed the show as a place of honesty, they might be more likely to believe and
absorb information presented throughout the episode. “The relatable person” acted as a
significant character theme. People are often more likely to accept information from
characters they can relate to. Education cannot occur if viewers are not willing to accept
information provided throughout the show. “The respectful person” also influenced the
education process throughout this episode. Viewers may find it easier to respect people who
respect others. Lightman had respect for the congressman’s need to keep the secret about his
daughter. Lightman also showed respect to Foster by staying out of her private life when her
husband lied to her. Elander, Beach, and Haywood write that trust develops partly because of
the presence of respect.4 Therefore, viewers might be more likely to trust information they
received from “the respectful person.”
Setting Themes
The setting themes “research facilities” and “halls of justice” each played an
important role in the viewers’ education process. “Research facilities,” such as the Lightman
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4. James Elander, Mary C. Beach, and Carton Haywood Jr., “Respect, Trust, and Management of
Sickle Cell Disease Pain in Hospital: Comparative Analysis of Concern-Raising Behaviors,
Preliminary Model, and Agenda for International Collaborative Research to Inform Practice,”
Ethnicity and Health 16, no. 4-5 (2011): 405. doi:10.1080/13557858.2011.555520.!
105
Group office contributed to the audience’s feeling that they had or had not gained reliable
information. Information presented in the office, which was a refined and chic setting, tended
to be correct. “Research facilities” positively or negatively framed information and expertise
that could lead audience members to either believe or question the knowledge Baum
provided. During the education process, it is important that viewers can easily decipher the
difference between credible and unreliable information, and the “research facilities” setting
theme helped to emphasize that difference. “Halls of justice” also had the ability to impact
the viewers’ education process. While inside questioning rooms and the Lightman Group
office, viewers were given the opportunity to view micro expressions and learn their
meaning. In this setting, micro expressions were frequently zoomed in on, slowed down, and
explained. This provided understandable information for viewers to absorb.
Action Themes
“Research” and “discovery” were two action themes that enabled viewers to
participate in the learning process. “Research” throughout the episode showed audience
members the lengths to which characters were willing to go in their search for the truth. If
television characters were willing to put in that much effort, then it was likely that Baum also
put effort into researching information presented to the audience. “Discovery” also
influenced audience members’ ability to gain knowledge. “Discovery” occurred multiple
times as a result of research. The Lightman Group was able to discover the truth due to their
use of deception detection. These discoveries showed viewers the power of the science
behind micro expressions. Through this theme, viewers could easily see micro expression
detection as more credible after watching the discoveries that the Lightman Group was able
to make while using them.

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Rhetorical Visions
Rhetorical visions such as “the search for truth,” “secrets,” and “motive over facts”
also played a role in viewer education. “The search for truth” depicted Lightman’s
willingness to confront strangers who lied and partake in unusual social actions to acquire the
truth. Lightman was devoted to searching for truth and boldly acting against dishonesty, so
audience members could see the importance of credible and honest information. “Secrets”
also played a role in audience education. Many characters kept secrets because they
understood the powerful consequences sensitive information could create. “Secrets”
portrayed Baum’s understanding of the power that truth holds. Viewers who saw how Baum
depicted the power of truth might have felt that he would be careful to use educational
information wisely. “Motive over facts” also helped educate Lie to Me’s viewers. Throughout
the show, the Lightman Group questioned facts by searching for motive. This theme helped
viewers understand the importance of questioning facts when looking for the truth. “Motive
over facts” also helped persuade viewers that the educational information they received from
the Lightman Group was likely more trustworthy than information they might receive from a
source that only looked at facts, meaning half of the picture.
Entertainment
As a popular television show, Lie to Me provided great entertainment to its viewers.
Baum implemented fantasy themes throughout chapter three, which helped answer the
question: How does Lie to Me attempt to persuade viewers to adopt favorable attitudes
toward an educational message? To complete this analysis, I utilized character themes,
setting themes, action themes and rhetorical visions.

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Character Themes
Entertainment was rampant in my analysis of the character themes “the tactless
trickster” and “the blunt being.” “The tactless trickster” provided entertainment by
participating in unexpected events. Lightman stole an elderly man’s cane and threw in on the
ground, tricked three female soldiers into watching a video, and gave drugs to Metz to help
her pass a polygraph test. Tricks helped the Lightman Group gain and share important
information in an entertaining way. “The blunt being” included both Loker as he acted out
his radical honesty pledge and Lightman as he had no hesitation to speak what was on his
mind without regard for others. Throughout the episode, blunt statements helped bring the
truth to viewers’ attention in an exciting, entertaining, and sometimes cringe-worthy way.
Setting Themes
The setting themes “patriotism and sports” and “celebrity references” also played an
important role in entertaining audience members. Patriotism is central to US culture and
holds a special place in the heart of Americans. Therefore, viewers likely found the military
case in this episode to be entertaining. Sports surrounded another case the Lightman Group
investigated during this episode. A young basketball superstar had been accused of taking a
bribe. Baum noticed the importance of basketball in U.S. culture and included it for
entertainment purposes. As it holds a special place in the heart of Americans, viewers likely
found basketball in this episode to be entertaining. “Celebrity references” also helped Baum
achieve viewer entertainment. Baum scattered pictures of celebrities employing micro
expressions as characters in this episode to entertain viewers. Celebrities’ frequent lies
provided the perfect opportunity for Baum to include these men and women and boost the
entertainment value of the episode. Viewers are more likely to feel entertained when things
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they already enjoy, value, or find interesting are inserted into a television show. The use of
the military, collegiate basketball, and celebrities could easily provide viewers with
entertainment.
Action Themes
“Investigation” and “sneakiness” played a role in audience entertainment.
“Investigation” occurred surrounding Taft, White, Sergeant Scott, and Lake. The Lightman
Group investigated Taft for purportedly bribing White to play basketball at Carver State and
White for allegedly accepting the bribe. They investigated Sergeant Scott because he was
accused of rape, and they investigated Lake as she made claims of being raped by Sergeant
Scott. “Investigation” was a prominent theme in the cases the Lightman Group took on
during this episode. These investigations created suspense as viewers imagined what possible
outcomes might occur. Suspense led to a specific type of entertainment, which occurred as
the investigations were resolved.
Lake’s platoon mates and Lightman participated in “sneakiness.” Baum’s use of
sneakiness created audience suspense, which played a role in entertainment. Lake’s platoon
mates were sneaky when they watched the video of Lake’s rape accusation toward Sergeant
Scott, hoping no one would notice. Lightman was sneaky when he gave Metz Valium to beat
the polygraph test. During these acts of sneakiness, suspense occurred surrounding the
possibility of the characters getting caught. This suspense added to the entertainment value of
the show.
Rhetorical Visions
The rhetorical visions “justice” and “employee relationships” were prevalent during
“moral waiver.” Both Lake and White searched for “justice” when the system failed them.
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Lake attempted to find “justice” for her platoon mate Metz, who had been raped by Sergeant
Scott. In Lake’s attempt, she claimed to have been personally raped by Sergeant Scott so that
he would be removed from the base. However, true “justice” did not occur until the
Lightman Group stepped in and revealed the truth about Metz. White thought he found
“justice” when he accepted a bribe from Taft. He felt he had been wronged because he had to
spend his last good year of basketball playing on the collegiate level instead of
professionally. This led him to seek compensation through Taft’s bribe. But again, true
“justice” did not occur until the Lightman Group revealed the truth and created a fund to pay
for White’s college tuition. Viewers likely found interest and amusement in the lengths
characters would go to get what they thought was deserved. Baum also entertained viewers
through “justice” by allowing them to form their own opinions about justice being served in
the show while waiting to see how the cases came to a close.
“Employee relationships” also played a role in entertaining Lie to Me’s audience.
Lightman and Foster’s separate relationships with Torres, as well as Foster’s relationship
with Loker, contributed to the show’s ability to entertain. The dichotomy between Torres’s
relationship with Lightman and Torres’s relationship with Foster was humorous. Lightman
constantly berated Torres. Meanwhile, Foster encouraged Torres and scolded Lightman for
being so tough on their new hire. Viewers could easily find amusement in Foster’s
relationship with Loker. Foster frequently became irritated by Loker’s radical honesty and
continuously nagged him to tone down his bluntness. Foster’s feelings of embarrassment
surrounding Loker could provide the audience with entertainment.

110
Behavior
As I established in chapter one, edutainment can lead to overt behavioral changes in
audience members by exposing the truth because honesty can lead to realistic behavioral
changes. In chapter four, I used fantasy themes to answer the question: How does Lie to Me
attempt to persuade its viewers to adopt overt behavioral changes? Fantasy themes such as
character themes, setting themes, action themes, and rhetorical visions were all essential as I
sought an answer to this question.
Character Themes
The character themes in Chapter four included “the deception detector” and “the liar.”
Baum’s inclusion of “the deception detector” helped create behavioral change in audience
members. “The deception detector” consistently pointed out micro expressions, described
their appearance, and discussed their meaning. When viewers learned the meaning of certain
expressions, they might have been influenced to start looking for them during their personal
conversations. “The liar” portrayed the negative consequences of lying. Emily, Riley, Mrs.
Markov, and the Headmistress each experienced these negative consequences after telling
blatant lies. By displaying the negative effects of lying in multiple situations, Baum provided
information that could discourage viewers from lying.
Setting Themes
Baum implemented the setting theme “family,” which could lead to behavioral
changes in audience members. Family was depicted through the relationships between
Lightman and Emily, Riley and her father, Danielle and her mother, and Mr. and Mrs.
Markov. Although mistakes were made in these relationships, members of each “family”
were able to deal with the predicaments they were put in, which resulted in outcomes that
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could make relationships stronger. Baum’s use of this setting theme could encourage viewers
to work through “Family” issues of their own in search of a more positive outcome.
Action Themes
Baum implemented the action themes “denial” and “righteous deception” throughout
this episode. “Denial” occurred when people rejected the truth or specific allegations. Mrs.
Markov denied noticing a change in her husband’s behavior and his inability to deal with
pressure during the competition for the X48 pilot slot, and Riley denied murdering Danielle.
Although these denials might have seemed convincing to the naked eye, the Lightman Group
quickly caught on to each individual’s deception. In both circumstances, “denial” ended in a
negative outcome because the truth surfaced. Viewers who noticed the low success rate of
denial might be less likely to use denial in their own lives.
Baum also incorporated “righteous deception” in this episode. Lightman used
righteous deception when he convinced Riley that her thinned eyebrows made her deception
more obvious. He also used “righteous deception” when he told Riley’s father about the
Stratton-Meyerhoff personality test. He deceived others for ethical reasons as he searched for
the truth. Audience members who saw the ethical use of deception could easily decide to
implement this same style of research into their lives when searching for the truth.
Rhetorical Visions
Rhetorical visions such as “intrusive parenting” and “inaccuracy of first impressions”
were prevalent throughout this episode. “Intrusive parenting” occurred when Lightman let his
case at work interfere with his worries about Emily. This theme also represented Danielle’s
mother’s obsession with Danielle’s success. She was intrusive when, without Danielle’s
knowledge, she hired a teacher to take the SAT in Danielle’s place. The negative effects of
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“intrusive parenting” created hardships between Emily and Lightman and resulted in
Danielle’s death. Viewers who saw these negative consequences might be more likely to act
sensitively toward their children and value their child’s autonomy.
“Inaccuracy of first impressions” could also impact behavior change. Lightman had
an inaccurate first impression of Danielle’s mother. When he first met her, he believed she
did not feel sad about her daughter’s death. Later he realized that she was extremely sad but
that Botox masked her emotions. Another inaccurate first impression occurred when Foster
and Loker met Mr. Markov. Upon first meeting him, they believed he intentionally crashed
the X48. However, after getting to know him, they realized that this was not the case.
Audience members saw that if the Lightman Group had trusted their first impressions, the
truth would not have been found. Viewers could have easily learned from the mistakes of
characters in the show and decided to change their behavior by parenting in a less intrusive
manner or not judging someone by a first impression.
Narrative Probability and Fidelity
Narrative probability and narrative fidelity are important parts of Fisher’s narrative
paradigm. Narrative probability refers to the coherence of a story. A successful narrative
must hang together logically. Narrative fidelity refers to a narrative’s ability to directly relate
to the lives of audience members. Narrative probability and narrative fidelity were key to the
success of Lie to Me. Education, entertainment, and behavioral changes could be difficult to
achieve without the accurate use of persuasion.
In episode one, as described in chapter two, Baum achieved narrative probability
because characters’ decisions were consistent with common life experiences that viewers are
likely to have seen or experienced themselves. The settings in the story worked together to
113
create consistent outcomes. Baum’s action themes clearly illustrated that quality research
logically led to discovery. Because these themes were well assembled, the episode’s overall
rhetorical visions had narrative probability; the search for truth, the reasoning behind keeping
secrets, and the Lightman Group’s need to consider motives over facts each contained
consistent internal logic. Baum achieved narrative fidelity through character themes because
viewers likely had experience with people who are scholarly, truthful, relatable, or respectful,
and with conducting research and making discoveries, even if it was on a small level.
Therefore, these rhetorical visions achieved narrative fidelity because each of these themes
related to the majority of society.
In chapter three, I determined that Baum achieved narrative probability in episode
two. This episode’s character themes were consistent with other elements of the narrative.
His setting involved places that frequently occur in real life and made sense. The rhetorical
visions in this chapter depicted relationships that followed a consistent pattern and
experiences that audience members would have encountered. I also examined narrative
fidelity during this chapter. Character themes here included people who played tricks, had
blunt personalities, and did outrageous things. Most people have had relationships with
people who have similar personalities. Setting themes connected to viewers through the use
of American culture, and action themes included actions that viewers might participate in on
a regular basis.
Finally, in episode three (chapter four), Baum again established narrative probability
and fidelity. Narrative probability occurred as the detection of deception consistently resulted
in logical and similar outcomes. The action theme “denial” led to negative consequences,
which is the logical outcome of unethical behavior. Narrative fidelity also had a place in this
114
chapter. Characters experienced similar situations to a typical viewer, such as the act of
lying, which led to narrative fidelity. My analysis of family frustrations in this chapter also
fell in line with experiences of the average viewer. Action themes such as “denial” likewise
referred to acts that all people have committed at one point in their lives. Overall, the
rhetorical visions I identified in this chapter clearly illustrated how Baum achieved narrative
fidelity because most parents and children understand the struggle of intrusive parenting and
most viewers have experienced making first impressions that were incorrect.
Conclusion
Baum’s personal interest in nonverbal communication was beneficial to the show.
This interest led him to conduct research into the topic at the center of the show – nonverbal
communication and micro expressions. Because Baum cared about nonverbal
communication, he was internally motivated to provide his audience with accurate
information, as he would not want to mislead his audience members into believing inaccurate
information. His desire to involve Ekman in the show also displayed his intent to be as
authentic as possible in portraying accurate information. Although the basic science of micro
expressions was true, entertainment has a way of bending the truth. To gain audience interest
and favor, shows need to stand out. The simplest way to do this was to embellish the truth.
While Lie to Me is based on academic research, it would be unfair to claim that the show did
not have flaws. Yet while Lie to Me’s educational value might have been slightly impacted
through the incorporation of entertainment, viewers can still learn a significant amount of
valuable information by watching each episode.
Chapter two explained how Lie to Me attempted to convince viewers they had gained
knowledge while being entertained. Character themes created credibility and trust, which
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worked to increase the credibility of those characters and the information they provided.
Baum used setting themes, which also enhanced trust and credibility. Inside these settings,
micro expressions were pervasive. This provided viewers with the opportunity to learn the
meaning of these expressions. While writing the scenes within these settings, Baum
emphasized the success that came from the detection of micro expressions. Action themes in
this chapter created the opportunity for educational growth as research constantly led to the
discovery of truth. Viewers who saw the successful outcomes of searching for micro
expressions could be more likely to gain interest in their usefulness in their own lives. The
rhetorical visions I identified enhanced the show’s credibility, which might encourage
audience members to confidently receive knowledge presented throughout this episode. If
viewers merely saw the show as entertaining and not a credible source of information, there
is little chance they would have transferred concepts from the screen to their own lives. Lie to
Me attempted to convince viewers to believe they had gained knowledge while being
entertained by displaying credibility, trustworthiness, and success.
Chapter three showed how Lie to Me attempted to persuade viewers to adopt
favorable attitudes towards its educational message. Character themes led to character
likeability, audience members’ ability to relate to characters, excitement, and audience
members’ attention. Setting themes created interest and gained viewers’ attention by
incorporating settings that members of its intended United States audience likely already
enjoyed or found interesting. Baum’s use of action themes helped audience members feel
invited into the show by drawing on actions viewers had already experienced and by creating
suspense. Suspense engaged human emotion in a way that naturally led to entertainment.
Finally, the rhetorical visions I discussed in this chapter illustrated how Baum used
116
characters, settings, and actions to pull the audience into a relationship with the show that
could make them want to continue watching. They did this by spiking viewers’ interest,
curiosity, and amazement. Overall, Lie to Me implemented entertainment through character
likeability, the viewers’ ability to relate with characters, excitement, attention grabbing
material, the use of interesting settings, and suspense.
Chapter four explained how Lie to Me attempted to persuade its viewers to adopt
overt behavioral changes. To create these changes, Baum’s character themes displayed the
benefits that could arise from detecting deception through the use of micro expressions and
the negative consequences of lying. Viewers who noticed the negative outcomes that
stemmed from lying might be less likely to participate in deception. And viewers who
noticed the positive outcomes of deception detection might be more likely to look for signs
of deception in their own lives. Setting themes created overt behavior changes by showing
the positive outcomes of family issues. Viewers might have felt encouraged to change their
behavior by altering the way they interacted with their family members after watching this
episode’s narratives. Action themes encouraged audience members to implement research
into their lives when searching for the truth. Finally, this chapter’s rhetorical visions
illustrated how Baum used characters, settings, and actions to convince viewers to parent in a
less intrusive manner and not make decisions based solely on first impressions. Overall, Lie
to Me could create overt behavioral changes in viewers including avoiding deception,
looking for signs of deception, altering interactions with family members, participating in
research, parenting less intrusively, and not making decisions based on first impressions.
Edutainment is a valuable field of study due to its prevalence and invasiveness in
society, as well as its ability to impact viewers. Lie to Me provides an interesting and relevant
117
perspective on the study of nonverbal communication through its focus on micro expressions.
Audience members should be made aware of underlying messages embedded in
entertainment. Intentional or not, all narratives have the ability to influence others because all
words have power. An awareness of such messages could provide society with a different
perspective toward edutainment.

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Abilene Christian University

Digital Commons @ ACU

Your Face Betrays You: A Fantasy Theme Analysis

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.acu.edu/etd

Research concerning the consequences of edutainment has revealed that television

questions about the influence of edutainment.

The Faculty of the Graduate School

Abilene Christian Univeristy

Of the Requirements for the Degree

field of communication. His love and encouragement have been unwavering.

History of Studying Facial Expressions.........................................................................2

Ray Birdwhistell ................................................................................................4

Albert Mehrabian ...............................................................................................6

Paul Ekman ........................................................................................................7

Facial Expressions .........................................................................................................9

Plot Summary ..................................................................................................21

Narrative Paradigm ..........................................................................................22

Narrative Probability ........................................................................................25

Narrative Fidelity .............................................................................................26

Fantasy Themes ...............................................................................................27

II. EDUTAINMENT AND EDUCATION ......................................................................31

Character Themes ............................................................................................33

The Scholar ..........................................................................................34

The Relatable Person ...........................................................................37

The Respectful Person .........................................................................38

Research Facilities ...............................................................................39

Halls of Justice .....................................................................................42

Action Themes .................................................................................................45

The Search for Truth ............................................................................48

Motive over Facts ................................................................................52

III. EDUTAINMENT AND ENTERTAINMENT ............................................................57

Character Themes ............................................................................................59

The Tactless Trickster ..........................................................................60

The Blunt Being ...................................................................................62

The Outrageous One ............................................................................64

Patriotism and Sports ...........................................................................68

Celebrity References ............................................................................69

IV. EDUTAINMENT AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE .......................................................80

Character Themes ............................................................................................83

The Deception Detector .......................................................................83

Action Themes .................................................................................................93

Righteous Deception ............................................................................94

Intrusive Parenting ...............................................................................95

Inaccuracy of First Impressions ...........................................................98

Action Themes ...............................................................................................105

Character Themes ..........................................................................................107

Action Themes ...............................................................................................108

Character Themes ..........................................................................................110

Action Themes ...............................................................................................111

Narrative Probability and Fidelity .............................................................................112

Lying is such a central characteristic of life that better understanding of it is

depicts how producers use entertainment education to influence their viewers.

Research pertaining to edutainment is increasingly important because edutainment

effect audience members in powerful ways.

History of Studying Facial Expressions

nonverbal communication so profoundly as Charles Darwin in the late 1800s. Specifically,

the process of communication.

Indeed, nonverbal communication researchers Arvid Kappas, Eva Krumhuber, and

In this publication, Darwin focused on the similarity in emotional expression between

a Darwinian perspective, the ability to recognize emotional facial expressions is innate.”7

precursors in humans’ ancestral past.”8 After Darwin’s groundbreaking research was

Darwin’s study on nonverbal communication, were particularly important to my analysis in

Ray Birdwhistell has highly influenced the study of nonverbal communication.