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PAPER – II SOCIOLOGY
UNIT – I INTRODUCTION
MEANING OF SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is one of the youngest sciences. August Comte first used the term ‘Sociology’ in
1839. He is known as “the father of Sociology”. The term ‘Sociology’ is derived from two
words “Socio” means ‘society’ and “logy” means ‘science’ or ‘study’. The etymological meaning
of Sociology is ‘the study of society’ or ‘the science of society’.
Ogburn and Nimkoff – “the scientific study of human life”.
Kimball Young – “the scientific study of the social aspects of human life”.
NATURE AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
NATURE
Sociology, as a branch of knowledge, has its own unique characteristics. It is different from
other sciences in certain aspects. The following are the main characteristics:
Sociology is an Independent Science – Sociology has its own field of study, boundary and
method.
Sociology is a Social Science and not a Physical Science – Social science concentrates its
attention of man, his social behaviour, social activities and social life. It distinguishes from
physics, chemistry, mathematics and other physical sciences.
Sociology is a Pure Science and not an Applied Science – The main aim of pure science is
the acquisition of knowledge and it is not bothered whether the acquired knowledge is useful or
can be put to use. On the other hand, the aim of applied science is to apply the acquired
knowledge into life and to put it to use.
Sociology is relatively an Abstract Science and not a Concrete Science – Sociology is not
interested in concrete manifestations of human events. It is more concerned with the form of
human events and their patterns.
Sociology as a general social science and not a specializing science - The area of inquiry
for Sociology is general and not specialized. Sociology is concerned with human interaction,
relationships and human life in general terms. Other social sciences such as Political Science,
History, Economics, Anthropology etc., also study man and human interaction, but not each and
every aspect or fact about human interaction. They concentrate on human interaction in certain
specific fields and specialize along those lines.
SCOPE
Scope means the subject matter or the areas of study. Every science has its own field of inquiry.
It becomes difficult to study a science systematically unless its boundary or scope is determined
precisely. Sociology as a social science has its own scope or boundaries. However, there are
two main schools of thought regarding the scope of Sociology: The Specialistic or Formalistic
School and The Synthetic School.
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There is a good deal of controversy about the scope of Sociology between the two schools. The
supporter of first school believes that Sociology is a specific science and the scope should be
limited whereas others believe that it is a general science and its scope is very vast.
Specialistic School or Formalistic School
The supporters of this school of thought are George Simmel, Vierkandt, Max Weber, Von Wiese
and Tonnies. The main views of the school regarding the scope of Sociology are:
 Sociology is a specific, pure and independent social science.
 Sociology studies the various forms of social relationships.
 Scope of Sociology is very narrow and limited.
 Sociology deals with specific form of human relationship.
 Sociology need not study all the events connected with social science.
 Simmel believes that it is a specific social science and it should deal with social
relationships from different angles.
Synthetic School
The supporters of synthetic school are the sociologists like Ginsberg, Durkheim, Comte,
Sorokin, Spencer, Ward, and Hob House. According to this school:
 Sociology is a general and systematic social science.
 Scope of Sociology is very vast.
 Sociology needs help from other social sciences.
 It is a synthesis (amalgamation) of social science.
 Sociology is closely related with other social sciences.
From the above discussion, the formalistic school believes in the study of the parts, which
makes up the society and synthetic school advocates the study of the whole society. However,
both the schools complement to each other.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO INDIA
It is difficult to understand the origin and development of Sociology in India without reference to
its colonial history. By the second half of the 19th Century, the colonial Sate in India was about to
undergo several major transformations.
The development of sociology in three distinctive phases:
 The First Phase - 1917 to 1946
 The Second Phase - 1947 to 1966
 The Third Phase - 1967 onwards
Sociology in the Pre-Independence Period
 Bombay University started teaching of Sociology by a grant of Government of India in
1914.
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 Sociology had its formal beginning in 1917 at Calcutta University owing to the active
interest and efforts of B.N. Seal. Later on, the subject was handled by Radhakamal
Mukherjee and B.N. Sarkar.
 The Department of Sociology was established in 1919 with Patrick Geddes joined by
G.S. Ghurye and N.A. Toothi. This was indeed a concrete step in the growth of
Sociology in India.
 Another centre of influence in Sociological theory and research was at Lucknow that it
introduced Sociology in the Department of Economics and Sociology in 1921 with
Radhakamal Mukherjee as its head.
 In South India, Sociology made its appearance at Mysore University by the efforts of
B.N. Seal and A.F. Wadia in 1928.
 In the same year, Sociology was introduced in Osmania University at the undergraduate
level. Jafar Hasan joined the department after he completed his training in Germany.
 Another University that started teaching of Sociology before 1947 was Poona in the late
1930s with Irawati Karve as the head.
Between 1917 and 1946, the development of the discipline was uneven and in any case not
very encouraging. During this period, Bombay alone was the main centre of activity in
Sociology. Bombay produced many scholars who richly contributed to the promotion of
Sociological studies and research in the country. K.M. Kapadia, Irawati Karve, S.V. Karandikar,
M.N. Srinivas, A.R. Desai, I.P. Desai, M.S. Gore and Y.B. Damle are some of the outstanding
scholars who shaped the destiny of the discipline.
Sociology in the Post-Independence Period
This phase alone experienced tremendous amount of interaction within the profession as two
parallel organizations started functioning for the promotion of the profession.
 In Bombay, Indian Sociological Society was established and Sociological Bulletin was
issued as the official organ of the society. This helped to a large extent in creating a
forum for publication of Sociological literature.
 Correspondingly, there was also an increase in the number of Universities and College
departments. This period also noticed considerable vertical and horizontal mobility in the
profession. Teaching of Sociology got well established in the fifties. 
 After independence, however, American Sociological traditions had a major impact on
the teaching of Sociology in India.
 Besides the American, the French, German and Marxian intellectual influences also had
an impact.
 In the midst of such diverse intellectual stimuli, Indian Sociologists began to criticize,
modify and develop diverse Sociological approaches in the study of Indian society and
culture and these are reflected in the course of study of different Universities.
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 A few courses have been introduced recently on global themes in some of the
Universities. They are as follows: Ecology and Society, Issues of Human Rights,
Sociology of Management, Human Resource Development, Media and Society, Action
Sociology etc.
 There is also need to start some more new courses like Sociology of Public Order;
Peace, Security and Development; Security Management and Information Technology
etc. These courses are not only important for teaching but also for research in the
construction of society and useful for the modern occupation and profession.

UNIT – II BASIC CONCEPTS

SOCIETY
According to Emile Durkheim, “society is a reality in its own rights”.
Mac Iver defines society is “a web of social relationship”.
COMMUNITY
A community is a place where people come together to share common interests and resources.
Bogardus defines community is, “a social group with some degree of ‘we-feeling’ and living in
a given area”.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOCIETY AND COMMUNITY
SOCIETY COMMUNITY
Society is a web of social relationships. Community consists of a group of
individuals living in a particular area with
some degree of “we-feeling”.
A definite geographical area is not an Community always denotes a definite
essential aspect of society. geographical area or locality.
Society is abstract (intangible). Community is concrete (actual).
Society is wider. There can be more than Community is smaller than society.
one community is a society.
Society involves both likeness and Likeness is more important than difference
differences. in community.

ASSOCIATION
Association is a group of people organized for a particular purpose or limited number of
purposes. In other words, an association is a group of people organized for the achievement of
a particular interest or interests.
INSTITUTION
Every organization is dependent upon certain recognized and established set of rules, traditions
and usages. These rules and usages may be given the name of Institution. For example, family,
marriage, kinship, religion, education etc.
Mac Iver and Page, institution may be defined as,”established forms or conditions of procedure
characteristic of group activity”.
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ASSOCIATION AND INSTITUTION

ASSOCIATION
Association denotes membership.
Association consists of individuals.
Association is concrete in nature.
Associations are mostly created or established.
Association may be temporary or permanent.
INSTITUTION
Institution denotes only a mode or means of
service.
Institution consists of laws, rules & regulations.
Institutions are abstract in nature.
Institutions are primarily evolved.
Institutions are relatively more durable.

GROUP
Social group is a collection of individuals, two or more interacting on each other who have some
common objects of attending and participate in similar activities.
Ogburnand Nimkoff – “whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one
another”.
PRIMARY GROUP
A primary group is characterized by intimacy, face-to-face contact and a relative degree of
permanence. For example, family, play group, neighbourhood.

SECONDARY GROUP
Groups, which show little intimacy and are more temporary and involve less continuous face-to-
face contact has come to be called secondary groups. For example, Political Association,
Church Association, Club, Trade Unions etc. Ogburn and Nimkoff – “groups which provide
experience lacking in intimacy”.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRIMARY GROUP AND SECONDARY GROUP

PRIMARY GROUPS
Social relations are face-to-face, direct,
intimate, personal, non-contractual, non-
specialized. For ex, family, neighbourhood.
Primary groups are smaller in size.
Groups are confined to a small geographic
area.
Communication is not only direct but also
quick and effective.
Interests of the members are not specific
but general.
Co-operation is direct.
Group structure is very informal.
Groups are relatively durable.
Long lasting influence upon the
development of personality of the
members.
Informal means of social control are
enough to regulate the relations. For
example, Folkways, Customs, Morality,
Religion.
SECONDARY GROUPS
Social relations are indirect, impersonal,
non-intimate, contractual, specialized. For
ex, Trade Union, Club, Political Party.
Secondary groups are bigger in size.
Groups are not characterized by a physical
area.
Since members are spread over a vast
area direct communication is difficult.
Interests of the members are more
specific.
Co-operation is mostly indirect.
Group structure is formal.
Groups may be temporary or permanent.
Limited influence on personality.
Formal means of social control are
resorted to for maintaining group control.
For example, Law, Legislations, Police,
Military.
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CULTURE
Culture can be defined as the language, norms, values, beliefs, and more that, together, form a
people's way of life. Taylor defines culture is ,“that complex whole which includes knowledge,
beliefs, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society”.
STATUS
Horton and Hunt define, “status is the rank or position of an individual in a group”.
ROLE
According to Lundberg, “role is a pattern of behaviour expected of an individual in a
certain group of situation”.
NORMS
Norms are group shared expectations. In other words, norms are the ‘blueprints’ for
behaviour. For ex, younger one must always respect elder people.
VALUES
Values refer to intangible qualities or beliefs accepted and recognized by a given society. In
simple words, values may be defined as measure of goodness or desirability.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Social organization is a pattern of relationships between and among individuals and
groups.
POWER
Power means the ability or capacity to act or do something effectively. For ex, the father
exercising his power over his child, a master over his slaves, a teacher over his student.
AUTHORITY
Authority means the power to give orders or make decisions. Max Weber used the term
authority to refer to legitimate power.
UNIT – III SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
MEANING OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Ogburn and Nimkoff define social stratification as,” the process by which individuals and
groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status”.
DEFINITION OF CASTE
The word ‘caste’ comes from the Portuguese word ‘casta’ which means ‘breed’ or ‘race’.
According to Cooley defines, “when a class is somewhat hereditary, we may call its castes”.
ORIGIN OF THEORIES OF CASTE SYSTEM
There is no reliable historical evidence to trace the birth and evolution of caste system in India.
It is existing in India in one form or other for thousands of years. The most important of these
theories can be grouped as following: Traditional Theory, Occupational Theory, Religious
Theory, Political Theory, Racial Theory and Evolutionary Theory.
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Traditional Theory - The sources of this theory are the ancient literature of Hindu Society.
Exponents of this theory assume that the caste system is not of social but of divine origin.
According to Hindu tradition, caste owes its origin to Varna system. The four varnas namely
Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra are derived respectively from the mouth, arms, thighs
and feet of ‘Brahman’, the Supreme Being. These castes were assigned different traditional
duties.
 Brahmana is devoted to study and teach Vedas.
 Kshatriya is to protect life and property as a warrior.
 Vaishya is to look after economic conditions of society by engaging in trade and
commerce.
 Sudra is meant to serve the other three castes by performing menial jobs.
Occupational Theory - The exponent of this theory is Nesfield. In his opinion, castes
originated from different occupations. The status of caste in the hierarchy varied in terms of
purity and impurity depending on the nature of occupations. Differences in the occupation of the
four classes, that is, Bhramin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra, indicated differences in their
respectable status or position. Purity and pollution are considered by the nature of their
occupations. Brahmins are recognized as the purest with the noble profession.
Religious Theory - According to this theory, Hindu religious ideas created the division of
society into four classes for the performance of duties and obligations connected with religion.
The superiority and inferiority of the groups was determined by religious preferences, Brahmins
however occupied the highest position. Hocart and Senart are the two main advocates of
religious theory.
Political Theory - According to this theory, caste system was planned as a clever convenience
of Brahmins to achieve highest status in society. Brahmins occupied a pre-eminent position and
tried to maintain superiority by enjoying exclusive privileges. Brahmins as a priestly class
exercised authority and control over other classes.
Racial Theory - The exponents of this theory are Herbert Risley, Ghurye, Majumdar and
Westermark. They are of the opinion that the settlement of Aryans on the Indian soil was
originally based on their racial differences. According to this theory, the clash of cultures and the
contact of races crystallized castes in India. In India, the migrant Aryans had their own ideas of
ceremonial purity. They considered the original inhabitants as inferior to them.
Evolutionary Theory - This theory is expounded by Denzil. It implies that caste system is not
sudden, but a product of a long process of evolution. A number of factors played their part in the
development of the present caste system. Among these factors are:
 Hereditary occupations,
 The desire of the Brahmins to keep themselves pure,
 Clash of races and colour prejudices,
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 Geographical isolation of the Indian peninsula,

 Static nature of Hindu society,
 Foreign invasions, and
 Rural social structure.
DEFINITION OF CLASS
Ogburn and Nimkoff define social class as "the aggregate of persons having essentially the
same social status in a given society".

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CASTE AND CLASS

CASTE CLASS
Particular – The caste is unique and peculiar to Universal – Class system is a universal
India. It does not exist in all societies of the system. It is found in all modern complex
world. societies.
Ascribed Status – An individual’s caste status Achieved Status–Individuals are not born into
is determined by birth. a class. The class status is achieved.
Closed System – Caste system restricts the Open System – Class system permits
movement of individuals from one social status individuals to move from a low class status to a
to another. high class.
Greater Social Distance – The relationship Less Social Distance–Class system is not
between the various groups are governed by the based upon any rule of purity or pollution.
rules of purity and pollution.
Divine Origin – The caste system is closely Secular – Class system has not been given
associated with the Hindu religious tradition.
any religious explanation and it has nothing to
do with religion.
Endogamous Group – Endogamy is the rule of Exogamous Group – Members are free
marriage according to which every caste selects their own life partners from any class.
member has to marry only within his/her own Class system never imposes restriction on
caste. marriage.

Conservative – The caste system tends to
become conservative and orthodox.
Complexity – The caste system is complex
system.
Caste Consciousness – Caste consciousness
is more dangerous to democracy.
Progressive – The class system is regarded
as more progressive.
Simplicity – The class system is known for its
simplicity.
Class Consciousness – Class consciousness
is not opposed to democracy.

MARX AND WEBER’S VIEWS ON CASTE

Marx Views on Caste
Generally speaking, all the upper castes are those which possess land, capital and money;
those which have power and engage in social organization and administration. All the lower
castes are those that do not have properties even as means of livelihood. They live as labourers
and servants. They are subjected to the control and ruling of the upper castes and live in terrible
poverty and social inferiority.
Among the upper castes, the way of life of ‘not doing any labour’. On the other hand, the
situation of lower castes is totally opposite. It is unimaginable for the lower castes to live without
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doing any labour. The kind of labour they perform is the bottommost manual labour. All kinds of
unclean labour that are needed for cleaning the entire society are the responsibility of these
castes.
Weber’s Views on Caste
According to Weber, castes are a closed status group in the sense that they impose highly
constrictive professional, religious and social obligations. While caste is a closed status group in
Weber’s sense, status in India is not only defined by belonging to a caste. It also depends on
the prestige of one’s occupation.
Thus, there is exist in India two scales of value of social status, where status is defined by the
ritual purity of one’s caste, as well as the prestige of one’s profession. These two scales of
social status are independent and possess their own logic. The assessment of an individual’s
status thus depends on the use of one scale or the other and is profoundly relative.

UNIT – IV SOCIALIZATION AND PERSONALITY

MEANING OF SOCIALIZATION
When a child is born, he or she is only a biological being with animal instincts and needs. The
child slowly becomes a social being by learning the social ways of behaving and thinking. This
process by which an individual is moulded as a social being is called as socialization.
According to ogburn defines, “socialization is the process by which the individual learns to
confirm to the norms of the group”.
MEANING OF PERSONALITY
Personality is a sum total of all the different ways in which a person reacts and interacts with
others.
PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION
Socialisation is a Continuous Process - Socialisation consists in teaching culture which he
must acquire and share. Socialisation is social learning. This learning is not irregular but
continuous. The process of socialisation is something that continues throughout life.
Timing - Timing is important in socialisation. Socialisation and maturation may proceed together
in the early years of the life cycle.
Socialisation and Development of the Self - Everyone who is alive, in any society, has a
consciousness of self. The child at birth is not conscious of any of the self and other
relationships. These relationships the child learns through the process of socialisation. The ‘Self
is Social. It is true that the self develops out of the child’s communicative contact with others.
AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION
Socialization is a continual process of learning. Learning takes place in many contexts. The
children learn at home, in school, from friends, from religious doctrines and from mass media.
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These agencies of socialization have a profound effect on the development of personality, self-
concept, and the social roles.
Family – The parents or family are the first to socialize the child. From the parents, the child
learns speech and languages. He/she is taught societal morality. He learns respect for persons
in authority. The family is rightly called the foundation of social virtues. The child gets his/her first
lessons in co-operation, tolerance, self- sacrifice, love and affection in the family. In a bad family
the child learns bad habits whereas in a good family he acquires good habits.
School – The school is the second agency of socialization. The school is the agent of
socialization responsible for teaching formal cognitive skills, such as reading, writing,
mathematics and history. The school is usually the child’s first introduction to a formal agent of
socialization. In the school the child gets his/her education which moulds his/her ideas and

attitudes. 

Friends/Peer group – The friends and peer group also are an important agency of socialization.
The relation between the child and his/her playmates is one of equality. It is based on co-
operation and mutual understanding. They are mostly of similar age. The child acquires
something from his/her friends and playmates which he/she cannot acquire from parents.
Religion – Religion has been an important factor in society. In every family some or the other
religious practices are observed on one or the other occasion. The child sees his/her parents
going to the worshiping place and performing religious ceremonies. He/she listens to religious
talks which may determine his/her course of life and shapes his/her ideas.
Mass media – The mass media include many forms of communication such as books,
magazines, radio, television, and movies that reach large numbers of people without personal
contact between senders and receivers. In the last few decades, children have been dramatically
socialized by one source in particular, that is, television. Studies have found that children spend
more time watching television than they spend in school.
FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
The five factors of personality are contributing to the formation and development of human
personality.
Biological Factors
 Biological factors of personality are very important for the formation of human
personality. Children are born in a family; inherit many traits and features from their
parents.
 Some of the inherited traits are courage, coward, intelligence, weakness etc.
Social Factors
 When an individual interact with other persons in his/her group give and take relationship
takes place.
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 Many other social factors like environment, group life, family, media with which an
individual interact in his/her society daily life mould their personalities.
Cultural Factors
 An individual living in his/her culture adopts the traits consciously or unconsciously and
acts accordingly.
 Culture of any society determines the behaviour and personality of an individual and
he/she is expected to act according to the culture.
 So, the culture in which an individual seeks satisfaction adjusts him/her and develops
personality.
Physical Factors
 Physical environment also determines the personality of an individual.
 Environmental factors include land, river, mountains, hills, forests, plain area,
atmosphere etc. which affect the personality to be good or bad, healthy or weak.
 All the feelings, emotions, ideas, attitudes, habits and behaviour as well as body
structure are the result of physical environment of to which an individual belongs.
Situational Factors
 Situational factors of personality also have a complete share in the personality formation
of an individual.
 Every person faces many situations in his/her life which enables him/her to change
his/her behaviour. For example,
 A teacher may be rigid and strict with students but may not with his/her family.
 An officer may behave with the subordinates differently as compare to his/her friends.
Personality is not the result of only one factor but every factor is responsible to give complete
share in its formation.
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
The influence of heredity and environment on the development of an individual has been viewed
differently by scholars. For the balanced and harmonious development of an individual, a
balanced and harmonious interaction between heredity and environment is very essential.
Man’s behaviour is influenced by two forces: Heredity (Nature), and Environment (Nurture).
Heredity - The biological or psychological characteristics which are transmitted by the parents
to their offspring are known by the name of heredity.
Environment - In a broad sense, environment means cultural, economic, intellectual, physical,
political, religious and social factors which influence the development of the individual. All these
factors and mould the behaviour of a person from time to time. Two individuals born with the
same biological heritage differ because of differing environments.
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CULTURE AND UNIQUE EXPERIENCE OF INDIVIDUAL

Culture distinguishes man from animal - It is the culture that makes the human animal a
man. It regulates his/her conduct and prepares him/her for a group life.
Culture provides solution for complicated situations - Culture provides man a set of
behaviour for difficult situations. Culture not only defines but also determines what we eat and
drink, when to sleep, when to laugh etc.
Culture provides traditional interpretation to certain situations - Through culture man gets
traditional interpretations for many situations according to which he/she determines his/her
behaviour. For example, if a cat crosses his way he postpones the journey.
Culture shapes personality - No child can develop human qualities in the absence of cultural
environment. Culture prepares man for group life. It is culture that provides opportunities for the
development of personality and sets limits on its growth.
Culture is the unique possession of man. No one can develop human qualities without culture.
Culture distinguishes, leads, changes the personality of the individual.

UNIT – V SOCIAL PROCESSES

MEANING OF SOCIAL PROCESS
Social processes refer to forms of social interaction that occur repeatedly. According to Horton
and Hunt, the term social processes refer to the "repetitive forms of behaviour, which are
commonly found in social life".
ASSOCIATIVE SOCIAL PROCESS
The associative or conjunctive social processes are positive. These social processes work for
the solidarity and benefit of society. This category of social processes includes Co-operation,
Accommodation and Assimilation.
CO-OPERATION
MEANING
The word co-operation is derived from two Latin words viz. 'co', which means together and
'operari', which means - to work. Thus, co-operation generally means working together for
the pursuit of a common goal. According to Merrill, “Co-operation is a form of social
interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end”.
CHARACTERISTICS
 Co-operation is an associative process of social interaction which takes place between
two or more individuals or groups.
 Co-operation is a conscious process in which individuals or groups have to work
consciously.
 Co-operation is a personal process in which individuals and groups personally meet
and work together for a common objective.
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 Co-operation is a continuous process. There is continuity in the collective efforts in co-

operation.
 Co-operation is a universal process which is found in all groups, societies and nations.
 Co-operation is based upon two elements such as common end and organized effort.
 Common ends can be better achieved by co-operation and it is necessary for the
progress of individual as well as society.
ACCOMMODATION
MEANING
Adjustment is the way of life. It can take place in two ways such as adaptation and
accommodation. Adaptation refers to the process of biological adjustment. Accommodation, on
the other hand, implies the process of social adjustment. Accommodation means adjusting
oneself to the new environment.
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Accommodation is a term used by sociologist to describe
the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups.”
CHARACTERISTICS
 It is the natural result of conflict. If there were no conflict, there would be no need of
accommodation.
 It is a universal process. Human society is composed of antagonistic elements. No
society can function smoothly if the individuals and groups are always engaged in
conflict.
 It is a continuous process. Throughout the life, one has to accommodate oneself with
various situations. The continuity of the process of accommodation does not break at all.
It is as continuous as man’s breathing.
 It is a state in which the attitudes of love and hate coexist.
 It is generally a sub-conscious process.
 It is an agreement to disagree.
 It involves changes in habits, attitudes, patterns of behaviour, techniques, institutions
and traditions, etc., according to the changed conditions of life.
ASSIMILATION
MEANING
Assimilation is that process by which individuals belonging to different cultures are united into
one. According to Bogardus assimilation is "the social process whereby attitudes of many
persons are united and thus develop into a united group".
CHARACTERISTICS
 Assimilation is an associative process.
 Assimilation is a universal process. It is found in every place and at all times.
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 Assimilation is a slow and gradual process. It is gradual as the individual comes to

share the expectations of another group and slowly acquires a new set of values. The
process cannot take place overnight.
 Assimilation is an unconscious process. Individuals are not conscious that the discard
(reject) their own values and acquire new set of values.
 Assimilation is a two-way process. It is based on the principle of give and take.
Assimilation takes place when groups of individuals borrow cultural elements from each
other and incorporates them to their own culture.
DISSOCIATIVE SOCIAL PROCESS
Social process which leads to negative results is called dissociative processes. These social
processes result in disintegration of society. This is also known as disjunctive social
processes. Competition and Conflict are examples of dissociative social processes.
COMPETITION
MEANING
Competition is the most fundamental form of social process, which is the natural result of the
universal struggle for existence. All people in a society cannot satisfy all their needs and
requirements. Competition arises whenever there is an insufficient supply of things that
individuals commonly desire. Whenever and wherever commodities which people want are
available in a limited supply, there is competition.
According to Horton and Hunt, competition is “the struggle for possession of rewards which are
limited in supply, goods, status, power, love – anything”.
CHARACTERISTICS
 Competition is universal. Competition is found is all forms of societies. In traditional and
primitive societies, individuals competed for their basic survival, that is, in hunting,
gathering etc. In modern societies, competition takes a violent and aggressive form in
areas of business, sports, academics, politics etc.
 Competition is Impersonal. The competitors are not in contact and do not know one
another.
 Competition is an Unconscious Activity. Achievement of goal or the reward is regarded
as the main object of competitors. For example, the students of a particular class get
engaged to secure the highest marks in the final examination. They do not conceive of
their classmates as competitors.
 Competition is Continuous Process. The desire for status, name, fame, glory, power
and wealth in an ever increasing degree makes competition a continuous process in
human society.
 Competition causes social change. Competition involves the adoption of new
techniques and methods. These new techniques tend to develop innovations and
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inventions, which bring about new forms of behaviour patterns. Such innovations and
developments in the behaviour patterns lead to social change.
CONFLICT
MEANING
Conflict is one of the social processes that involves struggle between individuals or groups.
According to Green, “conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce (force) the will
of another or others”.
CHARACTERISTICS
 Conflict is a Conscious Activity. Individuals and groups who are involved in conflict try
to defeat each of the consciously. It is a deliberate attempt to oppose. Everyone harms
the other party knowingly.
 Conflict is a Personal Activity. The main objective is to defeat the opponent party. The
conflicting parties personally know each other.
 Conflict is intermittent (irregular). Conflict is not a continuous process. It takes place
occasionally. It occurs all on a sudden and comes to an end after sometime.
 Conflict is Universal. Conflict is universal in nature. It is found in all times and all the
places. In some societies conflict may be very acute while in some other it may be mild.
 Conflict is Emotional. The basis of conflict is emotion. Moved by excessive emotion,
people get involved in conflict and in this process, they use fair as well as unfair means
to achieve their goal.
UNIT – VI SOCIAL CHANGE
MEANING OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Kingsley Davis defines, “Social change is meant only such alternations as occur in social
organization, that is, the structure and functions of society”.
FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
The following are the important factors contributing to social change:
Environmental factors - A storm, earthquake, flood, drought, disease and similar natural
events even today can disrupt the social system. Natural calamities like floods, earthquakes,
droughts, famines, Tsunami and other natural disasters always force changes in the social
conditions and life of the affected people.
Biotic factors – A biotic factor is any activity of a living organism that affects another living
organism within its environment. Fluctuation in agricultural productivity, availability of fishery
wealth, spread of diseases affecting man, crops and domesticating animals, changes in
population structure, sex ratio, age ratio etc. can also contribute to significant changes in life
style.
Cultural factors – Cultural factors influence social changes. There is an intimate relationship
between society and culture. Hence, cultural changes involve social change. Cultural factors
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such as values, attitudes, ideologies, ideas of great men etc. play a vital role in influencing
social change. India, for example, discarded age long customs like Sati and Child marriage
because of her contact with the Europeans.
Demographic factors – The Demographic factors always influence the process and nature of
social change. The population increase or decrease always brings social problems. An increase
in population has resulted in an increase in unemployment, poverty, urbanization, number of
slums, and an increase in the burden on infrastructural facilities. Population always influences
social institutions, relations, social structure, values and ideals. Demographic factors have large
and profound bearing on the society as well as on the process of social change.
Technological factors - Technological advancement has resulted in the production of surplus
food, population growth, urbanization and industrialization. All these have affected family size,
occupational divisions, gender roles, interdependency, social competition etc. Developments in
the field of transportation and communication reduced the social distance which gave
momentums to cultural diffusion and thereby to social change.
Ideological factors – New ideas and ideologies also bring about significant changes in the
world's social and economic order. Nobody can deny the influences of the ideas like liberty,
equality and fraternity in giving rise to the French revolution. Similarly new ideologies such as
socialism, Gandhisim and democracy have utilized profound influence on social organization. 
Psychological factors – Man is by nature a lover of change. He is always trying to discover
new things in every sphere of his life and is always anxious for novel experiences.  A human
being is able to apply new customs and methods to replace the old traditional customs are
being formed.
Other factors - In addition to above mentioned factors other elements such as wars, ethnic
tensions, competition for resources, trade unionism, banking system, human rights movement,
enhanced environmental awareness etc. have resulted in wide spread social variation and
modification.
THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Evolutionary Theory - Charles Darwin (1859), the British Biologist, who propounded the
theory of biological evolution, showed that species of organisms have evolved from simpler
organisms to the more complicated organisms through the processes of variations and natural
selection.
Herbert Spencer (1890), who is known to be the indication of this evolutionary thought in
sociology, took the position that sociology is “the study of evolution in its most complex form”.
For him, evolution is a process of differentiation and integration. He further stated that:
 Change is inevitable and natural;
 Change is gradual and continuous;
 Change is sequential and in certain stages;
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 All successive stages of change are higher over preceding stage, that is, evolution is
progressive;
 Stages of change are non-reversible;
 Forces of change are inherent in the object;
 The direction of change is from simple to complex, from homogeneity to heterogeneity,
from undifferentiated to the differentiated in form and function; and
 All societies pass through same stages of development.
Cyclical Theory - Cyclical theory was developed by Oswald Spengler and Arnold Toynbee.
They argued that societies and civilizations change according to cycles of rise, decline and fall
just as individual persons are born, mature, grow, old, and die. Society, after passing through all
these stages of life cycle, returns to the original stage and thus the cycle begins again.
Economic Theory - Marx’s focus on the process of social change is central to his thinking. He
believed that the development of productive forces was the root of social change. In the process
of transforming nature, however, men transform themselves. Human history is the process by
which men change themselves even as they devise more powerful ways to exploit their
environment. Marx’s theory of social change is much interlinked with his concept of social
classes and social conflict. Marx believed that the class struggle was the driving force of social
change.
Marx conceived of four major successive modes of production in the history of mankind after the
first stage of primitive communism: The Asiatic, the Ancient, the Feudal and the Modern
Bourgeoisie form. Each of these came into existence through contradictions and antagonisms
that had developed in the previous order. However, the bourgeoisie relations of production are
the last antagonistic form of social process of production.
Conflict Theory - Conflict theorists assert that conflict is a necessary condition for change. It
must be the cause of change. There is no society, changing or unchanging, which does not
have conflict of some kind or another. Thus, conflict is associated with all types of social change
in some way or other.
UNIT – VII SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE
SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
 Of economic influences, the most far-reaching is the impact of industrialization.
 It has revolutionized the whole way of life, institutions, organizations and community life.
 In traditional production systems, levels of production were fairly static since they were
geared to habitual, customary needs.
 Modern industrial capitalism promotes the constant revision of the technology of
production, a process into which science is increasingly drawn.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN SOCIAL CONFLICT
 Tension and conflict in a society also produce change.
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 Karl Marx says that class conflict as the engine that drives societies from one historical
era to another.
 Social class has been considered by Marx as a means to social change.
 The two classes identified were the capitalists and the workers. 
 Both, these classes are based on inequality.
 Social classes are located the different relationships of people to the means of
production.
 Out of these two groups capitalists oppose social change whereas the workers want to
change the society.
 According to Marx, the conflict between the two classes is a means to social change.
 Marx correctly foresaw that social conflict arising from inequality would force change in
every society.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN EDUCATION
 Education helps people to make them rational in their thinking and approach.
 Education changes the outlook and the tradition approach towards social and
economic problems.
 The traditional education was meant for an unchanging static society not marked by
any change. But, to-day education aims at imparting knowledge.
 It sharpens the skills and knowledge of the children.
 Technical education helps in the process of industrialization which results in vast
changes in society.
 Education not only preserves the cultural traditions, that is, customs, traditions and
values etc. of the society but also transmits them to the next generation.
 It also motivates the children to adopt new pattern in order to remain dynamic and
forward looking.
 Education fulfils the needs of the society and propagates such ideas which
promote social changes in all fields of life.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN RELIGION
 Religions and society influence each other.
 Many religions teach about human rights, social justice, and social responsibility, and
their believers are likely to go out into the world and put their faith into practice. 
 Most religions teach not only about spiritual things, but also about one's life and actions
in the world through encouraging ethical decisions and actions according to the moral
principles of the religion.
 Many religions, for example, teach about doing what is right and just towards both
individuals and society, the basic birthright of all humans to be free and equal in dignity
and rights, and to treat others as one would like to be treated one-self.