Professional Documents
Culture Documents
performing
arts '"Asia
c
Published in 1971 by the
United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization
Place de Fontenoy, 75 Paris-7e
Printed by Paul Attinger SA, Neuchâtel
Preface
General introduction 9
General introduction
Fundamental aesthetics
15
Aesthetic theories
underlyingAsian performing
arts
Kapila MalikVatsyayan
Zeami’stheory
of nohl
The theatre
35
The Cambodian
nang sbek and its audience
Jacques Brunet
ofthe show. From the purely plastic point ofview the nang
sbek is extremely impressive owing to its dimensions, its
enormous brazier with its leaping flames, as well as the
percussion music of the orchestra and the long silhouettes
swaying to the rhythm of music. It is entirely different
from the cinema where the screen is beyond the reach of
the audience, where there is no idea of prayer and, on the
whole, all mystery has been supplanted by a much more
prosaic technique.
It is clear in fact that the Asians have not transposed
their traditional art of the shadow theatre into modern
cinema technique. The shadows retain their peculiar
characteristics, especially that of being the earthly rep-
resentation of the gods (in Cambodia and Thailand) or
of the shades of ancestors (in Indonesia).
As regards the articulated shadow theatre the ayang,
the religious side leaves room for the comic side of the
repertoire. The dolls hidden behind the screen enjoy
themselves to the full: the characters play the part of
clowns and improvise on current topics. This is the only
kind of performance in which the artistes venture to make
fun of the Establishment, the great ones of the kingdom
and the priesthood. T o some extent they play the role of
our cabaret singers, helped by the degree of anonymity
which the use of leather dolls allows. The success of these
small theatres is enormous throughout the country, for
this is an amusement in which tradition does not go
beyond the intention. This theatre, moreover, has been
modernized and besides the traditional puppets we see
aeroplanes or bicycles on which the characters of the old
legends ride happily astride. The effect is continuously
and powerfully comic and goes down well both with the
country people and the dwellers in large towns. But this
is a special case of the shadow theatre which over the
centuries has lost its ritualistic meaning and has become
a modern performance which, as we said,has been given
the title of ‘KhmerCharlie Chaplin’.
I would like to conclude by stressing that in general
the shadow theatre, which has the advantage of a very
-
48 The performing acts in Asia
Performing arts
in Indonesia
Milena Salvini
Dance
T h e Indonesian theatre clearly bears the stamp of Indian
traditions, though recast in another mould. T h e dance
also has borrowed from India, but indications of this are
m u c h more blurred. Stone retains the imprint, the body
assimilates it, and the seeds that India planted in Indo-
nesian soil have given other flowers.
Indonesian dance (Javanese or Balinese) and Indian
dance are based o n different laws. T h e essential difference
lies in the play of balance and the combination of move-
ments. T h e gestures of the Indian female dancer (of
southern India in particular) are m a d e within a geometric
universe resting on a central axis. T h e Javanese
female dancer, o n the other hand, goes to and fro from
one foot to the other in a subtle gliding m o v e m e n t which
seems in search of stability. T h e movements are rarely
in agreement; right and left are engaged in endless
dialogue.
T h e play of the hands and the fingers (mudra or
hasta) is of great importance in Indonesia as in India, but
it is interesting to observe the different usage m a d e of
this technique. In India, the mudras are codified in a
series of ideograms, and the words of a p o e m can be ac-
curately expressed through them. In Indonesia they have
no precise meaning and seem entirely free to describe
curves or spirals in space, but the freedom is wholly rela-
tive because the forms spring from certain ‘key-gestures’
on which they are built up. T h e mudras are very eloquent,
nevertheless, and they speak to the imagination rather
than to the mind.
As far as the Balinese are concerned, all performing
arts spring from the dance, and the dance itself w a s
created by the gods. Each Balinese village has its o w n
modes of expression. S o m e are k n o w n for their masks,
others for their musical instruments, others again for
their sculpture or their painting. For the Balinese knows
no barriers in artistic creation and he will express himself
just as well in dance, music or w o o d carving. B u t above
~ ~~ - ~~~ - ~~
all, each village has its dances. The Balinese are never
tired of improvising or of inventing n e w styles.
In Bali, a dance comes to life mainly through the
artist w h o invents it or performs it. H e seals it with his
o w n personality and that m a y influence the style of a
whole region.But it sometimes happens that a dance does
not survive its creator if some disciple is not there to carry
it on or if, quite simply, the interest of the public fades
away. This was the case of the kebyar. The kebyar was a
‘sittingdance’from the south of Bali.Under the influence
of a remarkable dancer, Mario, this dance became very
popular about twenty years ago. Various kinds of kebyar
appeared in different regions in Bali and they are found
today adapted to other styles,but the original kebyar has
practically disappeared.
The Balinese associate dance with every circum-
stance, religious or secular: a wedding, a birth, a teeth-
filing ceremony, a cremation. Funeral rites, in particular,
are an occasion for great rejoicing. To say nothing of all
the religious ceremonies each of which is accompanied by
a particular performance, family festivities are also
excuses for the Balinese to enjoy themselves. The trance-
dances of the sanghyang dedari are associated with exor-
cism rites, and trance is always part of the barong dance-
drama. In the dramatic ritual of the barong (a sort of
mythical animal of the same nature as the lion) magic and
religion are side by side. The barong resists the destructive
forces of rangda (witch-widow).For the Balinese,however,
Good never triumphs over Evil: they coexist in balance.
This performance usually takes its source from the Tja-
lonarang cycle, a legendary narrative ascribed to the
reign of King Airlangga.
The Balinese masked dances, topeng, are of very
ancient origin. They were probably partly imported from
Java. Both in their treatment and the masks themselves,
however,they show strictly Balinese characteristics. Here
also, the essential difference between Java and Bali is
visible. The aristocratic side of Javanese art is glimpsed in
the masks where h u m a n emotions are scarcely suggested,
Performing arts in Indonesia 57
The cinema
The first filmsin Indonesia were patronized by the Chinese
minority, and then by the Dutch. This period also marked
the introduction, from Malaya, of stambul, a kind of
musical comedy in Oriental and European style in which
fairyland and reality,fantasy and melodrama,were blend-
ed, the whole bearing the stamp of sentimentality and
facile romanticism. The early Javanese cinematographic
productions, directly inspired by stambul,were not appre-
ciated by the highbrows. After that, the subjects adopted
were taken more from everyday life. They reflect mainly
the post-1910period in which new trends departing from
the traditional social customs were already appearing.
From 1952 onwards, a movement to promote modern
European theatre brought more literary themes to the
screen. The films produced in 1954 depict the revolution
and the subsequent period. In a satirical manner they
describe the life of the rural communities grappling with
Performing arts in Indonesia 61
Conclusion
Until now, Indonesia’s closest spiritual affinity has been
chiefly with the Asian countries. N o w for the first time,
owing to the development of the modern world, it will
be possible to establish closer relationships with the West,
and on a level digerent from that of the past. T h e cultural
values of the West will contribute to the development of
Indonesian arts through the introduction of improved
techniques. Adapted to the art conceptions of the Indo-
nesian people, these will help to renew their creative
thought by offering n e w opportunities for expression.
Similarly, the arts of the West, which are n o w tending
towards Asian traditions, will draw n e w enthusiasm from
these contacts. It seems essential, therefore, that this
exchange should take place on the same level of under-
standing.
Performing arts in Indonesia 63
Theatre in Thailand’
James R. Brandon
Theatre in Thailand 69
Traditional theatre
in Viet-Nam
Tran V a n K h e
Theatre
There is n o evidence that theatre was a popular art
form in ancient Ceylon. In a country which possesses an
unbroken tradition in literature, poetry, painting and
sculpture, the absence of a tradition in the field of the
performing arts has some special significance. T h e great
sub-continent of India provided inspiration in the field of
literature from the earliest times. Sanskrit poetics provided
Sinhalese poetic norms; even Sinhalese prose styles were
influenced by mediaeval Indian works. T h e classical San-
skrit dramatists-Kalidasa, Magha, Bhavabhuti, etc.-
and their works were not only known but were even used
as models. Kalidasa’s n a m e is associated in legend with
a poet-king of Ceylon n a m e d Humaradasa (seventh cen-
tury) w h o is reputed to be the author of the famous San-
skrit p o e m Janaki Harana. In this legend, Kalidasa is said
to have been murdered by a courtesan in Ceylon and the
king in his inconsolable grief at the death of his friend
had immolated himself in the funeral pyre. This is m e n -
tioned here not because the legend itself is important but
to raise the question: why, if Kalidasa himself was so
well k n o w n in Ceylon, did not drama, at least as a literary
80 T h e performing arts in Asia
The dance
Theatrical performances include ballet and opera. Ceylon
possesses two types of dances which, though not organized
for the stage, are theatrical. The more sophisticated and
better developed of these two is the Kandyan dance and
the other is the L o w Country dance. As can be understood
from the names given to the two dance forms,the former
was confined mainly to the Kandyan areas and the latter
to the L o w Country areas and here too, mainly to the
coastal belt of the south-west.Both have been preserved
86 The performing arts in Asia
Introduction to
Part Three
Screen adaptations
of Indian literature
B.D.Garga
Economic factors
That economic factors have contributed to the decline is
true enough, but it is open to question whether the big
companies have in every case taken proper action to cope
with the situation.
1. Ji&; geki are historical films set in the distant past, whereas
gendai geki are modern films. Nowadays, jid0i account for
hardly 15 per cent of Japanese production.
The Japanese film industry 129
The
Chinese cinema
Jean de Baroncelli
Hong Kong
T h e condemnation of films produced in China before 1966
also applied to Communist films m a d e in H o n g Kong. In
the British colony there is not only a commercial circuit
which handles only ‘red’ films, but also a studio where
about ten progressive films are m a d e every year. These
films,which a short time ago were shown o n the mainland,
n o w come u p against closed frontiers; a recent film, for
instance, though it seemed likely to please the Peking
government, was not admitted into China.
Apart from these Communist films, which m a y be
regarded as marginal, 300 Chinese films a year were being
m a d e in H o n g K o n g recently. Four-fifths of these are in
Cantonese and are produced in extremely precarious
material conditions (sometimes shooting lasts only three
days) by small firms with little capital, or run on a family
basis, whose activities remind one of the heroic age of the
film-makers.About sixty of the films are in Mandarin. At
least half of the latter are ‘sword films’, a type of film
which for the last t w o years has been very popular in the
Far East. T h e ‘sword film’ is a kind of Chinese western.
It is a cloak-and-daggerstory enacted in a historical con-
text, nearly always with a central theme of revenge. Such
productions are distinguished b y horror, cruelty, violent
action and sometimes also a touch of the miraculous.
Although w o m e n play an important part in them (the
chieftainess is an especially favourite character) these
bloodthirsty stories are absolutely chaste, love being
expressed only in furtive or poetic ways. Not even a kiss
is allowed.
Apart from the ‘sword films’, most of the films pro-
duced in H o n g K o n g are melodramas and comedies. In
other words, production is governed by purely commercial
considerations, and despite the reputation of some pro-
ducers (such as D a o Ching and Lao Chen), even the idea
of cinéma d’auteur is unknown. This lack of concern for
art has not shielded H o n g K o n g from trouble. Since 1967,
box-office receipts have gone d o w n by 40 per cent. This
The Chinese cinema 141
Republic of China
T h e people of the Republic of China are still regular film-
goers. Television is not yet completely established, and its
impact on the public is still negligible. Cinema is like
cinema in H o n g Kong, the only differencesbeing that there
The Chinese cinema 143
- .- .-
East Pakistan
T h e traditional arts of East Pakistan, though influenced
since early times by the rituals of various religions that
148 The performing arts in Asia
West Pakistan
A rugged, hostile terrain and repeated invasion by central
Asian conquerors throughout history deterred the growth
of arts and culture in the regions that n o w constitute West
Pakistan. Only in the plains of the river Indus-in Punjab
and Sind-could peaceful eras prevail from time to time
and various forms of art flourish. But as described earlier,
the advent of Islam in the eighth century brought about
fundamental changes and wiped out any art form directly
or indirectly related to idolatry. During the centuries that
followed, except music and some forms of community
dancing, no other form of performing arts could develop.
A study of the Pakistani cinema 151
Cinema
in the Philippines
Ben G.Pinga
Production costs
In the early sixties, Philippine movie-makers could turn
out a picture for 40,000-50,000 pesos1 and a quickie for
about half the sum. But not today. T h e prohibitive price
of celluloid and other production materials has jacked up
the cost of the black-and-white filmto 140,000 pesos. A
colour movie today requires something in the area of
500,000 pesos. There was a time w h e n most Philippine
films were produced with celluloid furnished b y K o d a k
on credit. But since m a n y companies have not been able
to pay the cost of the film to date and have run u p enor-
m o u s debts, Kodak n o w refuses to give film on credit.
T h e cheapest celluloid in the local market today is Fuji.
Eastman film prices have gone up. And for colour, the
producer has to pay almost 1,000 pesos per roll.
T h e only chance for a colour film costing half a
million pesos to earn back the expenses and profit a little
is for it to be shown in Philippine communities in Hawaii,
G u a m and the west coast of the United States of America,
and possibly in Asian movie houses in Hong Kong, Taipei,
Singapore, Bangkok and other film capitals. However,
Philippine films are directed only at the Philippine market
so the stories are confined to the Philippine audience and
m a y not be properly appreciated in foreign theatres. Only
Small profits
The gamble starts when the film is released. With the
national and municipal taxes heaped upon local pictures,
the take-home pay of a producer out of the 1.35 peso
156 The performing arts in Asia
Studios
T h e Philippine movie industry is set back also by lack of
equipment and studios. T h e only film-producingcompany
in the Philippines which owns its o w n studios is S a m p a -
guita Pictures. T h e rest-LVN, Premier and Lebran-
which with Sampaguita Pictures once formed the Big Four
studios, n o w lease out their equipment and studios to
other film-makers or are utilized as laboratories in the
processing of black-and-white and colour films. Nepo-
muceno Productions has its o w n studio and modern
equipment and has its films processed in colour in Holly-
Cinema in the Philippines 157
Discussion extracts
Shadow theatre
R. P. Sobolov (U.S.S.R.):
A troupe has been formed, in
Uzbekistan, of young actors w h o are devoted to
preserving local colour in their productions.
Jalal Khoury (Lebanon) : A folk-dance transferred to a
music hall is no longer folk-art. W e must consider
three possible conditions:folk-artwhich is consumed
by the one w h o produces it; folk-art which has be-
c o m e an ossified tradition; and folkloric vestiges
remaining in the collective m e m o r y of the people.