Chapter 12 Simple Harmonic Motion and Waves

Section 12.1 Hooke’s Law

When a weight is added to a spring and stretched, the released spring will follow
a back and forth motion. At the equilibrium position, velocity is at its maximum. At
maximum displacement, spring force and acceleration reach a maximum.

When a force is applied to a spring, the spring is eiher stretched or compressed a

certain distance. It is found that the force applied is directly proportional to the distance
the spring stretches (or is compressed).

As long as force remains proportional to distance, a plot of force vs. distance is a

straight line. (See graph below) Actually there is a point at which force vs. distance are
no longer proportional, this is called the “proportionality limit”. Once the force is
removed, the object will return to its original shape. If the “elastic limit” is exceeded, the
object will not return to its original shape and will be permanently deformed.

For most springs: F = kx

x is how much the spring is displaced from its original length,
k is the spring constant (N/m),
F is the force.

This is known as Hooke’s Law. The spring constant is expressed in force per distance
stretched or compressed. The unit is the Newton per meter. A spring that behaves
according to Hooke’s Law is called an ideal spring.

Example 1: What force is required to stretch a spring with a spring constant of

200 N/m a distance of 0.02 m?

Answer: F = kx F = (200 N/m)(0.02 m) F = 4 Newtons

 The spring constant k is often referred to as the “stiffness” of the spring. Spring
constants are usually large, numbering in the hundreds or thousands of Newtons per
meter. Few springs stretch or are compressed for a meter or more so the forces
involved are much less than the magnitude of the spring constant itself.

Also, these properties and the equations which apply are not confined to springs.
Any material which tries to return to its original shape when deformed may be
expressed with Hooke’s law. Bungee cords and rubber bands would also follow F = kx.

Objects can be suspended from a spring and the weight of the object will cause
the spring to stretch.

Example 2: If a mass of 2.5 kg is attached to a vertical spring and the spring

stretches 5.0 cm from its original position, what is the spring constant?

Answer: F = kx and F = mg mg = kx
(2.5 kg)(10 m/s2) = k (0.05 m) k = 500 N/m

Section 12.2 Simple Harmonic Motion

A force must be applied to a spring to stretch or compress it. By Newton’s third

law, the spring must apply an equal force to whatever is applying the force to the spring.
This reaction force is often called the “restoring force” and is represented by the
equation F = -kx. The negative sign indicates that the force is in the direction of
equilibrium. The force tries to return the spring to its “rest” position. As the equation
indicates, this force varies with the displacement. Therefore the acceleration varies with
the displacement as F = ma indicates.

When the restoring force has the mathematical form given by F = -kx, the type of
motion resulting is called “simple harmonic motion”. If a mass is attached to a vertical
spring it will stretch a certain distance determined by the mass of the weight and the
spring constant. This initial stretch determines the equilibrium position. If the spring is
then stretched beyond this point and released, the weight will oscillate up and down
moving above and below the rest position.
 A graph of this motion follows the wave pattern of a sine curve. (See below)

Because the restoring force is always in the direction of the rest position, it
produces what seems to be strange combinations of properties. When the mass
crosses the equilibrium position, the net force is zero, so there is no acceleration. But
that is the point where the restoring force has produced the highest velocity. At the ends
of the motion, the highest point and the lowest point, the force is at a maximum, so
those are the points of greatest acceleration. But those are also the points where the
velocity is zero. Oxymoronically, the point where there is zero acceleration is also the
point of maximum velocity, and the points of highest acceleration are also the points of
zero velocity. Let me emphasize again, this set of properties is due to the fact that the
net force is always in the direction of the equilibrium position.

Section 12.3 Elastic Potential Energy

When an object is placed in a position where it can fall due to gravity, we said it
had gravitational potential energy. When a spring is stretched or compressed it has
elastic potential energy. The formula for elastic potential energy is:

PEelastic = ½ kx 2
where k is the spring constant, and x is the distance the spring is compressed or
stretched beyond its unstrained length. The unit is the joule (J).

Example 3: What is the potential energy stored in a spring that is stretched

20 cm? The spring constant is 500 N/m.

Answer: PEelastic = ½ kx 2 PEelastic = ½ (500)(0.20) 2 PEelastic = 20 joules

Section 12.4 Conservation of Energy

Conservative forces are those forces that allow mechanical energy to be

conserved.. Nonconservative forces are those where energy is converted to unusable
forms that are not mechanical energy. Friction, for example, produces heat which is not
a form of mechanical energy. When nonconservative forces do work on a system,
mechanical energy is not conserved. (NOTE: Just because mechanical energy may not
be conserved does not mean that the law of conservation of energy is violated. TOTAL
energy is ALWAYS conserved, but mechanical energy may not be conserved.
Mechanical energy may be converted to a nonmechanical form.)

But when external nonconservative forces do no net work on a system then total
mechanical energy must be conserved. Total mechanical energy = translational kinetic
energy + rotational kinetic energy + gravitational potential energy + elastic potential
energy. If there is no rotation, this relationship becomes this equation:

Etotal = ½ mv2 + mgh + ½ kx2

Example 4: A 0.40-kg mass is attached to a vertical spring which has a spring
constant of 42 N/m. This mass is supported at rest so that the spring is neither
stretched nor compressed, and is then released. What is the maximum stretch of
the spring before it stops and moves back up in harmonic motion?

Answer: The total energy must be conserved, so ½ mv 2 + mgh + ½ kx2 before

the mass is released must be equal to ½ mv 2 + mgh + ½ kx2 after the spring
reaches its maximum point of stretch. Before the mass is released, the mass is
not moving, so ½ mv2 = zero. Plus, the spring is not stretched initially, so½ kx 2 =
zero. After the spring reaches its maximum stretch, it is not moving, so ½ mv 2 =
zero. At that point, the mass will fall no further, so we can say the potential
energy mgh = zero.

Thus, the equation becomes:

½ mv2 + mgh + ½ kx2 = ½ mv2 + mgh + ½ kx2 or mgh = ½ kx2

mgh = ½ kx2 In this case, the height h is equal to the stretch of the spring x.

mgh = ½ kx2 (0.40 kg)(10)x = ½ (42)x2 4 = 21x x = 0.19 m

Many problems involving conservation of multiple types of energy are simplified when
some types of mechanical energy will be zero either at the beginning or the end of the
experiment. This was the case in the previous example.
Section 12.5 The Pendulum

A simple pendulum is a mass m suspended by a pivot P. When the object is

pulled to one side and released, it will swing back and forth in a motion approximating
simple harmonic motion. A pendulum can be a real object, in which case it is called a
physical pendulum.

An equation can be derived to find the frequency of a pendulum. Frequency is

the number of cycles a pendulum completes in one second. For small angles,
2πf = √g/L: f is frequency in cycles per second, g is 10 m/s 2, and L is length of the
pendulum.
__
In 2πf = √g/L, mass is algebraically eliminated, and it has no bearing on the
frequency of a pendulum. A pendulum’s frequency is only determined by its length and
the acceleration due to gravity g. A more useful formula is based on the period of one
cycle, not on frequency: T = 2π √L/g.

Example 5: What is the period of a simple pendulum with a length of 5 meters?

___ ____
Answer: T = 2π √L/g T = 2π √5/10 T = 4.44 seconds

Example 6: A simple pendulum swings back and forth with a period T of one
cycle each 2 seconds. What is the pendulum’s length?
___ ____
Answer: T = 2π √L/g 2 seconds = 2π √L/10 L = 1.014 meters

Section 12.6 Damped Harmonic Motion

In reality, an object in simple harmonic motion will not vibrate forever. Friction, or
some such force, will decrease the velocity and amplitude of the motion. This is called
damped harmonic motion. The shock absorbers on automobiles are designed to damp
the simple harmonic motion provided by the springs. Without this damping, the vehicle
would bounce up and down dangerously after traveling over uneven roadway.
Section 12.7 Calculating the Frequency and Period of a Spring

These are the formulas for frequency and period of an oscillating spring:
____
2•π•f = √ k/m
____
T = 2 π √ m/k

Example 6: What is the period of oscillation of a 5 kg mass attached to a spring

with a spring constant of 100 N/m?
____ ______________
Answer: T = 2 π √ m/k T = 2 π √ (5 kg)/(100 N/m) T = 1.4 seconds

Example 7: What is the period of oscillation of a 5 kg mass attached to a spring

with a spring constant of 100 N/m if the spring is stretched twice as far as in the
previous example?

Answer: The formula for period has no variable representing the degree of
stretch (or compression). The amount of stretch has no effect on the period.
Therefore, the problem is solved in exactly the same way as Example 6.
____ ______________
T = 2 π √ m/k T = 2 π √ (5 kg)/(100 N/m) T = 1.4 seconds

Section 12.7 Vibrations and Waves

When an object moves back and forth, as in simple harmonic motion, it is called
a vibration. Vibrations carry energy; therefore, waves carry energy also. A wave is a
disturbance that propagates through a medium or space

Waves are a method of transporting energy without transporting matter. A wave

involves some quantity or disturbance that changes in magnitude with respect to time at
a given location and changes in magnitude from place to place at a given time. This
wave motion is related to simple harmonic motion, but instead of one object vibrating
about its equilibrium position, many particles do so.

Some waves require a material medium for their propagation. These waves are
called mechanical waves. Mechanical waves involve a series of particles all
experiencing simple harmonic motion, but each particle is at a different point in its
vibration at the same moment in time. Each particle is slightly behind the vibration of the
particle before it, and slightly ahead of the vibration of the particle following it.

A single, nonrepeating disturbance is called a pulse. If the motion responsible for

the wave disturbance is periodic, a periodic wave, or wave train, is produced.
Mechanical waves provide a mechanism by which energy is transmitted from one
location to another without the physical transfer of matter between these locations. (This
is an important point, waves allow energy to be transmitted from one place to another.)

A mechanical wave is a disturbance in the equilibrium positions of matter, the

magnitude of which is dependent on location and on time. This requires a source of
energy and an elastic medium. An elastic medium is one that, when deformed, returns
to its original shape.

Section 12.8 Properties of Waves

In a periodic wave each individual particle repeats its motion once every certain
time interval T, which is called the period of vibration. (In the same way one vibration
of a pendulum is the period of the pendulum.) The frequency of a periodic wave is the
number of waves passing a given point in unit time. Frequency is the number of cycles
per unit time. The SI unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz). One hertz is one cycle per
second. A “cycle” is an event, not a unit, so the dimensionof one hertz is s -1, 1/s, or “per
second”. (That is probably the most useless bit of information in this book.) Period is the
reciprocal of frequency: f = 1/ T and T = 1/ f.

The wavelength, represented by the symbol  (lambda), is the distance between

any particle and the next particle that is in phase with it. One wavelength is the distance
advanced by the wave in one period, T.

The speed, v, of a wave depends on the nature of the wave and the medium
through which it passes. Speed is calculated by multiplying frequency and wavelength:
v = f .

Example 8: The musical note middle C has a frequency of 264 Hz. If the
wavelength of this wave in air is 1.3 meters, what is the speed of the sound
wave?

Answer: v=f v = (264 Hz)(1.3 m) v = 343.2 m/s

 Example 9: Tall skyscrapers actually sway back and forth in the wind. If a tall
building sways with a frequency of 0.05 Hz, what is its period of vibration?

Answer: T = 1/ f T = 1/(0.05 Hz) T = 20 seconds

Example 10: What is the frequency of your favorite radio station? What is its
wavelength?

Answer: My favorite station is 570 AM. AM is kHz, kilohertz, so 570 kHz is

570,000 Hz. Radio waves are a type of light wave, so the speed is 3 x 10 8 m/s.

v=f 3 x 108 m/s = (570,000 Hz) = 526 m

Another good station is 94.5 FM. FM is MHz, megahertz, so 94.5 MHz is

94,500,000 Hz.

v=f 3 x 108 m/s = (94,500,000 Hz) = 3.17 m

Maximum displacement from equilibrium is amplitude and is a measure of energy

flow. Energy transported by a wave per unit time is the power of the wave. Expanding
water ripples must maintain the total energy, so the amplitude of the wave must
decrease as the circles expand. This effect is greater for sound waves because the
waves are expanding spheres.

Damping, as in damped harmonic motion, is the reduction in amplitude of a wave

due to the dissipation of wave energy as it travels.
Section 12.9 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

The two basic types of waves are transverse and longitudinal. In a transverse
wave the displacement of the particles of the medium is perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the wave. The common “wavy” shape that most people know is a
transverse wave.

In a transverse wave, an upward displacement is called a crest, and a downward

displacement is a trough. The amplitude is the distance from the rest position to the
crest or from the rest position to the trough. The wavelength is the distance from crest to
crest or from trough to trough. (Actually, wavelength is the distance from one point on a
wave to the next point that has the same phase.)
 In a longitudinal wave the displacement of particles of the medium is parallel to
the direction of propagation of wave travel. Longitudinal waves have areas called
compressions. Compressions are areas where particles are closer together than
normal.

When particles are compressed, they rebound apart and move further apart than
they were initially. Rarefactions are these areas where particles are farther apart than
normal. Each individual particle is moving in simple harmonic motion. The combined
effect of these vibrations produces these areas of compression and rarefaction.

rarefaction compression rarefaction compression rarefaction

Water waves are not really either longitudinal or transverse. The individual
particles of water actually move in a circular motion. As in all waves, each successive
particle is slightly out of phase with the previous particle.

Section 12.10 Wave Interference

When you are in a room full of people, you can hear many different
conversations at once. Sound is a wave and this illustrates the fact that many waves
can pass through a medium at one time. In fact, each wave proceeds independently as
if the other waves were not present. This is the principle of superposition.

Superposition states that the action of each wave on a particle is independent of

the action of the other (or others), and the particle displacement is the resultant of both
wave actions.

If you like fancy talk, there is the Superposition Principle :

When two or more waves travel simultaneously through the same medium,
(1) each wave proceeds independently as though no other waves were
present and:
(2) the resultant displacement of any particle at a given time is the vector sum of
the displacements that the individual waves acting alone would give it.

When two or more waves cross it is called Interference. Interference refers to the
effects produced by two or more waves superposing (especially waves of the same
frequency). There are two types of interference, constructive and destructive.

If two waves have the same frequency and they are in phase (in phase means
both waves are causing the same direction of displacement of the particle at any
particular point), the result is constructive interference. In constructive interference,
since both waves are deflecting the particle in the same direction, these deflections add
to produce an increase in amplitude. If the waves are sound waves, the sound would
become louder; if the waves are light waves, the light become brighter.

However, if two waves with the same frequency are 180° out of phase (also
called opposite phase), each wave is trying to deflect the particle where the two waves
cross in opposite directions. The actions of the two waves cancel out, either completely
or partially, and the amplitude decreases. This is destructive interference. Since
destructive interference decreases amplitude, it would result in a decrease in loudness
for sound waves and a decrease in brightness for light.

When continuing waves interfere, there can be some areas that constructively
interfere and some areas destructively interfere. This is called an interference pattern.
The points of zero displacement are called nodes. The lines along which they occur are
called nodal lines. The points of maximum displacement are called antinodes (or loops).
The lines along which they occur are called antinodal lines.

When waves interfere, the total energy of the two wave systems remains
unchanged, but the energy distribution from the interference is different.

One special example of interference is a standing wave. A standing wave is a

wave produced by the interference of two periodic waves of the same amplitude and
wavelength traveling in opposite directions. This produces a uniform pattern which looks
like two mirror image waves overlapped. The nodes have no amplitude as they are the
areas of maximum destructive interference; between the nodes, the loops have
maximum amplitude as they are the areas of maximum constructive interference.

Section 12.11 Wave Reflection

A wave is reflected when it encounters a barrier that is the boundary of the

medium in which the wave is traveling. If the two media conduct the wave at the same
speed, there is no reflection. If the speed is very different between the two media,
reflection can be total. Usually reflection is somewhere between these two extremes.

The Law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. The angle at which the wave approaches the boundary is equal to the angle
at which the wave leaves the boundary. The wave that arrives is called the incident
wave, the one that reflects is called the reflected wave, duh. These angles are
measured compared to the “normal”. A normal is a line perpendicular to the surface of
the boundary at the point where the wave reaches the boundary. So if the angle of the
incident wave is 30° to the normal, the reflected wave will reflect at an angle of 30° to
the normal.

When reflection occurs, a boundary that allows unrestrained displacement of the

particles of a medium reflects waves with no change in the direction of the displacement
(no change in phase). If the wave comes in as a crest, it leaves as a crest. But, if
reflection occurs where the boundary does not allow the particle to move freely there is
a reversal of the direction of the displacement (180° phase shift). If the wave comes in
as a crest, it leaves as a trough. When a water wave hits the side of a pool as a crest, it
continues to be a crest as it reflects. The water is not prevented from moving up and
down by the edge of the pool. But, if you hold a jump rope tightly and your friend sends
a crest down the rope with a quick movement of his hand, the crest will switch to a
trough because your hand won’t let the end of the rope change position.

Once again, here are the fancy words:

When reflection occurs with free-end termination there is no phase change.

When reflection occurs with fixed-end termination the result is inverted phase.