Technical Drawing Guideline

Views
First angle projection
In first angle projection, the object is conceptually located in quadrant (i.e. it floats above
and before the viewing planes), the planes are opaque and each view is pushed through the
object onto the plane furthest from it.

Figure 1 First angle projection

Detail Views
A detail view is a separate large-scale drawing view of a small section of another view. It is
usually used to show features that are small relative to the size of the part or assembly
being depicted by the drawing. A detail view is designated by a letter and its scale is
indicated.

Figure 2 Detail view

Section Views
Section views are used to reveal interior features of an object that are not easily
represented using hidden lines in order to improve the visualization of parts or assemblies.
Traditional section views are based on the use of an imaginary cutting plane that cuts
through the object to reveal interior features. Section views are used in multi-view drawings
in order to help in clarifying the drawings and to facilitate the dimensioning of drawings. The
figure shows a regular multi-view drawing and a sectioned multi-view drawing of the same
part in the front view, the hidden features can be seen after sectioning.

Figure 3 Section view

It is important to note that hidden lines should not be shown in section views, as seen in the
figure below.
Figure 4 Section view hidden lines not shown

Multiple sections can be used in multi-view drawings when needed, as seen in the figure.

Figure 5 Section in multiple view drawing

Full Section
A full section view is made by passing an imaginary cutting plane fully through an object. The
figure shows an imaginary cutting plane passing fully through an object and half of it being
removed. The section may cut the object in the middle or at any desirable location. In a
multi- view drawing, a full section view is placed in the same position that an unsectioned
view would normally occupy; that is, a front section view would replace the traditional front
view.
Figure 6 Full section view

Half Section
A half section is made by passing two perpendicular imaginary cutting planes halfway
through an object such that one quarter of the object is removed. Hidden lines are omitted
on both halves of the section view. External features of the part are drawn on the
unsectioned half of the view. A center line, not an object line, is used to separate the
sectioned half from the unsectioned half of the view. Half section views are most often used
on parts that are symmetrical, such as cylinders.

Figure 7 Half section view

Offset Section
An offset section has its cutting plane bent at 90 degree angles to pass through important
features. Offset sections are used for complex parts that have a number of important
features that cannot be sectioned using a straight cutting plane. It should be noted that the
edges resulting from bending the cutting plane are not shown in the sectional view

Figure 8 Offset section view

Aligned Section
Aligned sections are special types of orthographic drawings used to revolve or align special
features of parts to clarify or make them easier to represent in section. Two intersecting
planes (the angle between them is more than 90 degrees) are used for sectioning. The
sectioned surfaces resulting from the two cutting planes are aligned together along one
plane. Normally the alignment is along a horizontal or vertical cutting plane.

Figure 9 Aligned section view

Broken Views
Broken views are usually used for parts having one of its dimensions significantly larger than
the other dimension (such as long shafts) in order to make it possible to display the drawing
view in a larger scale on a smaller size drawing sheet. In a broken view, portions of the view
that do not contain any details are broken out (removed) and the remaining portions of the
view are brought closer together.

Figure 10 Broken view

Dimensioning:
 Dimensioning is the process of defining the size, form and location of geometric features
and components on an engineering drawing.
 Geometric features are the features that define the shape of the part such as holes,
slots, chamfers, fillets, overall size.
 Dimension the size and location of part features that are necessary to manufacture the
part.
 Size dimensions - define size of features.
 Location dimensions - define location of features.
Figure 11 Identifying necessary dimensions.

Chain Dimensioning vs Baseline Dimensioning

Chain Dimensioning (dimensioning from feature to feature) is commonly used and

easy to insert. Chains of dimension should only be used if the function of the object
won't be affected by the accumulation of the tolerances.
Baseline (or Ordinate) Dimensioning is used when the location of features must be
controlled from a common reference point or plane. It is used to ensures that
tolerances (or errors) in manufacturing do not add up.
Figure 12 Chain vs Baseline dimensioning

Overall Dimensions
When several dimensions make up an overall length, the overall dimension can be
shown outside these component dimensions. When specifying an overall dimension,
one or more non-critical component dimensions must be omitted.

Figure 13 Overall dimension

Auxiliary Dimensions (Reference Dimensions)

When all of the component dimensions must be specified, an overall length may still
be specified as an auxiliary dimension (also called reference dimension). Auxiliary
dimensions are never toleranced, and are shown in brackets.
Figure 14 Reference dimension

Dimensioning Rules
Some of the most important rules for dimensioning are as follows:

 Each feature should be dimensioned.

 Length dimensions are in millimeters without specifying units.
 Angular dimensions are in degrees with a “ ° “ symbol after the angle value.
 Dimension figures are placed using the unidirectional method (read horizontally).
 Dimension figures should never be crowded or in any way that make them difficult to
read.
 Dimensions should be placed outside the part when possible.
 Dimensions should be evenly spaced and grouped.
 Dimensions should "line up" in chain fashion.
 Dimensions should not be duplicated and no dimensions should be given except those
needed to produce or inspect the part.
 Apply the dimension to the view that clearly show the shape or features of an part.
 The longer dimensions should be placed outside all intermediate dimensions so that
dimension lines will not cross extension lines.
 Dimension lines should not cross, if avoidable.
 Dimension lines and extension lines should not cross, if avoidable.
 Extension lines and object lines should not overlap.
 Leaders should slope at 45°, or 30°, or 60° with horizontal but may be made at any
convenient angle except vertical or horizontal.
 Place notes near the feature to which they apply, outside the view, and horizontally.
 Center lines or marks should be used on all circles and arcs.
 In general, a circle is dimensioned by its diameter, an arc by its radius.
Figure 15 Dimensioning rule examples

Arcs
 Arcs are dimensioned by giving the radius in the views in which their true shapes appear.
 The letter R is always placed before the dimension figure to emphasize that this
dimensions is radius of an arc.
 Dimension figure and the arrowhead should be inside the arc, where there is sufficient
space.
 Leader line must be radial and inclined with an angle between 30-60 degrees to the
horizontal.
 Use the foreshortened radial dimension line when arc center is located outside the
sheet of interferes with other views.
 Give the radius of a typical fillet only by using a local note, if some of the fillets are
different place their dimension and indicate that in the note.
 For a curve constructed form two or more arcs, it is required to dimension the radii and
center’s location.
Figure 16 Dimensioning arcs

Cylinder
 Size dimensions are diameter and length placed in the rectangular view. A “ Ø ” symbol
should be placed before the diameter value.
 Location dimension must be located from its center lines and placed in the circular view.
Figure 17 Dimensioning cylinders

Holes
 Size dimensions are diameter and length. Use leader line and a local note to specify hole
diameter, depth and count in the circular view e.g. 4X Hole Ø20 THRU or 2X M10X1.5.
 Location dimension must be located from its center lines and placed in the circular view.
 For large holes place the dimension line horizontally below the hole.
Figure 18 Dimensioning holes.

Chamfer
 Use leader line and note to indicate linear distance and angle of the chamfer.

Figure 19 Dimensioning chamfers

Rounded-End Shapes:
 Rounded edge shapes such as slots are dimensioned according to manufacturing
methods used and standard size of another part to be assembled.
Figure 20 Dimensioning rounded edge shapes.

Assembly Drawings
Assembly Drawings demonstrate how a number of separate subassemblies, parts, standard
components and specifications come together in a unified assembly. Generally speaking, an
assembly drawing is used to show fit and function, and verify how a product is put together.
In order to fulfill its purpose, assembly drawings must provide sufficient information to
enable the assembly of a component.
Figure 21 Assembly drawing

 The important features of assembly drawings are as follows:

 They must have a number of views to show how parts fit together.
 They usually have section views to show how parts fit and to eliminate hidden details.
 They typically have dimensions to indicate range of motion and/or overall size of
assembly for reference purposes.
 They must have leader lines and balloons to identify Individual components.
 They must have parts list (or BOM – Bill of Materials) that is related to balloon numbers
on drawing.
 Also, they may require multiple 3D-views (in different orientations) on a separate page
for very large assemblies.

In the assembly drawing shown below notice how dimensions are used to give an overall
representation of size (dimensions are not included on individual components or standard
components). Detailed drawings with full dimensions are prepared for the individual parts.
Also, it should be noted that, in the section view hatching oriented in opposite directions is
used to make it easier to distinguish separate parts that are mated together.
Figure 22 Assembly drawing section view, dimensions

Exploded Views
Exploded views are typically used in assembly drawings in order to show the relationship or
order of assembly of the various parts. An exploded view shows the components of an
object slightly separated by distance, or suspended in surrounding space in the case of a
three-dimensional exploded diagram. In mechanical systems, usually the component closest
to the center is assembled first, or is the main part in which the other parts get assembled.
Exploded views can also help to represent disassembly of parts, where the parts on the
outside normally get removed first.
Figure 23 Exploded view of assembly

Explode lines are typically used in exploded views to help in visualizing the location of each
component in the assembly. Explode lines connect each component in the exploded view to
the position where this component fits in the assembly. The explode lines might be thought
of as the path each component should move along in order to be placed in the assembly.

Figure 24 Assembly explode lines

Engineering Working Drawings Basics
Engineering graphics is an effective way of communicating technical ideas and it is
an essential tool in engineering design where most of the design process is
graphically based. Engineering graphics is used in the design process for
visualization, communication, and documentation.
Graphics is a visual communications language that include images, text, and
numeric information. Graphics communications using engineering drawings and
models is a clear and precise language with definite rules that must be mastered in
order to be successful in engineering design. Graphics communications are used in
every phase of engineering design starting from concept illustration all the way to
the manufacturing phase.

 An engineering (or technical) drawing is a graphical representation of a part,

assembly, system, or structure and it can be produced using freehand,
mechanical tools, or computer methods.
 Working drawings are the set of technical drawings used during the
manufacturing phase of a product. They contain all the information needed to
manufacture and assemble a product.

Codes and Standards

Codes and standards are made to organize and unify the engineering work.

Imagine; what if there was no standard for bolts?

 A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, and

construction of something.

 A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes

intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency and specific quality.

Examples of the organizations that establish standards and design codes: ISO , AISI,
SAE, ASTM, ASME, ANSI, DIN.

There are many different standards related to technical drawings.

The ISO standards for technical drawings are found in a two volumes handbook:

 ISO Standards Handbook: Technical drawings, Volume 1: Technical drawings

in general

 ISO Standards Handbook: Technical drawings, Volume 2:

Mechanical engineering drawings; Construction drawings; Drawing
equipment
Drawing Sheet Layout

Standard layouts of drawing sheets are specified by the various standards organizations.
The figure shows the layout of a typical sheet, showing the drawing frame, a typical title block,
parts list (bill of materials) and revision table.

Sheet Frames It is standard practice for a drawing frame to be printed on each sheet,
defining a margin around the outside of drawing area.

 The margins of the drawing frames are standardized for each size of paper.
  The standard sizes of drawing frames for ISO sized sheets, with no filing margins, are as
shown in the table:

Title Block, The title block is normally placed in the bottom right of the drawing frame, and it
should contain the following information:

 the name of the company or organization

 the title of the drawing
 the drawing number, which is generally a unique filing identifier
 the scale
 the drawing size
 the angle of projection used, either first or third, generally shown
symbolically

 the signature or initials of the draftsman, checker, approving officer, and issuing officer,
with the respective dates

 the material of the part

 the revision number
 the sheet number for multi-sheet drawings
 other information as required (tolerances, surface finish, etc.)

In addition to the information above, for drawings produced using CAD software, it is highly
recommended to have the following information in the title block:

 the name of the CAD software used and its version

 the name of the drawing file
 the name of the source part or assembly file
 the units of the dimensions (if the drawing is mistakenly printed on a different paper size,
 the scale becomes meaningless)

Revision Table, A revision table is normally located in the upper right of the drawing frame. All
modifications to the drawing should be documented there.
Material or Parts List (Bill of Materials), If the drawing contains a number of parts, or if it is an
assembly drawing, a tabulated parts list is added to the drawing. The bill of materials is usually
placed at the bottom right of the drawing frame, just above the title block.
The bill of materials should give the following information:

 the part number

 the part name
 the quantity required
 material specifications
 the drawing number of each individual part
 other applicable information

When the parts list is very large a separate drawing sheet may be used for the parts list alone.
Zoning, A drawing may be divided up into a grid using letters and numbers. When zoning is used it
is located inside the drawing frame. Zoning is usually used for large size drawing sheets where it
allows easy references to various parts of the drawing by referencing a coordinate such as B4.
Notes, Information other than pictorial views and dimensions necessary for completing a drawing
is classified as “notes”. Notes are usually placed in the lower left corner of the drawing sheet and
they are numbered consecutively downward.
Some examples of the notes used in working drawings are as follows:

 Dimension Notes ALL DIMENSIONS APPLY AFTER SURFACE TREATMENT.

 Heat Treating Notes HEAT TREAT IN ACCORDANCE WITH standard-XXX TO XXX-hardness
 Joining Method Notes (welding, brazing, etc.) FUSION WELD IN ACCORDANCE WITH
standard-XXX

 Plating and Coating Notes CADMIUM PLATE IN ACCORDANCE WITH standard- XXX
 Surface Preparation Notes SURFACE TO BE CLEANED AND POLISHED FOR VACUUM USE.
 Testing and Inspection Notes RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION OF ALL WELDS IN ACCORDANCE
WITH standard-XXX

 Threaded Inserts — Cleaning and Installation

Notes TIGHTENING TORQUE OF THREADED
FASTENERS SHOULD BE AS LISTED IN TORQUE
TABLE

 Miscellaneous Notes PLACE IN BAG AFTER FINAL ELECTROPOLISHING.

Three-Dimensional Views

Working drawings usually include a three-dimensional view (or views) of the part or assembly as needed
(but it is not a must).

Axonometric Views

An axonometric view is a view in which an object appears to be rotated to show its all three
dimensions. Axonometric views are classified according to how the axes are oriented into
Isometric, Diametric and Trimetric.

 Isometric View In isometric views the two edges of

the view make 30⁰ angles with the horizontal and
that makes the three angles between the view axes
to be equal to 120⁰.

 Diametric View In diametric views the angles

may vary but two of the three angles between
the view axes are equal.

 Trimetric View In trimetric views all three angles

between view axes are different.

Oblique Views

The front face of an oblique view is drawn to the exact shape and
size while the other two faces are projected from this front face at
any convenient angle (usually 45⁰) and in any direction. An
oblique view is not a realistic kind of view that can be obtained by
rotating the part using 3D CAD software, however it is convenient
and easy to use for freehand sketching.
Orthographic Projections (two-dimensional views)

Orthographic projection (or orthogonal projection) is a means of representing a three-dimensional

object in two dimensions.

A multi-view orthographic projection is an illustration technique in which up to six pictures of an

object are produced (usually three are sufficient in most cases or two in some cases), with each
projection plane being perpendicular to one of the coordinate axes of the object.

The views are positioned relative to each other

according to either of two schemes:
first-angle or third-angle projection.

 First-Angle Projection: In first-angle projection the object is conceptually located in

quadrant I (i.e., it floats above and before the viewing planes), the planes are opaque, and
each view is pushed through the object onto the plane furthest from it.

 Third-Angle Projection: In third-angle projection the object is conceptually located in

quadrant III (i.e., it is positioned below and behind the viewing planes), the planes are
transparent, and each view is pulled onto the plane closest to it.
 Projection Symbols

A standard projection symbol is used in drawings to identify the projection system of

the orthographic views.

First or third angle views?

Auxiliary Views

Auxiliary views utilize an

additional projection plane other
than the common planes in a
multi-view. Since the projections
of an object need to show the
true shape and size of the object,
the projection plane must be
 parallel to the object surface. Therefore, any surface that is not in line with the three major axis
needs its own projection plane to show the features correctly.

Detail Views

A detail view is a separate large-scale drawing view of a small

section of another view. It is usually used to show features
that are small relative to the size of the part or assembly
being depicted by the drawing. A detail view is designated by
a letter and its scale is indicated.

Broken Views

Broken views are usually used for parts having one of its dimensions significantly larger than the
other dimension (such as long shafts) in order to make it possible to display the drawing view in a
larger scale on a
smaller size drawing sheet. In a broken view, portions
of the view that do not contain any details are broken
out (removed) and the remaining portions of the view
are brought closer together.

Dimensioning

Dimensioning is the process of defining the size, form and location of geometric features and
components on an engineering drawing.
Before an object can be built, complete information about both the size and shape of the object
must be available. The exact shape of the part or assembly is shown by the different views in the
drawing sheet. Dimensions are added to the two- dimensional views (not to the 3D view) in the
drawing sheet such that it will show all the size and location details of the part.

 In metric drawings, generally, dimensions are in millimeters. To avoid having to specify 'mm'
after every dimension, a label such as 'all dimensions in mm' or 'unless otherwise stated all
dimensions are in mm' is usually contained in the title block.
 If the dimension is less than one a leading zero should be used before the decimal point (e.g.,
0.5).
 Dimensions used in drawings can be categorized as:
  Size dimensions - define size of features (radius,
diameter, length, width, thickness, etc).
 Location dimensions - define location of part features
(such as holes).

Dimension Lines and Extension Lines

Extension (or Projection) lines are used to indicate the

extremities of a dimension. They are generally drawn up
to 1 mm from the outline of the object.

Dimension lines are used to label a particular dimension.

They have one or more arrowheads.

 Dimensions are usually placed between extension lines. But when there is no enough room to
accommodate the dimension, either the dimension value or the dimension lines can be

located the outside extension lines as illustrated.

Types of Dimensions

Dimensions may be divided into three different types; Linear dimensions, Angular dimensions, and
Leader dimensions.

 Linear Dimensions - they are either horizontal or vertical to the dimensioning plane.
 Angular Dimensions - they are usually specified in decimal degrees (e.g., 27.5°). Also they
can be specified using degrees and minutes or degrees minutes and seconds (e.g., 27°30'
or 0°15'40" ).

 Leader Dimensions - they are usually used to specify a diameter or a radius where a leader
line is used to point towards the feature being dimensioned.
Dimensioning Methods

Two methods of dimensioning are in common use.

 Unidirectional, The dimensions are written horizontally.

 Aligned, The dimensions are written parallel to their dimension line. Aligned dimensions
should always be readable from the bottom or the right of the drawing.
Chain Dimensioning and Baseline Dimensioning

Chain Dimensioning (dimensioning from feature to feature) is commonly used and easy to insert.
Chains of dimension should only be used if the function of the object won't be affected by the
accumulation of the tolerances.
 Baseline (or Ordinate) Dimensioning is used when the location of features must be controlled
from a common reference point or plane. It is used to ensures that tolerances (or errors) in
manufacturing do not add up.

Overall Dimensions

When several dimensions make up an overall length, the overall dimension can be shown outside
these component dimensions.
When specifying an overall dimension, one or more non-critical component dimensions must be
omitted.

Auxiliary Dimensions (Reference Dimensions)

When all of the component dimensions must be specified, an overall length may still be specified
as an auxiliary dimension (also called reference dimension).
Auxiliary dimensions are never toleranced, and are shown in brackets.
Dimensions not to Scale

Dimensions that are not to scale are

underlined.

Dimensions not Complete

When a dimension line cannot be completely

drawn to its normal termination point, the

free end is terminated in a double arrowhead.

Dual Dimensions

Working drawing are usually drawn with all metric or all US dimensions. Sometimes the object
manufacturing requires both metric and US measuring system and in such case dual dimensioning
may be necessary. The optional secondary units are normally displayed in brackets [ ].

Dimensioning Rules

Some of the most important rules for dimensioning are as follows:

 Dimension figures should never be crowded or in any way that make them difficult to read.
 Each feature should be dimensioned.
 Dimensions should be placed outside the part when possible.
 Dimensions should be evenly spaced and grouped.
 Dimensions should not be duplicated or the same information given in two different ways
(except when dual dimensioning is to be used) and no dimensions should be given except
 those needed to produce or inspect the part.

 Dimensions should be placed in the views where the features being dimensioned are
shown in true shape.

 Dimensioning to hidden lines should be avoided wherever possible (section views may be
used to show the shape and dimensions of internal features).
  The longer dimensions should be placed outside all intermediate dimensions so that
dimension lines will not cross extension lines.

 Dimension lines should not cross, if avoidable.

 Dimension lines and extension lines should not cross, if avoidable (extension lines may
cross each other).

 Extension lines and object lines should not overlap.

 Detail dimensions should "line up" in chain fashion.
 Leaders should slope at 45°, or 30°, or 60° with horizontal but may be made at any
convenient angle except vertical or horizontal.

 Center lines or marks should be used on all circles and arcs.

 In general, a circle is dimensioned by its diameter, an arc by its radius.
 Cylinders should be located by their center lines.
 Cylinders should be located in the circular views, if possible.
 A cylinder is usually dimensioned by giving both its diameter and length in the rectangular
view when possible.

Line Styles and Conventions

The use of different line styles and widths is important in technical drawings as they are used to
indicate details and features of the drawing. Line styles make drawings easier to read where for
example, solid lines used to show the object will stand out from dashed lines used to show hidden
features.
The four main types of lines used in drawings are listed in the table:
Section Views

Section views are used to reveal interior features of an object

that are not easily represented using hidden lines in order to
improve the visualization of parts or assemblies.
Traditional section views are based on the use
of an imaginary cutting plane that cuts
through the object to reveal interior features.
Section views are used in multi-view drawings
in order to help in clarifying the drawings and
to facilitate the dimensioning of drawings.

The figure shows a regular multi-view drawing

and a sectioned multi-view drawing of the same
part in the front view, the hidden features can
be seen after sectioning.

 Hatching lines inclined at 45⁰ are used

to represent the new surfaces that are
introduced by the section. The hatching
lines spacing vary from 1.5mm for small
sections to 3mm for large sections.

 In some cases, the hatching may be

used to indicate the material where
different standardized hatching patterns
are used for identifying different
materials.

 The cutting plane is shown in orthogonal

view as a cutting line (a double dashed chain
line is used) with two arrows that point
towards the portion of the object that will
be kept. Sections are usually designated by
uppercase letters.
  It is important to note that hidden lines
should not be shown in section views, as
seen in the figure.

 Multiple sections can be used in

multi-view drawings when needed,
as seen in the figure.

Section View Types

Different types of section views are used in technical drawing where the type of section to be
used depends on the shape of the object to be sectioned and the internal features to be revealed
by the section.

Full Section

A full section view is made by passing an

imaginary cutting plane fully through an object.
The figure shows an imaginary cutting plane
passing fully through an object and half of it
being removed. The section may cut the object
in the middle or at any desirable location. In a
multi- view drawing, a full section view is placed
in the same position that an unsectioned view
would normally occupy; that is, a front section
view would replace the traditional front view.
Half Section

A half section is made by passing two perpendicular imaginary cutting planes halfway through an
object such that one quarter of the object is removed. Hidden lines are omitted on both halves of
the
section view. External features of the part are
drawn on the unsectioned half of the view. A
center line, not an object line, is used to
separate the sectioned half from the
unsectioned half of the view. Half section views
are most often used on parts that are
symmetrical, such as cylinders.

Broken-out Section

A broken-out section is used to show interior features

of a part by breaking away some of the object. A
broken-out section is used instead of a half or full
section view to save time. A break line separates the
sectioned from un-sectioned portion of the view. A
jagged break line is drawn to represent the edge of the
break. No cutting plane line is drawn for the broken-
out section view. Unlike half sections, hidden lines are
shown in the un- sectioned portion of the view.

Revolved Section

A revolved section is made by revolving the cross-section view of the part about an axis of rotation
placed at the location of the cutting plane. The cross-section created at the position that the
cutting
plane passed is revolved 90 degrees
and drawn on the view. Visible lines
adjacent to the revolved view can
either be drawn or broken out using
conventional breaks. No cutting
plane lines are drawn for revolved
sections because the section is
shown in its actual location.
Removed Section
Removed sections are used to show the contours of complicated shapes such as wing and
fuselage, blades for jet engines. Removed sections are made in a manner similar to revolved
sections, by passing an imaginary cutting plane perpendicular to a part then revolving the
cross section 90 degrees.
However, the cross section is
then drawn adjacent to the
orthographic view, not on it. If a
number of removed sections
are done on a part, cutting
plane lines may be drawn with
labels to clarify the position
from which each section is
taken.

Offset Section

An offset section has its cutting plane bent at 90 degree angles to pass through important
features. Offset sections are used for complex parts that have a number of important features
that cannot be sectioned using a straight cutting plane.
It should be noted
that the edges
resuting from
bending the cutting
plane are not shown
in the sectional
view.

Aligned Section

Aligned sections are special types of orthographic drawings used to revolve or align special
features of parts to clarify or make
them easier to represent in section. Two
intersecting planes (the angle between them is
more than 90 degrees) are used for sectioning. The
sectioned surfaces resulting from the two cutting
planes are alligned togather along one plane.
Normally the alignment is along a horizontal or
vertical cutting plane.
Special Sectioning Conventions

 Ribs, Webs and Thin features

When a section passes through a rib, web or a thin feature in general, hatching is not
shown when the sectioning plane is parallel to the plane of the thin feature (it will look as
if the thin feature is un-sectioned). However, when the sectioning plane is perpendicular to
the plane of the thin feature, hatching is shown as usual.

 Shafts, Bolts & Nuts, Keys, Pins, etc. in Assembly Drawings

In assembly drawings, elements such as shafts, Bolts & Nuts, Keys, Pins, etc. are not
sectioned even if the sectioning plane passes through these elements.
Assembly Drawings

Assembly Drawings demonstrate how a number of separate subassemblies, parts, standard components
and specifications come together in a unified assembly.
Generally speaking , an assembly drawing is used to show fit and function, and verify how a
product is put together. In order to fulfill its purpose, assembly
drawings must provide sufficient information to enable the assembly of a component.

The important features of assembly drawings are as follows:

 They must have a number of views to show how parts fit together.
 They usually have section views to show how parts fit and to eliminate hidden details.
 They typically have dimensions to indicate range of motion and/or overall size of assembly
for reference purposes.
 They must have leader lines and balloons to identify Individual components.
 They must have parts list (or BOM – Bill of Materials) that is related to balloon numbers on
drawing.
 Also, they may require multiple 3D-views (in different orientations) on a separate page for
very large assemblies.

In the assembly drawing shown below notice how dimensions are used to give an overall
representation of size (dimensions are not included on individual components or standard
components). Detailed drawings with full dimensions are prepared for the individual parts. Also, it
should be noted that, in the section view hatching oriented in opposite directions is used to make
it easier to distinguish separate parts that are mated together.
Exploded Views

Exploded views are typically used in assembly drawings in order to show the relationship or order
of assembly of the various parts. An exploded view shows the components of an object slightly
separated by distance, or suspended in surrounding space in the case of a three-dimensional
exploded diagram.

 In mechanical systems,
usually the component
closest to the center is
assembled first, or is the
main part in which the
other parts get assembled.
Exploded views can also
help to represent
disassembly of parts,
where the parts on the
outside normally get
removed first.

 Explode lines are typically used in exploded views to help in visualizing the location of each
component in the assembly. Explode lines connect each component in the exploded view to
the position where this component fits in the assembly. The explode lines might be thought
of as the path each component should move along in order to be placed in the assembly.
 The use of explode lines becomes
important for assemblies consisting of
many different parts where parts have to
be moved in different directions in order
to make it possible to visualize all the
parts of the assembly.

Numbering of Working Drawings

Any mechanical system or device generally consists of several levels of subassemblies. Each
subassembly consists of several parts or lower-level subassemblies that are put together first then
the different subassemblies are put together to make the main assembly.
In general, the working drawings for any mechanical system or device will include:
 Assembly drawing for the main assembly (it will include several 3D and 2D views, section
views, explodes views, etc. as needed and it can consist of several sheets).
 Assembly drawings for each of the subassemblies.
 Detail drawings for each of the individual parts (it should be noted that detail drawings are
not needed for standard components such as bolts, nuts, keys, bearings, etc.)
 It is extremely important to use a numbering system that assigns a unique identification
number for each of the drawings. The numbering system should reference the various parent-
child relationships between the main assembly and the various levels of subassemblies down
to the parts level.
 One of the convenient methods for assigning numbers for drawings uses numbering system
consisting of different levels where the number of levels being used depends on the number
of subassembly levels. The general format of the numbering system is as follows:
XXXXX.AA.BB.CC.DD....

where,
XXXXX is the main assembly identification number
AA.BB.CC.DD.... are the identification numbers corresponding to the different
levels of subassemblies down to the individual components level. The number of
digits in each level can be two or more depending on the number of components
at that level.
Example: Consider a main assembly that consists of three subassemblies
and two main parts that fit directly in the main assembly. Each of the
subassemblies consists of several parts as shown in the tree chart given
below. Assign an appropriate number for each of the drawings.

Solution:
Here we have two levels below the assembly level (subassemblies then
parts) therefore the numbering may take the general format:
XXX.AA.BB

 Note that we consider the longest path down to the individual parts
level in order to determine the number of levels in the numbering
system.

The numbering of the drawings will be as shown in the chart:

where XXX represents the identification number for the main assembly.
GEOMTERIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERNACING:

Symbol:
Definition:
A datum is theoretical exact plane, axis or point location that GD&T or dimensional tolerances
are referenced to. You can think of them as an anchor for the entire part; where the other
features are referenced from. A datum feature is usually an important functional feature that
needs to be controlled during measurement as well.
All GD&T symbols except for the form tolerances
(straightness, flatness, circularity and cylindricity) can use datums to help specify what
geometrical control is needed on the part. When it comes to GD&T, datum symbols are your
starting points where all other features are referenced from.
How Datum Features are Shown on a Drawing
The datum features on a drawing are denoted with a series of capital letters. These letters are in
boxes and tied to the datum feature with a black triangle.  This letter will also show up in
any feature control frame that uses this datum feature as a reference. A feature control frame
can reference multiple datums at once and each one can be referenced as many times as
needed.

Notation is Important on Drawings

As stated before, datums can be located on points, axes, edges, and surfaces. It is important
though that they is called out correctly on the drawing to control the right type of feature. Here is
how different types of features are called out on engineering drawings.
On a surface
 The symbol must be placed on or with one single extension line out of the datum surface. This
means that the datum is only on the surface of the part where it is shown. If it is on one side of a
rectangular object like a box, the datum surface is only the side where the symbol is shown.
However if the part is round like a cylinder, the datum would be the entire surface of the
cylinder.
On an Axis

For Axis control, the symbol must be placed on the dimension of a diametric tolerance as shown
above.  This means that the datum is actually the central axis through the feature, and not the
feature surface itself.  This type is common with any GD&T symbol that can have axis control
like runout, perpendicularity or concentricity.
On a point or hole’s axis

To establish a datum axis of a feature such as a hole, the symbol can be placed in a few ways.
1. Placed directly on the hole – Example A in the above drawing
2. Placed on the leader pointing to the hole – Example B
3. Placed on the feature control frame itself – Example C
4. Shown on the side view by denoting the axis
Datum Features ≠ Datums
A datum feature is usually an important functional surface where all other dimensions need to
be in spec with reference to it. However, things get a little tricky when clarifying what
the datum actually is. A Datum is a perfect point, line, plane or surface but only exists
theoretically. However, a Datum Feature is a tangible surface, point or axis on a part where that
theoretical datum is located. The reason they are not equal to each other is that the part surface
is never 100% perfect. It will always have some kind of waviness, bumps and valleys.

From Theoretical to Real

In the example above, the Datum is the green line and the Datum Feature is the imperfect black
line that forms it.  To form this theoretical plane in the real world, measurement surfaces or
points are used. For example,the face of a flat part may be referenced by a datum on a drawing.
In the above drawing, this surface may be simulated by a near perfect granite slab.
So Remember:
Datums are theoretical and only simulated by Measurement Equipment (Gauge pins, Granite
slabs, angle plates, computer-generated planes, etc)
Datum Features are real, tangible features on a part where the measurement equipment would
physically touch or measure.  They are usually important functional surface.
*Note: It is common to simply use the term “datum” when referring to a datum feature or a
datum since, in a perfect world, they would be the same. Commonly in manufacturing and
design you would say “datum” to cover everything just for simplicity. However knowing what
they actually represent is important in understanding measurement and design theory behind
GD&T.

GD&T Tolerance Definitions

Table of contents

 Angularity

 Perpendicularity

 Cylindricity

 Runout

 Total Runout

 Profile

 Profile of a Line

 Parallelism

 Position

 Straightness

 Concentricity

 Flatness

 Symmetry

 Circularity
GD&T Angularity Definition

In a mechanical drawing of a part, angularity tolerance allows the designer to specify the degree to which
the orientation of an angled part feature may vary. The angularity symbol is often used to insure that the
part can properly mate with another.  In GD&T, the degree of permissible variation is not specified as a
tolerance on the angle. Rather an indirect method is used where one specifies a tolerance zone at a
specified angle from a datum, within which a part feature, axis, or center plane must lie.

In the left figure above, the boxed angularity symbol, tolerance and datum are used to control the center
axis of an angled hole. The boxed symbols can be read "This axis must lie within two planes 0.5 apart; the
planes inclined 60° to surface A".
In the right figure above, the tolerance zone created is indicated by the parallel lines.
This form of angularity tolerance applies only in the drawing view in which the tolerance is specified, and
requires the permissible variation to be defined for other views. However, if a diameter symbol were
placed in front of the boxed 0.5, this would create a cylindrical tolerance zone which would then apply to
all drawing views.
Angularity is used in a tolerance stack when applied to a surface or line element. Angularity refines the
orientation of the surface or line element, acting like a flatness control for the purposes of performing a
tolerance stack.
GD&T Perpendicularity Definition

In a mechanical part drawing, perpendicularity tolerance allows the designer to specify the degree to
which the orientation of a right-angled part feature may vary. The perpendicularity symbol is often used
on a drawing to ensure that mating features can be assembled.  In most cases, the perpendicularity symbol
is applied to a feature-of-size (FOS) with its base dimension.  The tolerance zone is created perpendicular
to the specified datum, and a part feature, axis, or center plane must lie within it.

In the left figure above, the boxed perpendicularity symbol and tolerance are used to control the center
axis of a male feature.  The boxed symbols can be read "This axis must lie between two
planes perpendicular to the surface at A and spaced 0.1 apart".
The tolerance zone created is indicated by the parallel lines in the rightmost figure, and applies for the
entire length of the axis extending from datum plane A. Note that this example only controls the
orientation in the plane drawn. The other plane (perpendicular to the above drawing) is unaffected by this
orientation control.
When the perpendicularity symbol is applied to a FOS, it is often used in a part or assembly tolerance
stack. When the perpendicularity symbol is applied to a surface or line on a part drawing, it is refining the
orientation of the surface or line element, acting more like a flatness control for the purposes of
performing a tolerance stack.
GD&T Cylindricity Definition

In GD&T, cylindricity tolerance is used when cylindrical part features must have good circularity and
straightness, like pins or camshafts.  While circularity applies only to cross sections, cylindricity applies
simultaneously to the entire surface.  Since cylindricity is applied to an individual surface, this tolerance
does not need to be related to a datum.
An example of cylindricity tolerance is shown below.  In the top figure, a shaft has a cylindricity
tolerance applied to it.  The boxed symbols can be read "this surface must lie between two concentric
cylinders spaced 0.2 apart".  The lower figure shows a sample part that meets this tolerance.  Note that
this tolerance requires verification in all three dimensions.  Because cylindricity refines the form of a
surface, it is treated like flatness in order to perform a tolerance stack.
GD&T Runout Definition
In GD&T, runout tolerance is used to control the location of a circular part feature relative to its axis. 
This is different than circularity, which controls overall roundness.  Runout is usually applied to parts
with circular cross sections that must be assembled like drill bits, segmented shafts, or machine tool
components.  Runout helps to limit the axis offset of two parts to ensure they can spin and wear evenly.
An example of runout tolerance is shown below.  In the top figure the runout symbol is applied to the
angled surface.   The boxed symbols can be read "each circular element of this surface must have full
indicator movement (FIM) of less than 0.1 relative to datum A".  The bottom figure shows a sample
measurement taken at one cross section, but multiple measurements are required to verify runout.  Note
that the indicator is applied perpendicular to the measured surface, and that this tolerance controls only
individual circular elements and not the whole surface simultaneously (see total runout).
GD&T Total Runout Definition

In GD&T, total runout is a complex tolerance that controls a feature's straightness, profile, angularity, and
other geometric variation.  Total runout is different than runout because it applies to an entire surface
simultaneously instead of individual circular elements.
An example of total runout tolerance is shown below.  The top figure shows a total runout tolerance
applied to a horizontal surface.  The boxed symbols can be read "this entire surface must have full
indicator movement (FIM) of less than 0.1 relative to datum A".  The lower figure shows how total runout
is verified.  Note that the indicator is applied all along, and perpendicular to the surface to which the
tolerance is applied.
GD&T Profile Definition

In GD&T, profile tolerance defines a uniform boundary around a surface within which the elements of the
surface must lie.  Profile is a complex tolerance that simultaneously controls a feature's form, size,
orientation, and sometimes location.  Profile is a three-dimensional tolerance that applies in all directions
regardless of the drawing view where the tolerance is specified.  It is usually used on parts with complex
outer shape and a constant cross-section like extrusions. 
An example of profile tolerance is shown below.  The top figure shows the profile tolerance applied to a
curved surface.  The boxed symbols can be read "with respect to datum A, this surface must lie between
two surface boundaries 0.8 apart and spaced equally about the true (or ideal) surface profile".  The bottom
figure shows an example of a part that meets this tolerance. 
GD&T Profile of a Line Definition
In GD&T, profile of a line tolerance is similar in many respects to profile tolerance.  The major difference
is that profile of a line establishes a two-dimensional tolerance zone that controls individual line elements
of a feature or surface.  Profile of a line is usually applied to parts with varying cross-sections, or to
specific cross sections critical to a part's function.  Examples of parts where profile of a line could be
applied include aircraft wings and housings used to seal out dust or water.
An example of profile of a line tolerance is shown below.  In the left figure, profile of a line is applied to
the top surface of a part.  The boxed symbols can be read "each line element of this surface at any cross
section must lay between two boundaries spaced 0.2 apart relative to datums A and B".  The two right
figures show sample cross-sections of the part with line elements that meet this tolerance requirement. 
Note that the tolerance remains the same for the line element even though the cross-section shape is
different.  Also note that two datums are needed to define the orientation of the cross section plane.
Because profile of a line can require multiple measurements at any number of cross sections, it is
customary to specify the number of cross sections to be checked on the drawing. 
GD&T Parallelism Definition

In mechanical part drawings, parallelism tolerance allows the designer to specify the degree to which a
feature's orientation may vary with respect to its referenced datum by creating a tolerance zone parallel to
that datum.  The relevant feature, axis, or center plane must then lie within this zone.  The parallelism
symbol is generally used to ensure features are aligned for proper function.

In the left figure above, the boxed parallelism symbol and tolerance are used to control the center axis of
a hole.  The boxed symbols can be read "This axis must lie between two planes parallel to the axis A and
spaced 0.3 apart". Note that if the boxed tolerance includes a diameter symbol, indicating a cylindrical
tolerance zone, the tolerance would apply to all views.
The tolerance zone created is indicated by the parallel lines in the rightmost figure, and applies for the
entire length of the axis.  
Parallelism is not often used in a tolerance stack except when it is applied to a surface, in which case it is
treated like a flatness control since it refines the orientation of the surface.
GD&T Position Definition

In GD&T, position is a versatile tolerance that can be used to control location, coaxiality, orientation
or axis offset of a part feature or axis.  Position tolerance is generally applied to features important to
assembly like holes or slots, and it is often included when performing a tolerance stack.
An example of position tolerance is shown below.  The top figure shows the position symbol applied to
two holes.  The boxed symbols can be read "relative to datums A, B, and C, the position of these hole
centers shall lie within a cylindrical tolerance zone of diameter 0.3". 
The bottom figure shows an enlarged view of the upper hole.  In side view of the part, the orientation of
the hole is controlled in the same manner as perpendicularity or parallelism.  In the top view, the position
of the hole is controlled by its axis location.  The actual position of the hole's axis (shown in red) must lie
within a tolerance zone related to the true axis position (shown in black) specified on the drawing.  Note
that in this example, both location and orientation are controlled simultaneously in 3D.
GD&T Straightness Definition

When looking at 2D drawings of 3D objects, certain drawing views may show a part feature as a straight
line.  Straightness tolerance specifies a tolerance zone within which the line element of a feature must lie. 
Since straightness is applied to an individual feature, this tolerance does not need to be related to a
datum.  The straightness symbol is sometimes used to ensure mating features (e.g. a dowel or other press-
fit assembly) will create a tight fit without the use of fasteners.
The figure below shows two views of a simple cylindrical pin.  In the side view, the cylindrical
surface has a straightness tolerance applied to it.  Because the surface is cylindrical, this tolerance applies
to both the top and bottom line elements.  The boxed symbols can be read "the top and bottom of the
cylinder must lie between two parallel planes 0.02 apart".

The additional figures below show three actual part conditions that would meet this tolerance. 
GD&T Concentricity Definition

In GD&T, concentricity is a complex tolerance used to establish a tolerance zone for the median points of
a cylindrical or spherical part feature.  Concentricity is generally reserved for high-precision parts, and
only when there is a need to control median points.  Verifying concentricity is a time-consuming process,
and in many cases it is recommended to use runout or position tolerance in lieu of concentricity. 
An example of concentricity is shown below.  In the top figure, the concentricity symbol is applied to the
axis of the part.  The boxed symbols can be read "relative to datum A, all median points of opposing
elements on this cylindrical surface must lie within a cylindrical tolerance zone of 0.5".  The lower figure
shows a part that meets this requirement.  The side view of the part shows the median points for each
surface element and the end view shows the cylindrical tolerance zone.  The end view also shows a
possible surface that meets the size limits of the part.
GD&T Flatness Definition

Many part designs contain surfaces that need to be uniform.  In GD&T flatness tolerance defines a zone
between two parallel planes within which a surface must lie.  Since flatness is applied to an individual
surface, this tolerance does not need to be related to a datum.  Flatness is usually used on a surface
associated with a size dimension, acting as a refinement to the size requirement to ensure proper function
of a part, or to promote even wear.  Flatness tolerance applies in all drawing views, not just the view
showing the tolerance callout.
An example of flatness is shown below.  The left figure shows the drawing callout.  The boxed symbols
can be read "this surface must lie between two parallel planes spaced 0.2 apart in all views."  The right
figure shows a possible actual part condition.  Note that the flatness tolerance must be less than the size
tolerance associated with the surface.  If the flatness tolerance had been 0.6, it would result in a condition
where the overall size of the part may have exceeded its allowable size limits.

Because flatness refines a surface, it may be used in a tolerance stack.

GD&T Symmetry Definition

In GD&T, symmetry tolerance establishes a tolerance zone for the median points of non-cylindrical part
features.  This tolerance is similar to concentricity, and the verification of symmetry tolerence is likewise
time-consuming and difficult.  It is generally recommended that position, parallelism, or straightness be
used in lieu of symmetry tolerance.
An example of symmetry tolerance is shown below.  The top figure shows the symmetry symbol applied
to a notch.  The boxed symbols can be read "the median points of these opposing surfaces must be
symmetric about datum axis A within a tolerance zone of 0.7".  The bottom figure shows and example
part that meets this requirement.  The median points must lie between two planes 0.7 apart and equally
spaced about datum axis A. 
GD&T Circularity Definition

In GD&T, circularity tolerance is used to control the roundness of circular parts or features.  Some
examples of circular features include cylinders, spheres, and cones.  Sometimes circular surfaces are
used for moving parts such as ball bearings or spools, in which case circularity helps ensure these parts
move smoothly and wear evenly.  Because circularity is applied to an individual surface, this tolerance
does not need to be related to a datum.
The first example of circularity tolerance is shown below. Although a cylinder is shown, this
example applies for conical shapes as well.  The simple pin shown in the left figure has a circularity
tolerance applied to it.  The boxed symbols can be read "each circular cross section of this cylinder must
lie between two concentric circles spaced 0.25 apart".  The right figure shows a sample cross section A-A
and its possible roundness relative to the tolerance zone.  Note that circularity applies to the entire length
of the cylinder, and would therefore require multiple checks to verify the pin meets the specified tolerance
over its entire length.

The second example of circularity is shown below and is applied to a sphere.  In the case of a sphere, the
circularity tolerance now applies in all directions since any cross section through the center of the sphere
should be a circle.  The verification of the sphere is therefore more involved than for a cylinder or cone,
which would require measurement in only one plane.