Journal of Archaeological Science (2002) 29, 873–882

doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0756, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

The Concept of a Pottery Production Centre. An

Archaeometrical Contribution from Ancient Sagalassos
Jeroen Poblome
Department of Archaeology, Catholic University of Leuven, Blijde Inkomststraat 21, 3000 Leuven, Belgium

Patrick Degryse, Willy Viaene and Raoul Ottenburgs

Laboratory of Mineralogy, Catholic University of Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200C, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium

Marc Waelkens and Roland Degeest

Department of Archaeology, Catholic University of Leuven, Blijde Inkomststraat 21, 3000 Leuven, Belgium

Jean Naud
Laboratoires de Géologie Générale, Université Catholique de Louvain, Mercator, Place Pasteur 3,
1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium

(Received 26 April 1999, revised manuscript accepted 30 August 2001)

In 1987 a potters’ quarter was discovered to the east of the ancient town of Sagalassos (SW Turkey). A wide variety of
ceramic products was manufactured locally, including a series of tableware (Sagalassos red slip ware). Following a late
Hellenistic antecedent, mass production of this tableware started during the early Augustan period and lasted into the
first half of the 7th century . This contribution aims at illustrating some of the technological and organizational
choices made by the potters when mass production was initialized.  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: POTTERY PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY, CLAY PROVENANCING, EASTERN SIGILLATA,

SAGALASSOS.

Introduction Lysimachos of Thrace (301–281 ), the Seleucids of

Syria (281–189 ) and the Attalids of Pergamon (189–
he town of Sagalassos (Figure 1) is situated in 133 ). After the latter bequeathed their kingdom to

T southwestern Asia Minor, in the ancient region

of Pisidia, near the present town of Aǧlasun
(prov. Burdur, Turkey) in the western Taurus range.
The town was laid out on south-facing alpine terraces
(between 1450 and 1600 m) of Mt Aǧlasun (with two
peaks of 1882 and 2045 m) overlooking two connecting
valleys (valleys of Aǧlasun and Cq anaklı), separated by
a series of low hills. The geological substrate below
Sagalassos consists of an undulating platform of lime-
stones and a tectonized ophiolitic mélange (Paulissen
et al., 1993). Sagalassos is mentioned for the first time
in historical records in 333 , when it was conquered
by Alexander the Great during his quest against Persia.
Pisidia changed hands many times among the succes-
sors of Alexander, being incorporated into the
kingdom of Antigonos Monopthalmos (321–301 ),
873
0305–4403/02/$-see front matter
Rome, Pisidia may, at first, have become part of the
newly created province of Asia, the province of Cilicia
in the early first century , and once more to Asia
around the middle of that century. The northern part
of the region was donated to the Galatian Amyntas, a
client-king of Rome, in 39 . When Amyntas was
killed in an ambush in 25 , Rome decided to incor-
porate his kindgom once and for all into its empire and
thus created the province of Galatia. The armies of
Augustus introduced the pax Romana into the region,
and this favourable climate would remain unchanged
for centuries. As far as Sagalassos is concerned, trouble
would have started around  400, when the town
fortified its civic centre against, among others, Isaurian
tribes. Although the town of Sagalassos seems to
have remained rather prosperous even under these
 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
874 J. Poblome et al.

Isparta
Sagalassos
Aglasun
˘
Burdur
Çanakli
Kozluce
Kremna

Attaleia

Figure 1. Asia Minor and the region of Sagalassos, with the via Sebaste, Lake Burdur, the Kestros and Eurymedon rivers.

conditions, the glory of old would never return, and its
last inhabitants finally abandoned the town around the
middle of the 7th century , when the socio-economic
network of the town was shattered by a major earth-
quake, epidemics and Arab raids (Waelkens, 1993b,
1995; Mitchell, 1992, 1993, 1994).
Due to its altitude, the fact that the site was never
re-occupied and that parts of it seem to have been
covered later by slope deposits, the town of Sagalassos
has come to us as perhaps one of the better preserved
sites of antiquity. Until recently, however, archaeologi-
cal or historical interest in the town and the region of
Pisidia in general was weak. After an exemplary
survey of the remains of the towns of the region by
K. Lanckoronski in 1884–85, major progress in our
knowledge of the historical and archaeological record
of the region was only achieved about a century
later, with the Pisidia Project, at first co-directed at
Sagalassos by S. Mitchell and M. Waelkens. From
1986 onwards the latter concentrated all his efforts on
the ancient town of Sagalassos. In 1990 he initiated a
large-scale interdisciplinary research project in the
town and in 1993 also extended it to its territory
(Waelkens, 1993, 1997a; Waelkens & Poblome, 1993,
1995, 1997; Waelkens & Loots, 2000).
The discovery in 1987 of a potters’ quarter at
Sagalassos was unexpected (Mitchell & Waelkens
1988: 60). Over about 6 hectares, located to the east of
the ancient town, dumps of misfired ceramics are
still noticeable at the surface. Architectural ceramics,
figurines and oil lamps, cooking and storage vessels, as
well as a series of tableware were produced locally with
six different clay fabrics (Poblome et al., 1997; Degeest
et al., 1997; Degryse et al., 2000). In economic terms,
the newly discovered tableware, henceforth called
Sagalassos red slip ware or fabric 1, can be considered
the most important feature of this production centre.
After a Hellenistic antecedent, mass-production of this
new type of eastern sigillata started during the early
Augustan period and lasted into the first half of the
7th century . The ware was traded intensively in
Anatolia, and could already be identified at a series of
sites in the eastern Mediterranean and beyond, as far
away as Italy and Nubia, and shows an interesting
connection with ancient Egypt (Poblome, 1995, 1996,
1999; Poblome & Waelkens, in press).
In 1989 and 1990–91, excavations were undertaken
in this industrial quarter (Waelkens et al., 1990, 1991,
1992). They were resumed in 1997. The first two
excavation campaigns produced the remains of two
plundered Roman family tombs and large amounts
of potter’s waste. The new excavations aim at
documenting the production technology and infra-
structural organization of this newly discovered pot-
tery manufactory and already resulted in the discovery
of a sequence of pottery workshops (Poblome et al.,
1998, 2000, in press).
This contribution presents evidence related to the
phase when mass production of Sagalassos red slip
ware was initialized during the early Augustan period.
It aims at illustrating some of the deliberate technologi-
cal and organizational choices made by the potters,

when their craft received a major investment. An
important conclusion of the excavations and explora-
tory drillings in the potters’ quarter was that the
bedrock in this area consists of a tectonized ophiolitic
mélange and that the clayey weathered horizon over-
laying this mother-rock seems to have been quarried in
antiquity. Most probably this activity should be seen
in the context of the local ceramic production centre,
as the potters appreciated the qualities of the
clayey horizon as a raw material. The question arises
whether or not the exploitation of these clays by
local potters can be proven, and if such was the
case, how this exploitation fits both chronologically
and technologically in the reconstruction of the
potter’s craft at Sagalassos and its transition to mass
production?
Materials and Methods
The first group of samples contains 21 sherds (group
1). Nine of these were collected during the 1996 survey
just beyond the territory of Sagalassos at the site of
Kozluca hüyük. This hüyük or tell is located some
20 km south of Burdur and about 50 km southwest of
Sagalassos, near the site of Hadrianoi. It might be
identified with the site of ancient Kormasa (Hall, 1986;
Waelkens et al., 1998). At the surface an important
concentration of ‘‘Phrygian’’ (Aydal et al., 1998: 144–
155), Hellenistic and Roman pottery was found. Since
all material was collected at the surface, it is impossible
to provide a precise dating for the selected samples. In
general, they seem to belong to the later part of the
Hellenistic period. During the excavation season of
1998 at Sagalassos, three deposits were discovered
containing similar late Hellenistic pottery. A total of 12
sherds was selected from these deposits. The deposits
are, in fact, early Imperial in date, but each contained
a significant amount of late Hellenistic residual
material. No genuine late Hellenistic deposits have yet
been discovered at Sagalassos, so unfortunately
enough it is still impossible to establish a typo-
chronological overview of the late Hellenistic table-
ware found locally, based on quantified ceramic
assemblages. Because the fabric and other technologi-
cal features of the late Hellenistic fine wares found at
Kozluca hüyük and Sagalassos seemed very similar to
Sagalassos red slip ware, the aim of the archaeometri-
cal analyses was to determine this relationship more
exactly.
The second group of samples contains 7 sherds
(group 2) and represents the initial phase of the mass
production of Sagalassos red slip ware. These samples
were selected from early Imperial deposits excavated at
Sagalassos. The basics of the later morphological series
are already recognizable, but the finish and the stand-
ardization typical for the mass production lack. These
sherds are clearly the matrix from which the quality
products of Sagalassos red slip ware would spring.
Concept of a Pottery Production Centre 875
Table 1. Chronology of the samples of Sagalassos red slip ware (n is
number of analysed samples)
Fabric Slip Date
Group 3 n=20 n=5 1st–early 2nd 
Group 4 n=6 2nd half 1st–early 2nd 
Group 5 n=6 n=5 Late 2nd–3rd 
Group 6 n=2 2nd–3rd 
Group 7 n=12 n=4  300–375
Group 8 n=4 4th–5th 
Group 9 n=4 Late 5th–early 6th 
Group 10 n=16 5th 
Group 11 n=11 n=8 Early 6th 
Group 12 n=31 1st–6th 
Groups 3–12 contain 121 samples of Sagalassos red
slip ware. These were selected from a series of well
dated stratigraphical deposits excavated at Sagalassos.
The chronology of these deposits is summarized in
Table 1. A selection of 22 samples of this total of 121
sherds was made in order to analyse the composition of
the slip layer of the tableware of Sagalassos.
In this context, a total of 22 clay samples was also
analysed: 9 clay samples were taken from clay beds to
the northwest of the village of Cq anaklı and 13 samples
were taken from the clayey weathering horizon of the
ophiolitic bedrock in the potters’ quarter of Sagalassos.
Some clay samples contained rock pebbles. They
were sieved and the fraction <250
m was used for
analysis. The clay samples were dried, crushed and
ground. For major element analysis of both sherds and
clays, a representative part of each sample was dis-
solved in a lithium metaborate flux which was then
dissolved in diluted HNO3. Siliciumdioxide (SiO2),
dialuminiumtrioxide (Al2O3), iron(2)oxide (Fe2O3),
magnesiumoxide (MgO), calciumoxide (CaO), titani-
umdioxide (TiO2) and diphosphorpentoxide (P2O5)
were determined by atomic emission spectrometry
(AES) on a Spectrojet III spectrometer. Disodium-
oxide (Na2O) and dipotassiumoxide (K2O) contents
were obtained from the same solutions through atomic
absorption spectrometry (AAS) on a Varian Techtron
AA6 spectrometer. Accuracy for both AAS and AES is
better than 2%. Analytical precision at the 95% confi-
dence level determined by replicate analysis was better
than 0·5%. Detection limits are at ppm level for both
AAS and AES, but concentrations were measured at
0·01%. International standards used were Basalt
BN-01 and GSJ-JB-1, Granite GN-02 and NIM-G,
Lujavrite NIM-L, Feldspar NBS-99a and Gabbro
MRG-1. Loss on Ignition was determined by heating
the samples to 105C and 1050C and determining the
weight difference. Because ceramics are (almost) free of
volatiles, the chemical composition of the clays and
sherds can be recalculated for comparison by putting
the sum of the non-volatile oxides to 100%. Because of
the difference in clay mineralogy between the ophiolitic
clays from the potters’ quarter and the detrital clays
876 J. Poblome et al.
from C q anaklı, the content in MgO and K2O is the best
parameter for comparison of these clays as a raw
material used in the different ceramic groups.
For trace element analysis a representative part of
each sample was mixed with 10% elvocite resin and
pressed in discs of 4 cm diameter at 40 tons/cm2. These
samples were analysed by wavelength dispersive X-ray
fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF). Analyses were done
at the Centre d’Analyse par Fluorescence-X at the
Université Catholique de Louvain on a Siemens SRS
3000 at 40 kV for light elements to 60 kV for heavy
elements. Analytical precision and accuracy for XRF
are guaranteed by monthly checks and corrections of
the drift of the spectrometer through the use of inter-
national standards SQ1, SQ2 and SQ3. Analytical
precision at the 95% confidence level determined by
replicate analysis was better than 5%. Detection limits
are better than 6 ppm for Ba and La, better than 2 ppm
for Cr and better than 1 ppm for Cu, Ni, Sr, Th, Z, and
Sr. International standards used are AC-E, AL-I,
AN-G, BE-N, BR, BX-N, CCH-1, DR-N, DT-N,
DWA-1, FK-N, GA, GS-N, GXR-1, GXR-3, GXR-4,
GXR-5, IG-G, MA-N, Mica-Fe, Mica-Mg, SBO-1,
SO-1, SO-2, SO-3, SO-4, Sy-2, Sy-3, UB-N and VS-N.
The method followed for the samples analysed by
neutron activation analysis (NAA) is described by
Hertogen & Gijbels (1971).
The mineralogical composition of the clays was
determined by X-ray diffractometry (XRD). The
operational conditions were the following: Cu K
radiation, Ni filter, 40 kV, 20 mA, divergence slit of 1
and receiving slit of 0·2 (Ottenburg, Jorissen & Viaene,
1993a).
The methods used for analysing the slip layer, in-
cluding microprobe analysis, are discussed by Viaene
et al. (1993). These analyses took place at the Centre
d’Analyse par Microsonde pour les Sciences de la Terre
with a Cameca Camebax SX 50 microbeam electron
microprobe with wavelength dispersive X-ray analysis
system at 15 kV. Concentrations are measured at
0·01% K-lines were measured and detection limits are
better than 10 ppm. Standards included oligoclase,
leucite, hematite, fayalite, olivine, wollastonite,
rhodonite, saphirine and rutile.
Discussion
The composition and petrography of the fabric and
slip layer (Viaene et al., 1993, 1995a; Poblome et al.,
1997; Degeest et al., 1997) and the firing technology
(Viaene et al., 1995b) of Sagalassos red slip ware have
already been studied in detail. One of the important
results of this archaeometrical research was that the
potters of Sagalassos managed to retain a high level of
quality throughout the production of their tableware.
In fact, during the entire phase of mass-production,
lasting nearly seven centuries, no major variation
seems to occur in their choices of clay raw materials for
the fabric and slip of Sagalassos red slip ware (Tables 2
and 3).
The fabric of the local tableware can macroscopi-
cally be described as follows. The colour of the core is
usually 2.5YR 5/6 red on the Munsell soil colour chart.
If margins are present, which is only the case with
larger vessels, the colour is 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow.
The hardness of the fabric normally is hard, i.e. it
cannot be scratched with a fingernail. The feel is
smooth and the fracture is conchoidal to smooth. No
inclusions are visible, with the exception of very small
voids and occasionally white limestone inclusions
for larger vessels. The slip varies considerably in
colour. This is probably related to an evolution in
firing technology, since no chronological pattern of
compositional variation could be determined.
In correspondence to the zones of exploitation of
raw materials for pottery production established by
Arnold (1985), an area of 10 km around Sagalassos
was systematically surveyed for likely clay sources. An
important result of this survey and associated analyses
was the localization of the origin of the clay used for
the fabric of Sagalassos red slip ware in the valley to
the northwest of the village of C
q anaklı. The clay source
was located at a distance of approximately 8 km from
Sagalassos, and about 300 m below the site. The
potters quarried a detrital clay, with important
amounts of chlorite and mixed layers chlorite/smectite,
and with smaller amounts of kaolinite, illite and mixed
layers illite/smectite as clay minerals (Ottenburgs,
Jorissen & Viaene, 1993a). These silty clays (40–50%
lutum, 40–60% silt) contain fine-grained quartz and
calcite together with small amounts of feldspars,
amphiboles, pyroxenes, biotites, goethite, hematite
and/or magnetite. Fired at 850C, the clays show a high
elasticity modulus because of early melting and the
absence of cracks, which are only developing at higher
temperatures as a consequence of bloating. The low
shrinkage and the high E-modulus make the C q anaklı
clays very suitable for the production of pottery
(Ottenburgs, Viaene & Jorissen, 1993b). A chemical
comparison of the C q anaklı clays with Sagalassos red
slip ware (groups 3–12) shows that both have a similar
range in oxide content and trace elements, revealing the
first as the raw material used for the fabric of this
tableware (Table 4, Figure 2).
Unfortunately, the provenancing of the clay raw
materials of the more common types of eastern sigillata
(Hayes, 1997: 52–59) has only been approached in
general terms at this stage, as in most cases the
artisanal complexes have not been located as such, but
merely regionally defined based on archaeometrical
evidence (Schneider, 2000). The case of Pergamon may
be an exception, but no interdisciplinary research was
included in the excavation of the pottery workshops
along the Kestros river, and the area is now inaccessi-
ble for further research (Poblome et al., in press;
Degryse et al., in press, b). The potters’ quarter of
Sagalassos may serve as an example for the need to
 Concept of a Pottery Production Centre 877

Table 2. Major (AES and AAS) and trace elemental (AAS, NAA and XRF) composition of the fabric of Sagalassos
red slip ware

Group SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2 P2O5 LOI

3 (n=20)
Mean 51·74 15·00 8·10 0·10 6·32 9·03 0·97 2·60 0·83 0·32 4·43
Stdev. 2·20 1·21 0·57 0·01 1·69 2·78 0·20 0·32 0·06 0·11 1·79
4 (n=6)
Mean 52·27 16·16 8·20 0·10 6·92 8·11 0·99 2·68 0·87 0·22 2·85
Stdev. 1·73 0·49 0·23 0·01 0·58 1·29 0·07 0·07 0·04 0·04 0·48
5 (n=16)
Mean 54·27 16·33 8·40 0·10 6·59 6·07 1·01 2·79 0·90 0·20 2·71
Stdev. 1·40 0·87 0·38 0·01 0·68 1·82 0·10 0·27 0·04 0·04 1·43
6 (n=2)
Mean 51·68 16·46 8·23 0·08 6·61 8·54 0·98 2·66 0·88 0·21 2·96
Stdev. 0·14 0·05 0·03 0·01 1·03 0·59 0·05 0·08 0·01 0·02 0·54
7 (n=12)
Mean 52·11 15·95 7·94 0·10 6·66 8·05 1·00 2·81 0·86 0·32 3·53
Stdev. 2·05 1·10 0·63 0·01 0·73 1·64 0·10 0·12 0·04 0·11 1·82
8 (n=4)
Mean 51·57 16·21 8·14 0·09 6·54 7·00 1·07 2·72 0·86 0·27 4·82
Stdev. 2·00 1·00 0·64 0·01 1·11 2·12 0·11 0·25 0·03 0·05 2·42
9 (n=4)
Mean 52·04 16·09 8·49 0·10 6·60 7·93 1·07 2·81 0·91 0·26 3·16
Stdev. 2·96 1·10 0·11 0·01 1·13 1·25 0·24 0·03 0·06 0·05 2·46
10 (n=16)
Mean 52·62 15·83 8·32 0·10 6·92 7·40 1·05 2·76 0·88 0·28 3·29
Stdev. 1·41 0·75 0·57 0·01 0·81 1·53 0·07 0·19 0·05 0·11 1·92
11 (n=11)
Mean 52·19 15·97 8·41 0·09 6·79 8·48 1·13 2·82 0·89 0·28 2·44
Stdev. 1·33 0·66 0·28 0·01 0·64 1·29 0·17 0·18 0·04 0·07 1·91
12 (n=30)
Mean 52·68 16·39 8·48 0·09 6·86 7·55 0·97 2·71 0·90 0·23 2·52
Stdev. 1·36 0·92 0·57 0·01 0·81 1·21 0·11 0·23 0·08 0·05 1·82

Table 3. Composition of the slip layer (microprobe analysis) of Sagalassos red slip ware

Group SiO2 Al2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2

3 50·20 24·25 8·73 0·03 3·90 5·41 2·45 4·48 0·53

49·08 27·85 8·51 0·07 2·97 4·15 2·14 4·52 0·70
48·61 28·57 9·31 0·05 2·34 3·75 1·90 4·81 0·66
50·25 29·69 9·73 0·06 1·87 1·39 1·26 5·01 0·75
50·01 30·00 9·26 0·06 2·01 1·58 1·28 5·05 0·76
5 56·87 22·42 3·73 0·05 4·11 2·94 1·38 8·14 0·37
42·74 26·71 10·20 0·08 6·20 8·75 1·91 2·79 0·61
50·33 28·11 7·64 0·05 3·38 3·53 1·30 5·19 0·47
47·89 30·44 9·28 0·05 2·18 1·78 1·56 6·19 0·63
48·78 30·39 9·01 0·06 2·09 1·52 1·21 6·17 0·77
7 47·72 30·32 8·33 0·06 2·67 2·95 1·52 5·85 0·59
49·28 31·04 6·90 0·03 1·84 2·56 1·20 6·16 0·99
50·98 30·71 6·92 0·04 2·26 1·15 1·48 5·77 0·68
49·43 29·90 9·70 0·11 1·81 1·28 1·05 5·94 0·78
11 47·82 27·33 9·93 0·07 4·15 4·14 1·65 3·95 0·96
53·91 24·63 9·76 0·06 2·17 0·72 1·35 6·42 0·98
52·90 28·46 3·58 0·04 3·16 1·67 0·80 8·72 0·65
50·85 28·10 11·22 0·06 2·25 0·98 0·83 4·74 0·95
49·99 27·58 10·36 0·05 2·34 2·08 1·30 5·44 0·86
49·90 29·64 9·23 0·07 1·88 1·32 1·41 5·95 0·61
52·93 29·99 10·17 0·07 2·19 1·35 0·25 2·27 0·78
52·20 29·61 9·54 0·07 2·18 1·06 0·60 4·10 0·64
Mean 50·12 28·44 8·68 0·06 2·73 2·55 1·36 5·35 0·71
Stdev. 2·74 2·27 1·94 0·02 1·07 1·88 0·49 1·47 0·2
878 J. Poblome et al.

Table 4. Comparison of the mean fabric composition of Sagalassos red slip ware (groups 3–12) and the clays found
in the valley northwest of C
q anaklı (AAS/AES for main elements, XRF for trace elements)

% SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Ti2O P2O5 LOI

SRSW 52·40 16·10 8·28 0·10 6·47 8·10 0·97 2·70 0·88 0·27 3·18
Stdev. (n=121) 2·16 1·31 0·54 0·01 1·04 2·30 0·15 0·30 0·10 0·12 2·09
C
q anaklı 49·00 15·11 7·34 0·11 4·51 6·90 1·03 2·60 0·79 0·27 11·90
Stdev. (n=9) 3·23 1·95 0·46 0·01 1·28 2·00 0·57 0·60 0·10 0·19 3·62
ppm Ba Sr Cr Ni Zr Zn Cu Th La
SRSW 420 209 343 337 160 131 55 19 36
Stdev. (n=14) 105 32 23 42 26 5 13 10 3
C
q anaklı (n=1) 371 130 120 82 206 127 30 27 71

SiO2

Al2O3 MgO

SiO2
MgO

Al2O3 MgO
Figure 2. Composition of 1. The ophiolitic clays of the potters’ quarter, 2. The clays NW of C
q anaklı, 3. Group 1, 4. Group 2 and 5.
Groups 3–12.

investigate the contribution of craft production to
ancient society in general (Mattingly & Salmon, 2001),
and the adoption of an interdisciplinary research strat-
egy in particular. Beyond the eastern Mediterranean,
our methodology and results may be compared to the
exemplary archaeometrical research on Italian and
Gaulish sigillata, initiated by M. Picon (Velde & Druc,
1999: 211–225 and references cited there). Approach-
ing clay raw material provenance may in this case be
more or less straightforward, as sigillata fabrics are
 Concept of a Pottery Production Centre 879

Table 5. Comparison of the clayey weathering product of the ophiolites found in the potters’ quarter and the clays
found in the valley northwest of C
q anaklı (AAS/AES for main elements, XRF for trace elements)

% SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Ti2O P2O5 LOI

Ophiolite 54·69 16·03 7·03 0·17 3·58 3·58 1·22 1·35 0·90 0·23 8·39
Stdev. (n=13) 3·03 3·68 1·31 0·05 1·81 2·65 1·02 1·06 0·23 0·10 3·29
C
q anaklı 49·00 15·11 7·34 0·11 4·51 6·90 1·03 2·60 0·79 0·27 11·90
Stdev. (n=9) 3·23 1·95 0·46 0·01 1·28 2·00 0·57 0·60 0·10 0·19 3·62
ppm Ba Sr Cr Ni Zr Zn Cu Th La
Ophiolite 2023 2726 95 320 231 32 56 312
Stdev. (n=5) 991 1219 34 25 78 59 16 12 96
C
q anaklı (n=1) 371 130 120 82 206 127 30 27 71

Table 6. Comparison of the composition of Hellenistic (group 1) and early Augustan (group 2) Sagalassos tableware and the clayey weathering
product of the ophiolites found in the potters’ quarter (AAS/AES for main elements, XRF for trace elements)

% SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Ti2O P2O5 LOI

Hellenistic stdev. (n=10) 52·82 19·06 7·69 0·10 3·55 8·11 0·82 3·64 0·91 0·27 2·25
3·27 1·62 0·53 0·01 1·46 2·80 0·19 0·70 0·07 0·03 0·73
Group 2 54·10 15·15 7·55 0·11 5·27 8·07 1·05 3·01 0·81 0·34 3·88
Stdev. (n=6) 3·54 1·62 0·73 0·02 2·01 2·48 0·40 0·54 0·07 0·22 3·01
Ophiolite 54·59 16·03 7·03 0·17 3·58 3·58 1·22 1·35 0·90 0·23 8·39
Stdev. (n=13) 3·03 3·68 1·31 0·05 1·81 2·65 1·02 1·06 0·23 0·10 3·29
ppm Ba Sr Cr Ni Zr Zn Cu Th La
Hellenistic (n=2) 327 178 119 73 207 127 45 — 65
Group 2 (n=2) 1114 720 288 299 260 128 65 27 132
Ophiolite 2023 2726 95 65 320 231 32 56 312
Stdev. (n=5) 991 1219 34 25 78 59 16 12 96

typically well purified and homogeneous, with mostly
no evidence of added temper and very fine non-clay
particles which most probably formed part of the clay
source.
The composition of the slip layer of Sagalassos red
slip ware has been determined by microprobe analysis.
The slip chemistry, with a higher content in Al2O3 and
K2O and a lower content in CaO and MgO (Table 3),
suggests that the slip was manufactured in a standard-
ized way throughout the period of production, using
residual illite-rich clay suspensions extracted from the
weathered ophiolitic mélange found in the local
potters’ quarter (Degryse et al., in press).
The clay found in the valley northwest of C q anaklı is
clearly different in nature compared to the clayey
weathering horizon on top of the ophiolitic bedrock in
the potters’ quarter of Sagalassos (Table 5, Figure 2).
When the mineralogy of both clays is compared, a
difference in mineral content and crystal properties of
the pyroxenes, amphiboles and biotites is noticeable. In
the ophiolitic clays these are abundantly present as
large, idiomorphic crystals, while in the clays of
C
q anaklı only a restricted amount of small, rounded
grains is present. Also the content in quartz and
opaque minerals differs for both clay resources. The
clays of Cq anaklı have a high quartz and low opaque
mineral content, unlike the ophiolitic clays. Also a
difference in clay mineralogy can be seen. The detrital
clays of C q anaklı are rich in chlorite and chlorite/
smectite mixed layers, but poor in illite, illite/smectite
mixed layers and kaolinite. The ophiolitic clays, on the
other hand, are composed of equal amounts of illite,
kaolinite and smectite, with smaller amounts of chlor-
ite. Chemically, the clays from the plain of Cq anaklı are
enriched in MgO and CaO and have a lower Na2O and
K2O content than the ophiolitic clays. The content in
Fe2O3 is slightly higher for the clays to the northwest
of C q anaklı, while the content in Al2O3 and SiO2 is
comparable.
The composition of the ophiolitic weathered product
clearly conforms with that of half of the Hellenistic
samples collected at Kozluca Hüyük and Sagalassos
(10 samples out of 21 for group 1) and also most of the
samples of the initial phase of the mass production of
the Sagalassos tableware (6 samples out of 7 for group
2) (Table 6, Figure 2). This conclusion has important
implications. In this way, the late Hellenistic fine ware
sherds found at Kozluca Hüyük and Sagalassos, which
macroscopically looked similar to the later Sagalassos
red slip ware, can in fact be considered to be a
Hellenistic antecedent of the Roman mass produced
Sagalassos tableware. The late Hellenistic tableware
was made from clays quarried in the potters’ quarter.
Clearly, more research is needed at Sagalassos itself to
trace this local Hellenistic tableware in order to docu-
ment its chronological and technological evolution
880 J. Poblome et al.

Table 7. Comparison of the composition of Hellenistic (group 1) and early Augustan (group 2) Sagalassos tableware
and the clays found in the valley northwest of C
q anaklı (AAS/AES for main elements, XRF for trace elements)

% SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Ti2O P2O5 LOI

Hellenistic (n=11) 49·10 13·70 8·07 0·10 6·95 9·41 0·79 2·70 0·80 0·40 13·20
4·20 2·38 1·37 0·01 1·33 5·53 0·19 0·30 0·10 0·20 2·39
Group 2 (n=1) 43·40 11·70 7·17 0·10 6·27 14·30 0·50 2·00 0·60 0·30 13·40
C
q anaklı 49·00 15·11 7·34 0·11 4·51 6·90 1·03 2·60 0·79 0·27 11·90
Stdev. (n=9) 3·23 1·95 0·46 0·01 1·28 2·00 0·57 0·60 0·10 0·19 3·62
ppm Ba Sr Cr Ni Zr Zn Cu Th La
Hellenistic (n=1) 371 130 120 82 206 127 30 27 —
Group 2 (n=1) 391 282 345 310 133 106 55 — —
C
q anaklı (n=1) 371 130 120 82 206 127 30 27 71

more in detail. The local clay raw materials continued
to be used during the initial stages of the transforma-
tion of the craft.
The other late Hellenistic sherds (11 samples out of
21 for group 1) and one early Augustan sherd (out of 7
samples for group 2) can better be compared to the
clays of the valley northwest of C q anaklı (Table 7,
Figure 2). Differences in the CaO, SiO2 and Al2O3
content for the sherd of group 2 are mainly due to the
precipitation of CaCO3 in the pores of this sherd after
burial. However, the K2O and MgO content, the
indicative elements for comparison, are similar to
the clays of C
q anaklı.
Research has recently been concentrated on the
relationship between the ophiolitic clays and the com-
position of the local Roman common ware fabrics
(Degryse et al., 2000). Both contain exactly the same,
large, idiomorphic crystals of the same minerals. A
chemical study of the minerals present in the four
common coarse fabrics produced at Sagalassos,
pointed towards an alkaline ophiolitic source for these
minerals. This could be concluded from the high TiO2
(5%) and Cr2O3 (0·5%) content and the low CaO
(0·5%) content in the biotites. The amphibole chemis-
try also indicates an alkaline parent material, with a
TiO2 content of 7–8%, a MnO content of 0·8% and a
Cr2O3 content of 0·3%. As the same minerals, and even
trace minerals, are present in the ophiolitic clay found
in the potters’ quarter as well as in the coarse ware
fabrics made at Sagalassos, in the same proportions,
and as the chemistry of the minerals is similar for the
pottery fabrics and the clays, the weathered clayey
horizon overlaying the ophiolitic bedrock in the pot-
ters’ quarter is a very likely material for the Roman
local coarse ware fabrics.
Conclusion
The mass production of Sagalassos red slip ware
started in the early Augustan period. At that moment,
the local potters clearly already had experience in
manufacturing tablewares. However, because of a lack
of stratigraphical evidence, the origin and the evolution
of the late Hellenistic tableware produced at Sagalassos
can not yet be documented in detail. On the other
hand, the clay used for the predecessors of the Roman
Imperial Sagalassos red slip ware could already be
identified. On the one hand, the potters were exploiting
the clayey weathering horizon of the ophiolitic bedrock
in the potters’ quarter of Sagalassos. This fact further
helps to explain the location of the potters’ quarter.
Yet, at the same time, the potters were already
aware of the qualities of the clays found in the valley
northwest of C q anaklı.
During the initial stages of the mass production,
when a new line of vessels was being introduced, the
potters at first continued to use both sources of clay
raw materials. Only when the new production process
was firmly established in the later Augustan period,
possibly related to the introduction of new firing
techniques (Elaigne, 1999), the potters made a deliber-
ate choice to exploit the clays northwest of C q anaklı in
a more systematical way in order to provide the raw
material for the fabric of their tableware. Further
research is needed to understand this choice in terms of
an investment made by a patronus in the craft, or
possible shifts in ownership of both the production and
the lands where the raw materials were quarried. In
any case, the choice for these specific clays clearly had
technological advantages. The clays of C q anaklı needed
minimal preparation compared to the ophiolitic clays
of the potters’ quarter. The potters required enormous
quantities of high quality clays, and they apparently
preferred the trouble of exploiting and transporting
their clays from approximately 8 km distance, to or-
ganizing the tedious process of preparing the ophiolitic
clays on a large scale. Apparently the latter continued
to be used for the local production of common wares,
for which a less pure clay may even be advisable.
Considering the scale of exploitation of the ophiolitic
clays both during the Hellenistic period for tablewares
and during the Roman period for common wares, one
should probably imagine re-organization phases of the
lay-out and the infrastructure of the industrial quarter,
of the open clay pits and of the adjoining part of the
necropolis. Only further excavations in the potters’
quarter of Sagalassos can document these cycles.

Similar deliberate technological and organizational
choices in order to better streamline the production
process and improve the quality of the product have
already been documented for the initial phase of
production of eastern sigillata A (based on archaeo-
metrical evidence, Slane et al., 1994) and Pergamene
sigillata (based on archaeological evidence, Meyer-
Schlichtmann, 1988), around the middle of the second
century .
Acknowledgements
This research is supported by the Belgian Programme
on Interuniversity Pole of Attraction initiated by the
Belgian State, Prime Minister’s Office, Science
Policy Programming (IUAP IV/12). The text also
presents results of a Concerted Action of the Flemish
Government (GOA 97/2) and the Fund for Scientific
Research-Flanders (Belgium) (FWO) (G.2145.94).
Scientific responsibility is assumed by its authors.
J. Poblome is a Postdoctoral Fellow of the Fund
for Scientific Research Flanders (Belgium) (FWO).
M. Waelkens is L. Baert-Hofman professor in Eastern
Mediterranean Archaeology.
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