Temario

LENGUA EXTRANJERA
INGLÉS

13
Historia de la evolución de la didáctica
de las lenguas extranjeras: de los métodos
de gramática-traducción a los enfoques
actuales.

12-12023-13
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INDEX

1 THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH: THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

1.1 Background
1.2 Characteristics
1.3 Advantages and disadvantages

2 MODERN APPROACHES
2.1 THE DIRECT METHOD
2.2 THE ORAL APPROACH
2.3 THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

3 CURRENT APPROACHES
3.1 THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
3.2 HUMANISTIC APPROACHES
3.3 THE LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH
3.4 TASK-BASED LEARNING (T.B.L.)
3.5 NEW METHODOLOGIES IN THE 21ST CENTURY
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INTRODUCTION
Many different methods and approaches have been devised in the search for the best way
of teaching a foreign language. In fact, one of the main characteristics of contemporary
Foreign Language Teaching (FLT) is the proliferation of teaching methods.
To some teachers, the wide variety of method options available may be confusing
rather than helpful. It is best to have a flexible and practical attitude and recognize the
advantages of this variety of methodological options. One of the main advantages is
the possibility of choosing the most appropriate method for each student’s needs and
circumstances.
It is therefore advisable for the English teacher to be aware of all the methods available –
they’ll be able to find more efficient and effective ways of teaching. It is often necessary
to adopt an eclectic approach, selecting different aspects of different methods to meet
particular language points.
In this unit we will study widely-known approaches and methods and their influence
on the history of FLT. These methods will be presented in a sequence that roughly
corresponds to their historical development, although it should not be assumed that each
method was totally abandoned in favour of its successor. In fact, all of these methods have
survived somewhere in the world. Besides, there have been considerable borrowings from
one method by another, and amalgamated versions have come up.
It’s worthwhile discussing the difference between approach, method and technique. When
we use the word approach, we mean that certain theoretical principles are being applied,
e.g. the Communicative Approach. A method is a set of procedures and techniques used
in a systematic way – for example, the Audiolingual Method. The word approach is much
more general, and it’s sometimes used informally to mean something closer to a method.
A technique is, then, the narrowest term, meaning one single procedure: drills, information-
gap activities, role-play, projects, dictations, etc.

This unit is related to units 5, 6, 14, 18, 22 and 25 since it deals with the theme
of methodology.
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1 THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH:

THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

1.1 Background
This method derives from the traditional approach to teaching classical languages such
as Latin and Greek. Latin was the most widely studied language in the Middle Ages. It
was the dominant language of education, commerce, religion and government in the
Western world. Children entering Grammar Schools in the 16th and 17th centuries were
given a rigorous introduction to Latin grammar, through the study of rules, declensions,
conjugations, translation and practise in writing sample sentences. School learning must
have been a deadening experience, since lapses of knowledge were often met with brutal
punishment.
In the 18th century, modern languages began to enter the curriculum of European
schools, but they were taught using the same procedures that were used for teaching
Latin. Textbooks consisted of abstract grammar rules, lists of vocabulary and sentences
for translation. Oral practise was limited to students reading the sentences they had
translated out loud.
By the 19th century, this approach had become the standard way of studying foreign
languages in schools. It became the Grammar-Translation Method. For a long time, it was
assumed that this was the only way of teaching languages. It dominated foreign language
teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s, and it still continues to be used, in a modified form, in
some parts of the world.

1.2 Characteristics
1. The goal is to learn a foreign language in order to read its literature or benefit from the
mental discipline of studying it.
2. The skills of reading and writing are the main focus; little attention is paid to
speaking or listening.
3. Vocabulary is taught through bilingual words lists, dictionary study and memorization.
4. Translation is the distinctive feature of the method. Much of the lesson is devoted to
translating sentences from mother tongue to foreign language and vice-versa.
5. Accuracy is emphasized. The students have to produce perfect translations.
6. Grammar is taught deductively - via the study of grammar rules.
7. The mother tongue is used to explain new items and also as a reference system.
8. The material used is the textbook.
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1.3 Advantages and disadvantages

Although this Method has very few advocates today, we can point out some advantages:
1. It can be useful in particular situations, such as understanding literary texts.
2. It’s an easy method to apply - the teacher just needs a textbook with grammar rules,
vocabulary lists and model sentences to translate.
3. Some teachers still find its intellectual discipline appealing.

However, the vast majority of teachers recognize that this approach doesn’t meet the
language needs of today’s learners. It has many serious disadvantages:
1. There’s no learning theory behind this method; no literature that can offer linguistic or
psychological justification.
2. The method puts great strain on students’ memories. They have to memorize endless
lists of grammatical rules and vocabulary. Language learning becomes a tedious and
disheartening experience.
3. Translation might be useful as an exercise, but not as a method to learn a language.
Translation helps to know about the language but it does not teach how to use a
language.

„„ What are the origins of the Grammar-Translation Method? What are its main
characteristics?
„„ Are there any advantages to this method? What are its disadvantages?

„„ This method derives from the tradition approach to teaching classical languages. The
goal is to read it’s literature in order to benefit from the mental discipline of studying it.
„„ It is taught through abstract grammar rules, translation and bilingual dictionaries.
Accuracy is emphasised.
„„ It is useful in understanding literary texts but in general it does not meet the language
needs of today’s learners.
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2 MODERN APPROACHES
2.1 THE DIRECT METHOD
2.1.1 Background
Towards the mid-19th century, the Grammar-Translation Method started to be questioned
in several European countries. Several factors contributed to this:
„„ A demand for oral proficiency in foreign languages had started, due to increasing
opportunities for communication amongst European countries.
„„ Reformist ideas about language teaching helped design new methods. The best-
known of these 19th century reformers was the Frenchman F. Gouin. He developed an
approach based on how children use language. He claimed that new items had to be
presented in a context that made their meaning clear.
„„ The writings of particular scholars on linguistic theory. Linguists started to
research into Phonetics and Applied Linguistics. Their scientific approach to language
teaching gave the reformist ideas credibility and acceptance, and ultimately led to the
development of «natural methods», such as the Direct Method.

Those who believed in natural methods claimed that a foreign language could be learnt
without translation or the use of the learners’ native tongue. The simple idea behind the Direct
Method was that people learnt languages by hearing them and engaging in conversation.

2.1.2 Characteristics
1. Oral communication is the main objective.
2. The skills of listening comprehension and speaking are taught gradually and
systematically. Students are encouraged to speak, often by question-and-answer
exchanges. Reading and writing can be developed later.
3. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
4. New teaching items are taught orally, through demonstration, objects and pictures.
More abstract words are taught by association of ideas.
5. Correct pronunciation and grammar is emphasized.
6. Grammar is taught inductively.
7. Translation is avoided. The teaching is conducted in the target language.
8. Teachers don’t follow a textbook; they follow their own plan.
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2.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages

The Direct Method was quite successful in private language schools (Berlitz schools are a
good example).
The advantages of this method are:
1. The learners are encouraged to think in the foreign language, since translation is
avoided.
2. The teaching takes place through demonstration and action. The introduction of new
items happens by direct association between form and meaning.
3. Correct pronunciation is emphasized.
The Direct Method continues to attract enthusiasm, but it is not an easy approach to use
in schools. The reasons for this are:
1. The method overemphasizes the similarities between naturalistic first language
acquisition and foreign language learning. The classroom is an artificial environment
where it is difficult to generate natural learning situations.
2. It requires native teachers or speakers with native-like fluency in the foreign language.
3. The complete avoidance of the mother tongue by the teacher is often
counterproductive, since a simple brief explanation in the learners’ native tongue can
sometimes be very efficient.

2.2 THE ORAL APPROACH

2.2.1 Background
This approach began with the work of British applied linguists in the 1920s and ‘30s. These
scholars attempted to develop a more scientific foundation to teaching English than what
was evidenced in the Direct Method.
The theory of language underlying the Oral Approach, also called Situational Language
Teaching, was influenced by British structuralism: speech is the basis of language and
structure the heart of speaking ability. The main classroom activity is the oral practise of
structures.

2.2.2 Characteristics
1. The objective of this method is to teach the basic skills of language, but skills are
approached through structure.
2. Oral skills are taught first. Reading and writing skills are achieved through speech work.
3. Structures are taught within sentences, and vocabulary is chosen according to
sentence patterns.
4. Situations are used to present new sentence patterns, and drill-type exercises to
practise the structures.
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5. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial. Errors are to be

avoided.
6. Learners are not given grammatical explanations. They are to deduce the meaning
from the situation. Objects, pictures, realia and gestures are used to demonstrate
meaning.
7. The mother tongue is never used.
8. The Method is dependent on both a textbook and visual aids. Lessons are organized
around different grammatical structures. Visual aids consist of wall charts, flashcards,
pictures, etc.

2.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages

The impact of the Oral Approach has been long-lasting, and it has influenced many
textbooks and courses, including many that are still being used today. The Oral Method
was the accepted British approach to English teaching by the 1950s.
Advantages of the method:
1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language.
2. Items of grammar follow the principle that simple forms must be taught before
complex ones.
3. Language is always presented and practised within a situation.

In the mid-‘60s, however, this Method began to be questioned, because the learner was
often unable to use the language for real communication outside the classroom.

2.3 THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

2.3.1 Background
There are many similarities between the Oral Approach (or Situational Language Teaching)
and Audiolingualism. Both have similar views about the nature and the learning of
language. Their views on the nature of language come from structuralist ideas, but they
stem from different traditions: whereas the Oral Approach was a development of the
Direct Method, Audiolingualism derives from behaviourism.
The emergence of the Audiolingual Method resulted from the increased attention that
foreign language teaching in the U.S.A. received towards the end of the 1950s. It’s based
on: 1) earlier experiences of the U.S.A. army programmes, 2) structural approaches and 3)
behaviourist psychology.
1. The U.S.A. army programmes: The entry of the U.S.A. into World War II had a great
effect on language teaching in America. The army needed personnel who were fluent
in German, French, Italian, Chinese, Japanese and other languages. The aim of language
programmes was for the personnel to reach conversational proficiency. New methods
were necessary to attain this goal. Linguists, such as Leonard Bloomfield at Yale, helped
in the development of training programmes.
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2. Structural approaches: Language was identified with speech, and speech was
reached through structure. Learning a language, it was assumed, entails the mastery
of the structures of the language, that is, the learning of the rules by which the
elements of a language are combined. These elements are phonemes, morphemes,
words and sentences.
3. Behaviourism: According to behaviourism, learning a second language is learning
a set of habits. It’s a process of imitation and reinforcement. This view comes from
Skinner’s application of the procedure: stimulus response reinforcement. Learners copy
what they hear and, with practice, they establish a set of acceptable habits in the new
language. The main aim is to form correct linguistic habits, eliminating errors to the
maximum.

2.3.2 Characteristics
1. The main aim in the early stages is oral proficiency, which means accurate
pronunciation and grammar and the ability to react and answer quickly.
2. Language skills are taught in this order: listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Reading and writing are dependent upon oral skills. Learners are taught to read and
write what they have learnt orally.
3. The syllabus is structure-based. It means that it contains the key items on phonology,
morphology and syntax, arranged in a particular order.
4. Language structures are learnt through imitation, repetitions and memorization.
Dialogues and drills form the basis of a structure-based approach. The use of drills
is a distinctive feature, for it is a common-sense application of the idea that «practice
makes perfect». Drilling follows the stimulus response reinforcement pattern. pattern.
Students are rewarded when they answer correctly. Positive reinforcement (reward) is
seen as more effective than negative reinforcement (punishment).
5. Accuracy in pronunciation, stress, rhythm and intonation is emphasized. The learner
should gain accuracy before striving for fluency.
6. Translation and grammatical explanation are avoided.
7. The use of the mother tongue is not allowed.
8. Tape recorders and audiovisual equipment are essential in Audiolingualism. The
tape recorder provides accurate models for dialogues and drills. A language laboratory
is also a central point in this method: it provides further drill work.

2.3.3 Advantages and disadvantages

Audiolingualism influenced the way languages were taught in the U.S.A. in the 1950s, and
it reached its peak in the 1960s.
The advantages of this method are:
1. It provides the learner with considerable conversational fluency.
2. Language is practised orally before being seen and used in the written form.
3. Students proceed in very easy steps: they start with simple repetitions, then go on to
simple drills, then to more complex drills, and so on.
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Disadvantages: much of the method consists of mechanical drilling. Therefore, learners

tend to find the procedures boring and repetitive. There is the danger of students uttering
patterns without realizing what they’re saying. Students are often unable to use the
language for real communication outside the classroom.

To expand on the material covered in this Unit go to Unit 6 1.2.2

„„ Do the modern methods have any similarities? Do they have any differences? What are
they?
„„ What are the advantages and disadvantages of the different modern methods?

„„ The Direct Method emerged from the reformist ideas of the 19th century. The idea is
that English could be taught without engaging in the learners’ native tongue, stressing
the importance of oral communication in English.
„„ Developed from structuralist ideas, the Oral method tried to teach the basic skills of
language through structure. It concentrated first on oral skills and then reading and
writing was taught through speech.
„„ The Audiolingual approach was similar to the Oral method in that its view on language
came from structuralist ideas. It differs from the Oral approach because instead of
following the tradition of the Direct Method it follows the tradition of behaviourism.
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3 CURRENT APPROACHES
3.1 THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
3.1.1 Background
The Communicative Approach arose in the 1970s as a reaction to the Audiolingual
method, which paid more attention to structure than to its function. The attack on
Audiolingual beliefs resulted from changes in American linguistic theory in the 1960s. The
changes became a revolution in applied linguistics (the teaching of a language). Noam
Chomsky was greatly responsible for these changes.
Noam Chomsky rejected the structuralist approach to the description of language and
the behaviourist ideas about language learning. He said: «Language is not a habit structure.
Ordinary linguistic behaviour characteristically involves innovation, formation of new sentences
and patterns in accordance with rules of great abstractness and intricacy». What struck
Chomsky about language was its creativity, the capacity to generate completely novel
sentences endlessly.
He proposed an alternative theory of language learning to that of behaviourism. Chomsky
argued that sentences are not learnt by imitation and repetition but generated from the
learners’ competence, so learners should be encouraged to use their innate and creative
abilities.
British applied linguists emphasized another fundamental dimension of language: its
functional and communicative potential. They saw language learning as the learning of
communicative proficiency rather than the mastery of structures. Scholars who advocated
this view of language drew on the work of British functional linguists (e.g. Halliday) and
American sociolinguists (e.g. Hymes and Labov), as well as on philosophy texts (e.g. Austin
and Searl). The work of these scholars had a significant impact on the development of a
Communicative Approach to language teaching.
The Council of Europe incorporated this communicative view into a set of specifications
for a First Level Communicative Language Syllabus called Threshold Level English in the
1980s. These specifications have had a strong influence on the design of communicative
or functional language programmes and textbooks in Europe.
The current educational law in Spain has also incorporated the communicative principles
into its syllabus design. The Communicative Approach is also called Communicative
Language Teaching and Functional Approach.

3.1.2 Characteristics
1. The goal of language teaching is for the learner to develop communicative
competence. Language learning is learning to communicate in that language.
Attempts to communicate are encouraged from the very beginning. Any device that
helps in the learning process is accepted. The target linguistic system is best learnt
through the process of struggling to communicate.
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2. Contextualization of language items is a basic premise: teaching items are introduced

in a meaningful context. The items are isolated for controlled practise first, and later
for freer practise. There are two stages: the pre-communicative stage and the
communicative stage. Students use the language through pair and group work.
Drilling takes place only peripherically.

3. A functional syllabus consists of arranging the functions, not the forms, of language.
Form refers to the grammatical structure, whereas function refers to the meaning
and use of the structures. Examples of functions are: introducing oneself, describing
something, requesting information, etc.
4. Translation may be used where and when students need or benefit from it.
5. Fluency and acceptable language are prior to accuracy. Errors are seen as normal in
the teaching-learning process. Language is created often through trial and error.
6. Grammar explanation is used if the students benefit from it. Any device that helps
learners is accepted.
7. A judicious use of the mother tongue is also accepted.
8. Materials have a very important role in promoting communicative language use.
Variation is essential: audio-visual materials, task-based communication activities,
games, role-plays, realia (songs, magazines, visual sources, maps, stories, charts,
advertisements, tickets...)

3.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages

The rapid adoption and implementation of the Communicative Approach resulted
from the fact that there was a need for a more effective way of learning a language. The
advantages of this approach are:
1. The teaching focuses its attention on real world language use.
2. The role of the learner in the teaching-learning process is emphasized: the learners’
perceptions, feelings and attitudes are taken into account. The learner is also
encouraged to work independently from the teacher, through pair and group work.
3. The role of the teacher is to help learners in any way that motivates them to work with
the language. The first role is to facilitate the communication process; the second role is
to act as independent participants within the group.
Once the initial wave of Communicative Teaching has passed, some possible
disadvantages can be seen:
1. Is this approach suitable for all levels? Many teachers consider that the functional
syllabus is more suitable for intermediate students, who have already learnt the basic
grammatical items.
2. Is it a good idea to abandon the procedures of structure-based methods? It is argued
that students must inevitably learn the grammar of the language. They’ll still have to
drill structures and organize grammatical items into a suitable form of grading.

To expand on the material covered in this Unit go to Unit 2, section 1.2.

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3.2 HUMANISTIC APPROACHES

The Humanistic Approaches focus on the learners’ emotional factors. What counts is the
student as a whole person. The development of their personality and the encouragement
of positive feelings are seen as being very important in the language-learning process. The
creation of a positive mood in the learner will facilitate learning.

3.2.1 Total Physical Response (TPR)

This method was developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology in a California
University. The name derives from the emphasis on the actions that learners have to
make. The method attempts to teach language through physical activity.
Asher sees successful foreign language learning as a parallel process to child first-language
acquisition. He argues that children respond physically to adults’ commands before they
produce verbal responses. Therefore, second-language learners should imitate this first-
language acquisition process.
The principles of this method are:
1. Comprehension abilities precede productive skills. Speaking is delayed until oral
comprehension is established.
2. Teaching should focus on meaning rather than form.
3. Teaching should reduce learner stress. The teacher must create a positive mood in the
learner by delaying oral production and by promoting game-like movements.
4. The verb in the imperative (stand up, sit down, go to the door) is the central linguistic
form around which language learning is organized.
The two main advantages of this method are:
1. The important role of comprehension.
2. The reduction of stress in the learner.

To be able to judge the effectiveness of this method, however, we must use it in

association with other methods and techniques.

3.2.2 Natural Approach

In the 1970s, the American linguist Stephen Krashen propounded an influential view on
second language learning. The term natural emphasizes that the principles underlying
the method conform to the principles of how children learn their first language.
Krashen distinguishes between acquisition and learning. The former is a subconscious
process, parallel to L1 acquisition, whereas the latter refers to a process in which conscious
rules about language are developed. According to this theory, acquiring a language is
more successful and longer-lasting than learning.
Krashen considered successful acquisition to be bound up with the nature of language
input the pupils receive in class. Input includes the language that the students already
know, as well as language that they have not previously seen. In other words, the input
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should be at a slightly higher level than the students are capable of using, but at a level
that the students are able to understand.
Like TPR, the Natural Approach gives importance to comprehension over production.
There is an emphasis on exposure or input, rather than practice.
The main features of this method are:
„„ As much comprehensible input as possible must be presented.

„„ Whatever helps comprehension is important (visual, auditory, aids, gestures, context,

repetitions).
„„ Focus on listening and reading; speaking should be allowed to emerge. Learners’ silent
periods should be respected. Speech from students can wait until they are ready for it.
„„ A relaxed classroom atmosphere, in order to lower the affective filter: students’ work
should be centered on meaningful communication rather than on form; variety of
group sizes, content and contexts; motivating materials.
The Natural Approach emphasizes comprehension and meaningful communication, as well
as the importance of emotional rather than cognitive factors in learning. These principles have
influenced current syllabus designs.
However, some authors point out problems in the learning/acquisition hypothesis:
„„ One problem is that acquisition takes a long time. L2 learners have less time and
opportunities for language exposure than children acquiring their mother tongue.
Research shows that it takes over a year to accumulate as much L2 experience as a
young child gets from L1 in a month.
„„ Another problem is that it doesn’t make sense that learnt language doesn’t lead to
acquisition. It has been shown that learnt language, which is practised, does become
part of the acquired store. Freer practise activities, such as communicative activities, act
as a «switch» which allows learnt language to transfer to the acquired store.

3.2.3 The Silent Way

This method was devised by Caleb Gattegno, an educational material designer. It is based
on the principle that the teacher should be as silent as possible, and the learner should be
encouraged to speak as much as possible.
The learning hypotheses of this method are:
1. Learning takes place if the learners discover or create rather than repeat what they
have to learn. Learning is a problem-solving, creative and discovering activity. The Silent
Way promotes what they call «learning to learn».
2. Physical objects are used in the learning process. Rods and colour-coded pronunciation
charts are used to guide the student in the learning process, while the teacher says
as little as possible (the teacher silently points to symbols, and monitors the student’s
utterances). Physical objects also create «memorable» images.
3. Silence, like avoidance of repetition, encourages alertness and concentration in the
learner.
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The Silent Way focuses on the capacity for self-awareness; a capacity that differs from first
language acquisition. In fact, Gattegno claims that first language acquisition and second
language acquisition are totally different processes. The method of learning a second
language must differ radically from first language acquisition.
The innovations in Gattegno’s method are to be found in the indirect role of the teacher
of monitoring learners’ performance, the responsibility placed upon learners to figure out
how language works, and the materials used to elicit language.

3.2.4 Community Language Learning

The method was developed by Charles A. Curran. It is based on the principle that «true»
human learning is both cognitive and affective. This is termed «whole-person learning».
According to this, language learning is «persons in contact».
Curran was a professor of psychology and a specialist in counselling. He applied
psychological counselling techniques to learning. The «counsellor» is the teacher and the
«clients» are the learners. It attempts to give the students only the language they need.
This is the procedure: a student whispers a message in the mother tongue; the teacher
translates it into the target language; the student repeats the message in the foreign
language into a cassette. Students compose further messages with the teacher’s help,
and then reflect upon their messages and their feelings. Feelings of security, belonging,
independence and assertion are developed in stages.
Community Language Learning is the most sensitive method to learner communicative
intent. However, the role of the teacher radically differs from the conventional one - the
teacher must be non-directive, there is a lack of syllabus, which makes objectives unclear,
and he/she needs to be trained in counselling techniques.

3.2.5 Suggestopedia
This is a method developed by the Bulgarian psychiatrist-educator Georgi Lozanov. It
is based on the non-conscious influences that human beings have when learning.
Suggestopedia tries to optimize the learning by creating a relaxing and enjoyable
classroom atmosphere. The decoration, furniture, the use of music, the teacher’s voice...
these are the most conspicuous characteristics of this method.
Suggestion is the base of Suggestopedia. The teacher presents linguistic material in a way
most likely to encourage positive reception and retention.
In the first session, all participants sit in a circle. They are presented with large amounts
of foreign language. The text is translated. Then, it’s read aloud against a background of
classical music. In further sessions, new material is presented and discussed within the
group and used for communicative activities.
The idea is to convey - using a large amount of linguistic material in the process - that
language learning is easy and natural.
Off all the new methods, suggestopedia is the one that has received both the most
enthusiastic and the most critical responses. The conclusion might be that certain
procedures in Suggestopedia are effective if they’re in harmony with other successful
techniques in language-teaching methodology.
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3.3 THE LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH

3.3.1 Background
Traditionally, the central issue in FLT was the actual teaching, which was exclusively
a matter of methodological techniques. Since the 1970s, the emphasis shifted to the
process of learning. Methodologists claimed that learners had an active role in their
learning processes.

3.3.2 Characteristics
The focus on the student has led to the development of learner training and self-directed
programmes. The aim is to train students to be good learners. If students take charge of
their own learning, they achieve more. The teacher is a helper who assists with a choice of
materials and advises what to do, but he/she does not teach directly.
Learner autonomy is the goal of learner training. As Holec said: «By becoming
autonomous… the learner progressively becomes his own teacher and constructs and
evaluates his learning program himself».
Three main areas are involved in a learner-training programme:
1. Personal assessment. Activities to make the students think about what type of learners
they are (visual learner, linguistic learner, kinaesthetic learner, etc).
2. Learning strategies. Activities to train students to use resources to learn by themselves
(using textbooks, dictionaries, finding the general meaning of a text, dealing with
unfamiliar vocabulary, correcting their own errors, etc.).
3. Language awareness. This aims at developing students’ sensibility towards how
language is used (asking the students to distinguish nouns from verbs, identifying
tense markers, etc.)

3.3.3 Advantages and disadvantages

The main advantage of this approach is that students take on more responsibility for their
own learning. The main disadvantage is the difficulty in matching the individual nature of
instruction and the collective nature of most classrooms - matching individual needs with
group needs.

3.4 TASK-BASED LEARNING (T.B.L.)

3.4.1 Background
In the 1970s, some methodologists started to concentrate not so much on the nature
of language input, but on the learning tasks that the students performed. In 1979, N.S.
Prabhu conducted a project in Bangalore (Southern India) using task-based learning with
secondary school pupils. He suggested that if the emphasis in class was on meaning,
language would be learnt incidentally. For him, learning takes place if the students are
thinking of something else other than the structures themselves.
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He devised a series of tasks, with a problem-solving element, for the students to perform.
The processes involved in finding a solution will stimulate natural language acquisition.
He divided these tasks into: 1) Information-gap activities (transference of unknown
information from one student to another); 2) Reasoning-gap activities (deduction,
practical reasoning), and 3) Opinion-gap activities (giving personal feelings and opinions).
The Bangalore Project was important because Prabhu had the courage to put his radical
ideas of language learning into practice.

3.4.2 Characteristics
Task-Based Learning aims to create opportunities for language use, to help language learners
activate whatever language they know, and to discover for themselves what other language
they need to learn.
But, what is a task in TBL? It’s a goal-orientated communicative activity in which learners
talk or write to each other. Tasks involve pupils exchanging real meanings for a real
purpose. For example, filling in a form, writing down telephone messages, writing letters,
etc. A task can also be seen as the ultimate «big» product resulting from a series of «small»
mini-tasks. The project work is the most prototypical example of TBL tasks (this approach
doesn’t include activities such as acting out dialogues using pre-set patterns.)
TBL methodologists also reject the presentation-practice-production methodology
(PPP framework). They claim that learners do not always acquire a language in the order
in which it’s presented to them. TBL is based on the belief that giving learners tasks to
perform rather than items to learn provides the context which best promotes natural
learning. In the PPP framework, students are expected to produce language only after
they have practised the structures; in TBL, learners are expected to experiment with
language from the very beginning.
A Task-Based learning framework consists of three phases:
„„ The pre-task phase. The teacher introduces and defines the topic, highlights useful
expressions, makes sure students understand the instructions and helps students
activate the structures and lexis that will be useful for the completion of the task. For
example, brainstorming and mind-maps, matching phrases to pictures, reading tasks,
etc.
„„ The task-cycle phase. This is divided into three sub-stages: the task itself (doing the
task in pairs or groups), the planning (the students prepare a report for the class on
how they did the task), and the report (they present the task to the class orally or they
display their work). For example, problem-solving tasks.
„„ The language-focus phase. This provides opportunities for explicit language
instruction. The activities will be orientated towards the identification and analysis of
different features of language.
„„ The teacher monitors all the phases and acts as a language adviser.
20 TEMARIO

3.4.3 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages:
„„ TBL promotes attention to meaning.

„„ It develops communication strategies.

„„ It promotes learner training for problem-solving.

„„ It makes the learner more aware of the learning process.

Disadvantages:
„„ The danger is that students gain fluency at the expense of accuracy (Skehan). Some of
the focus on practise activities should be present in the teaching-learning process. For
example: repetitions, memory games, dictionary exercises, etc.
„„ Primary students usually lack the intellectual capabilities and responsibility to direct
their learning process.

Difficulties in designing genuine and meaningful tasks, as well as in sequencing and

grading those tasks.

„„ The Communicative Approach arose as a response to the Audiolingual method, which

centred its ideas on structure more than form. It is the method that is currently
implemented in Spain.
„„ Humanistic Approaches concentrate on the learner’s emotional factors and try to create
a positive mood in the learner to facilitate learning. Among these approaches there is
Total Physical Response, the Natural Approach, The Silent Way, Community Language
Learning and Suggestopedia.
„„ There is also, the Learner-centred approach, which shifts the emphasis away from
teaching and into learning, and Task based Learning, which tries to teach through a
series of problem-solving tasks.

3.5 NEW METHODOLOGIES IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Thanks to the use of the ICTs in class, we should mention the introduction of some new
methodologies in the 21st century:
„„ The Flipped classrooms model redefines the traditional structure of a class. Instead of
devoting school hours to the teacher’s explanations, so that the students practise at
home what they have learned in class, they are asked to have a look at the contents at
home (through videos, presentations, apps such as Explain Everything) and later on, in
class, to work on them with the aid of the teacher and their mates, which boosts their
involvement in their own learning process and their motivation to make progress.. For
this purpose, students can access a Wiki space, Evernote or i-Tunes apps created by
the teacher to watch videos or review different resources such as presentations. Taking
into account we are dealing with primary students, Edmodo even Blink learning are
useful educational networks to introduce Flipped classroom in our classes.
 LENGUA EXTRANJERA: INGLÉS 21
13

„„ PBL (Problem-Based Learning) is an inductive methodology that stimulates

intellectual development and independent learning by posing a challenge or real-life
problem situation to the students that they need to solve, taking into account their
previous knowledge. This is always motivational and interesting for the students, who
can put their critical skills into play.
„„ CLIL (Content Integrated Language Learning) will also have play an important role to
enable students to learn content and language at the same time, as it has proven to be
an excellent tool to provide opportunities for using English in varied and motivating
contexts by drawing on the different interests of the students, exploiting their various
learning styles, making the most of their abilities, background knowledge and skills
from other disciplines, fostering positive attitudes and introducing an international
aspect into teaching.
„„ The Harkness Table method or discussion-based methodology involves students
seated around a large oval-shaped table to discuss ideas in an encouraging, open-
minded environment with only occasional minimal teacher intervention. Although
impractical for larger classes and hard for primary but good trying with small groups
in bilingual schools (where it could only be applied with the help of the language
assistant), its main goal is to encourage discussion and debate, as the students to come
up with ideas of their own and learn logical, reasoning and discussion skills.
„„ Kagan structures have transformed the teaching of foreign languages dramatically
all over the world by integrating both English and academic content, so the students
can learn far more quickly and thoroughly than traditional approaches or even group
work. It is a combination of basic principles: variety of seating arrangements, structured
activities, cooperative learning, positive interdependence, individual accountability,
equal participation and simultaneous interaction. This cooperative and collaborative
methodology works out in an excellent way in the Primary class, following different
structures.
„„ We can mention methodologies such as Gamed-Based-Learning through which
the game, either digital or physical will be a motivational tool in the teaching-learning
process of our students. It encourages critical though, autonomy, learning in a fun way
implying the introduction of many key competences.
„„ Inquiry-based methodology through the use of WebQuest can be carried out in our
Primary class with simple and easy questions in the upper levels.
„„ KiVa is a good methodology coming from Finland, to prevent bullying problems in
class, especially, again, in the upper levels, through which we are introducing the Social
and Civic Competences.
„„ Another possible approach would the the PYP, following the IBO, through with the
students develop their critical thinking always taking into account our classes will not
be in an international environment.
„„ Multiple intelligences would be another methodology worth mentioning at this
stage and which can be implemented in almost every single year in Primary Education.
22 TEMARIO

CONCLUSION
Before finishing, as a conclusion, much research has been conducted on the effectiveness
of different methods of teaching a foreign language, but it’s very difficult to scientifically
prove which is the best method.
As we have already seen, all methods have advantages and disadvantages. It’s important
for teachers to be aware of the theoretical principles that lie behind the main methods
and approaches in Foreign Language Teaching. He/she will therefore develop a critical
attitude, which may help him/her find more efficient and effective ways of teaching
languages. As Widdowson said, «The essential point is that there are no universal solutions».
He seems to justify and favour an eclectic approach to FLT.
 LENGUA EXTRANJERA: INGLÉS 23
13

BIBLIOGRAPHY

COOK, V.: Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Arnold. 1991.
CRYSTAL, D.: The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language. Cambridge University Press. 1977.
HARMER, J.: The practice of English Language Teaching. Longman. 1991.
HUBBARD, P. et al.: A Training Course for TEFL. Oxford University Press. 1999.
MADRID, D. and McLAREN, N.: Didactic Procedures for TEFL. La Calesa. 1995.
RICHARDS, J. and ROGERS, T.: Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge
University Press. 1998.

„„ WEBGRAPHY

http://www.ite.educacion.es/gl/recursos
Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport. Educational resources.
http://www.onestopenglish.com/
BOWEN, T.: Teaching approaches: the grammar-translation method. One Stop English.
www.cramlap.org/FileStore/Filetoupload,23970,en.doc
McKENDRY, E.: An overview of second language teaching methods and approaches. Cramlap.org.

REMEMBER
1. THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH:
THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION
METHOD
1.1. Background
This method derives from the traditional approach to
teaching classical languages such as Latin and Greek.
In the 18th century, modern languages began to enter the
curriculum of European schools, but they were taught using
the same procedures that were used for teaching Latin. By
the 19th century, this approach had become the standard
way of studying foreign languages in schools. It became
the Grammar-Translation Method. For a long time, it was
assumed that this was the only way of teaching languages. It
dominated foreign language teaching from the 1840s to the
1940s, and it still continues to be used, in a modified form, in
some parts of the world.
1.2. Characteristics
1. The goal is to learn a foreign language in order to read its
literature or benefit from the mental discipline of studying
it.
2. The skills of reading and writing are the main focus.
3. Vocabulary is taught through bilingual words lists,
dictionary study and memorization.
4. Translation is the distinctive feature of the method.
5. Accuracy is emphasized. The students have to produce
perfect translations.
6. Grammar is taught deductively - via the study of grammar
rules.
7. The mother tongue is used to explain new items and also
as a reference system.
8. The material used is the textbook.
1.3. Advantages and disadvantages
„„ Advantages: it can be useful in particular situations, such
as understanding literary texts; it’s an easy method to
apply; some teachers still find its intellectual discipline
appealing.
„„ Disadvantages: there’s no learning theory behind this
method; the method puts great strain on students’
memories; translation might be useful as an exercise, but
not as a method to learn a language.
LENGUA EXTRANJERA: INGLÉS 25
13
2. MODERN APPROACHES
2.1. THE DIRECT METHOD
2.1.1  Background
Towards the mid-19th century, the Grammar-Translation
Method started to be questioned in several European
countries.
2.1.2  Characteristics
1. Oral communication is the main objective.
2. The skills of listening comprehension and speaking are
taught gradually and systematically.
3. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
4. New teaching items are taught orally, through
demonstration, objects and pictures.
5. Correct pronunciation and grammar is emphasized.
6. Grammar is taught inductively.
7. Translation is avoided.
2.1.3  Advantages and disadvantages
„„ Advantages: the learners are encouraged to think in
the foreign language; the teaching takes place through
demonstration and action; correct pronunciation is
emphasized.
„„ Disadvantages: the method overemphasizes the
similarities between naturalistic first language acquisition
and foreign language learning; it requires native teachers
or speakers with native-like fluency in the foreign
language, etc.
2.2. THE ORAL APPROACH
2.2.1  Background
This approach began with the work of British applied
linguists in the 1920s and ‘30s. These scholars attempted to
develop a more scientific foundation to teaching English
than what was evidenced in the Direct Method.
2.2.2  Characteristics
1. The objective is to teach the basic skills of language, but
skills are approached through structure.
2. Oral skills are taught first.
3. Structures are taught within sentences
4. Situations are used to present new sentence patterns.
5. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded
as crucial.
6. Learners are not given grammatical explanations.
7. The mother tongue is never used.
8. The Method is dependent on both a textbook and visual
aids.
26 TEMARIO
2.2.3  Advantages and disadvantages
„„ Advantages: language teaching begins with the spoken
language; items of grammar follow the principle that
simple forms must be taught before complex ones....
„„ Disadvantages: the learner was often unable to use the
language for real communication outside the classroom.
2.3. THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD
2.3.1  Background
The emergence of the Audiolingual Method resulted from
the increased attention that foreign language teaching in
the U.S.A. received towards the end of the 1950s.
2.3.2  Characteristics
1. The main aim in the early stages is oral proficiency.
2. Language skills are taught in this order: listening,
speaking, reading and writing.
3. The syllabus is structure-based.
4. Language structures are learnt through imitation,
repetitions and memorization.
5. Accuracy in pronunciation, stress, rhythm and intonation
is emphasized.
6. Translation and grammatical explanation are avoided.
7. The use of the mother tongue is not allowed.
8. Tape recorders and audiovisual equipment are essential.
2.3.3  Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages: it provides the learner with considerable
conversational fluency; language is practised orally before
being seen and used in the written form; etc.
Disadvantages: learners tend to find the procedures boring
and repetitive.
3. CURRENT APPROACHES
3.1. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
3.1.1  Background
The Communicative Approach arose in the 1970s as a
reaction to the Audiolingual method, which paid more
attention to structure than to its function.
3.1.2  Characteristics
1. The goal of language teaching is for the learner to develop
communicative competence.
2. Contextualization of language items is a basic premise.
3. A functional syllabus consists of arranging the functions of
language.
4. Translation may be used where and when students need
or benefit from it.
5. Fluency and acceptable language are prior to accuracy.
6. Grammar explanation is used if the students benefit from
it.
7. A judicious use of the mother tongue is also accepted.
8. Materials have an important role in promoting
communicative language use.
3.1.3  Advantages and disadvantages
„„ Advantages: the teaching focuses its attention on
real world language use; the role of the learner in the
teaching-learning process is emphasized; etc.
„„ Disadvantages: any teachers consider that the functional
syllabus is more suitable for intermediate students; etc.
3.2. HUMANISTIC APPROACHES
The Humanistic Approaches focus on the learners’ emotional
factors. What counts is the student as a whole person.
3.2.1  Total Physical Response (TPR)
This method was developed by James Asher, a professor of
psychology in a California University. The name derives from
the emphasis on the actions that learners have to make.
3.2.2  Natural Approach
Stephen Krashen propounded an influential view on second
language learning. The term natural emphasizes that the
principles underlying the method conform to the principles
of how children learn their first language.
3.2.3  The Silent Way
It is based on the principle that the teacher should be as
silent as possible, and the learner should be encouraged to
speak as much as possible.
3.2.4  Community Language Learning
It is based on the principle that «true» human learning is
both cognitive and affective. This is termed «whole-person
learning».
3.2.5  Suggestopedia
It is based on the non-conscious influences that human
beings have when learning.
3.3. THE LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH
3.3.1  Background
Since the 1970s, the emphasis shifted to the process of
learning.
3.3.2  Characteristics
The focus on the student has led to the development of
learner training and self-directed programmes. The aim is to
train students to be good learners.
3.3.3  Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages: students take on more responsibility for their
own learning.
Disadvantages: difficulty in matching the individual nature
of instruction.

3.4. TASK-BASED LEARNING (T.B.L.)
3.4.1  Background
In the 1970s, some methodologists started to concentrate
not so much on the nature of language input, but on the
learning tasks that the students performed. In 1979, N.S.
Prabhu suggested that if the emphasis in class was on
meaning, language would be learnt incidentally.
3.4.2  Characteristics
Task-Based Learning aims to create opportunities for
language use, to help language learners activate whatever
language they know, and to discover for themselves what
other language they need to learn. A Task-Based learning
framework consists of three phases (pre-task, task-cycle and
language-focus phases).
3.4.3  Advantages and disadvantages
„„ Advantages: TBL promotes attention to meaning,
develops communication strategies, etc.
„„ Disadvantages: students gain fluency at the expense of
accuracy.
3.5. NEW METHODOLOGIES IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Thanks to the use of the ICTs in class, we should mention
the introduction of some new methodologies in the
21st century: the Flipped classrooms model redefines
the traditional structure of a class; PBL (Problem-Based
Learning) is an inductive methodology that stimulates
LENGUA EXTRANJERA: INGLÉS 27
13
intellectual development and independent learning by
posing a challenge or real-life problem situation to the
students that they need to solve, taking into account their
previous knowledge. CLIL (Content Integrated Language
Learning) will also have play an important role to enable
students to learn content and language at the same time, as
it has proven to be an excellent tool to provide opportunities
for using English in varied and motivating contexts. The
Harkness Table method or discussion-based methodology
involves students seated around a large oval-shaped table to
discuss ideas in an encouraging, open-minded environment
with only occasional minimal teacher intervention. Kagan
structures have transformed the teaching of foreign
languages dramatically all over the world by integrating both
English and academic content, so the students can learn far
more quickly and thoroughly than traditional approaches
or even group work. We can mention methodologies such
as Gamed-Based-Learning through which the game,
either digital or physical will be a motivational tool in the
teaching-learning process of our students. It encourages
critical though, autonomy, learning in a fun way implying
the introduction of many key competences. Inquiry-based
methodology through the use of WebQuest can be carried
out in our Primary class with simple and easy questions in
the upper levels. KiVa is a good methodology coming from
Finland, to prevent bullying problems in class, especially,
again, in the upper levels, through which we are introducing
the Social and Civic Competences. Multiple intelligences
would be another methodology worth mentioning at this
stage and which can be implemented in almost every single
year in Primary Education.
28 TEMARIO

APPROACHES
AND METHODS

19 th Traditional Approach

GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

DIRECT METHOD
20 th
Modern Approach ORAL APPROACH
(until 70´s)
AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

20 th
Current Approaches
(since 70´s)

COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

HUMANISTIC APPROACHES

„„ T.P.R.
„„ Natural
Approach
„„ Silent Way
„„ C.L.L.
„„ Suggestopedia

LEARNER-CENTRED APPROACH

TASK-BASED APPROACH

21 st NEW METHODOLOGIES