iii.

History of Biological diversity

a. Fossil record and distribution pattern

@De Torres Divine

b. History and overview of system of classification

@Charles Nicolas

iv. Prokaryotic diversity

a. Endo symbiotic theory @Mary Joyce Martir

b. Prokaryotic cell

 Bacteria are an example of prokaryotes. 

 Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle
 “Pro-karyotic” (Greek) = before the nucleus
 Average size - 0.2 – 1.0 µm x 2 – 8 µm
 3 basic shape – Bacillus (rod-shape), Coccus (sphere), Spirals
 Cell wall is keeping out many harmful substances and keeping the cell from bursting
and peptidoglycan gives structure to the bacterial cell wall. It compose amino acid,
muramic acid and sugar
 Cell membrane  gives the cell its structure and regulates the materials that enter
and leave the cell. Only allows certain molecules to enter or exit. 
 Cytoplasm is a viscous fluid containing all cell organelles except the nucleus . The
word cytoplasm literally means ‘living gel’ (plasm) ‘of the cell’ (cyto)
 Nucleoid  is the region in the prokaryotic cell that contains the main DNA material.
Some DNA will be in other sections of the cell, but the primary material will be in
the nucleoid.
 Ribosomes are the places where proteins are manufactured
 Capsule- protects the bacteria from drying out and made from starch or glycolipid
 Plasmid is a small DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from a
chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. They are most commonly found
as small circular, double-stranded DNA molecules in bacteria; however, plasmids are
sometimes present in archaea and eukaryotic organisms.
 Flagella- a whip-like extensions and used strictly for movements
  Pili-attach to other bacteria for DNA trasfer; used to help bacteria reproduce in a
particular way and communicate in a process called conjugation where they will be
able to link together and exchange these little plasmids

Importance

Prokaryotes are important to all life on Earth for a number of reasons. They play a
critical role in the recycling of nutrients by decomposing dead organisms and allowing
their nutrients to be re-used.

They are also important for many metabolic processes. Bacteria in our guts and mouth
help with the digestion of food by breaking down difficult to digest carbohydrates and
other compounds. Recent research has suggested that the microbial community in our
guts can be a significant factor contributing to obesity.

c. Archaebacterial classification @ caila Kate ferrer

d. Prokaryotes Classification

OLD

FIVE KINGDOM SYSTEM

• Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protist, Monera

NEW

THREE DOMAIN SYSTEM

• Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya

Carl Woese – he divided prokaryotes into two distinct lineages or lines of descents:
archaea and bacteria.

-Prokaryotic organisms “the first living things on earth and still inhabit every environment”

EUBACTERIA

• “ true bacteria”

• are one of the three major domains, along with the Archaea and the Eukarya. 

• Prokaryotic

• Uni-cellular

• Cell walls contain peptidoglycan.

 • They are ubiquitous.

MAIN PHYLA

• Gram-positive bacteria

- a very diverse phylum of bacteria.

-have a thick peptidoglycan layer.

-take up the crystal violet stain used in the test, and then appear to be purple-coloured
when seen through a microscope.

-They are more receptive to antibiotics.

Ex. Clostridium botulinum, Bacillus anthracis

• Proteobacteria

-Major phylum of gram-negative bacteria

-Includes wide variety of pathogens.

5 classes:

Alpha proteobacteria - grow at very low levels of nutrients and have unusual morphology
such as stalks and buds.

-include agriculturally important bacter

Ex. Rhizobium

Beta proteobacteria - highly metabolically diverse.

-some species play important roles in nitrogen cycle.

Ex. Nitrosomas

Gamma proteobacteria - comprise several medically and scientifically important groups

of bacteria.

Ex. E.coli, samonella, vibrio cholerae

Delta proteobacteria - some species generate spore-forming fruiting bodies in

unfavorable environment.

Ex. Myxobacteria

Epsilon proteobacteria - many of this species inhabits the digestive track of the animals
as symbiont or pathogens.

Ex. Helicobacter pylori, Campylobacter

 • Spirochetes

-Spiral shaped bacteria

-some are pathogenic.

-distinguished from other bacterial phyla by the location of their flagella (Axial Filament).

- the rotation of filament,is what allows it propel itself forward.

Ex. Treponema pallidum, Borrelia burgdorferi

• Cyanobacteria “ blue-green algae”

-contain phycocyanin and chlorophyll pigment.

-Oxygenic phototrophs – they make energy from light and generate oxygen as waste
product.

-Some species live in single cell, while others form colonies.

-Or in symbiotic relationship with plants (Lichen)

-Many form motile filaments of cells (hormogonia)which helps them to move

by gliding along surfaces.

-Play crucial role in the evolution of all photosynthetic plants and algae.

Ex. Spirulina, Anabaena

• Chlamydiae

-are obligate intracellular bacteria. 

-Cell walls lack peptidoglycan.

-Many of this species are susceptible to antimicrobial agents.

-All are non-motile.

• 2 forms:

Elementary body (EB)

- extracellular

- infective form

Reticulate body (RB)

- intracellular

- growing and replicative form

 Ex. C. trachomatis -  the most common infectious cause of blindness and the most common
sexually transmitted bacterium.

ARCHAEA

Most of Archaea are extremophiles

Archaea are usually placed into three groups based on preferred habitat:

 Halophiles

 Methanogens

 Thermophiles (Thermoacidophile)

Archaea are classified according to the condition in which they grow:

Halophiles-an organism that require soduim chloride for growth

Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles- organism growing at high temperature or very high

temperature.

Psychopiles-organism that grow best at low temperature.

Acidophiles and alkaliphiles- organism optimally adapted tp acidic or basic ph values.

Barophiles- organism that grow under pressure.

EUYARCHAEOTA AND CRENARCHAEOTA- two phyla that recognized

KORARCHAEOTA- minor ancient lineage.

NANOARCHAEOTA- other proposed subdivision

Euryarchaeota

-Include many archaea that inhabit extreme environment.

-This groups include methanogens and extreme halophiles

Methanogen

-produce methane

-are a large, diverse group that inhabit oxygen-free environments in sewage, swamps and
digestive tract of human and other animals

Ex. Methanobrevibacter smithii

Extremely Halophilic Archaea

-Have a requirement for high salt concentrations

-Found in artificial saline habitats (e.g., salted foods), solar salt evaporation ponds, and
salt lakes

Ex. Halobacterium salinarum

Crenarchaeota

-Consists mainly of extreme thermophiles

-These archaea inhabit very hot sometimes acidic environment

Ex. Sulfolobus acidocaldarius

Nanoarchaeota

-Hyperthermophiles

-Act as an obligate symbionts

-Smallest known living organism

-Need a host

Ex. Nanoarchaeum equitans

Korarchaeota

-No members of this phylum are being cultivated.

v. Protistan diversity

a. Eukaryotic cell

@Karlou Clapano

b. Protistan classification

Protists - Any organism that is not classified as a – plant, animal, or fungi.

General Characteristics of Protists

 Unicellular of Multicellular
 Autotrophic, Heterotrophic, Saprophytic
 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
 Microscopic or Macroscopic
 Motile or Non-Motile
  Aquatic Environment (basta may water)
 Aerobic, Anaerobic, Facultative Anaerobes
 Free-living or lives symbiotically

Classification of Protists

Animal-Like Protists
 Protozoans = “first animals”
 Similarity = ability to move and inability to produce their own food.
 Difference = protists are unicellular while animals are multicellular.
 Classified based on how they move

Phylum Sarcodina - Moves around using pseudopodia (cytoplasmic extensions)

Phylum Ciliaphora (Ciliates) – Moves around using hair-like projections called cilia

Phylum Zoomatigina – moves around with the help of a flagella or flagellum

Phylum Sporozoa - They lack locomotory structures and they are carried in their hosts
by their body fluids.

Plant-Like Protists
 Algae = “first plants”
 Similarity = ability to produce their own food through photosynthesis.
 Difference = lack specialized organs or tissues such as leaves, stems, and roots.
 Classified by their number of cells.

UNICELLULAR
Phylum Euglenophyta - Can be autotropic or heterotropic, has two flagella, cell
membrane is called “pellicle”

Phylum Bacillariophyta - Can be found on fresh and salt-water as well as damp places.
Have glass-like cell wall made of silica. Most cannot move while some move through
gliding.

Phylum Dinoflagellata - Can glow in the dark through bioluminescence. Cause of red
tide.

MULTICELLULAR

Phylum Chlorophyta (Green Algae) - occur in fresh water, have cell walls made of
cellulose and pectin.
 Phylum Rhodophyta (Red Algae) - Multicellular seaweed, most of the earths seaweed
belongs to this group, have clear red or purplish color.

Phylum Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) - commonly adapted to marine environment, grow on

rocks in shallow water of the sea, some members of phaeophyta have adaptive bladders.

Fungus-Like Protists
 Similarity = they are heterotrophs, they have cell walls, and they reproduce by
forming spores.
 Difference = they differ from fungi being their cell walls are made up of cellulose
while the cell walls of fungi are made up of chitin.
 Motile at some point of their life.

Phylum Myxomycota - commonly found on rotting logs and compost, very bright in
appearance, reproduce by fruiting bodies, saprophytic in nature.

Phylum Oomycota - Live in water or moist places, have tiny threads that look like
fuzz, may occur as saprotrophs or as parasites, downy molds and water molds.

vi. Plant diversity

a. General features of plants @Edward Ramos

b. Plant classification

@Edward Ramos

vii.fungal diversity

a. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI

✨Cell wall present, composed of cellulose and/or chitin.

✨ Food storage generally in the form of lipids and glycogen.

✨Eukaryotes - true nucleus and other organelles present.

✨ All fungi require water and oxygen (no obligate anaerobes).

✨Fungi grow in almost every habitat imaginable, as long as there is some type of organic
matter present and the environment is not too extreme.
✨Autophagy- a natural, regulated mechanism of the cell that disassembles unnecessary or
dysfunctional components. It allows the orderly degradation and recycling of cellular
components.

✨Mitophagy- is the selective degradation of mitochondria by autophagy. It often occurs

to defective mitochondria following damages

✨ Apoptosis- is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms.

✨HETEROTROPHIC- acquire nutrients by absorption

✨ hydrolytic enzymes – secreted by fungi to decompose complex molecules.

✨HYPHAE- Long, branched thread-like filaments- adaption to the fungal mode

of nutrition

✨FUNGI -consist of a network of filaments

✨HYPHA- Basic structural unit of fungal vegetative body (mycelium)

✨ Except for yeast, hyphae are organized around and within food source: Composed of
tubular walls containing chitin

✨SEPTA- Crosswalls

✨ SEPTATE FUNGI - Hyphae are divided into cells by septa

✨ COENOCYTIC - It lack cross walls

✨ HAUSTORIA-modified Hyphae of parasitic fungi, which penetrate the host tissue but
remain outside cell membrane

✨SAPROBES- absorb nutrients from dead organic materials

✨PARASITIC FUNGI- absorb nutrients from cells of living host

✨MUTUALISTIC FUNGI- absorb nutrients from host but reciprocate benefits

✨AEROBIC- respiration with oxygen

✨ ANAEROBIC-without oxygen

✨Spores - asexual (product of mitosis) or sexual (product of meiosis) in origin.b. Fungi

classification

@Rica Penaflor
viii. Animal diversity

a. General features of animals

General Features of Animals

 Multicelullarity – contains more than one cell.

 Eukaryotic Cells – Animal cells are usually complex eukaryotic, unlike plants, animal
cells don’t have cell walls.
 Specialized Tissue – Differentiated tissues for specialized functions.
 Sexual Reproductions – Animals can reproduce genetically identical offspring via
asexual and sexual when genetic materials are combined from two individuals.
 Symmetry – Animals have body symmetry when divided into the center, two
identical parts are shown, and some animals are asymmetrical.
 Motility – Animals are mostly motile, at least during certain life stages.
 Heterotrophs – Animals consume other organism to get nutrition and energy.

b. ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

✨PORIFERA- sponges, pore bearer, most primitive, with pores filtering water, amorphous
and assymetrical, no tissue and organs

✨ CNIDARIANS/COELENTERATA- (jelly fish, sea anemones)tentacles with stinging

cells, Medusa or polyps

✨PLATYHELMINTHES- thin, flat, parasitic, bilateral symmetry (liver fluke,tapeworm)

✨ NEMATODA- round worm, smooth and unsegmented body

✨ MOLLUSCA- soft body covered by shell with muscular foot (octopus, snail)

✨ANNELIDA- segmented body (leeches, earthworm)

✨ANTHROPODA- exoskeleton, jointed legs, well developed sense organs (crayfish,

insects)

✨ECHINODERMATA- spiny skin, radial symmetry (starfish)

✨CHORDATA- have backbone

✨AGNATHA- jawless fish (lamprey)

✨ CHONDRICHTHYES- skeleton made of cartilage (shark,rays)

✨OSTEICHTHYES- skeleton made of bone (clown fish)

✨AMPHIBIA- semi aquatic (frog)

✨REPTILIA- dry scaly skin (lizard, alligator)

✨AVES- feathers (birds)

✨MAMMALIA- mammary glands, have fur.