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Neurogenic bladder is a term applied to a dysfunctional urinary bladder that results from an injury
to the central or peripheral nerves that control and regulate urination. Injury to the brain, brainstem,
spinal cord or peripheral nerves from various causes including infection, trauma, malignancy or
vascular insult can result in a dysfunctional bladder .
3
Epidemiology
In a large cohort study, the mean age of neurogenic bladder patients was 62.5 years and resultant
etiologies included :
4
Clinical Presentation
Depending on the location of the injury in the nervous system, patients typically present with
increased frequency, nocturia, urinary incontinence/urgency, urinary tract infection and urinary
retention. Bladder may be hyperreflexic, hyporeflexic or areflexic with impaired to no sensation . 3
Classification
A number of classification schemes exist for neurogenic bladders, including the Lapides
classification which remains popular.
1. sensory neurogenic bladder: posterior columns of the spinal cord or afferent tracts leading
from the bladder
2. motor paralytic bladder: damage to motor neurons of the bladder
3. uninhibited neurogenic bladder: incomplete spinal cord lesions above S2 or cerebral cortex
or cerebropontine axis lesions
4. reflex neurogenic bladder: complete spinal cord lesions above S2 - may lead to pine cone
bladder
5. autonomous neurogenic bladder: conus or cauda equina lesions
Radiographic features
Generally a markedly contracted or distended bladder.
Fluoroscopy/IVP
Sensory neurogenic bladder
Inability to sense bladder fullness results in a large rounded and smooth bladder. Voiding is often
preserved.
Motor paralytic bladder
Atonic large bladder with inability of detrusor contraction during voiding.
Ultrasound
Detailed images of the bladder often demonstrate a thick wall with a small contracted or large atonic
bladder. A large post void residual is often noted.
Treatment
Depending on the etiology, various techniques can be employed to maintain renal function and
prevent urinary tract infections. Self catheterization, medication or surgical interventions including
cystoplasty or sphincterotomy can be employed.
Differential diagnosis
Imaging differential considerations include:
Vesicoureteric reflux
Vesicoureteric reflux (VUR) is the term for the abnormal flow of urine from the bladder
into the upper urinary tract and is typically encountered in young children.
Epidemiology
The incidence of urinary tract infection is 8% in females and 2% in males . Among children
2
with urinary tract infections, the incidence of vesicoureteric reflux rises to ~ 25-40%.
Clinical presentation
Reflux from the bladder into the upper urinary tract predisposes to pyelonephritis by
allowing entry of bacteria to the usually sterile upper tract. As such the diagnosis is first
suspected after urinary tract infection in a young child.
Pathology
Vesicoureteric reflux is, in the majority of cases, the result of a primary maturation
abnormality of the vesicoureteral junction resulting in a short distal ureteric submucosal
tunnel. As a result, the normal pinch-cock action of the vesicoureteric junction when
bladder pressure increases during micturition is impaired, allowing urine to pass
retrogradely up the ureter.
Radiographic features
The primary diagnostic procedure for evaluation of vesicoureteric reflux is a voiding
cystourethrogram (VCUG), which however requires bladder catheterization and distention
of the bladder. This can cause discomfort to the patient but is usually well tolerated if
patients are carefully selected and families counseled prior to the study. Patients
unsuitable for the catheterization may need to undergo cystoscopy as an alternative. In
addition, as it is a fluoroscopic examination it requires ionizing radiation, the dose of which
varies greatly depending on the equipment and technique used.
As such other methods for assessing vesicoureteric reflux are being evaluated. These
include:
1. nuclear medicine studies - such as MAG3, a useful screening tool in older patients
2. ultrasound
3. MR voiding cystography 3
Ultrasound
Routine ultrasound is usually also performed (in addition to voiding cystourethrogram) to
assess the renal parenchyma for evidence of scarring or anatomic anomalies.
Nuclear medicine
Reflux can also be graded, although less precisely, with nuclear cystography. There is no
universally accepted grading system for nuclear cystography, with most radiologists simply
using the terms mild, moderate, and severe . 2
The advantage of nuclear cystography is the lower radiation dosage, which makes it an
excellent tool for screening female patients and for following up patients of both sexes.
MRI
MR voiding cystourethrogram protocols are still being developed but have the advantage
of not having ionizing radiation and of simultaneously imaging the renal parenchyma . 3
Surgical reimplantation for the treatment of higher grades of reflux is aimed at reducing the
incidence of reflux nephropathy.
Epidemiology
They are rare in children, infrequent below age 40, and common in those
over 50. Their number and size increase with age . 8
Clinical presentation
Prostatic calcifications are most often an incidental and asymptomatic
finding, but they have been associated with symptoms such as dysuria,
hematuria, obstruction, or pelvic/perineal pain. Occasionally calcifications
can be passed via the urethra . 1,2
Pathology
One of the key mechanisms for development of prostate calcifications is
thought to be calcification of the corpora amylacea and simple precipitation
of prostatic secretions . 9
Etiology
Prostatic calcification may be either primary (idiopathic) or secondary to :
2,6
diabetes mellitus
infections - e.g. tuberculosis or bacterial prostatitis
benign prostatic hypertrophy - calcification occurs in 10%
prostate cancer
radiation therapy
iatrogenic - urethral stents or surgery
Associations
chronic pelvic pain syndrome 4,5
Plain radiograph
Variable appearance from fine granules to irregular lumps and can range in
size from 1 to 40 mm. If there is significant prostatic hypertrophy the
calcifications can project well above the pubic symphysis . 1,2
Ultrasound
Calcifications appear as brightly echogenic foci that may or may not show
posterior shadowing . 3
CT
Calcifications appear as hyperattenuating foci of variable thickness . 3
MRI
Often difficult to visualize on MRI, the typical appearance is a small signal
void, similar to calcifications elsewhere in the body. Gradient echo sequences, such
as SWI may be better to identify calcifications.
Terminology
The term benign prostatic hypertrophy was formerly used for this
condition, but since there is actually an increase in the number of epithelial
and stromal cells in the periurethral area of the prostate, not an enlargement
of cells, the more accurate term is hyperplasia.
Clinical presentation
Although a degree of prostatomegaly may be completely asymptomatic, the
most common presentation is with lower urinary tract symptoms
(LUTS) including :
1-4
Pathology
Benign prostatic hyperplasia is due to a combination of stromal and
glandular hyperplasia, predominantly of the transition zone (as opposed
to prostate cancer which typically originates in the peripheral zone).
Risk factors
increasing age
family history
race: blacks > whites > asians
cardiovascular disease
use of beta-blockers
metabolic syndrome: diabetes, hypertension, obesity 8
Markers
prostate specific antigen (PSA): elevated but non-specific
Radiographic features
Ultrasound
Ultrasound has become the standard first line investigation after the
urologist's finger.
Fluoroscopy
On IVP, the bladder floor can be elevated and the distal ureters lifted
medially (J-shaped ureters or fishhook ureters). Chronic bladder outlet
obstruction can lead to detrusor hypertrophy, trabeculation and formation
of bladder diverticula.
CT
Not typically used to assess the prostate, BPH is more frequently an
incidental finding. Extension above the symphysis pubis was used as a
marker on axial imaging, however now that volume acquisition and coronal
reformats are standard, the same criteria as on US can be used (>30 mL).
MRI
enlarged transition zone
heterogeneous signal with an intact low signal pseudocapsule in the
periphery
Treatment and prognosis
Medical management for early disease typically commences with an alpha-
blocker such as tamsulosin given in combination with a 5-alpha reductase
inhibitor such as dutasteride.
surgery.
Urodynamic studies and prostate size estimation are often used to guide
therapy, although prostate size in isolation is a poor predictor of symptom
severity . 4
Complications
Complications of untreated benign prostatic hyperplasia include :4
urinary retention
bladder calculi and bladder diverticula
recurrent urinary tract infection
recurrent gross hematuria
hydronephrosis and hydroureter and eventual renal failure
Prostatitis
Dr Rohit Sharma and Dr Charlie Chia-Tsong Hsu et al.
Pathology
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) have classified prostatitis into four
distinct syndromes : 1
Radiographic features
Ultrasound
Focal hypoechoic region in the peripheral zone of the gland. Discrete fluid
collection suggests abscess formation. Color Doppler ultrasound
demonstrates increased flow in the periphery of the abscess.
CT
Contrast-enhanced CT is the best imaging tool if abscess suspected and will
demonstrate a diffusely enlarged, edematous gland with predilection for
peripheral zone involvement.
MRI
The prostate will be diffusely enlarged, often with associated inflammatory
changes of periprostatic fat and of the seminal vesicles .
6
Acute prostatitis
T1: peripheral zone iso- or hypointense to transition zone
T2: hyperintense
T1 C+ (Gd) diffusely enhancing 6
Complications
prostatic abscess
emphysematous prostatitis
Differential diagnosis
granulomatous prostatitis can be mistaken for prostatic
carcinoma, especially on transrectal ultrasound 3,4
Prostatic abscess
Dr Matt A. Morgan◉ and Dr Yuranga Weerakkody◉ et al.
Epidemiology
Prostatic abscesses have become relatively uncommon due to the increased
use of antibiotic therapy in patients with prostatitis. It tends to
affect diabetic and immunosuppressed patients. Most patients affected are
around 50 to 60 years old . 7
Clinical presentation
Patients commonly present with dysuria, fever, suprapubic pain, and
possibly urinary retention. Urinalysis reveals leukocytes. Clinically the
condition may appear similar to acute bacterial prostatitis without abscess
formation . 8
Pathology
The organisms usually involved include:
Escherichia coli
Staphylococcus spp.
Gonococcus spp. (rare)
Radiographic features
Ultrasound
Transrectal sonography (TRUS) is considered a very reliable imaging
method to diagnose a prostatic abscess . It usually demonstrates ill-defined
1,2
CT
tends to show well defined areas of low attenuation 3
MRI
MRI signal characteristics of an abscess include 2
T1: hypointense
T2: hyperintense
T1 C+ (Gd): tends to show peripheral contrast enhancement.
DWI
o limited studies only
2
Complications
emphysematous prostatitis
Differential diagnosis
Imaging differential considerations include:
Emphysematous prostatitis
Dr Rohit Sharma et al.
Epidemiology
The condition is rare, most commonly presenting in males aged 50-70 years
and usually confined to certain patient subgroups . 1,2
Risk factors
Risk factors include : 1,2
Clinical presentation
Clinical features are non-specific, often with lower urinary tract signs (e.g.
dysuria, lower abdominal/perineal pain, increased urinary
frequency/urgency) and systemic features of infection (e.g. fever) . Digital
1,2
Pathology
Emphysematous prostatitis is typically a complication of acute
bacterial prostatitis, which itself is often a complication of urinary tract
infections that ascend to the prostatic ducts . Causative pathogens are
1-3
aeruginosa, and Proteus mirabilis .
1-4
Radiographic features
Plain radiograph
Features of emphysematous prostatitis can be subtle on conventional
radiography and may be difficult to differentiate from normal bowel gas .1-6
Ultrasound
Transrectal ultrasound may be useful in diagnosing emphysematous
prostatitis, whereby the prostate will be diffusely hypoechogenic with
acoustic gas shadows . However, it may be difficult to differentiate gas
1,3,6
CT
CT is the most commonly utilized modality for diagnosing emphysematous
prostatitis, and demonstrates collections of gas within the prostate
parenchyma . Additionally, CT will also reveal features of concurrent
1-6
MRI
Although less available than CT, MRI is also highly sensitive for
demonstrating loculations of gas within prostatic parenchyma and other
concurrent pathologies as aforementioned . 2,3
Treatment and prognosis
As it nearly always occurs alongside prostatic abscess, management is
identical to that of prostatic abscess. Thus, percutaneous ultrasound-guided
or CT-guided transperineal or transrectal drainage is often considered the
first choice for therapy, with concurrent broad-spectrum antibiotic
coverage . 1,2
Prostatic abscess
Dr Matt A. Morgan◉ and Dr Yuranga Weerakkody◉ et al.
Epidemiology
Prostatic abscesses have become relatively uncommon due to the increased
use of antibiotic therapy in patients with prostatitis. It tends to
affect diabetic and immunosuppressed patients. Most patients affected are
around 50 to 60 years old . 7
Clinical presentation
Patients commonly present with dysuria, fever, suprapubic pain, and
possibly urinary retention. Urinalysis reveals leukocytes. Clinically the
condition may appear similar to acute bacterial prostatitis without abscess
formation . 8
Pathology
The organisms usually involved include:
Escherichia coli
Staphylococcus spp.
Gonococcus spp. (rare)
Radiographic features
Ultrasound
Transrectal sonography (TRUS) is considered a very reliable imaging
method to diagnose a prostatic abscess . It usually demonstrates ill-defined
1,2
CT
tends to show well defined areas of low attenuation 3
MRI
MRI signal characteristics of an abscess include 2
T1: hypointense
T2: hyperintense
T1 C+ (Gd): tends to show peripheral contrast enhancement.
DWI
o limited studies only
2
Complications
emphysematous prostatitis
Differential diagnosis
Imaging differential considerations include:
Prostate cancer
Dr Henry Knipe◉◈ and Dr Saqba Farooq et al.
Epidemiology
It is primarily a disease of the elderly male. In the United States,
approximately 200,000 new cases are diagnosed each year.
Clinical presentation
Prostate cancer is usually detected by:
Pathology
95% of prostate cancers are adenocarcinomas which develop from the acini
of the prostatic ducts . They arise in the posterior/peripheral (70%) prostate
15
gland more commonly than the anterior and central prostate gland (30%) . 21
Prostate cancer can spread by local invasion (typically into the bladder and
seminal vesicles; urethral and rectal involvement are rare), lymphatic spread
(pelvic nodes first followed by para-aortic and inguinal nodes), or by
haematogenous metastases . Common sites of haematogenous
23
bone (90%)
lung (~45%)
liver (~25%)
pleura (~20%)
adrenal glands (~15%)
Histology
Pathologic specimens are graded using the Gleason score, which is the sum
of the most prevalent and second most prevalent types of dysplasia, each on
a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being the most dysplastic.
Staging
TNM staging system is used for staging prostate cancer. Prostate cancer is
one of the (less common) causes of cannonball metastases to the lung.
Radiographic features
Ultrasound
Transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS) is often initially performed to detect
abnormalities and to guide biopsy, usually following an abnormal PSA level
or DRE.
Ultrasound is used to direct biopsy of suspicious, hypoechoic regions,
usually in the peripheral zone. Because of the high incidence of
multifocality, systematic sextant biopsies are recommended.
MRI
The primary indication for MRI of the prostate is in the evaluation of prostate
cancer after an ultrasound guided prostate biopsy has confirmed cancer in
order to determine if there is extracapsular extension . Increasingly MRI is
1,2,4
also being used to detect and localize cancer when the PSA is persistently
elevated, but routine TRUS biopsy is negative. Both the American College of
Radiology (ACR) and European Society of Uroradiology (ESUR) advocate
the use of multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) in prostate imaging . 20
Signal characteristics
T2
o using an endorectal coil, on T2-weighted images prostate
cancer usually appears as a region of low signal within a normally high
signal peripheral zone 1,13
Routine use of body 3.0 T magnets now means that endorectal coils have
become unnecessary for prostate imaging due to the improved signal to
noise and spatial resolution associated with higher field strength.
MR spectroscopy
The addition of MR spectroscopy (MRS) with fast T2-weighted imaging is an
area of research that holds promise for the detection of disease. The normal
prostate produces a large of amount of citrate from the peripheral zone,
which tumors do not . In normal prostate tissue citrate and polyamine levels
3
CT
Not accurate at detecting in situ prostate cancer. Scans of the abdomen and
pelvis are commonly obtained before the onset of radiation therapy to
identify bony landmarks for planning.
Nuclear medicine
Tc-99 MDP bone scan
technetium-99m bone scan is usually used to detect osseous
metastases
Ga-68-PSMA PET
gallium-68-PSMA PET can be used for diagnosis, staging, restaging,
evaluation of therapy response and prognostication in prostate cancer 26
F-18-fluciclovine PET
fluorine-18-fluciclovine PET is used to detect and localize suspected
prostate cancer recurrence based on elevated prostate-specific antigen in
men who have undergone prior treatment
Patients that do not meet these criteria will usually undergo a combination of
hormone therapy and external beam radiation.
Differential diagnosis
General imaging differential considerations include:
Prostate sarcoma
Dr Matt A. Morgan◉ and Assoc Prof Frank Gaillard◉◈ et al.
Pathology
In children the most common tumor type is a prostatic rhabdomyosarcoma,
which accounts for approximately a third of all prostatic sarcomas .
1
Los tumores vesicales suponen el 2-6% de todos los tumores, siendo el más
frecuente del aparato urinario.Es el tumor que produce mayor gasto
sanitario, donde los factores exógenos están presentes entre 1/3 y 2/3 de
los casos, siendo el tabaco el más importante. Característicamente estos
tumores son multicéntricos (30-40%), recurrentes (50%) y metacrónicos (2-
6%).
El 95% de los tumores surgen del epitelio (3 líneas celulares), siendo el
Tumor de celulas Transicionales (TCT) o urotelioma el mas frecuente.
TCT (90%)
Epidermoide (2-15%). Fig.4
Adenocarcinoma (2%)
Neuroendocrino o c. pequeña.Fig.41
Otros (melanoma, linfoma ,metástasis,mesenquimal) Fig.5,Fig.6
El carcinoma epidermoide es más frecuente en infecciones crónicas e
irritación crónica de la vejiga (sondas,etc), así como en divertículos.
El adenocarcinoma aparece en remanentes uracales (cara antero-superior
vesical, con calcificaciones)
Desde el punto de vista histológico se dividen en:
NO INVASIVOS (70%). Afecta a mucosa y/o lámina propia.
Ta (70%) .Papilar exofítico de bajo grado.
CIS (5%). In situ,plano de alto grado.
T1 (25%). Lámina propia o submucosa.
INVASIVOS (30%). Afecta a muscular o detrusor.
T2(a-b)
T3 ( grasa perivesical).
T4 (órganos de vecindad).
El 70 % de los no invasivos recidivan a los 3 años, haciéndolo de forma
invasiva en el 10-20% de los casos.El 50% de los invasivos presentan
metástasis a distancia.
Los principales métodos de la imagen para su diagnóstico son:
ECOGRAFÍA:Detecta lesiones polipoideas, pero con una mala identificación
de lesiones planas y mala valoración de la extensión extravesical (T3-N-M).
La ecografía con contraste (Sonovue) ayuda a diferenciar tumor de coágulos
y juega un importante papel en casos de insuficiencia renal.
TCMD (URO-TC):Se realiza en una fase portal ( máxima captación tumoral
a los 60 segundos) y una fase de eliminación ( a partir de los 2 minutos) .Las
lesiones se manifiestan como polipoideas , engrosamientos localizados o
difusos.
CISTITIS
Hay que destacar que alrededor del 20-40% de los casos de epididimitis
aguda, se produce una extensión al testículo. En esos casos, se habla
de orquiepididimitis. Además de las características ecográficas propias
de la epididimitis, habrá un aumento del flujo sanguíneo no sólo en el
epidídimo sino también en el testículo. Fig. 7, Fig. 8, Fig. 9, Fig. 10, Fig.
11 y Fig. 12. En casos muy graves habrá zonas de hipervascularización
con zonas de hipovascularización correspondientes a isquemia. En los
casos graves con infarto podremos observar una inversión del flujo
diastólico (3,6).
- El grado de torsión: que puede ir desde 180º a más de 720º. Para que
se produzca una oclusión arterial completa se necesita como mínimo
una torsión de 540º (2,3,6).
La torsión intravaginal: es la más frecuente, se da sobre todo durante
la pubertad y se cree que se debe a una suspensión testicular
anómala. Son bilaterales en el 50-80% de los casos y son más
frecuentes si tienen antecedentes de orquidopexia. Los hallazgos
ecográficos variarán según la fase en la que se encuentren:
- La torsión incompleta.
Alteraciones extratesticulares:
Alteraciones intratesticulares:
Es importante tener en cuenta que no todos los dolores escrotales
agudos tienen una causa escrotal. Hay distintas patologías como
las hernias inguinales, apendicitis Fig. 37, una litiasis renal Fig. 38 y
los abscesos subcutáneos Fig. 39 entre otros, cuyos síntomas pueden
iniciarse como un dolor escrotal (2).