EXP-MN-SI120-EN-R0 - Metering PDF

INSTRUMENTATION
METERING
TRAINING MANUAL
COURSE EXP-MN-SI120
Revision 0
Field Operations Training
Instrumentation
Metering
INSTRUMENTATION
METERING
CONTENTS
1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................9
2. FUNCTIONS AND CONSTRAINTS OF METERING .....................................................10
2.1. WHAT IS METERING USED FOR? ........................................................................10
2.2. LOCATION AND CRITICALITY ..............................................................................11
2.3. EFFLUENTS ...........................................................................................................12
2.3.1. Production effluents.........................................................................................12
2.3.2. Gross production and net quantity...................................................................12
2.4. METERING INSTALLATIONS ................................................................................13
2.5. FLUID AND FLOW ASPECTS ................................................................................14
2.5.1. State of the fluids under metering conditions...................................................14
2.5.2. Different types of metered fluids......................................................................14
2.5.3. Fluid homogeneity ...........................................................................................16
2.5.4. Some definitions..............................................................................................17
2.6. PROCESS FLOWS .................................................................................................17
2.6.1. Flow disturbance .............................................................................................17
2.6.2. Flow pulses .....................................................................................................18
2.6.3. Pressures and pressure drop in flows and equipment.....................................19
2.6.4. Cavitation ........................................................................................................19
2.6.5. Entrainment / Deposits / Presence of impurities..............................................19
2.6.6. Les régimes d’écoulement et le nombre de Reynolds .....................................19
2.7. UNITS AND EQUIVALENCES ................................................................................21
2.7.1. Units most commonly used for flow rates ........................................................21
2.7.2. Reminder of the equivalences .........................................................................21
2.7.2.1. Equivalences of pressure units ..................................................................21
2.7.2.2. Temperature units equivalences ................................................................22
2.8. THEORY REVIEW ON FLOW MEASURING..........................................................25
2.8.1. Definitions........................................................................................................25
2.8.1.1. What’s a flow rate ?....................................................................................25
2.8.1.2. Reference conditions .................................................................................26
2.8.1.3. Relation between flow rate and pressure ...................................................26
2.8.1.4. Viscosity .....................................................................................................26
2.8.1.5. Density .......................................................................................................26
2.8.2. Measuring gas flows........................................................................................27
2.8.2.1. Boyle – Mariotte’s law ................................................................................27
2.8.2.2. Gas dilution ................................................................................................27
2.8.3. Perfect gas laws ..............................................................................................28
2.8.3.1. Perfect gas law...........................................................................................28
2.8.3.2. Perfect gas constant ..................................................................................28
2.8.3.3. Perfect gas equation ..................................................................................28
2.8.3.4. Applications to real gases ..........................................................................29
2.8.4. Gas density .....................................................................................................29
2.8.5. Gas pressure...................................................................................................30
Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN
Last Revision: 19/12/2008 Page 2 of 263
Instrumentation
Metering
3. DIFFERENT TYPES OF METERS ................................................................................31

3.1. GENERAL ...............................................................................................................31
3.1.1. Metering developments ...................................................................................31
3.1.2. Liquid metering................................................................................................31
3.1.2.1. Static methods: gauging, weighing.............................................................31
3.1.2.2. Dynamic methods (or flow measurements) ................................................32
3.1.3. Gas metering...................................................................................................32
3.1.4. Custody transfer metering ...............................................................................33
3.1.4.1. Custody transfer metering of liquids...........................................................33
3.1.4.2. Custody transfer metering of gases ...........................................................33
3.2. CHOOSING THE RIGHT METER OR ITS TRANSMITTER....................................34
3.3. TURBINE ................................................................................................................38
3.3.1. Operation of a turbine flowmeter .....................................................................38
3.3.2. Principle...........................................................................................................39
3.3.3. Choice of turbine type......................................................................................40
3.3.4. Data supplied ..................................................................................................40
3.3.5. Use of turbine meters ......................................................................................40
3.3.6. Characteristic curve of a turbine meter............................................................41
3.3.7. Turbine meter performances ...........................................................................43
3.3.7.1. Determination of the K-factor .....................................................................43
3.3.7.2. Flow measurement.....................................................................................44
3.3.8. Installation .......................................................................................................45
3.3.8.1. Assembly....................................................................................................45
3.3.8.2. Equipment ..................................................................................................46
3.3.8.3. Preamplifiers ..............................................................................................47
3.3.9. Implementation................................................................................................47
3.3.10. Problems encountered ..................................................................................48
3.3.11. Caracteristics................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4. VOLUMETRIC METER ...........................................................................................50
3.4.1. Metering principle ............................................................................................50
3.4.2. Differents types of volumetric meters ..............................................................51
3.4.2.1. Rotary piston meter....................................................................................51
3.4.2.2. Vane meter.................................................................................................52
3.4.2.3. Screw meter ...............................................................................................52
3.4.2.4. Oval gear meter .........................................................................................53
3.4.3. Uses ................................................................................................................53
3.4.4. Implementation (Recommendations)...............................................................54
3.4.5. Problems encountered ....................................................................................55
3.4.6. Application.......................................................................................................55
3.4.7. Caractéristiques ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4. LES DEBITMETRES INSTANTANES............................................................................57
4.1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETER.....................................................................57
4.1.1. Electromagnetic flowmeter operation ..............................................................57
4.1.2. Principle...........................................................................................................57
4.1.3. Data supplied ..................................................................................................58
4.1.4. Use ..................................................................................................................58
4.1.5. Equipment .......................................................................................................59
4.1.6. Installation .......................................................................................................60

Instrumentation
Metering
4.1.7. Typical applications .........................................................................................61

4.1.8. Specifications ..................................................................................................61
4.1.9. Measurement uncertainties and error limits.....................................................62
4.2. VORTEX FLOWMETER..........................................................................................63
4.2.1. Vortex flowmeter operation..............................................................................63
4.2.2. Data supplied ..................................................................................................63
4.2.3. Equipment .......................................................................................................63
4.2.4. Installation .......................................................................................................64
4.2.5. Typical applications .........................................................................................65
4.2.5.1. For liquids...................................................................................................65
4.2.5.2. For gases ...................................................................................................65
4.2.6. Specifications ..................................................................................................65
4.2.7. Measurement uncertainty ................................................................................66
4.3. CORIOLIS FLOWMETER .......................................................................................67
4.3.1. Basic features of Coriolis acceleration.............................................................67
4.3.2. Coriolis flowmeter principle..............................................................................67
4.3.3. Operating principle Coriolis flow meter ............................................................68
4.3.3.1. Density measurement ................................................................................69
4.3.4. Primary data ....................................................................................................70
4.3.5. Use of Coriolis mass flowmeters .....................................................................70
4.3.5.1. Fluids .........................................................................................................70
4.3.5.2. Location......................................................................................................70
4.3.6. Equipment .......................................................................................................70
4.3.7. Installation .......................................................................................................70
4.3.7.1. General ......................................................................................................70
4.3.7.2. Mounting ....................................................................................................71
4.3.8. Specifications of Coriolis flowmeters ...............................................................72
4.4. ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER – "TRANSIT" TIME ..................................................73
4.4.1. Operating principle Ultrasonic flow meters ......................................................73
4.4.2. Principle...........................................................................................................75
4.4.3. Specifications ..................................................................................................76
4.5. ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER – DOPPLER ............................................................77
4.5.1. Principle...........................................................................................................77
4.5.2. Specifications ..................................................................................................77
5. FLOWMETER TOTALISATION FUNCTION..................................................................79
5.1. CONNECTING THE PULSED OUTPUT .................................................................79
5.2. SETTING THE CONFIGURATION ON THE TRANSMITTER.................................80
6. NEGATIVE PRESSURE FLOWMETERS......................................................................85
6.1. GENERAL ...............................................................................................................85
6.2. EXPRESSING THE FLOW RATE ...........................................................................85
6.2.1. Theoretical expression of the flow rate for a pressure differential device ........85
6.2.2. Practical expression of the flow rate for a pressure differential device ............87
6.2.2.1. ISO 5167-1 standard..................................................................................87
6.2.2.2. Flow rate calculation formula......................................................................88
6.2.2.3. Example of a discharge coefficient calculation...........................................88
6.2.2.4. Principle for determining a pressure differential device ..............................89
6.3. DIAPHRAGM ..........................................................................................................90
6.3.1. Measuring principle .........................................................................................90

Instrumentation
Metering
6.3.2. Operating principle of a diaphragm .................................................................91

6.4. ORIFICE PLATE .....................................................................................................93
6.4.1. Installing orifice plates .....................................................................................94
6.4.2. Uses ................................................................................................................95
6.4.3. Specifications ..................................................................................................96
6.5. V-CONE ..................................................................................................................97
6.6. VENTURI ................................................................................................................98
6.7. PITOT TUBE .........................................................................................................100
6.7.1. Reminder of Fluid Mechanics ........................................................................100
6.7.2. Principle.........................................................................................................100
6.8. ANNUBAR PROBE ...............................................................................................103
6.8.1. Principle.........................................................................................................103
6.8.2. Uses ..............................................................................................................104
6.8.3. Recommendations for use and application....................................................104
6.8.4. Specifications ................................................................................................104
6.9. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER......................................................105
6.10. LIQUID PHASE METERS ...................................................................................109
6.11. GAS PHASE METERS........................................................................................109
7. MULTIPHASE METERS ..............................................................................................110
7.1. Definitions .............................................................................................................110
7.1.1. Terms related to multiphase flow metering....................................................110
7.1.2. Terms related to metrology............................................................................117
7.1.3. Subscripts and symbols.................................................................................120
7.2. MULTIPHASE FLOW METERING PHILOSOPHY ................................................121
7.2.1. Single well surveillance or monitoring ...........................................................123
7.2.1.1. Production optimization ............................................................................125
7.2.1.2. Flow assurance ........................................................................................125
7.2.2. Well Testing...................................................................................................125
7.2.2.1. Conventional well testing..........................................................................126
7.2.2.2. Well testing by MPFMs.............................................................................127
7.2.3. Production allocation metering ......................................................................129
7.2.4. Fiscal and custody transfer measurement.....................................................131
7.2.5. Summary of features MPFMs........................................................................131
7.3. MULTIPHASE FLOW ............................................................................................132
7.3.1. Multiphase flow regime map..........................................................................133
7.3.1.1. Vertical flow..............................................................................................134
7.3.1.2. Horizontal flow..........................................................................................135
7.3.2. Slip effects.....................................................................................................135
7.3.3. Classification of multiphase flow....................................................................137
7.4. TECHNOLOGY .....................................................................................................138
7.4.1. Meter categories............................................................................................138
7.4.1.1. In line meters............................................................................................138
7.4.1.2. Separation type meter ..............................................................................139
7.4.1.3. Wet gas flow meters.................................................................................142
7.4.1.4. Other categories of MPFMs .....................................................................146
7.4.2. Measurement principles ................................................................................146
7.4.2.1. Phase velocities and volume flow ............................................................146
7.4.2.2. Phase fractions ........................................................................................148

Instrumentation
Metering
7.4.3. Selection of technology and maintenance requirements ...............................154

7.4.3.1. Pressure measurement ............................................................................154
7.4.3.2. Positive displacement meters...................................................................154
7.4.3.3. Electrical impedance and microwave sensors..........................................154
7.4.3.4. Gamma ray technology ............................................................................155
7.4.3.5. Limitations of technologies-use partial separation meter .........................156
7.4.3.6. Calibration and fluid properties.................................................................156
7.5. PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION ......................................................................157
7.5.1. Technical description.....................................................................................157
7.5.2. Specifications of individual sensor and primary devices................................158
7.5.3. Specifications of output data and formats......................................................158
7.5.4. Measuring range, rated operating conditions and limiting conditions ............159
7.5.5. Measurement Uncertainty .............................................................................160
7.5.6. Measurement uncertainty of evaluation MPFMs ...........................................160
7.5.6.1. Influence quantities and sensitivity coefficients ........................................161
7.5.6.2. Reproducibility and repeatability ..............................................................162
7.5.6.3. Stability and time réponse ........................................................................162
7.5.7. Guideline on MPFM performance specification .............................................163
7.5.7.1. Technical description ...............................................................................163
7.5.7.2. Specification of input data ........................................................................164
7.5.7.3. Specification of output data ......................................................................164
7.5.7.4. Rated operating conditions and limiting conditions ..................................165
7.5.7.5. Measurement uncertainty.........................................................................166
7.6. DESIGN GUIDELINES..........................................................................................167
7.6.1. Production enveloppe....................................................................................167
7.6.1.1. Plotting the production envelope in the two phase flow map....................167
7.6.1.2. Plotting the production envelope in the composition map ........................168
7.6.2. MPFM measuring envelope...........................................................................170
7.6.2.1. Plotting the MPFM measuring envelope in the two phase flow map ........170
7.6.2.2. Plotting the MPFM measuring envelope in the composition map.............171
7.6.3. Using the flow map during testing .................................................................172
7.6.4. The cumulative performance plot ..................................................................173
7.6.5. Other considerations .....................................................................................174
7.7. TESTING, CALIBRATION AND ADJUSTMENT ...................................................176
7.7.1. Factory acceptance testing (FAT) .................................................................177
7.7.2. Calibration of MPFMs ....................................................................................177
7.7.2.1. Static calibration.......................................................................................178
7.7.2.2. Dynamic calibration..................................................................................178
7.7.2.3. Factory calibration....................................................................................182
7.7.2.4. Test facility ...............................................................................................183
7.7.2.5. In-situ calibration ......................................................................................185
7.7.2.6. Calibration report......................................................................................187
7.7.3. Adjustment of MPFMs ...................................................................................189
7.7.3.1. Adjustment based on static calibration.....................................................189
7.7.3.2. Adjustment based on dynamic calibration ................................................190
7.8. FIELD INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING ..................................................191
7.8.1. Installations consideration .............................................................................191
7.8.2. Installation and site integration ......................................................................192

Instrumentation
Metering
7.8.2.1. Installation requirements ..........................................................................194

7.8.2.2. Electrical connections and power requirements .......................................194
7.8.2.3. Function test.............................................................................................194
7.8.3. Commissioning ..............................................................................................195
7.8.3.1. Preparation...............................................................................................195
7.8.3.2. Documents and equipments.....................................................................195
7.8.3.3. On site authorisation ................................................................................195
7.8.3.4. Commissioning activities ..........................................................................196
7.9. VERIFICATION DURING OPERATION ................................................................197
7.9.1. Baseline monitoring .......................................................................................198
7.9.2. Self checking / self diagnostic / redundancy..................................................199
7.9.3. Two meters in series .....................................................................................199
7.9.4. Mobile test units ............................................................................................200
7.9.5. Tracer technology..........................................................................................200
7.9.6. Injection .........................................................................................................200
7.9.7. Sampling .......................................................................................................201
7.9.8. Reconciliation factor ......................................................................................202
7.9.9. Subsea systems verification ..........................................................................203
7.10. EXAMPLES OF MULTIPHASE METERING .......................................................205
7.10.1. Dual gamma (Ofon) .....................................................................................205
7.10.2. Gamma + electric (Northern sector in the Congo) .......................................205
7.10.3. Sincor ..........................................................................................................206
7.10.4. Implementation............................................................................................206
7.10.5. Summary of flowmeters for liquid hydrocarbons..........................................207
8. METERING STATION .................................................................................................208
8.1. METERING STATION PRINCIPLE .......................................................................208
8.2. LIQUID METERING STATION ..............................................................................209
8.2.1. Description ....................................................................................................209
8.2.2. Example : the Girassol UA 312 metering loop...............................................210
8.3. GAS METERING STATION ..................................................................................212
8.3.1. Description ....................................................................................................212
8.3.2. Operating principle ........................................................................................213
8.3.3. Manifold and Instrumentation ........................................................................213
8.3.4. Isolating valves ..............................................................................................214
8.3.5. Meter runs .....................................................................................................215
8.3.6. Safety Equipment ..........................................................................................215
8.3.7. Calibration Equipment ...................................................................................215
8.4. EXAMPLES OF PIDs: METERING STATION .......................................................217
8.4.1. Reminder of the symbols...............................................................................217
8.5. METERING STATION AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT .................................................221
8.5.1. Instrument protection equipment ...................................................................222
8.5.1.1. Filters .......................................................................................................222
8.5.1.2. Deaerator / Gas separator........................................................................224
8.5.1.3. Gas purge ................................................................................................224
8.5.1.4. Flow and pressure control valves.............................................................225
8.5.2. Instrumentation conditioning equipment ........................................................225
8.5.2.1. Static mixer ..............................................................................................225
8.5.2.2. Flow conditioners .....................................................................................226

Instrumentation
Metering
8.6. CALCULATIONS, CORRECTIONS AND ASSOCIATED INSTRUMENTS ...........229

8.6.1. Pressure transmitter ......................................................................................230
8.6.1.1. Representation.........................................................................................230
8.6.1.2. Connection diagrams ...............................................................................230
8.6.1.3. Calibration ................................................................................................231
8.6.1.4. Digital pressure transmitter ......................................................................234
8.6.1.5. Calibration ................................................................................................235
8.6.1.6. Selection criteria for pressure transmitters ...............................................237
8.6.2. Temperature transmitter ................................................................................238
8.6.2.1. Definition ..................................................................................................238
8.6.2.2. Sensing element ......................................................................................239
8.6.2.3. Tolerance class ........................................................................................239
8.6.2.4. Wiring .......................................................................................................240
8.6.2.5. Composition of a temperature probe........................................................241
8.6.2.6. The transmitter .........................................................................................244
8.7. CALIBRATING A METER ON THE METERING STATION...................................246
8.7.1. Methods.........................................................................................................246
8.7.1.1. Calibration on the metering station...........................................................246
8.7.1.2. Master meter ............................................................................................246
8.7.2. Calibration loop (also known as Prover loop) ................................................247
8.7.2.1. Types of calibration loops.........................................................................247
8.7.2.2. Components of the calibration loop..........................................................248
8.7.2.3. Critical points during calibration ...............................................................250
9. OPERATING PARAMETERS ......................................................................................253
9.1.1. Quality assurance..........................................................................................253
9.1.2. Validation by monitoring tank/metering station/ship discrepancies (tanker
loading metering).....................................................................................................253
9.1.2.1. Discrepancy assessment .........................................................................253
9.1.2.2. Discrepancies...........................................................................................254
9.1.3. Checks ..........................................................................................................254
9.2. RECOMMANDATIONS ACCORDING TO TYPE OF FLUID.................................255
10. TROUBLE SHOOTING..............................................................................................256
10.1. CORIOLIS FLOWMETER ...................................................................................256
10.2. PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL ORIFICES ............................................................256
10.3. TURBINES ..........................................................................................................256
10.4. VOLUMETRIC METERS.....................................................................................257
10.5. VORTEX FLOWMETERS ...................................................................................257
10.6. ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETERS ..............................................................257
11. SOMMAIRE DES FIGURES .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
12. SOMMAIRE DES TABLES ........................................................................................263

Instrumentation
Metering
1. OBJECTIVES

Instrumentation
Metering
2. FUNCTIONS AND CONSTRAINTS OF METERING
2.1. WHAT IS METERING USED FOR?
The main aim of metering is to measure and/or determine the flow rates and/or quantity of
oil and nonoil effluents present in oil installations.
By extension, the operations and measurements giving access to different components of

the effluents measured form part of the metering activity (sampling, in-line analysis, etc.).
The measurement of fluid quantities produced is used to monitor the life of a well or a
whole field, and to make forecasts about the changes in the reservoir. It is also used to
quantify the finished products, particularly for sale.
Figure 1 : Measured and calculated flow rates
Metering can be broken down into two domains:
The custody transfer domain, which includes contracts, purchasing, sales and
transport.
This corresponds to allocation metering and high-accuracy (<1%) commercial

metering.
They measure the quantities of liquid or gas due to each partner or which are sold.
The measurement systems and their operating procedures must be approved by the
stakeholders: partner, seller, buyer, carrier, official bodies, etc.

Instrumentation
Metering
The technical domain is an activity under the direct responsibility of Field

Operations, which supplies data to various users (reservoir, production) for:
Field (reservoir monitoring) and well monitoring.
Production balances: effluents produced, discharged, exported, injected

and consumed. These balances can be compiled by well, by platform
and by field.
Installation control and checks.
This domain is subjected mainly to internal rules and instructions, with accuracy
levels of between 1 and 10% depending on the case.
Example: to be able to carry out the Reservoir - Formation studies, we must know
the amount of water and oil produced by each well.
2.2. LOCATION AND CRITICALITY
The use of a metering station is not a short-term criticality. Metering stations often
comprise several meter runs and the exported fluid is distributed over them.
So, if one line of a metering station is out of action, the export time will be longer but the
operation will not be halted.
For technical metering, if the metering system is out of action, the installation will not
necessarily be shut down but the efficiency of the fluid recovery will be seriously affected.
To find out more about metering stations, see the corresponding chapter in this course.

Instrumentation
Metering
2.3. EFFLUENTS
2.3.1. Production effluents
An oilfield produces effluent which comprises:
crude oil or condensate,
water,
gas,
sediments.
This is what is called the TOTAL production. After passing through the treatment
installation, the gas and part of the water and sediments are removed.
2.3.2. Gross production and net quantity
GROSS production is, in the case of oil, the treated effluent comprising:
crude oil,
water and sediments in suspension.
Since it is impossible to completely

separate the crude (which is the
only marketable product) in the
storage installations, the
transaction is very often based on
the GROSS quantity: we then have
to determine the NET oil quantity
(representing the portion of crude
purchased) as accurately as
possible.
To do this, we therefore determine

the portion of unmarketable
products contained in the GROSS
quantity.
Figure 2 : LNG sales metering

before departure of the gas
carriers

Instrumentation
Metering
The NET quantity will be expressed in m3 at 15°C (or in barrels at 60°F). To express these
values in tonnes, we must determine this product's density at 15°C.
We will therefore have to take a representative sample of the GROSS quantity exchanged.
2.4. METERING INSTALLATIONS
The metering facilities range from a simple flowmeter to the complex metering station
for quantifying the oil before exporting it.
The diagram below shows the path the fluid takes, passing successively from storage to
the metering station and then pressurised further by means of the pumps in order to go to
the loading buoy to which the tanker is connected.
Figure 3 : Route taken by the oil from its storage point on the Girassol FPSO to its
offloading buoy
Instrumentation
Metering
2.5. FLUID AND FLOW ASPECTS
The characteristics and physical properties of the fluids metered must be taken into
account when designing and operating the metering facilities (measurements, calculation
of quantities).
Since technical metering is concerned with quantities, metering conditions and also with
the quantities obtained in other conditions, the variations in the properties due to the
treatment conditions or just due to the pressure and temperature must be well understood.
2.5.1. State of the fluids under metering conditions
Under metering conditions, the petroleum effluents may be:
in single phase state (liquid, vapour) consisting of one or more components

(anhydrous oil, gas mixture, etc.), or pseudo-single phase state (low hydrated
homogenous oil),
in multiphase state, comprising two simultaneous phases (liquid and vapour).
The single phase effluents may be saturated effluents or unsaturated effluents.
The saturated effluents are either liquids at bubble point, or vapours at dew point (e.g.
separator gas).
2.5.2. Different types of metered fluids
Stabilised liquid: liquid which does not produce a vapour phase when it switches
to the storage conditions or other reference conditions.
Non-stabilised liquid: liquid which, in the same conditions as above, produces

vapour.
Wet gas: gas in which condensates will appear (water and/or hydrocarbons)
during the treatment process.
Dry gas: a dry gas (also called a treated gas) is a gas in which no condensates
will appear during production.
Raw gas: the gas effluent from the well before going through the treatment
process.

Instrumentation
Metering
Unsaturated Oil
P reservoir > Bubble point pressure
Typical GOR < 1 000 Scf/STB
Saturated Oil
P reservoir = Bubble point pressure
1 000 Scf/STB < GOR < 5 000 Scf/STB
Condensate gas
P reservoir = Bubble point pressure
5 000 Scf/STB < GOR < 50 000 Scf/STB
Wet gas
No hydrocarbon liquid formation in reservoir
50 000 Scf/STB < GOR
Dry gas
GOR >> 100 000 Scf/STB
Table 1: Typical fluids of the Oil & Gas world

Instrumentation
Metering
The following figure shows a phase envelope which indicates the change in state of the
fluid according to the pressure and temperature (dew point and bubble point).
Figure 4: Phase envelope of a fluid
2.5.3. Fluid homogeneity
A fluid will be considered to be homogenous (ISO 3171 definition) if its fluid properties
(density and composition) do not significantly vary: this is the case for a single phase
effluent or, by extension, a mixture of two components in which the second component is
finely dispersed in the first and has a very similar density.
Example: oil/water mixture.
Conversely, a non-homogenous flow comprises a fluid of variable density in space,

formed of several components (liquids or gas and liquid) which can move at different
velocities (one sliding against the others).
The effects due to the differences in density, viscosity, surface velocity (velocity of each
phase considered as if it were alone) and gravity will create variable flow characteristics.

Instrumentation
Metering
2.5.4. Some definitions
GLR : Separator gas volume expressed in standard conditions / Liquid volume in

separator conditions.
GORsep : Separator gas volume expressed in standard conditions / Oil volume in separator
conditions.
WLR : Water / (Water + Oil) x 100
BSW : Water + Sed / (Water + Oil + Sed) x 100
Shrinkage Factor SF : 1/Bo = ratio between the volume of oil obtained in storage
conditions divided by the volume of oil in line conditions (m3STO / m3).
CGR : Condensates to Gas Ratio = mass of condensate / volume of raw gas expressed in
standard conditions.
HOLD UP : phase surface area / line cross-sectional area
GVF : (Gas flow rate in line conditions / Total flow rate) x 100
2.6. PROCESS FLOWS
Most metering methods measure moving fluids (dynamic measurements). A reminder of

the main characteristics of the flows and their effect on the measurements is therefore
useful
2.6.1. Flow disturbance
The following may be seen in the flows:
rotation and swirl phenomena,
backflow phenomena,
non-symmetrical or non-established velocity profiles.
These effects influence the metering accuracy (turbines, negative pressure elements,
vortex). They depend on the configuration of the upstream and downstream pipes (bends,
non-coplanar bends, accessories, expanders).
They can be reduced by using straight pipes of a sufficiently long length, or flow
conditioners (also called straighteners).

Instrumentation
Metering
The following Table provides information on the disturbances created during gas metering.
Disturbance generated
Accessory
type
Axi- Variation
Asymmetrical Swirl Turbulence
symmetrical over time
Bend
Tee
2 coplanar
bends
2 non-coplanar
bends
U bend
Hairpin pipe
Expander
Convergent
Divergent
Roughness
Negligible intensity Moderate intensity
Low intensity Intensity possibly very high
Table 2: Metering disturbances according to the type of accessory present upstream
2.6.2. Flow pulses
The flowmeter performances and the standards concern flow rate measurements for
stable flows, or at least for flows with a slow variation over time.
The short period pulses (or velocity variations) due to compressors and reciprocating
pumps can generate errors that are far from negligible.

Instrumentation
Metering
2.6.3. Pressures and pressure drop in flows and equipment
The pressure drop in the measuring equipment must be calculated to check that it is
compatible with the process requirements and the fluid characteristics.
2.6.4. Cavitation
A restriction in the cross-sectional area causes a local velocity increase in the fluid and
thus an increase in the dynamic pressure. The static pressure is reduced by the same
amount (if we ignore the pressure losses) and it falls locally below the liquid vapour
pressure corresponding to the temperature concerned, there is then a spontaneous
vaporisation: this is called "cavitation" and it is extremely erosive.
Therefore, in a two-phase mixture, the pressure drops create a constant increase in the
gas phase which is accentuated at the restrictions. This is called "flash" or "flashing" and it
is much less hazardous than cavitation. However, flash and cavitation are closely related
since the mixture becomes stable again as soon as the fluid stream has evaporated, i.e.
after "dynamic recovery".
2.6.5. Entrainment / Deposits / Presence of impurities
When gas entrainment or solid particles are present, their possible effect must be
evaluated. They must be removed if necessary (filters, de-aerators, etc.).
The presence of liquid or gas impurities will generally be taken into consideration in the
choice and operation of the metering systems.
A second problem related to the fluid and its flow is the possibility of more or less
extensive deposits: where this possibility exists, it must be quantified (deposition rate,
critical thickness, formation conditions, etc.).
2.6.6. Flow regimes and Reynolds number
Reynolds number is a dimensionless number which characterises the flow of a fluid: it

takes into account the dynamic viscosity and the flow velocity.
The fluid can flow in two manners:
either slowly, this is laminar flow
of fast, creating a vortex: this is turbulent flow.

Instrumentation
Metering
For the flow rate measurements using an orifice plate we must have a turbulent condition.
A number has been determined to characterise the flow condition: Reynolds number:
v = Liquid velocity (m/s)

ν ⋅ρ⋅D p = Liquid density (kg/m3)
Re =
μ D = Internal diameter of the pipe (m)
µ= Liquid viscosity (in Pa.s)
For your information: for the flow condition to be correct, Re must be greater than or equal
to 20,000.

Instrumentation
Metering
2.7. UNITS AND EQUIVALENCES
2.7.1. Units most commonly used for flow rates
gallons / minute barrels / day

gallons / hour cubic metres / hour
cubic feet / minute cubic metres / day
cubic feet / hour litres / day
barrels / hour litres / day.
2.7.2. Reminder of the equivalences
1 gallon (US) = 3.78533 litres
1 cubic foot = 28.3168 litres
1 barrel = 42 gallons = 158.988 litres
2.7.2.1. Equivalences of pressure units
Inch
Units PSI KPa mm H2O Inch Hg mm Hg Bar m Bar Kg/cm² gm/cm²
H2O
PSI 1 6.8946 27.680 703.08 2.0360 51.7144 0.068946 68.9465 0.070306 70.306
KPa 0.14504 1 4.0146 101.97 0.2953 7.5006 0.0100 10.000 0.010197 10.197
Inch
0.036127 0.24908 1 25.4000 0.073554 1.8683 0.002491 2.4909 0.002539 2.5399
H2O
mm 9.8064
0.0011422 0.009864 0.03937 1 0.0028958 0.07355 -5 0.098064 0.0001 0.099997
H2O 10
Inch Hg 0.49116 3.3864 13.596 345.32 1 25.400 0.033864 33.864 0.034532 34.532
mm Hg 0.0119337 0.13332 0.53525 13.395 0.03937 1 0.001333 1.3332 0.001359 1.3595
Bar 11.504 100.00 401.46 10197.00 29.53 750.06 1 1000 1.0197 1019.71
m Bar 0.014504 0.1000 0.40146 10.197 0.02953 0.75006 0.001 1 0.0010197 1.0197
Kg/cm² 14.224 98.066 393.71 10000.0 28.959 735.56 0.9807 980.7 1 1000
gm/cm² 0.01422 0.09806 0.39371 10.0000 0.028959 0.73556 0.00098 0.9807 0.001 1
Table 3: Pressure units equivalences

Instrumentation
Metering
2.7.2.2. Temperature units equivalences
°C °F °R K
°C 1 1.8 x (°C) + 32 1.8 x (°C) + 491.7 °C + 273.2
°F (°F – 32) / 1.8 1 °F + 459.7 (°F + 459.7) / 1.8
°R (°R – 491.7) / 1.8 °R – 459.7 1 °R / 1.8
K K – 273.2 1.8 x (K) – 459.7 1.8 x K 1
°C °F °C °F °C °F
-273.0 -459.4 17.8 64 147.2 104.4 220 428.0
-267.8 -450 18.3 65 149.0 105.0 221 429.8
-262.2 -440 18.9 66 150.8 105.6 222 431.6
-256.7 -430 19.4 67 152.6 106.1 223 433.4
-251.1 -420 20.0 68 154.4 106.7 224 435.2
-245.6 -410 20.6 69 156.2 107.2 225 437.0
-240.0 -400 21.1 70 158.0 107.8 226 438.8
-234.4 -390 21.7 71 159.8 108.3 227 440.6
-228.9 -380 22.2 72 161.6 108.9 228 442.4
-223.3 -370 22.8 73 163.4 109.4 229 444.2
-217.8 -360 23.3 74 165.2 110.0 230 446.0
-212.2 -350 23.9 75 167.0 110.6 231 447.8
-206.7 -340 24.4 76 168.8 111.1 232 449.6
-201.1 -330 25.0 77 170.6 111.7 233 451.4
-195.6 -320 25.6 78 172.4 112.2 234 453.2
-190.0 -310 26.1 79 174.2 112.8 235 455.0
-184.4 -300 26.7 80 176.0 113.3 236 456.8
-178.9 -290 27.2 81 177.8 113.9 237 458.6
-173.3 -280 27.8 82 179.6 114.4 238 460.4
-169.4 -273 -459.4 28.3 83 181.4 115.0 239 462.2
-167.8 -270 -454.0 28.9 84 183.2 115.6 240 464.0
-162.2 -260 -436.0 29.4 85 185.0 116.1 241 465.8
-156.7 -250 -418.0 30.0 86 186.8 116.7 242 467.6
-151.1 -240 -400.0 30.6 87 188.6 117.2 243 469.4
-145.6 -230 -382.0 31.1 88 190.4 117.8 244 471.2
-140.0 -220 -364.0 31.7 89 192.2 118.3 245 473.0
-134.4 -210 -346.0 32.2 90 194.0 118.9 246 474.8
-128.9 -200 -328.0 32.8 91 195.8 119.4 247 476.6
-123.3 -190 -310.0 33.3 92 197.6 120.0 248 478.4
-117.8 -180 -292.0 33.9 93 199.4 120.6 249 480.2
-112.2 -170 -274.0 34.4 94 201.2 121.1 250 482.0
-106.7 -160 -256.0 35.0 95 203.0 126.7 260 500.0
-101.1 -150 -238.0 35.6 96 204.8 132.2 270 518.0
-95.6 -140 -220.0 36.1 97 206.6 137.8 280 536.0
-90.0 -130 -202.0 36.7 98 208.4 143.3 290 554.0
-84.4 -120 -184.0 37.2 99 210.2 148.9 300 572.0
-78.9 -110 -166.0 37.8 100 212.0 154.4 310 590.0
Instrumentation
Metering
°C °F °C °F °C °F
-73.3 -100 -148.0 38.3 101 213.8 160.0 320 608.0
-67.8 -90 -130.0 38.9 102 215.6 165.6 330 626.0
-62.2 -80 -112.0 39.4 103 217.4 171.1 340 644.0
-56.7 -70 -94.0 40.0 104 219.2 176.7 350 662.0
-51.1 -60 -76.0 40.6 105 221.0 182.2 360 680.0
-45.6 -50 -58.0 41.1 106 222.8 187.8 370 698.0
-45.0 -49 -56.2 41.7 107 224.6 193.3 380 716.0
-44.4 -48 -54.4 42.2 108 226.4 198.9 390 734.0
-43.9 -47 -52.6 42.8 109 228.2 204.4 400 752.0
-43.3 -46 -50.8 43.3 110 230.0 210.0 410 770.0
-42.8 -45 -49.0 43.9 111 231.8 215.6 420 788.0
-42.2 -44 -47.2 44.4 112 233.6 221.1 430 806.0
-41.7 -43 -45.4 45.0 113 235.4 226.7 440 824.0
-41.1 -42 -43.6 45.6 114 237.2 232.2 450 842.0
-40.6 -41 -41.8 46.1 115 239.0 237.8 460 860.0
-40.0 -40 -40.0 46.7 116 240.8 243.3 470 878.0
-39.4 -39 -38.2 47.2 117 242.6 248.9 480 896.0
-38.9 -38 -36.4 47.8 118 244.4 254.4 490 914.0
-38.3 -37 -34.6 48.3 119 246.2 260.0 500 932.0
-37.8 -36 -32.8 48.9 120 248.0 265.6 510 950.0
-37.2 -35 -31.0 49.4 121 249.8 271.1 520 968.0
-36.7 -34 -29.2 50.0 122 251.6 276.7 530 986.0
-36.1 -33 -27.4 50.6 123 253.4 282.2 540 1004.0
-35.6 -32 -25.6 51.1 124 255.2 287.8 550 1022.0
-35.0 -31 -23.8 51.7 125 257.0 293.3 560 1040.0
-34.4 -30 -22.0 52.2 126 258.8 298.9 570 1058.0
-33.9 -29 -20.2 52.8 127 260.6 304.4 580 1076.0
-33.3 -28 -18.4 53.3 128 262.4 310.0 590 1094.0
-32.8 -27 -16.6 53.9 129 264.2 315.6 600 1112.0
-32.2 -26 -14.8 54.4 130 266.0 321.1 610 1130.0
-31.7 -25 -13.0 55.0 131 267.8 326.7 620 1148.0
-31.1 -24 -11.2 55.6 132 269.6 332.2 630 1166.0
-30.6 -23 -9.4 56.1 133 271.4 337.8 640 1184.0
-30.0 -22 -7.6 56.7 134 273.2 343.3 650 1202.0
-29.4 -21 -5.8 57.2 135 275.0 348.9 660 1220.0
-28.9 -20 -4.0 57.8 136 276.8 354.4 670 1238.0
-28.3 -19 -2.2 58.3 137 278.6 360.0 680 1256.0
-27.8 -18 -0.4 58.9 138 280.4 365.6 690 1274.0
-27.2 -17 1.4 59.4 139 282.2 371.1 700 1292.0
-26.7 -16 3.2 60.0 140 284.0 376.7 710 1310.0
-26.1 -15 5.0 60.6 141 285.8 382.2 720 1328.0
-25.6 -14 6.8 61.1 142 287.6 387.8 730 1346.0
-25.0 -13 8.6 61.7 143 289.4 393.3 740 1364.0
-24.4 -12 10.4 62.2 144 291.2 398.9 750 1382.0
-23.9 -11 12.2 62.8 145 293.0 404.4 760 1400.0
-23.3 -10 14.0 63.3 146 294.8 410.0 770 1418.0
-22.8 -9 15.8 63.9 147 296.6 415.6 780 1436.0
-22.2 -8 17.6 64.4 148 298.4 421.1 790 1454.0
-21.7 -7 19.4 65.0 149 300.2 426.7 800 1472.0
-21.1 -6 21.2 65.6 150 302.0 432.2 810 1490.0
-20.6 -5 23.0 66.1 151 303.8 437.8 820 1508.0
Instrumentation
Metering
°C °F °C °F °C °F
-20.0 -4 24.8 66.7 152 305.6 443.3 830 1526.0
-19.4 -3 26.6 67.2 153 307.4 448.9 840 1544.0
-18.9 -2 28.4 67.8 154 309.2 454.4 850 1562.0
-18.3 -1 30.2 68.3 155 311.0 460.0 860 1580.0
-17.8 0 32.0 68.9 156 312.8 465.6 870 1598.0
-17.2 1 33.8 69.4 157 314.6 471.1 880 1616.0
-16.7 2 35.6 70.0 158 316.4 476.7 890 1634.0
-16.1 3 37.4 70.6 159 318.2 482.2 900 1652.0
-15.6 4 39.2 71.1 160 320.0 487.8 910 1670.0
-15.0 5 41.0 71.7 161 321.8 493.3 920 1688.0
-14.4 6 42.8 72.2 162 323.6 498.9 930 1706.0
-13.9 7 44.6 72.8 163 325.4 504.4 940 1724.0
-13.3 8 46.4 73.3 164 327.2 510.0 950 1742.0
-12.8 9 48.2 73.9 165 329.0 515.6 960 1760.0
-12.2 10 50.0 74.4 166 330.8 521.1 970 1778.0
-11.7 11 51.8 75.0 167 332.6 526.7 980 1796.0
-11.1 12 53.6 75.6 168 334.4 532.2 990 1814.0
-10.6 13 55.4 76.1 169 336.2 537.8 1000 1832.0
-10.0 14 57.2 76.7 170 338.0 543.3 1010 1850.0
-9.4 15 59.0 77.2 171 339.8 548.9 1020 1868.0
-8.9 16 60.8 77.8 172 341.6 554.4 1030 1886.0
-8.3 17 62.6 78.3 173 343.4 560.0 1040 1904.0
-7.8 18 64.4 78.9 174 345.2 565.6 1050 1922.0
-7.2 19 66.2 79.4 175 347.0 571.1 1060 1940.0
-6.7 20 68.0 80.0 176 348.8 576.7 1070 1958.0
-6.1 21 69.8 80.6 177 350.6 582.2 1080 1976.0
-5.6 22 71.6 81.1 178 352.4 587.8 1090 1994.0
-5.0 23 73.4 81.7 179 354.2 593.3 1100 2012.0
-4.4 24 75.2 82.2 180 356.0 598.9 1110 2030.0
-3.9 25 77.0 82.8 181 357.8 604.4 1120 2048.0
-3.3 26 78.8 83.3 182 359.6 610.0 1130 2066.0
-2.8 27 80.6 83.9 183 361.4 615.6 1140 2084.0
-2.2 28 82.4 84.4 184 363.2 621.1 1150 2102.0
-1.7 29 84.2 85.0 185 365.0 626.7 1160 2120.0
-1.1 30 86.0 85.6 186 366.8 632.2 1170 2138.0
-0.6 31 87.8 86.1 187 368.6 637.8 1180 2156.0
0.0 32 89.6 86.7 188 370.4 643.3 1190 2174.0
0.6 33 91.4 87.2 189 372.2 648.9 1200 2192.0
1.1 34 93.2 87.8 190 374.0 654.4 1210 2210.0
1.7 35 95.0 88.3 191 375.8 660.0 1220 2228.0
2.2 36 96.8 88.9 192 377.6 665.6 1230 2246.0
2.8 37 98.6 89.4 193 379.4 671.1 1240 2264.0
3.3 38 100.4 90.0 194 381.2 676.7 1250 2282.0
3.9 39 102.2 90.6 195 383.0 682.2 1260 2300.0
4.4 40 104.0 91.1 196 384.8 687.8 1270 2318.0
5.0 41 105.8 91.7 197 386.6 693.3 1280 2336.0
5.6 42 107.6 92.2 198 388.4 698.9 1290 2354.0
6.1 43 109.4 92.8 199 390.2 704.4 1300 2372.0
6.7 44 111.2 93.3 200 392.0 710.0 1310 2390.0
7.2 45 113.0 93.9 201 393.8 715.6 1320 2408.0
7.8 46 114.8 94.4 202 395.6 721.1 1330 2426.0
Instrumentation
Metering
°C °F °C °F °C °F
8.3 47 116.6 95.0 203 397.4 726.7 1340 2444.0
8.9 48 118.4 95.6 204 399.2 732.2 1350 2462.0
9.4 49 120.2 96.1 205 401.0 737.8 1360 2480.0
10.0 50 122.0 96.7 206 402.8 743.3 1370 2498.0
10.6 51 123.8 97.2 207 404.6 748.9 1380 2516.0
11.1 52 125.6 97.8 208 406.4 754.4 1390 2534.0
11.7 53 127.4 98.3 209 408.2 760.0 1400 2552.0
12.2 54 129.2 98.9 210 410.0 765.6 1410 2570.0
12.8 55 131.0 99.4 211 411.8 771.1 1420 2588.0
13.3 56 132.8 100.0 212 413.6 776.7 1430 2606.0
13.9 57 134.6 100.6 213 415.4 782.2 1440 2624.0
14.4 58 136.4 101.1 214 417.2 787.8 1450 2642.0
15.0 59 138.2 101.7 215 419.0 793.3 1460 2660.0
15.6 60 140.0 102.2 216 420.8 798.9 1470 2678.0
16.1 61 141.8 102.8 217 422.6 804.4 1480 2696.0
16.7 62 143.6 103.3 218 424.4 810.0 1490 2714.0
17.2 63 145.4 103.9 219 426.2 815.6 1500 2732.0
Table 4: Equivalences °C / °F
Note: The temperature to be converted is that figuring in the central column. For a
conversion into centigrade, read the left-hand column. For the conversion into Fahrenheit,
read the right-hand column.
2.8. THEORY REVIEW ON FLOW MEASURING
2.8.1. Definitions
2.8.1.1. What’s a flow rate?
Flow rate:
It is the quantity of product which flows in a certain time interval.
Q = (area x length) / ∆T
Area x length: this is the volume
Length / ∆T: this is the velocity
From this we can deduce:
Mass flow rate: Mass quantity (e.g.: kg/h)
Volume flow rate: Volume quantity (e.g.: m3/h)

Instrumentation
Metering
2.8.1.2. Reference conditions
It must be noted that it is meaningless to say that most flowmeters give the volume flow
rate or the gas volume flow rate unless it is expressed in normal conditions or in
standard conditions.
Normal Conditions: t = 0 °C Ö T = 273.15 K; P = 101325 Pa = 1013.25 mbar abs
Standard conditions: t = 60 °F = 15.6 °C Ö T = 288.75 K; P = 14.51PSI = 1013.25

mbar abs
Units: Normal m3 = Nm3; Standard m3 =Sm3
A mass flow rate expressed in Nm3/unit of time is still just a mass flow rate (the
Pressure (P) conditions and Temperature (T) conditions do not vary).
2.8.1.3. Relation between flow rate and pressure
In sensors which use a negative pressure element, the flow rate Q is proportional to the
square root of the difference in pressure P. The relationship between the flow rate and the
measured pressure difference can then be represented as follows.
Relationship between flow rate and pressure
Q = k ΔP
2.8.1.4. Viscosity
It characterises the capacity of the fluids to flow. It varies according to the fluid
temperature. The higher the temperature, the lower the viscosity.
2.8.1.5. Density
As its name indicates: it is a mass divided by a volume.
The density is the ratio of the densities of the product and of water.
I.e.: d = density / 1000

Instrumentation
Metering
The density decreases with temperature.
For information: the variation in volume is written: Vt = V0 (1 + ϕt)
ϕ: Expansion coefficient.
QV = Volume / Δt (see above)
For a measurement by delta P: Q = k ΔP
2.8.2. Measuring gas flows
2.8.2.1. Boyle – Mariotte’s law
For a gas or a mixture of perfect gases at constant temperature, the volume is

inversely proportional to its absolute pressure
V = constant / P
or
P x V = constant i.e. P0 x V0 = P1 x V1 or V1 / V0 = P0 / P1
Example calculation if a given mass of gas occupies a volume V1 of 1 m3 at a pressure P1

of 1 bar, what would be its pressure P2 if this same mass of gas occupied a volume V2 of
0.5 m3?
1 m3 x 1 bar = P2 x 0.5 m3 hence P2 = (1 x 1) / 0.5 = 2 bar
Note: This law can be verified for all gases which are well away from their liquefaction
conditions, and for low pressures (a few tens of atmospheres and ordinary temperatures
for hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, for example).
2.8.2.2. Gas dilution
Gay-Lussac's law
At constant pressure the increase in volume of a given mass of gas is proportional to the
temperature increase.
V
= Cste Limits: theoretically, from 0°C; in practice, extrapolation below 0°C
T

Instrumentation
Metering
Charles' law
At constant volume the pressure increase of a given mass of gas is proportional to the
temperature increase.
P
= Cste Limits: theoretically, from 0°C, in practice; extrapolation below 0°C
T
2.8.3. Perfect gas laws
A perfect gas is an imaginary gas which satisfies Boyle's law, Mariotte's law, Gay-Lussac's
law and Charles' law.
2.8.3.1. Perfect gas law
When a given mass of gas undergoes any transformation, the quantity remains constant.
P ×V
= Cste T : absolute temperature expressed in K (T = t °C + 273)
T
2.8.3.2. Perfect gas constant
R = 8.315 units
It is the value calculated for a molar volume in normal pressure and temperature
conditions. T
P0 × V0 1 atm × 22.4 l 101315 Pa × 22.4 ⋅ 10 −3 m 3

R= = = = 8.315
T0 0 °C 273.15 K
2.8.3.3. Perfect gas equation
For 1 mole of perfect gas: P V = R T
If m = 1 given mass of perfect gas
m
M = molar mass; n = = number of moles contained (in m)
M
Instrumentation
Metering
m
PV = nRT or PV = RT
M
2.8.3.4. Application to real gases
Most real gases behave in the same manner as perfect gases on condition that they are
placed at a pressure and temperature well away from their liquefaction conditions.
In the normal behaviour conditions of natural gases during their processing such as high
pressures, near the liquid phases or mixtures, we introduce a COMPRESSIBILITY
FACTOR "Z" which will indicate the difference in the PVT behaviour of the gas with
respect to that of a perfect gas.
2.8.4. Gas density
Definition: The density of a gas is defined by the AIR ratio
The density of a gas is the ratio of the mass (weight) of a sample of gas to the mass
(weight) of a sample of the same volume of air taken at the same TEMPERATURE (T) and
at the same PRESSURE (P).
Mass of a gas sample

Dgas = at the same P and T
Mass of a sample of the same volume of air
Note: The density of a gas with respect to air is conserved whatever the temperatures and
pressure.
Examples of gas density:
Hydrogen d = 0.069
Methane d = 0.552
Ethane d = 1.034
Propane d = 1.517
Butane d=2
The gases propane and butane (LPGs) are heavier than air. They are therefore very
hazardous because, since they are heavier than air, if there is a leak they spread out and
form a layer at floor level.
Simple gas density calculation: d = M / 29

Instrumentation
Metering
2.8.5. Gas pressure
The pressure of a gas results from the "molecular agitation/mixing?" of this gas, i.e. the
force which the molecules of this gas exert on its environment.
The pressure of a gas is defined by the general pressure definition relationship, i.e.:
F: expressed in newtons
P=F/S S: expressed in m²
P: expressed in Pascals
Legal unit: the Pascal

Commonly used unit: the bar - by definition 1 bar = 105 Pascals (100,000 Pa)
Atmospheric pressure:
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the layer of air (weight of the column of
air exerted on the surface) which surrounds the earth and which varies according to the
altitude, temperature and latitude.
The value of the atmospheric pressure measured at sea level is taken to be equal to a
height of 759.6 mm Hg (760 mm Hg).
1 atm ≅ 760 mm Hg ≅ 101325 Pa ≅ 1.013 bar ≅ 1.033 kgf/cm2
Different sort of pressure (measurement): In practice, the pressure of a gas is measured

(by a pressure gauge or manometer) and expressed with respect to atmospheric pressure.
Effective pressure: pressure measured with respect to atmospheric pressure, the

atmospheric pressure is taken as being the reference point
Absolute pressure: pressure measured with respect to the pressure absolute zero, e.g.
atmospheric pressure is an absolute pressure.
Vacuum or depression: it is a relative negative pressure, i.e. lower than atmospheric

pressure according to the absolute pressure measurement.
Hence the relationships:

Prelative = Pabsolute – Patm
Pabsolute = Patm + Prelative
Patm = Pabsolute – Prelative

Instrumentation
Metering
3. DIFFERENT TYPES OF METERS
3.1. GENERAL
3.1.1. Metering developments
Tank gauging was the first metering method used. It is still frequently employed where
tanks are still used: marine terminals, product depots, etc.
The use of meters was slowed down by routine and bureaucratic red tape. The have
enjoyed a return in favour with the appearance of new operating principles: pipeline,
offshore, etc.
The first meters to be used were volumetric meters. Flowmeters are currently preferred to
volumetric meters for weight, size and cost reasons.
Figure 5 : Tree diagram of the different types of measuring systems
3.1.2. Liquid metering
3.1.2.1. Static methods: gauging, weighing
These measurements are little used for metering in the production sequence except for
storage terminals.
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Metering
These methods are used for:
Gauging of wells.
Calibrating flowmeters.
Calculating the quantities received at the end of the line (terminal storage facilities).
3.1.2.2. Dynamic methods (or flow measurements)
Flowmeters are routinely used for metering liquid quantities and especially for determining
instantaneous flow rates. Although, in theory, users can choose from a large number of
types of equipment, based on a variety of operating principles, in practice only a limited
number of operating principles/technologies can be used for the technical metering of
liquids.
The techniques developed in the context of this manual are those which have proved
themselves in the oil industry environment and/or which can be used in a satisfactory
manner for our applications:
Pressure differential devices,
Coriolis flowmeter,
Turbine meters,
Volumetric meters,
Electromagnetic flowmeters (for water only),
Vortex flowmeters.
Ultrasonic flowmeters
3.1.3. Gas metering
The most currently used technologies in the technical metering sector are:
Pressure differential devices,
Vortex flowmeters,
Pitot and Annubar tubes,
Ultrasonic flowmeters.
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3.1.4. Custody transfer metering
3.1.4.1. Custody transfer metering of liquids
Most dynamic metering systems used for sales transactions today utilise turbine meters or
volumetric meters (positive displacement).
3.1.4.2. Custody transfer metering of gases
The most currently used principle for custody transfer gas metering is the orifice plate.
However, for custody transfer metering of "large"

volumes of gas, other measurement principles can
be used, such as:
Turbines
Figure 6 : Turbine flowmeter for gas metering
Ultrasonic
Figure 7 : Ultrasonic meter on a gas pipe
What we must know about volumetric meters or

positive displacement meters is that the
totalisation can be mechanical with a local display
which increments with each passing m3 and, on
option, there is a pulsed output which can also be
sent to a small local computer and to a
supervision system (DCS).
As you can see in the figure, the turbine meter has a coil and an electrical connector which
provides a pulsed output.

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Metering
3.2. CHOOSING THE RIGHT METER OR TRANSMITTER
I insist on this small chapter because everyone initially thinks of the meter technology and
often ask the question ‘I have to measure this fluid but how am I going to do it?’
We must also ask ourselves the following questions:
Which pipe am I going to install it on?
What are the installation instructions? (upstream – downstream length)
What material will my meter's casing be made of?
What fluid flow rate will pass through my meter? (ratio of the fluid velocity to the pipe
diameter)
What type of electrical connection will be used?
How will it be powered?
What process data will be concerned? (pressure, temperature, viscosity, etc.)
You must ask yourself all the questions listed above each time you have to install a piece
of instrumentation equipment. To help you, there is an instrumentation data sheet
available, where you specify all the data for your equipment calls for tenders.
Example:
To begin with, you take the PID which the

Design Department has given you for the
construction process. A small example of this is
shown in the figure on the right with the sizing of
a turbine meter. For you, the instrument
technician, it is important to first check that the
dimensions of the equipment correspond to your
installation (see manufacturer's doc.), and that
the upstream and downstream lengths specified
by the manufacturer are respected.
Figure 8: Extract from a PID
You then have to find the diameter of the piping and its equipment. This is very easy. Just
look at the corresponding pipeline number. In our example it is 8 NH 1512 E52.
This means that it is an 8’’ pipe (Nominal Diameter 200mm); the coding of the fluid flowing
through the pipe is NH which indicates that it is crude oil. You must then contact the
Process Department to get the pressure, temperature, viscosity and density of the fluid.
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Metering
E52 corresponds to the piping class (see course ‘Instrumentation Standards and
Symbols’).
Details of piping class E52:
E is the identification letter of the series. In this example it means that it is the 400 lbs
series.
Figure 9: Table from General Specification GS_EP_PVV_112
52: These two figures correspond to the piping material. In this example it means that the
pipe is made of stainless steel. If you look at TOTAL General Specification
GS_EP_PVV_112 you will see that the figures from 45 to 70 represent stainless steel
(page 6 of the specification).

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Metering
Figure 10 : Example of piping material specification GS_EP_PVV_112

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Metering
Figure 11 : Example datasheet of a differential pressure transmitter

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Metering
3.3. TURBINE
3.3.1. Operation of a turbine flowmeter
Figure 12: Exploded view of a turbine flowmeter
The fluid flow rotates a turbine (multivane rotor mounted on bearings) placed in the
measurement chamber; the rotational speed of the rotor is proportional to the fluid velocity,
and thus to the total volumetric flow rate. The rotational speed is measured by counting the
vane passage frequency detected using a coil (a permanent magnet is sometimes integral
with the rotor).
Each pulse represents a distinct volume of liquid.
There has been little or no development of turbine metering for technical metering but it is
widely used for custody transfer or fiscal metering (allocation).
Turbines procure greater accuracy than orifices.

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Metering
3.3.2. Principle
The rotational speed of a turbine-type component placed in a pipe is proportional to the

flow rate. This speed is determined by measuring the pulses generated during a certain
time interval N.
N N: Number of pulses generated during the time interval (∆t),

Qv = The K-factor is related to the turbine and to the fluid and is thus expressed in
K pulses per m3.
1
= p is the weight of the pulse in m3 / pulse
K
It is obvious that the K-factor will differ according to the flow velocity and the pipe diameter.
The friction (bearings) and the product viscosity variations generate non-linearities that are
particularly significant at low regimes.
Different technologies can be used to meter

liquids:
Flat blade turbines (limited to low

viscosity products)
Figure 13 : Example of a flat-blade turbine meter

(exploded view)
Helical blade turbines (much less sensitive to fluid viscosity variations). They are
usually used for metering gas.
Figure 14 : High
performance helical blade
turbine

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Metering
3.3.3. Choice of turbine type
For precision applications, the use of helical blade turbines rather than flat blade turbines
is recommended as the former have:
better flow stability,
lower sensitivity to the crude viscosity variations,
very good linearity (+/- 0.15% or better),
greater operating flexibility owing to the possibility of less frequent calibration and
of using performance tables or curves (K-factor versus flow rate): ISO 4124 or
API MPMS 5.3.
3.3.4. Data supplied
Volumetric flow rate in the P and T m3/h conditions.
Cumulated volume if a totaliser is associated with the sensor.
3.3.5. Use of turbine meters
All types of fluids.
Although for fiscal metering, the use of turbine meters is recommended for fluids
with viscosity less than 25-30 Cst, their use for technical metering could be
extended to viscosities of the order of 80 Cst and above (insertion devices).
For liquids, they are often used:
At the production separator outlet.
At the departure point from the field.
At the arrival point at the treatment platform or terminal platform.
For gases, they are often used essentially for clean gases:
Fiscal metering the gas at the test and production separator outlets.

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Metering
3.3.6. Characteristic curve of a turbine meter
Turbine meters are characterised by their excellent metrological qualities when used with
low-viscosity liquids (liquefied gases, fuels, etc.). They can be used over a narrower flow
range while retaining the same metrological qualities up to viscosities of 120 Pa.s
(120 centistokes), the maximum viscosity of crude oils.
To take account of the effect of the viscosity on the metrological performance of a meter,
we draw a network of error curves, or a network of curves of the factor according to the
flow rate, for liquids with different viscosities.
For turbine meters with helical blades, we noted that in certain flow rate and viscosity
ranges there is a link between these parameters. If we make the Y-coordinate the factor
and the X-coordinate the flow rates divided by the kinematic viscosity, all the points are
grouped on the same curve.
The curve obtained is called the "universal curve". This curve can be entered in an
equation and the turbine data can thus be corrected in-line.
Figure 15 : Example of calibration reading – turbine meter

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Metering
Figure 16 : Example of calibration curve for HELIFLU meter
Figure 17: Universal calibration curve

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Metering
3.3.7. Turbine meter performances
As previously described each pulse generated by a turbine meter is equivalent to a

discrete volume of fluid. Therefore for each meter a calibration characteristic called a K-
factor is applied. This K-factor is expressed in pulses per volume, normally cubic meters
or litres. For each make, model and size of turbine meter there will be a stated nominal K-
factor. However each individual meter within such a grouping will have a slightly different
K-factor, which will change with variations in the flow rate.
The variation of a turbine meters K-factor with reference to the flow rate is termed linearity
and is demonstrated by plotting the meter K-factor against flow rate. A typical meter
characteristic shows a reasonably flat central section with steeper profiles at low and high
flow rates. This central section covers the flow limits for the meter and will normally allow a
flowrate turndown ratio of 10:1. For a 4 inch meter this would typically be 30 to 300 m3/h.
The specified linearity for a typical high accuracy turbine meter is ± 0.25%, although ±
0.15% is sometimes stated, especially for a reduced turndown ratio.
The meter K-factor is not only affected by flow rate but also temperature, pressure and
especially viscosity. Therefore the characteristics curve needs to be produced at constant
operating conditions, and is only valid for the specified type of fluid. Therefore an initial
factory calibration is only really applicable where the operating conditions remain
reasonably close to those for the calibration. Otherwise in order to provide the optimum
operating accuracy turbine meters are proved in-situ against a master measure to allow
new K-factors to be calculated for changing conditions.
The performance of turbine meters can also include a reference to repeatability. This is
basically a measure of how close calculated K-factors are for identical process conditions.
The typical repeatability for high accuracy turbine meters is ± 0.02%, and must be
achieved to provide consistent results when the meters are proved.
3.3.7.1. Determination of the K-factor
In order to determine the meter K-factor, which is the number of pulses generated by the
meter for each unit of volume (e.g. m3 or litre) throughput, the meter must be calibrated by
another flow measuring device.
The meter must be calibrated over its full operating range of flowrate because the meter K-
factor changes with flowrate.
The meter K-factor also changes with fluid viscosity. In theory the meter should be
calibrated using its operating process fluid at the operating pressure and temperature. It is
for this reason that fiscal turbine flowmeters have an on-line calibration facility, i.e. the
meter prover.
The calibration is compromised if the K-factor is determined with a different fluid.

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Metering
Manufacturers do not have access to hydrocarbon pipelines so a manufacturer’s

calibration must be carried out using available fluids. Manufacturers normally calibrate
using water.
3.3.7.2. Flow measurement
Once the meter K-factor is defined the flow through the meter can simply be determined by
dividing the number of pulses generated by the meter K-factor:
Pulses
Volume =
Meter K-factor
Similarity the flow rate can be calculated by dividing the pulse frequency by the meter K-
factor:
Pulse frequency
Flow rate =
Meter K-factor
The units of the flow rate will be consistent with those of the pulse frequency and meter K-
factor. For example, for a turbine meter with a K-factor of 2000 pulses per cubic metre,
registering a pulse frequency of 10,000 Hertz, the flow rate will be:
10,000 pulses per sec

Flow rate = = 5 m3 /sec
2,000 pulses per m3
This is a volume flow rate measured at the flowing temperature and pressure, i.e. the
observed volume or gross volume flow rate. To allow flows at different conditions to be
compared it is normal practice to adjust the observed volume to either a mass or a
standard volume.
A mass total or mass flow rate is obtained by dividing the gross volume figure by the
flowing density:
Gross volume
Mass =
Density at the same conditions
The standard volume total or flow rate are corrected from the gross volume conditions to
the metric standard conditions (MSC) of 1.01325 bar absolute and 15 degrees Celsius.
This is achieved by undertaking a volume correction to account for the temperature and
pressure effects from meter conditions to standard conditions. The two correction factors
are termed Ctlm (effect of temperature on the liquid at the meter) and Cplm (effect of
pressure on the liquid at the meter) and are fully defined below. The product of these two
terms is called the volume correction factor (VCF): VCF = Ctlm x Cplm
The standard volume can thus be calculated by applying the volume correction factor
to the gross volume indicated by the turbine meter:
Standard volume = Gross volume × VCF

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Metering
3.3.8. Installation
3.3.8.1. Assembly
The turbine meters are normally configured with or without a flow conditioner; they should
preferably be installed in a horizontal pipe.
Although there are approximate formulas for evaluating the straight pipe lengths needed
according to the line configuration, the minimum straight lengths upstream and
downstream are specified by the Group and its standards.
Isolating valves and bypasses must be used in the start-up phases.
Where gas slugs are present the installation of deaerators is recommended.
Figure 18 : Installation of a turbine without a flow conditioner
Figure 19 : Installation of a turbine with a flow conditioner
Notes:
The upstream and downstream pipes must be secured fast, to avoid any
mechanical stress on the turbine.

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Metering
The turbine must be installed on straight sections of pipe with no flow disrupting
elements (valves, reduction, etc.).
The liquid measured must be free of solids and gas so the appropriate equipment
must be provided (filter, deaerator, etc.).
The turbine must preferably be installed in a horizontal pipe and be pressurised to

prevent the risk of cavitation (pressurised tank, pump delivery, etc.).
In the exceptional case of a turbine being installed on a vertical pipe, the liquid
must flow from bottom to top.
Figure 20 : Example of turbine positioning
3.3.8.2. Equipment
The choice of the type of mechanical equipment (bearings, hub components, etc.)
is critical.
The type of rotor (helical or not) may play a role in the turbine performance (rotors
are less sensitive to viscosity).

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Metering
3.3.8.3. Preamplifiers
There are specific electronic preamplifiers available for each turbine module.
"Dubious" electronic adaptations must be avoided since the frequency and pulse
level are specific to each piece of equipment.
The amplifiers should be protected in difficult environments (sun and spray).
3.3.9. Implementation
Recommendations (ISO 2715, API MPMS 5.3)
Turbine meters should be installed horizontally.
Install long straight lengths upstream and downstream to obtain an established

flow profile without vortices or, failing this, install a flow conditioner or a flow
straightener (vortices or pulses can cause excess meter readings due to
overspeed).
It is essential to install filtration devices upstream. They should be equipped with a

differential pressure indicator to check the state of clogging.
Install a pressure and/or flow control valve downstream of each meter to maintain
a pressure greater than the vapour pressure of the measured fluid (degassing)
and to keep the flow rate within the meter's operating range.
Install a deaerator if there is a risk of gas being present upstream (the flow rate is
overestimated if gas is present in the liquid).
For fiscal metering, the regulations require the presence of a device preventing
product backflow (e.g. non-return valve).
It is preferable to have a enough parallel meter runs to allow one run to be isolated
and the full flow to be handled by the other runs, without exceeding each one’s
metering limits.
Use the turbines within their operating range.
Carry out calibration operations (calibration loop, master turbine, placing 2 meter
runs in series, etc.) to pinpoint any discrepancies and to correct the meter factors
(change in viscosity, in temperature, presence of deposits, wear of hub
components, etc.).
Recalibrate if there is an increase in flow rate or viscosity.

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Metering
Provide a housing for a mercury thermometer near the temperature sensors so

that they can be checked at regular intervals.
Ensure that the electronics are carefully protected and the cables are properly
insulated.
Each run of a turbine metering station must have a manual isolation valve, a filter,
a flow conditioner, a metering turbine, P and T sensors, a flow control valve, a
non-return valve, a block and bleed valve for sending the flow to the calibration
loop.
Note: sales metering using turbines generates very few incidents. Conversely, for non-
sales metering, the same equipment is used but the installation rules are rarely or never
respected (filtration quality low, water hammer effects, etc.), resulting in low equipment
availability and high operating and maintenance costs.
3.3.10. Problems encountered
Leaks in the valves (not turbine-related).
Drift with wear of moving parts and the presence of deposits requiring calibrations
and readjustment of the K-factor.
Calibration flow rate outside the stability range for the considered turbine's K-
factor.
Failure to count the pulses generated due to the sensitivity being set too low or an
electrical fault.
Signals from an outside source seen as pulses (electrical power sources, welding
sets, radio transmitter, etc.).
Specific case of a floating support vessel: depending on the sea conditions, the
movements of the vessel may generate fluid displacements in the meter runs which,
although they are of very low amplitude when isolated (loading not in progress), are
sufficient to increment the number of pulses transmitted by the turbines.
3.3.11. Characteristics
Fluids Liquids, Gases, Vapours

Pressure Up to 400 bars
Temperature -230 / +260 °C
Measuring range 10
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Metering
Response Linear
Accuracy ± 0.25% (10:1) – liquid
± 1.0% (10:1) – gas
Connections Threaded / Flanges
Sizes Up to 600 mm
Advantages Accuracy – Self-contained – Low pressure drop.
Disadvantages Straight lengths – Viscosity
Figure 21 : Examples of turbines

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Metering
3.4. VOLUMETRIC METER
Volumetric meters differ from turbine meters by their general characteristics which are:
Larger than turbine meters,
Average robustness (complex mechanics),
Greater pressure drop,
Service pressure limited compared to turbine meters,
High precision even at high viscosity,
Sensitive to fluid hammer,
Sensitive to aggressive liquids,
Wide range of flow rates
Require regular maintenance
Direct digital readout at the meter,
To summarise, volumetric meters are adapted to low flow rates and high viscosities
whereas turbine meters are better adapted to high flow rates and low viscosities. The use
of turbine meters for crude oil poses problems due to the viscosity since this type of meter
is very sensitive to viscosity variations.
3.4.1. Metering principle
They directly measure the flow volume Qv by repeatedly trapping an elementary volume of
fluid. The total liquid volume passing through the flowmeter over a given time interval is the
product of the elementary volume multiplied by the number of measurements of this
trapped volume.
These devices often totalise the volume directly on an integrated meter, but they can also
provide a pulsed output which can be sent to a display unit.
Unlike all the other flow, mass or volume measurement systems, volumetric meters (also
called positive displacement meters) take direct measurements.
Very many technologies are used industrially, among them:
Vane meter

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Metering
Oscillating piston meters
Screw meter
Oval gear meter
Gear meter
etc.
3.4.2. Different types of volumetric meters
3.4.2.1. Rotary piston meter
Figure 22 : Rotary piston meter
Operation:
This type of meter operates on the volumetric principle. This measurement principle has a
wide measurement range, high precision and an independent electrical power supply.

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Metering
It is not affected by current turbulence. In addition, this system is perfectly adapted to

measuring high-viscosity liquids.
They are also meters in which the gas flows operate two pistons with perfectly matched
shapes. On each revolution a determined volume of gas passes through the meter and is
equal to its free volume.
The number of revolutions of the meter is used to measure the volume of gas passing
through it. This number of revolutions is recorded by a totaliser which gives the flow rate in
cubic meters, in service conditions.
3.4.2.2. Vane meter
Figure 23 : Vane meter
3.4.2.3. Screw meter
Figure 24 : Screw meters

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3.4.2.4. Oval gear meter
n : Oval gears
o : Permanent magnet
p : Reed contact
Figure 25: Oval gear meter
Operating principle:
2 oval gears are placed at 90° to each other in the meter body and are driven by the
displacement of the fluid. Therefore the gears define the quantity of fluid measured. The
gears are equipped with permanent magnets. The pulses produced by the rotation of the
gears are picked up by a contact. The volume of product is determined by the number of
pulses generated in this manner.
3.4.3. Uses
For viscous hydrocarbon fluids without solid particles (sand, etc.).
Low sensitivity to variations in the fluid properties (composition, viscosity).

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Metering
Insensitive to flow disturbances.
Export platform / treatment centre.
Figure 26 : Examples of volumetric meters
3.4.4. Implementation (Recommendations)
Identical to the recommendations for the turbine metering stations except for the straight
lengths or flow conditioners which are not required.
Provision should be made however for:
a speed limiter,
sufficient space for maintenance.
Moreover, the following must be planed for on the installations:
Use filters with a delta P measurement.

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Metering
Install horizontally.
No flow conditioner or straight length.
If gas present, use deaerators.
Speed limiter.
Allow sufficient space for maintenance.
3.4.5. Problems encountered
damage due to overspeeds,
cavitation,
mechanical deterioration due to possible solids,
liquid leakage or slip at low flow rates,
metered values too high if entrained gas present,
drifts due to mechanical wear,
mechanical transmission problems.
3.4.6. Application
For accurate metering at the production centre outlet.
Located upstream, this device is reserved more for liquid metering.
For metering fluids with variable properties (water + oil) without gas and without
solids.
For metering in applications where turbines cannot be used (due to high viscosity).

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Metering
3.4.7. Characteristics
Fluids "Clean" Liquids
Temperature Up to 300°C (liquid)
Measurement range 10 to 20
Response Linear
Accuracy ± 0.25% to 0.5, depending on the technologies
Sizes Up to 300 mm
Advantages Accuracy – Viscosity - Installation
Disadvantages Maintenance – Bulky
Flow rate limited due to high rotation speeds

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Metering
4. LES DEBITMETRES INSTANTANES
4.1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETER
4.1.1. Electromagnetic flowmeter operation
Faraday's induction law states that a conductor moving through a magnetic field
generates an induced voltage. In the case of an electromagnetic flowmeter, it is the
moving fluid which represents the moving conductor. The constant electromagnetic field is
generated by 2 coils, one on each side of the measuring tube.
Two measuring electrodes are installed inside the tube, at 90° to the coils, to measure the
induced voltage generated by the movement of the fluid in the electromagnetic field. The
induced voltage is proportional to the fluid velocity and thus to the volumetric flow rate.
The electromagnetic field is generated

by a pulsed DC current with alternating
polarities. This provides a stable zero
point and renders the measurement
insensitive to the effects of multi-phase,
non-homogenous, or low conductivity
liquids.
Figure 27: Electromagnetic flowmeter

operating principle
4.1.2. Principle
An electric conductor (the fluid) passes through a magnetic field of intensity B. A voltage
U, which is directly proportional to the average flow velocity V is induced in the fluid.
The magnetic induction B (magnetic field strength) and the distance between the
electrodes D (ND of tube) are constant.
The induced voltage signal is picked up by the two measuring electrodes in contact with
the fluid or by a contactless capacitance system.
A measurement converter amplifies the signal and converts it into a conventional signal
(stabilised current, e.g. (4-20 mA)) and into a frequency signal (1 pulse for each cubic
meter of fluid passing through the measuring tube).
To prevent the voltage being short-circuited by the tube wall, the measuring tube is made
of an electrically insulating material or has an insulating internal coating.

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Metering
Figure 28 : Electromagnetic flowmeter principle
The measurement is largely independent of the flow profile and of other fluid
characteristics such as: pressure, temperature, viscosity, density, consistency, electrical
conductivity and electrode fouling.
We measure the emf (electromotive force) induced by the displacement of the fluid (which
must be conductive) in a magnetic field (Faraday's law).
K: Sensor constant
B: Magnetic field strength
U=K×B×Ñ×D
v: Mean flow velocity
D: Distance between electrodes
The volumetric flow rate at metering conditions, from the liquid displacement velocity
measurement.
4.1.4. Use
It is reserved for fluids with sufficient conductivity (sea water, formation water, etc.). Used
for water only.
The fluid's measurable minimum conductivity must be 5μs/cm. Minimum flow velocities
must be respected (e.g. 0.5 m/s).
The following table gives the minimum and maximum flow velocities according to the
diameter of the flowmeter. This allows you to choose the flowmeter corresponding to your
application.

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Metering
Table 5: Table of flow velocities according to pipe diameter
This table is valid according to each flowmeter manufacturer, It is an extract from the
manufacturer Krohne's documentation.
4.1.5. Equipment
The flowmeters have a fragile electrical insulation (Teflon,

ceramic). Some manufacturers provide a centring ring.
Figure 29 : Electromagnetic flowmeter

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Metering
4.1.6. Installation
The flowmeter should

preferably be installed on
vertical pipes. However,
installation on horizontal
pipes is possible.
Figure 30: Installation on

vertical pipe
Figure 31 : Installation on horizontal pipe
Precautions to take:
The flowmeter must always be full of liquid. If the pipe is not completely filled, you
may get air bubbles and this will greatly disrupt the measurement.
The torque loadings must be respected to prevent damage to the external

coatings. (coatings are often PTFE).
The connections to the pipes must be installed such as to prevent incorrect

alignment.

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Metering
An assembly support must be used to ensure that the measuring tube and the
pipes are aligned. If one of the components forms an angle with respect to
another, the insulation elements (ceramic or Teflon) may be damaged.
The highest accuracy will be obtained using upstream straight lengths of 5D or

10D (5D after Tee , open valve; 10D after expander or control valve).
Electromagnetic flowmeters must not be used beside equipment likely to create

interference (motors, transformers, etc.).
The earthing must be installed with care (the sensor and transmitter must be
earthed).
According to the manufacturers' recommendations, isolation valves and bypass

valves should be installed to facilitate checks and adjustments.
The zeroing or zero check must be performed with the upstream and downstream
isolating valves closed and the piping completely filled with liquid.
4.1.7. Typical applications
Water at the separator outlets which does not create

isolating deposits.
Water on water treatment installations.
Injection water.
Only salt water applications are recommended.
Figure 32 : Example of an electromagnetic flowmeter
4.1.8. Specifications
Fluids Conductive liquids
Temperature Up to 180 °C
Measuring range 2 l/h to 115000 m3/h
Response Linear

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Metering
Accuracy ± 0.5% (10:1)
Connections Flanges
Sizes 2.5 – 2500 mm
Advantages Pressure drop - bi-directional
Disadvantages Conductive liquids
4.1.9. Measurement uncertainties and error limits
ND (mm) (inches) Measurement uncertainty Curves

3 0.15 % of v.m. + 1 mm/s
10 - 100 /8’’ – 4‘’ 1
0.15 % of v.m. + 0.04’’/s
0.2 % of v.m. + 1 mm/s
150 – 250 6’’ – 10‘’
0.2 % of v.m. + 0.04’’/s
3
10 – 1600 /8’’ – 64’’ 2
0.2 % of v.m. + 1 mm/s
3 0.2 % of v.m. + 0.04’’/s
10 – 150 /8’’ – 6’’
3
10 - 150 /8’’ – 6’’
1 0.3 % of v.m. + 2 mm/s
2.5 – 6 /10’’ – ¼’’ 3
0.3 % of v.m. + 0.08’’/s
> 1600 > 64’’
Figure 33: Measurement uncertainty curve for KHRONE flowmeters

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Metering
4.2. VORTEX FLOWMETER
4.2.1. Vortex flowmeter operation
The vortex flowmeter measures the volume flow rate of gases, vapours and liquids in
completely filled pipes. The measurement principle is based on the formation of alternate
vortices (Karman effect). The measurement tube contains a vortex generator. The
frequency of vortex shedding f is proportional to the flow velocity v. The characteristic
Strouhal number S (constant of the measurement sensor) is the ratio between the
frequency f, the width b of the vortex generator and the mean flow velocity v.
S .v
The following relation can therefore be deduced from this: f =
b
The vortex frequency is detected in the measurement sensor and processed in the
measurement converter (which can be mounted directly on the sensor or be remote from
it).
Figure 34: Vortex flowmeter principle
The sensor delivers frequency data which

are processed to provide the user with
volumetric flow rate data in the meter run
conditions.
4.2.3. Equipment
The technologies differ by the type of

obstacle used and the vortex shedding
frequency measurement techniques.
Figure 35 : Main components of a Vortex

flowmeter
The disturbing element is often called a
‘bar’ in maintenance.
Instrumentation
Metering
4.2.4. Installation
To prevent a liquid from degassing or vaporising, there must be minimal backpressure.
Refer to the installation standard which specifies:
straight lengths of 20D to 30D downstream,
10D upstream,
the upstream and downstream pipes must be secured in such a way as to prevent
shocks or eccentricities,
installation of the meter on the straight sections free of flow-disrupting elements,
the use of a flow conditioner if the straight lengths cannot be respected.
The manufacturer documentation specifies the installation requirements according to the

pipe configuration (after reducer, after valve, after bend, after expander, etc.).
There are recommendations for the positions of

the temperature and pressure take-offs.
Care must be taken to ensure that the flowmeters

have the same diameter as the pipes or a smaller
diameter, where necessary.
The flow direction must correspond to the arrow

indicated on the meter.
If the flowmeter is installed vertically, the flow must

be from bottom to top.
Figure 36 : Vortex flowmeter

Instrumentation
Metering
4.2.5. Typical applications
4.2.5.1. For liquids
Metering of light condensates (< 5 cSst).
Water metering.
This technique is not very widely used for metering liquids in production due to the
frequent presence of viscous products.
4.2.5.2. For gases
Metering gas at the test and production separator outlets.
Metering gas injection.
IMPORTANT: functions only with Reynolds’ numbers > 10 000‼!
Response Linear at Reynolds’ numbers > 10 000 – 20 000

± 2.0% (15:1) – gas
Sizes 10 – 200 mm
Advantages No moving parts – Q/P ratio
Disadvantages Straight lengths

Instrumentation
Metering
Figure 37 : Examples of Vortex flowmeters
4.2.7. Measurement uncertainty
Re > 20000 ± 0.75% for liquids

Measurement
Re > 20000 ± 1% for gases and vapours
uncertainty
10000 < Re < 20000 ± 2% for liquids, gases and vapours
Repeatability ± 0.1%
Stability ± 0.1% over a one-year period
Table 6 : Table of measurement uncertainties for a Krohne vortex flowmeter

Instrumentation
Metering
4.3. CORIOLIS FLOWMETER
4.3.1. Basic features of Coriolis acceleration
Coriolis acceleration γ appears when a mass is subjected to a rotation movement and a

translation movement at the same time.
r r r r r
From this we deduce by theory: γ = 2ω × ν , where ω is the angular velocity and ν the
translation velocity.
This acceleration corresponds to a force F: F = mγ = 2mωυ , where m is the mass of

the fluid subjected to the two actions (rotation and translation)
4.3.2. Coriolis flowmeter principle
In a flowmeter, an exciter coil placed at C subjects the

measurement tube to an oscillating movement around the
rest axis A-B.
According to the terminology specific to this domain, the

central part is a "displacement antinode" where the
oscillation is at its maximum.
If there is no flow, no Coriolis force is produced.
When the fluid particles move with a velocity v, they induce

Coriolis forces which act on the two halves of the tube in
opposite directions.
The fluid delays the oscillation when it must acquire the

movement itself (between A and C) and accelerates it
when it gives back the energy taken (between C and B).
This produces a very low distortion in the tube which is

superimposed on the tube's basic oscillation.

Instrumentation
Metering
The total movement is measured using inductive sensors

placed at A and B. Thus when there is a flow, a phase lag
ΔΦ is observed between the oscillation at A and the
oscillation at B.
This phase difference corresponds to a time interval Δt

which is directly proportional to the mass flow rate Q,
where f is the oscillation frequency and k a constant.
The oscillating behaviour of the measurement tube also depends on the temperature. This
temperature is permanently measured and the values are corrected in consequence.
4.3.3. Operating principle Coriolis flow meter
The Coriolis flowmeter thus uses an obstacle-free tube as a sensor which is made to
vibrate at its resonant frequency by a coil placed half-way along the sensor.
When the fluid particles move in the tube they will create Coriolis forces which act in
opposite directions on the two halves of the tube: in the first half of the tube, the fluid slows
down the oscillation whereas it accelerates it in the second half by giving back the energy
it gained in the first half.
Figure 38 : Coriolis flowmeter operating principle

Instrumentation
Metering
This produces a distortion in the tube which results in a phase lag between the input and
output which can be measured using inductive sensors. This time lag between the two
oscillation signals is proportional to the Coriolis force and thus to the mass flow rate.
Figure 39 : Example of Coriolis ROSEMOUNT Micro motion
Figure 40 : Exploded view of a Coriolis flow meter
4.3.3.1. Density measurement
The density of the fluid can be measured from the resonant frequency of the tube. If the
fluid is a mixture of two components (oil + water), and if we know the density, we can
determine the water/liquid and oil/liquid fractions.

Instrumentation
Metering
4.3.4. Primary data
Mass flow rate in kg/g or tonnes/hour.
Density in kg/m3.
4.3.5. Use of Coriolis mass flowmeters
4.3.5.1. Fluids
Mass metering of hydrocarbon fluids and hydrocarbons + water.
Stabilised or non-stabilised.
This type of meter can be used with incipient gas.
4.3.5.2. Location
At the test separator outlets.
Export.
Field metering.
4.3.6. Equipment
The systems currently found in use on

installations use essentially curved tubes.
Figure 41 : Débitmètre massique Coriolis

avec tubes en épingle
4.3.7. Installation
4.3.7.1. General
In all cases they must be installed so that:
the flowmeter can easily be removed and checked,

Instrumentation
Metering
there are no vibrations,
the sensor is always full of liquid.
The recommended installation configurations are described in the Group's standards or

the manufacturers' documentation and must be followed.
When the flowmeter is used at the test separator outlet, a backpressure must be provided
to prevent degassing (hydrostatic). The flowmeter must be installed as close as possible to
the separator outlet to minimise the pressure drop in the pipes and thus the degassing. It
must be installed upstream of the control valves.
If the system introduces a pressure drop which adversely affects the test separator
operation, the use of a pump may be necessary.
4.3.7.2. Mounting
Refer to the manufacturer documentation and to the company's standards for:
the mechanical connections,
the support system (use of Silentbloc chocks (see diagram)),
the connections to the process.
Figure 42 : Installation of Coriolis flowmeters

Instrumentation
Metering
Notes:
Install a valve downstream of the sensor to check the zero. If the transmitter is
installed at a high point, fit a valve upstream and a valve downstream.
The piping upstream and downstream of the sensor must be fixed by clamps. If
substantial vibrations is induced by the piping, use clamps with dampers
(Silentbloc type) and secure the unit.
The transmitter must be installed at least 2 metres away from equipment liable to
produce high magnetic fields (motors, power supplies, etc.).
Provide a bleed valve for putting the meter into service and zeroing.
If production cannot be stopped to carry out the zeroing, configure the flowmeter
with a bypass.
4.3.8. Specifications of Coriolis flowmeters
Fluids Liquids and Gases
Response Linear
Accuracy ± 0.25% (10:1)
Sizes 1.5 – 150 mm
Advantages Direct mass – Difficult applications
Disadvantages Pressure drop – Calibration

Instrumentation
Metering
4.4. ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER – "TRANSIT" TIME
4.4.1. Operating principle Ultrasonic flow meters
Figure 43 : Operating principle ultrasonic flow meter
The principle is based on the differential transit time method which is relatively simple and
can be illustrated using the following example. Let us observe two kayaks which cross a
river on the same diagonal line.
One of the two kayaks travels in the direction of the current flow and the other crosses
against the current flow. The kayak which travels in the direction of the current will cross
the river faster than that travelling against the current.
The same phenomenon can be applied to ultrasound. A sound wave propagates faster in
the fluid's flow direction than in the opposite direction.
A transducer transmits a signal in the flow direction. Another transducer transmits a signal
in the opposite direction along the same path. A sound wave moving in the same direction
as the flow travels faster than another sound wave moving in the opposite direction to the
flow.
The time the acoustic pulse beat takes to cross, in the flow direction and against the flow,
is precisely measured. The transit time difference is directly proportional to the average
flow velocity of the medium.
The volume flow rate is the product of the average speed multiplied by the cross section of
the pipe.
Instrumentation
Metering
Propagation velocity of Transit time of the

the ultrasonic waves ultrasonic waves
In the fluid flow direction, measured tAB = L /

from sensor A to sensor B vAB = co + vm x cosϕ
(co+vmxcosϕ)
In the opposite direction to the fluid tBA = L / (co–

flow, measured from sensor B to vBA = co – vm x cosϕ
sensor A vmxcosϕ)
For the indicated flow direction: vAB > vBA tAB < tBA
vm = GK x (tBA–tAB) /
Average flow velocity of the fluid Vm
(tAB×tBA)
A (A'): Sensor A, Transmitter and receiver

B (B'): Sensor B, Transmitter and receiver
c0: Speed of sound in the liquid to be measured
GK: Calibration constant
L: Distance between the ultrasonic sensors
tAB: Transit time of the sound waves from sensor A to sensor B
tBA: Transit time of the sound waves from sensor B to sensor A
vAB: Propagation speed of the sound waves from point A to point B
vBA: Propagation speed of the sound waves from point B to point A
vm: Average flow velocity of the liquid to be measured
j: Angle formed by the centreline of the tube and the measurement line
Two sensors are installed on a pipe and simultaneously act as ultrasonic pulse
transmitters and receivers. At zero flow, the two transmitters both receive the ultrasound
waves at the same time, with a zero transit time.

Instrumentation
Metering
When the fluid is in movement, the

ultrasound waves do not reach the two
sensors at the same time.
This measurement of the difference in

transit time is directly proportional to
the flow velocity and thus to the
volumetric flow rate.
Figure 44 : Ultrasonic flowmeter

operating principle
4.4.2. Principle
We are also now seeing the development of

ultrasonic flowmeters which may, in the future,
be used alongside the "conventional" techniques
(accuracy, high dynamics, no pressure drop).
Figure 45 : Ultrasonic meter for liquids
Measuring the flow velocity by the transit time

consists in measuring the difference in the time
taken by an ultrasound wave to travel in the flow
direction and in the reverse flow direction.
In the flow direction, the distance is travelled at

a velocity equal to the sum of the velocity of
sound and of the average flow velocity. In the
reverse direction, the average flow velocity must
be subtracted from the velocity of sound.
Figure 46 : Ultrasonic flowmeter

Instrumentation
Metering
Fluids "Clean" Liquids and Gases
Pressure Up to 100 bars (transducers)
Measurement range 10 to 20 (up to 100 in certain cases)
Response Linear

± 0.5% (10:1) – gas
Connections Flanges
Sizes 10 – 800 mm
Advantages No moving parts – Bi-directional
Disadvantages Straight lengths – Clean fluids
Figure 47 : Examples of ultrasonic flowmeters

Instrumentation
Metering
4.5. ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER – DOPPLER
4.5.1. Principle
Determining the velocity by Doppler effect consists in measuring the difference in the
transmission and reception frequencies of an ultrasonic signal reflected by a "reflector".
The term "reflector" is used here because the aim is to "reflect" an ultrasonic wave back
towards the transmission source. The motor car is the best known reflector, but for fluid
flow velocity measurement applications, the gas bubbles in a liquid, liquid bubbles in a
gas, or even solid particles in the flow allow this principle to be used to measure velocities.
Figure 48 : Examples of ultrasonic flowmeters – Doppler
Fluids Liquids or Gases with tracers
Pressure Up to 70 bars (transducers)

Instrumentation
Metering
Response Linear
Accuracy ± 2.0% FS (10:1)
Fixations Clamp-on
Sizes > 6 mm
Advantages Installation under pressure
Disadvantages Straight lengths – Tracers (mostly)

Instrumentation
Metering
5. FLOWMETER TOTALISATION FUNCTION

We know that a flowmeter can measure a flow rate which is either:
a volume flow rate (m3/h),
a mass flow rate (kg/h).
But you have the option of using a flowmeter with a pulsed output, and where the
totalisation (metering) function is configured in the transmitter menu. This is because the
flowmeter will provide a pulse for each m3 of fluid which passes through it.
5.1. CONNECTING THE PULSED OUTPUT
n : Supply voltage
o : Ammeter (optional)
p : Load
q : A meter, for example
Figure 49 : Example of connecting the pulse output of a Krohne vortex flowmeter
For some systems which receive this pulse (e.g. the DCS), it is preferable to adjust the
pulse width correctly because it may be too short and the control system can then "forget"
to count some m3 of product.
n : Pulse
o : Closed
p : Open
q : fmax = 0.5 Hz
r : > 250 ms
Figure 50: Representation of a pulse

Instrumentation
Metering
5.2. SETTING THE CONFIGURATION ON THE TRANSMITTER
Level Designation Options / Selection Explanation
3.1 Configuring the display
Error indications
Err.Mess Alternatively displays error messages and measured
3.1.1 Yes ↑...
→ values in measurement mode
Displays the error indicator in the form of a flashing
No ↑...↵
cursor at the top left of the screen
Displaysmeasured values
Cycl.Disp Displays the measured values cyclically in
3.1.2 Yes ↑...
→ measurement mode (at 6 s intervals)
No ↑...↵ Does not display the measured values cyclically
Configuring access code 1 (menu)
Password 1
3.1.3 Yes ↑... Enables the access code: →→→↑↑↑↵↵↵
→
No ↑...↵ Disables the access code
3.2 Programming the Inputs/outputs
4-20 mA current output and fault current
Scale I 4-20 mA ↑... 4-20 mA current output

3.2.1
→ 4-20/22E ↑... 4-20 mA current output or 22 mA fault current
4-20/3.55E ↑...↵ 4-20 mA current output or 3.55 mA fault current
Pulsed output
Function P
3.2.5 Yes ↑... Enables pulsed output
→
No ↑...↵ Disables pulsed output
Totaliser
Counter ON
3.2.7 Counter On ↑... Starts the totaliser
→
Counter Off ↑...↵ Stops the totaliser (the value is maintained)
Config.Counter
3.2.8 Configuring the totaliser
→
Selection of totalisation unit for the volume
Unit m3 ↑...↵
measurement
0000000000 m3
(available when FLOW Entry of the predefined counter value
↑...↑...↑....↵
RATE = VOLUME, see
Reset Yes /
menu 1.1.3) ↑...↵ Totaliser RESET / Totaliser not reset
Reset No
Display Yes /
↑...↵ Totalisation displayed / Totalisation not displayed
Display No
Selection of totalisation unit for the normal volume
Normal unit m3 ↑...↵
measurement
(available when FLOW 0000000000 normal m3
Entry of the predefined counter value
RATE = ↑...↑...↑...↵
NORM.VOLUME, see Reset Yes /
Reset No
Display Yes /
Display No

Instrumentation
Metering

Selection of totalisation units for the mass
Unit kg ↑...↵
measurement
0000000000 kg
(available when FLOW Entry of the predefined counter value
↑...↑...↑...↵
RATE = MASS, see
Reset Yes /
Reset No
Display Yes /
Display No
3.3 HART programming
Poll.Addr 000 0 – 15 Programming the HART call address for "Multidrop
3.3.1
→ ↑...→↑...→↑...↵ mode"
Secondary HART variable
Total Vol ↑...
HART SV FAD ↑...↵
3.3.2
→ #available when DEVICE
TYPE = FAD Meter (see
menu 5.3.1, After-sales
personnel only)
Tertiary HART variable
Temperature ↑...
Pressure ↑...
HART TV
3.3.3 Density ↑...↵
→
FAD ↑...↵
#available when DEVICE
personnel only)
Quaternary HART variable
Temperature ↑...
Pressure ↑...
HART 4V
3.3.4 Density ↑...↵
→
FAD ↑...↵
#available when DEVICE
personnel only)
Programming the fluid and product to be
3.4
measured
Programming the fluid type
Fluid Gas ↑... Gas

3.4.1
→ Gas Mix ↑... Gas mixture
Wet Gas ↑...↵ Wet gas
Programming the product to be measured
Proc.Fluid Air ↑... Air

(available when FLUID NH3 ↑... Ammonia
3.4.2
= GAS/WET.GAS, see
menu 3.4.1) Argon ↑... Argon
Other types of gases are available but not shown on
Etc. ↑...↵
the screen

Instrumentation
Metering
Defining the composition of the gas mixture

% Gas
050.000000 Air
(available when FLUID Selection of the gas type and percentage input
3.4.3 ↑...↑...↑...↵
= GAS.MIX see menu
3.4.1) 100.00 Total %
Total percentage
↵
Rel.Hum
(available when FLUID 0000000.00 Rel.Hum
3.4.4 Relative humidity input
= WET.GAS, see menu ↑...↑...↑...↵
3.4.1)
FAD.Unit Programming the unit for the FAD function

(available when
3
DEVICE TYPE = FAD FAD Unit m /h ↑...↵ Setting the units for the FAD function
3.4.6
METER, see menu
5.3.1, After-sales Display.No / Measured value displayed / Measured value not
↑...↵
personnel only) Display.Yes displayed
Suc.Temp Entry of the temperature in the compressor suction
(available when zone
DEVICE TYPE = FAD Unit °C ↑...↵ Selection of the temperature units
3.4.7
METER, see menu
5.3.1, After-sales 0000200.00 °C
Entry of the temperature value
personnel only) ↑...↑...↑...↵
Atm.P Atmospheric pressure
(available when
DEVICE TYPE = FAD Unit Pa ↑...↵ Selection of the pressure units
3.4.8
METER, see menu
5.3.1, After-sales 00001.0000 Pa
Entry of the pressure value
Dep.Filter Depression above the compressor inlet filter
(available when
DEVICE TYPE = FAD Unit Pa ↑...↵ Selection of the pressure units
3.4.9
METER, see menu
5.3.1, After-sales 00000.0000 Pa
Entry of the pressure value
Rel.H.Inlet
(available when
DEVICE TYPE = FAD 0000060.00 Rel.Hum Entry of the relative humidity in the compressor
3.4.10
METER, see menu ↑...↑...↑...↵ suction zone
5.3.1, After-sales
personnel only)
Comp.RPM
(available when
DEVICE TYPE = FAD 0001500.00 RPM Instantaneous rotation speed of the compressor
3.4.11
METER, see menu ↵ motor in RPM
5.3.1, After-sales
personnel only)
Av.RPM
(available when
DEVICE TYPE = FAD 0001500.00 RPM Nominal rotation speed of the compressor motor in
3.4.12
METER, see menu ↵ RPM
5.3.1, After-sales
personnel only)
Rel.H.Rel.Outlet
(available when
DEVICE TYPE = FAD 0000100.00 Rel.Hum Entry of the relative humidity at the device inlet
3.4.13
METER, see menu ↑...↑...↑...↵ (compressor outlet)
5.3.1, After-sales
personnel only)

Instrumentation
Metering
3.5 Pressure, temperature and density
Internal temperature probe

Temp.Probe
3.5.1 No ↑... No temperature probe present
→
Yes ↑...↵ Temperature probe present
Pressure sensor
Press.Probe Internal ↑... Internal pressure sensor

3.5.2
→ External ↑... External pressure sensor
---↑...↵ No pressure sensor present
Service temperature
Unit °C ↑...↵ Programming the temperature unit
Serv.Temp
3.5.4 0000000.0 °C
→ Service temperature
↵
Display.No /
↑...↵ Temperature displayed / Temperature not displayed
Display.Yes
Service pressure
Unit Pa ↑...↵ Programming the pressure units
Serv.Press
3.5.5
→ 0000000.0 Pa ↵ Service pressure
Display.No /
↑...↵ Pressure displayed / Pressure not displayed
Display.Yes
Serv.Dens Density at service pressure and service temperature
(only for unknown
3
gases in case of mass Unit kg/m ↑...↵ Programming the density units
3.5.6 or normal volume
measurements, see 3
00011.0000 kg/m
menus 1.1.3, 3.4.1 and Product density
↵
3.4.2)
Norm.Temp
(available when FLOW
00000020.0 °C Programming the reference temperature units as in
3.5.7 RATE =
↑...↑...↑...↵ 3.5.4
NORM.VOLUM, see
menu 1.1.3)
Norm.Press
(available when FLOW
00000000.0 Pa
3.5.8 RATE = Programming the reference pressure units as in 3.5.5
↑...↑...↑...↵
NORM.VOLUM, see
menu 1.1.3)
Norm.Dens
(for unknown gases in
3
case of normal volume 00001.2900 kg/m Programming the density for the reference conditions
3.5.9
measurements, see ↵ (pressure and temperature)
menus 1.1.3, 3.4.1 and
3.4.2)
Press.Sensor.Excit.V
(available when
0005.00000 V
3.5.10 PRESS.SENSOR = Pressure sensor exciter voltage
↵
INTERNAL, see menu
3.5.2)
Press.Sensor.P1V1 Pressure sensor: 1st setting point
(available when 0001.00000 P1 kg/cm²g
3.5.11 PRESS.SENSOR = ↑...↑...↑...↵
INTERNAL, see menu 0002.00000 V1 mV
3.5.2) ↑...↑...↑...↵
Instrumentation
Metering
Press.Sensor.P2V2 Pressure sensor: 2nd setting point

(available when 0005.00000 P2 kg/cm²g
3.5.12 PRESS.SENSOR = ↑...↑...↑...↵
INTERNAL, see menu 0048.00048 V2 mV
3.5.2) ↑...↑...↑...↵
Programming the external pressure sensor
Ext.P.Scale measurement scale
(available when
0000.00000 P.4mA
3.5.13 PRESS.SENSOR = Entry of the scale bottom value
↑...↑...↑...↵
EXTERNAL, see menu
3.5.2) 0006.00000 P.20mA Entry of the scale top value
↑...↑...↑...↵
Table 7: Exemple of a Krohne flow rate transmitter menu
You can see in the menu that you have to enable the pulsed output in Function P and
enable the totaliser by selecting Meter ON.
We can then fully configure the totaliser (Config Meter) by selecting the desired unit, e.g.
we can replace a meter which was indicating a certain number of m3 (already counted) and
then enter on the new meter the predefined meter value which was indicated on the old
meter.
We can also reset the meter to zero and display (or not) the totalisation on the transmitter's
display. You can thus see that the totaliser function on a flowmeter is entirely configurable.
Since the pulsed output is optional, the flowmeter's 4-20 mA output can always be used for
the metering. Therefore, don't forget to have two cables ready, so you can connect to one
of these two outputs.

Instrumentation
Metering
6. NEGATIVE PRESSURE FLOWMETERS
6.1. GENERAL
Over 40% of the measurements on liquids, gases and vapours in industry are taken using
negative pressure flowmeters: the diaphragm, the Venturi tube and the Nozzle.
The operating principle of these flowmeters is based on the Venturi: the pressure changes
when the cross sectional area changes. In addition, we can easily show from the Venturi
theorem that the pressure is lower where the cross sectional area of the pipe is lower (See
Physical Measurements in Instrumentation course). Therefore, using one of the elements
mentioned above, we convert part of the pressure energy into kinetic energy, and we
measure the residual pressure drop between the upstream and downstream sides.
All negative pressure flowmeters thus consist of two elements:
An Obstacle (responsible for a ∆P).
A differential pressure sensor (measuring the ∆P).
One of the main advantages of these flowmeters is that they do not require calibration, as
long as they have been designed in compliance with the established standards. In
addition, they have no moving parts and therefore they remain reliable over time. Among
the main disadvantages is their limited rangeability (typically 3:1), the pressure drop they
generate on their installation, and their sensitivity to the installation's behaviour (to
minimise this sensitivity, we place a certain length upstream and downstream of the
flowmeter).
6.2. EXPRESSING THE FLOW RATE
6.2.1. Theoretical expression of the flow rate for a pressure differential device
Figure 51: Pressure differential device

Instrumentation
Metering
Bernoulli's theorem:
Conserving the mass flow rate:
i.e.
and
Combining these 3 equations:
Constant density hypothesis:
It is impossible to go any further without supposing that the fluid's density is constant.
Note: This density can however depend on the process temperature and pressure (in
which case we must associate a ∆p transmitter, a temperature sensor and a pressure
sensor to be able to determine the correction factor).
Expressing the volume flow rate
where then
Introducing the ratio of the diameters:
Let us suppose that:
and then

Instrumentation
Metering
To be able to deduce the final theoretical expression for the volume flow rate from this we
just have to divide the previous result by the density, which gives:
The formula thus obtained is only theoretical because the viscosity of the fluid has not
been taken into account, nor the pressure drop introduced by the obstacle, nor the
contraction of the fluid stream which is systematically produced when a fluid flows through
an orifice.
6.2.2. Practical expression of the flow rate for a pressure differential device
Before describing the different pressure differential devices, we will give the final form of
the expression for calculating the flow rate.
In fact, compared to the theoretical expression, we quite simply introduce correction

factors.
From the user's viewpoint, it is fundamental to remember the formula in the following form:
For the volume flow rate, with Kv constant:
For the mass flow rate, with Km constant:
6.2.2.1. ISO 5167-1 standard
Whereas in the United States the most commonly used standard for this type of calculation
is the API 2530 standard, in Europe the reference is the ISO 5167-1 standard.
This standard specifies the geometry and operating conditions of the different pressure
differential devices, and also gives information on calculating the flow rate and the
associated uncertainties.
The standard pressure differential devices (other types exist) are straight-edged orifice
plates, nozzles and venturi tubes.

Instrumentation
Metering
6.2.2.2. Flow rate calculation formula
We introduce:
A discharge coefficient C which corrects the error due to the pressure drop
introduced by the pressure differential device. This coefficient depends on the
Reynolds number (Re). For example, for a venturi, C = 0.97 to 0.99 whereas for
an orifice plate, C = 0.6. It is given precisely by the 5167-1 standard.
The approach velocity factor
A factor which takes account of the compressibility of the fluid ε1. This
factor is equal to 1 for noncompressible fluids, and will depend on the
thermodynamic characteristics for a compressible fluid.
Indices: 1 for the upstream pressure tap and 2 for the downstream pressure tap.
The density ρ1 in the formula is the upstream density
The volume flow rate formula thus becomes the following:
For the mass flow rate:
6.2.2.3. Example of a discharge coefficient calculation
For an orifice plate placed in a pipe of diameter D with pressure taps located at L1
upstream and L2 downstream, the discharge coefficient is given by the Stolz equation:

Instrumentation
Metering
6.2.2.4. Principle for determining a pressure differential device
The process imposes a flow rate Qm, in a pipe of diameter D with a fluid which has a
density and a viscosity. We must thus determine the combination {∆p, d}, i.e. the internal
diameter of the differential device ‘d’ and the differential pressure ∆p which will be
measured there.
Step 1
We choose a ∆p from among the different standard values: 60, 120, 240 and 480 mbar. But
there is nothing stopping us from taking other values.
Since the differential pressure is set, we can take the mass flow rate formula, in which we
also fix the following values:
Discharge coefficient C = 0.6

Approach velocity coefficient E = 1
Expansion coefficient ε1 = 1
We can obtain the value of ‘d’ from these hypotheses:
We then have an estimation of ‘d’ and thus of ‘ß’
Ö For the combination {∆p, d} we check if the limits imposed by NF ISO 5167-1 on ß and
Re are respected.
Ö If no combination {∆p, d} is suitable we must envisage changing the pipe diameter ‘D’.
Step 2
We refine the result obtained in Step 1 by:
Calculating the coefficient ε1 if the fluid is noncompressible
Calculating the approach velocity coefficient E
Calculating the range of the flowmeter
Adjusting the value of ‘d’ to obtain the desired range
From the final value of ‘d’, we calculate the discharge coefficient C and the real range of
the flowmeter, and the pressure drop ∆pc across the pressure differential device.

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6.3. DIAPHRAGM
6.3.1. Measuring principle
When a fluid passes through a restrictor it undergoes an acceleration. There is a pressure

reduction (DP) corresponding to the resulting increase in kinetic energy
This is the physical phenomenon used to measure flow rates by negative pressure
elements (and particularly by the diaphragm).
Figure 52 : Representation of pressure reduction through a diaphragm
The flow rate is measured using a diaphragm placed downstream of the nozzle. The
relation linking the flow rate to the pressure gradient measured at the diaphragm is:
d2 ΔP
Q = απ 2
4 ρ
d = diameter of the liquid path at its maximum restriction, in meters,
∆P = P1 – P2
P1 = upstream pressure tapping (before the restriction),
P2 = downstream pressure tapping (at the maximum restriction)
The coefficient α is called the flow rate coefficient of the negative pressure device. It takes
account of the contraction of the fluid path, the pressure drops and the upstream and
downstream cross-sectional areas.
ρ = density of the fluid in the real flow conditions, in kg/m3.
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6.3.2. Operating principle of a diaphragm
Figure 53: Principe de fonctionnement débitmètre à diaphragme
It is a disk with a central hole, made of a material compatible with the liquid used. The
concentric diaphragm compresses the fluid flow, which generates a pressure difference
across the diaphragm.
This results in a high pressure upstream and a low pressure downstream, proportional to
the square of the flow velocity. This is the simplest, most compact and least expensive
device.
Their main characteristics are the following:
Thickness ‘e’ is between 0.005D and 0.02D,
Thickness E is between ‘e’ and 0.05D,
The upstream edge must have no burrs (sharp edge).
In addition, the diameter ‘d’ must not exceed 12.5 mm whereas the opening ratio d / D
must be between 0.20 and 0.75.
This orifice must be cylindrical and perpendicular to the upstream side. But although the
diaphragm is the cheapest type of pressure differential device (also known as "primary
element"), it also introduces the greatest pressure drop of all the pressure differential
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devices since the increase in kinetic energy is totally lost due to friction in the downstream
fluid.
The value of this pressure drop is 40% to 95 % of the ΔP measured. It must also be noted
that the pressure drop should not be confused with the differential pressure measured.
The profile of the velocities when a fluid passes through a diaphragm is given in the
following diagram:
Figure 54: Pressure profile
And the pressure taps are shown in the following diagram:
Figure 55: Pressure taps

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Operating domain: unsuitable for liquids containing solid impurities since these
can build up at the base of the diaphragm. It introduces a large pressure drop
Pipe diameter: all available diameters
Accuracy: 2 to 5 %
For the diaphragm, the pressure differential device consists of a plate with a calibrated
orifice mounted perpendicularly to the flow.
Figure 56 : Orifice plate in place
The upstream edge must be sharp (curve radius: 0.0004d).
6.4. ORIFICE PLATE
Quarter circle orifice plate: the orifice has

a rounded edge with a radius which
depends on the orifice diameter.
It is used when the Reynolds number is less

than the admissible limits for sharp-edged
circular orifices, particularly for viscous
fluids.
Figure 57: Quarter circle orifice plate

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Taper inlet orifice plate: the plate has a

45° included angle on its upstream side.
Same operating conditions as the quarter

circle plates. It is used in preference to the
quarter circle orifice plates.
Figure 58: Taper inlet orifice plate
Segment orifice plate:
Figure 59:Segment orifice plate
Eccentric orifice plate: It is recommended

for mixed liquid/gas phases.
Figure 60: Eccentric orifice plate
6.4.1. Installing orifice plates
Figure 61 : Installing orifice plates

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1. Locking screw
2. Locking plate
3. Cover plate
4. Seal
5. Rack drive gear
6. Bleed
7. Slide seat (cover plate)
8. Rack slide
9. Rack drive gear
10. LP outlet
11. Rack gear
12. HP outlet
13. Rack gear
14. Equaliser
15. Chamber
Figure 62 : Orifice plate meter components
6.4.2. Uses
Fluids
All liquids.
Gas or solid entrainments are tolerated.
Applications for liquids
Water discharge, water injection.
Anhydrous oil metering.
Hydrated oil metering in association with WLR (BSW) measurements

(separators, export))
Applications for gases
injected gas,
gas-lift gas,
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production and test separator gas,
fuel gas,
vents.
Figure 63 : Orifice plate meter
Pressure Depends on the sensors
Temperature Same + materials
Response Square root
Accuracy ± 0.6% FS p, discharge coefficient CD
Connections Between flanges
Sizes Depend on pipe
Advantages Cost - Maintenance - Robustness
Disadvantages Installation conditions - Accuracy

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Figure 64 : Orifice plates and plate meter
The overall precision is a function of the precision on CD, and the precision on the other
parameters as well (d, D, ρ, ∆p, etc…).
6.5. V-CONE
This proprietary system uses

the same differential measuring
principles as the venturi system.
This time, the reduction in the
cross sectional area is achieved
at the outside diameter of a
fixed element (cone) placed in
the centre of the pipe.
Figure 65 : Pressure differential

device – V-cone
Specifications :
Pressure Depends on sensors

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Temperature same + materials
Measuring range 3 to 10 m³/h
Accuracy ± 1.0% (8:1)
Connections Flanges or insertion
Sizes Depend on pipe (up to 2000 mm)
Advantages Contaminated fluids – Pressure drop
Disadvantages Installation conditions – Cost – Intrusiveness
6.6. VENTURI
For the Venturi, the pressure differential device consists of a conical convergent followed
by a cylindrical section and then a divergent.
Figure 66: Venturi principle
The mass flow rate is expressed using the same relation as for the diaphragm.
Because it channels the fluid stream much better than a diaphragm, it is much more
precise. In addition, its discharge coefficient is nearer to 1 (typically 0.95), and the
pressure loss it generates is much lower.

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Here, too, the ISO 5167-1 standard gives all the necessary dimensions and instructions for
a venturi.
The main disadvantages of the Venturi tubes are:
Its size, since it can be up to 6D, not to mention the length necessary upstream,
It's price, higher than that of a diaphragm
The pressure loss it generates can range from 5% to 20% of the measured ∆p.
Specifications:
Pressure Depends on the sensors
Measuring dynamics from 3 to 10 m3/h
Accuracy ± 1.0% on discharge coefficient CD
Connections Flanges
Sizes Depend on pipe (up to 2000 mm)
Advantages Contaminated fluids – Pressure drop
Disadvantages Installation conditions – Cost
Figure 67 : Examples of Venturi devices

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6.7. PITOT TUBE
6.7.1. Reminder of Fluid Mechanics
When an obstacle is present the

curve lines flow round the obstacle,
but at least one of them stops at a
point on this obstacle (point M on
the drawing).
Figure 68: Fluid Mechanics
At this point M called the stop

point: vM = 0
The total load expressed in pressure is:
Whereas at a point N, upstream of M on the same line:
By subtraction, we obtain (in the case where zM = zN) since the total load is constant along
a line:
which represents the stop pressure
6.7.2. Principle
Pitot probes, also called Pitot tubes, are used to determine local velocities by measuring
the difference between the dynamic pressure and the static pressure.
The Pitot probe consists of a set of two tubes:
One tube which gives access to the static pressure at a point in the section.
One tube which gives access to the dynamic pressure at this same point.

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Figure 69 : Schematic diagram of a Pitot tube
The difference between these two pressures, measured by a differential transmitter, gives
an image of the fluid velocity in the measurement line.
Figure 70: Pitot tube operation

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If ‘S’ is the cross-sectional area of the pipe and ρ the fluid density:
PTOTAL = PSTATIC + PDYNAMIC
PDYN = PTOT − PSTAT = ΔP
We obtain: ½ . ρ . ν² = Δp
Hence the fluid velocity measurement, at the impact point on the Pitot tube is:
If the fluid velocity is considered to be uniform over the whole cross-sectional area of tube
(S):
Figure 71 : Examples of Pitot tubes

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Although it has only a modest accuracy and rangeability, it is easy to install (it can be
placed in existing pipes without interrupting the process), and it can be adapted to extreme
exterior conditions.
Pitot tubes must be used for highly turbulent conditions (Re>20000).
6.8. ANNUBAR PROBE
This formula is only applicable if the measured velocity is almost constant, (which amounts
to the same thing) and if the measured velocity is the average velocity.
The idea is thus not to place one Pitot tube but several along a section.
This assembly of tubes forms a probe called the "Annubar probe
6.8.1. Principle
Figure 72 : Diagram of an Annubar probe

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The tube measuring the dynamic pressure no longer has

only one opening but several to measure the average
dynamic pressure. And the same is true for the static
pressure measurement.
Figure 73 : Example of annubar probe with integrated

differential pressure transmitter and P and T
correction
6.8.2. Uses
Annubar systems can be used:
when a very low pressure drop is required,
when the accuracy of the measurement is not

essential,
on large diameter pipes.
They cannot be used for vapour or charged fluids.
They can be removed without shutting down the line (chamber and isolating valve). For
pipes above ND > ND 200, the instrument must be guided on both sides of the pipe.
Care must be taken to ensure that if the measuring tube breaks, there is no risk of
damaging downstream equipment (e.g. compressor).
6.8.3. Recommendations for use and application
Clean fluids.
Suitable for large diameter ducts and pipes.
Fluids Liquids and Gases
Pressure Depends on sensors
Measuring range Depends on pipe (velocity measurement)

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Precision ± 2.5% FS (4:1) (0.5 to 3 % for annubar)
Connections Insertion
Advantages Cost – Averaging systems
Disadvantages Local measurement
6.9. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
The differential pressure transmitter must be associated with the pressure differential
device.
It is recommended that the measuring chambers on the HP and LP sides should be

equipped with isolating valves or with a 5-way manifold so that you can easily check the
transmitter's zero setting.
Figure 74: ROSEMOUNT differential pressure transmitter model 3095

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Figure 75: Exploded view of the ROSEMOUNT 3095 transmitter
The measurement often drifts little by little on this type of equipment.
Do not forget to install differential pressure transmitters with square root extraction
because, without these, it will not work at all.

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Technical reminder:
The ∆P transmitter has a specific feature with respect to the flow measurements since it
measures a pressure difference proportional to the fluid flow velocity.
The ∆P is not proportional to the volume flow rate thus the signal is not linear.
For this reason the manufacturers have integrated a function called a "square root
extractor" in the transmitter.
The transmitter uses the relation Qv = K × ΔP , to calculate the volume flow rate according
to the ∆P by the annubar probe.
K is the flow rate coefficient. Coefficient K, which is linked to the fluid viscosity and the
Reynolds number (see Physical Measurements in Instrumentation course), is one of the
most important factors to define the sensor's metrological performance. It can be
assimilated to the discharge coefficient of an orifice plate. But although this discharge
coefficient has been extensively studied and has been the subject of many publications,
this is not the case for the Pitot tube flow rate coefficient.
Each manufacturer defines his own coefficient using his own specific method which, most
of the time, is based on empirical relationships and can only be applied to his specific
tubes. It also determines the value of the coefficient in certain calibration conditions. There
is nothing to guarantee that they can be assimilated to the end user's flow conditions and
pipe dimensions.
From this we can conclude that the output signal of a 4-20mA transmitter is proportional to
the calculated volume flow rate.
Important !
Good accuracy from 8% to 100% of qmax
→ dynamics 12 :1 possible
(typically 6 :1)
Small flow levels (< 8% de qmax) :
Linear extraction
→ good reproductibility, stable signal
Figure 76: Flow rate coefficient

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The standard measurement scales used are 0-250 mbar scales and we configure the
measurement unit either in mbar or in mmH2O.
Modern transmitters are called "intelligent" transmitters since they are entirely
configurable, which brings the following advantages:
Autodiagnostics,
Configuration by a portable console or laptop computer (with the correct software,

of course!!),
Changing the measurement scale, unit, etc. is extremely simple.
Reminder concerning the installation of the transmitter according to the fluids:
Gases or liquids Gases Vapour
Figure 77: Installation of the transmitter according to the fluids
As shown in the above figure, most of the time the connection to the process is by
two ½ inch NPT oval flanges (1 for HP, 1 for LP).
Important: For steam, make sure that the water column is in the pulsed taps because if
the HP and LP are not balanced there is a risk that the transmitter will not work or that the
measurement will remain frozen at 100% until condensation takes place and the water
column is obtained.

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6.10. LIQUID PHASE METERS
The techniques developed in this manual are those which have been tried and tested in
the oil industry environment and/or which are likely to be used satisfactorily for our liquid
applications:
Coriolis flowmeter,
Turbine meters,
Volumetric meters (oval gear meter, rotary piston meter, screw meters, etc.),
Electromagnetic flowmeters (for water only),
Ultrasonic flowmeters,
Vortex flowmeters,
Pressure differential devices.
6.11. GAS PHASE METERS
The most commonly used technologies in the gas technical metering sector are:
Pressure differential devices (orifice and venturi),
Vortex flowmeters,
Coriolis flowmeters
Ultrasonic flowmeters
Turbine meters,
Pitot tubes,
Turbine meters (fiscal)

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7. MULTIPHASE METERS
7.1. Definitions
Two categories of terms are defined below. The first section defines terms that are
commonly used to characterise multiphase fluid flow in a closed conduit. The second
section defines metrological terms that may be useful in characterising the performance of
a multiphase flow meter.
7.1.1. Terms related to multiphase flow metering
Actual conditions : The actual or operating conditions (pressure and temperature) at

which fluid properties or volume flow rates are expressed.
Adjustment : Operation of bringing a measuring instrument into a state of performance

suitable for its use (ISO-VIM, 1993).
NOTE: A tuning of the measuring instrument or measuring system in order to operate according to a
reference or standard. The tuning may include software, mechanical and/or electrical modifications.
Calibration : Set of operations that establish, under specified conditions, the relationship
between values of quantities indicated by a measuring instrument or measuring system, or
values represented by a material measure or certified reference material, and the
corresponding values realised by standards(ISO-VIM, 1993).
NOTE 1: The result of the calibration may indicate a need for adjustment of the measuring
instrument or measuring system in order to operate according to a reference or standard.
NOTE 2: The result of a calibration permits either the assignment of values of measure and to the
indications or the determination of corrections with respect to indications.
NOTE 3: A calibration may also determine other metrological properties such as the effect of
influence quantities.
NOTE 4: The result of a calibration may be recorded in a document, sometimes called a calibration
certificate or a calibration report.
Capacitance : In a capacitor or system of conductors and dielectrics, the property that

permits the storage of electrically separated charges when potential differences exist
between the conductors. Capacitance is related to charge and voltage as follows: C = Q/V,
where C is the capacitance in farads, Q is the charge in coulombs, and V is the voltage in
volts.
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Certified Reference Material (CRM): Reference material, accompanied by a certificate,

one or more of whose property values are certified by a procedure which establishes
traceability to an accurate realization of the unit in which the property values are
expressed, and for which each certified values is accompanied by an uncertainty at a
stated level of confidence (ISO-VIM, 1993).
Compression factor Z and Z0 : The compression factor Z is the quotient of the actual
(real) volume of an arbitrary mass of gas, at a specified pressure and temperature, and the
volume of the same gas, under the same conditions, as calculated from the ideal gas law.
The compression factor at standard conditions is Z0.
Conductivity : The ability of a material to conduct electrical current. In isotropic material

the reciprocal of resistivity. Sometimes called specific conductance. Units are Siemens/m
or S/m.
Dielectric constant : See the definition of permittivity.
Dispersed flow : Dispersed flow is characterised by a uniform phase distribution in both

the radial and axial directions. Examples of such flows are bubble flow and mist flow.
Dissolved water : Water in solution in petroleum and petroleum products.
Dry Gas : Gas flows not containing any liquids under the actual operating conditions,
however with further processing e.g. temperature and pressure changes liquids again
might fall out
Emulsion : Colloidal mixture of two immiscible fluids, one being dispersed in the other in
the form of fine droplets, in multiphase fluids discrimination should be made between oil-in-
water emulsion and water-in-oil emulsion. Both respond differently to permittivity
measurements.
Entrained water : Water suspended in oil. Entrained water includes emulsions but does
not include dissolved and free water.
Equation of State : Equations that relate the composition of a hydrocarbon mixture,

pressure and temperature of gases and liquids to one another.

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Fiscal : Fiscal refers to a meter’s service and does not imply any standard of performance.
A “fiscal” measurement (or custody transfer measurement) is basis for money transfer,
either between company and government or between companies.
Flow regime : The physical geometry exhibited by a multiphase flow in a conduit; for
example, in two-phase oil/water, free water occupying the bottom of the conduit with oil or
oil/water mixture flowing above.
Fluid : A substance readily assuming the shape of the container in which it is placed; e.g.
oil, gas, water or mixtures of these.
Froude numbers : Froude number (Fr) is the ratio of inertial force and gravitational force
for a particular phase; in other words, the ratio of kinetic to potential energy of the gas or
the liquid.
Gamma rays : Electromagnetic waves of the highest frequencies known, originally

discovered as an emission of radioactive substances and created by transition of a
nucleus to lower energy states.
Gas : Hydrocarbons in the gaseous state at the prevailing temperature and pressure.
Gas-Liquid-Ratio (GLR) : The ratio of gas volume flow rate and the total liquid (oil and
water)volume flow rate, both volume flow rates should be converted to the same pressure
and temperature (generally at the standard conditions). Expressed in volume per volume,
e.g. m3/m3.
Gas-Oil-Ratio (GOR) : The ratio of gas volume flow rate and the oil volume flow rate; both
volume flow rates should be converted to the same pressure and temperature (generally at
standard conditions). Expressed in a volume per volume, e.g. scft/bbl or m3/m3.
Gas Volume Fraction (GVF) : The gas volume flow rate, relative to the multiphase
volume flow rate, at the pressure and temperature prevailing in that section. The GVF is
normally expressed as a fraction or percentage.
Homogeneous Multiphase Flow : A multiphase flow in which all phases are evenly
distributed over the cross-section of a closed conduit; i.e. the composition is the same at
all points in the cross section and there the liquid and gas velocities are the same (no-slip).
Note that bubbly multiphase flow regimes are probably the best approximation for
homogeneous multiphase flow (vMixture = vsGas + vsLiquid).
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Homogeneous oil/water flow : A two-phase oil/water flow in which both phases are
evenly distributed over the cross-section of a closed conduit; i.e. the composition is the
same at all points.
Intermittent flow : Intermittent flow is characterised by being non-continuous in the axial

direction, and therefore exhibits locally unsteady behaviour. Examples of such flows are
elongated bubble, churn and slug flow. The flow regimes are all hydrodynamic two-phase
gas-liquid flow regimes.
Liquid-Gas-Ratio (LGR) : The ratio of liquid volume flow rate and the total gas volume
flow rate. Both rates should be converted to the same pressure and temperature (generally
at the standard conditions). Expressed in volume per volume, ex. m3/m3.
Liquid Hold-up : The ratio of the cross-sectional area in a conduit occupied by the liquid
phase and the cross-sectional area of the conduit, expressed as a percentage.
Liquid Volume Fraction (LVF) : The ratio of liquid volume flow rate and the total fluid (oil,
water and gas) flow rate, both volume flow rates should be converted to the same
pressure and temperature. Expressed as a fraction or percentage.
Lockhart-Martinelli parameter : Lockhart-Martinelli parameter (LM or X) is defined as the

ratio of the liquid Froude number and the gas Froude number or in other words the ratio of
the pressure gradient for the liquid to the pressure gradient for the gas in a pipe under
equilibrium flow conditions (an increasing LM parameter means an increasing liquid
content or wetness of the flow).
Mass flow rate : The mass of fluid flowing through the cross-section of a conduit in unit
time.
Measuring envelope : The area's in the two-phase flow map and the composition map in
which the MPFM performs according to its specifications.
Microwave : Electromagnetic radiation having a wavelength from 300 mm to 10 mm

(1GHz to 30 GHz).
Multiphase flow : Two or more phases flowing simultaneously in a closed conduit; this
document deals in particular with multiphase flows of oil, water and gas in the entire region
of 0-100% GVF and 0-100% Water Cut.

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Multiphase flow meter (MPFM) : A device for measuring the individual oil, water and gas
flow rates in a multiphase flow. The total package of measurement devices for composition
and velocity, including possible conditioning unit, should be considered as an integral part
of the meter. Note that under this definition also a conventional two- or three-phase test
separator is a multiphase meter.
Multiphase flow velocity : The ratio of the multiphase volume flow rate and the cross
sectional area of the conduit. Note that this is fictive velocity, only in homogeneous and
slips free multiphase flow this velocity has be meaningful value. Multiphase flow velocity is
the sum of gas superficial and liquid superficial velocity.
Multiphase fraction meter : A device for measuring the phase area fractions of oil, gas
and water of a multiphase flow through a cross-section of a conduit.
Multiphase volume flow rate : The total (oil, water and gas) volume flowing through the
cross-sectional area of a conduit per unit time.
Oil : Hydrocarbons in the liquid state at the prevailing temperature and pressure
conditions.
Oil (water or gas) volume fraction : The ratio of oil (water or gas) volume flow rate and
the total fluid (oil, water and gas) flow rate, both volume flow rates should be converted to
the same pressure and temperature (generally at the standard conditions).Expressed in a
fraction or percentage.
Oil-continuous two-phase flow : A two-phase flow of oil/water characterised in that the

water is distributed as water droplets surrounded by oil. Electrically, the mixture acts as an
insulator.
Permittivity : The permittivity of a dielectric medium is a measure of its ability to be

electrical polarised when exposed to an electric field. A dielectric medium in a condenser
will, due to the polarisation, decrease the original electric field and increase the
capacitance of the condenser. The capacitance C of an electrical condenser is
proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric medium, i.e.
Where C0 is the vacuum capacitance of the condenser. ε and ε0 is the absolute permittivity
-12
of the dielectric medium and free space, respectively (ε0 = 8.854⋅10 F/m).

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The ratio ε0 / ε is defined as the relative permittivity (previously the term dielectric constant
was used), which is ≥ 1. In practice, however, when the term permittivity is used, it is
usually referred to as the relative permittivity, which is also the case for this report. See
reference [Haus & Melcher, 1989] for more details about permittivity and electromagnetic
field theory.
NOTE: The permittivity is a complex quantity, which depends on the frequency. The imaginary part
of the permittivity is due to dielectric losses at high frequencies.
Phase : In this document, “phase” is used in the sense of one constituent in a mixture of
several. In particular, the term refers to oil, gas or water in a mixture of any number of the
three.
Phase area fraction : The cross-sectional area locally occupied by one of the phases of a
multiphase flow, relative to the cross-sectional area of the conduit at the same local
position.
Phase flow rate : The amount of one phase of a multiphase flow flowing through the
cross-section of a conduit in unit time. The phase flow rate may be specified as phase
volume flow rate or as phase mass flow rate.
Phase mass fraction : The phase mass flow rate of one of the phases of a multiphase
flow, relative to the multiphase mass flow rates.
Phase volume fraction : The phase volume flow rate of one of the phases of a
multiphase flow, relative to the multiphase volume flow rates.
Production envelope : The areas in the two-phase flow map and the composition map
those are determined by a number of well trajectories or specified as possible flow rates
and compositions that will occur in a certain development.
Reconciliation : A process whereby oil, water and gas production figures that have not
been measured with fiscal accuracy are “re-calculated” to match the production figures
that have been measured with a fiscal accuracy.
Salinity : The term "salinity" refers to the amount of dissolved salts that are present in
water (kg/m3). Sodium and chloride are the predominant ions in sea water, and the
concentrations of magnesium, calcium, and sulphate ions are also substantial.

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Separated flow : Separated flow is characterised by a non-continuous phase distribution

in the radial direction and a continuous phase distribution in the axial direction. Examples
of such flows are stratified and annular (with low droplet entrained fraction.
Slip : Term used to describe the flow conditions that exist when the phases have different
velocities at a cross-section of a conduit. The slip may be quantitatively expressed by the
phase velocity difference between the phases.
Slip ratio : The ratio between two-phase velocities.
Slip velocity : The phase velocity difference between two phases
Standard or Reference conditions : A set of standard (or reference) conditions, in terms

of pressure and temperature, at which fluid properties or volume flow rates are expressed,
e.g. 101.325 kPa and 15 °C.
Superficial phase velocity : The flow velocity of one phase of a multiphase flow,
assuming that the phase occupies the whole conduit by itself. It may also be defined by
the relationship (Phase volume flow rate) / (Pipe cross-section).
Composition map : Graph with Gas Volume Fraction (GVF) and Water Cut (WC) or
Water in Liquid ratio (WLR) along the x- and y-axis, respectively. Both the GVF and Water
Cut or WLR should be at actual conditions.
Two-phase flow map : Graph with superficial velocity of gas and liquid along the x- and y-
axis, respectively e.g. the Mandhane (1974) flow map for horizontal multiphase flow.
Alternatively the actual gas volume and actual liquid volume flow rates can be used.
Void fraction : The ratio of the cross-sectional area in a conduit occupied by the gas
phase and the cross-sectional area of the conduit, expressed as a percentage.
Volume flow rate : The volume of fluid flowing through the cross-section of a conduit in
unit time at the pressure and temperature prevailing in that section.
Water-continuous two-phase flow : A two-phase flow of oil/water characterised in that

the oil is distributed as oil droplets surrounded by water. Electrically, the mixture acts as a
conductor.

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Water Cut (WC) : The water volume flow rate, relative to the total liquid volume flow rate
(oil and water), both converted to volumes at standard pressure and temperature. The WC
is normally expressed as a percentage.
Water Fraction Meter (WFM) : A device for measuring the phase area fractions of oil and
water of a two-phase oil/water flow through a cross-section of a conduit expressed as a
percentage.
Water-in-liquid ratio (WLR) : The water volume flow rate, relative to the total liquid
volume flow rate (oil and water), at the pressure and temperature prevailing in that section.
Well trajectory : The trajectory of a well over time in a two-phase flow map and
composition map.
Wet gas : Gas that contains liquids, generally wet gas is defined as gas/liquid systems
with a Lockhart-Martinelli parameter smaller than approximately 0.3.Hydrocarbon gasses
that contain heavy components that will condensate during further processing (but at a
particular p and T behaves as a pure gas)are not considered to be a wet gas from a
measurement point of view.
X-rays : X-rays are electromagnetic radiation of a similar nature to light, but with an
extremely short wavelength. It is produced by bombarding a metallic target with fast
electrons in vacuum or by transition of atoms to lower energy states. Its properties include
ionising a gas upon passage through it, penetrating certain thickness of all solids and
causing fluorescence.
7.1.2. Terms related to metrology
Accuracy of measurement : Closeness of the agreement between the result of a

measurement and the value of the mesurande (ISO-VIM, 2003).
NOTE 1: The value of the measurand may refer to an accepted reference value. In some documents
it also points to the “true value” or “conventional true value”. However, according to the ISO Guide
this definition should be avoided since the word “true” is viewed as redundant; a unique “true” value
is only an idealised concept and “a true value of a measurand” is simply the value of the measurand.
NOTE 2: “Accuracy” is a qualitative concept, and it should not be used quantitatively. The expression
of this concept by numbers should be associated with (standard) uncertainty.
Corrected results : Result of a measurement after correction for systematic error (ISO-
VIM, 2003).
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Metering
Error of measurement : Error of measurement is the result of a measurement minus the

value of the mesurande (ISO-VIM, 2003). In general, the error is unknown because the
value of the mesurande is unknown. Therefore, the uncertainty of the measurement
results should be evaluated and used in specification and documentation of test results.
Influence quantity : Quantity that is not the measurand, but that affects the result of the
measurement (ISO-VIM, 2003).
Limiting conditions : Extreme conditions that a measuring instrument is required to

withstand without damage, and without degradation of specified metrological
characteristics when is subsequently operated under its rated operating conditions (ISO-
VIM, 2003).
Measurand : Particular quantities subject to measurement (ISO-VIM, 2003).
Measuring range : Set of values of measurands for which the error of a measuring
instrument is intended to lie within specified limits (ISO-VIM, 2003).
Random error : The result of a measurement minus the mean that would result from an
infinite number of measurements of the same measurand carried out under repeatable
conditions.
NOTE: Because only a finite number of measurements can be made, it is possible to determine only
an estimate of the random error. Since it generally arises from stochastic variations of influence
quantities, the effect of such variations is referred to as random effects in the ISO-Guide (1995).
Rated operating conditions : Conditions of use for which specified metrological

characteristics of a measuring instrument are intended to lie within given limits (ISO-VIM,
2003).
Reference conditions : Conditions of use prescribed for testing the performance of a

measuring instrument or for inter comparison of results of measurements (ISO-VIM,
2003).
NOTE: The reference conditions generally include reference values or reference ranges for the
influence quantities affecting the measuring instrument.

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Repeatability : Closeness of the agreement between the results of successive

measurements of the same measurand carried out under the same conditions of
measurement (ISO-VIM, 2003).
NOTE 1: These conditions are called repeatability conditions
NOTE 2: Repeatability conditions include:

- the same measurement procedure
- the same observer
- the same measuring instrument, used under the same conditions
- repetition over a short period of time
NOTE 3: Repeatability may be expressed quantitatively in terms of the dispersion characteristics of

the results.
Reproducibility : Closeness of the agreement between the results of measurements of

the same measurand carried out under changed conditions of measurement (ISO-VIM,
2003).
NOTE 1: A valid statement of reproducibility requires specification of the conditions changed
NOTE 2: The changed conditions may include:

- principle of measurement
- method of measurement
- observer
- measuring instrument
- reference standard
- location
- conditions of use
- time
NOTE 3: Reproducibility may be expressed quantitatively in terms of the dispersion characteristics

of the results.
NOTE 4: Results are here usually understood to be corrected results.
Result of a measurement : Value attributed to a measurand, obtained by measurement.

It is an estimated value of the measurand (ISO-VIM, 2003).
Span : The algebraic difference between the upper and lower values specified as limiting
the range of operation of a measuring instrument, i.e. it corresponds to the maximum
variation in the measured quantity of interest. E.g. a flow metering system which covers
3 3
the range 50-200 m /h, has a span of 150 m /h.

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Systematic error : The mean value that would result from an infinite number of
measurements of the same measurand carried out under repeatability conditions minus a
true value of the measurand (ISO-VIM, 2003).
Uncertainty of measurement : Parameter associated with the result of a measurement,

characterising the dispersion of the values that could reasonably be attributed to the
measurand (ISO-VIM, 2003).
NOTE 1: The parameter may be, for example, a standard deviation (or a given multiple of it), or the
half-width of an interval having a stated level of confidence.
NOTE 2: Uncertainty of measurement comprises, in general, many components. Some of these

components may be evaluated from statistical distribution of the results of series of measurements
and can be characterised by experimental standard deviations. The other components, which can
also be characterised by standard deviations, are evaluated from assumed probability distributions
based on experience or other information.
NOTE 3: It is understood that the result of the measurement is the best estimate of the value of the
measurand, and that all components of uncertainty, including those arising from systematic effects,
such as components associated with corrections and reference standards, contribute to the
dispersion.
7.1.3. Subscripts and symbols
Symbol Quantity Value / SI Units

C Capacitance F
-12
εo Permittivity of free space 8.854⋅10 F/m
vs,gas Superficial gas velocity m/s
vs,liquid Superficial liquid velocity m/s
vm Multiphase mixture velocity (vm = vgas + vliquid) m/s
3
qgas Gas volume flow rate m /s
2
A Area (e.g. cross-sectional area of pipe) m
λliquid Liquid hold-up
λgas Gas void fraction
αliquid Liquid volume fraction
αgas Gas volume fraction
t Time s
μ Linear attenuation coefficient 1/m
I Count rate
X Lockhart-Martinelli parameter (see Section 7.1.3.2)
3
ρg Gas density kg/m

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3
ρl Liquid density kg/m
D Internal pipe diameter m
2
g Gravitational constant ~9.81 m/s
Fr Froude number
Table 8 : Subscripts and symbols
Key to colours and symbols:
Ratio Rate
Single-phase meter
Gas
Wet gas
Dual-phase meter
Water
Water / Oil liquid
Oil Multiphase meter
Multiphase flow
Mixer
Figure 78: Key to colours and symbols
7.2. MULTIPHASE FLOW METERING PHILOSOPHY
Conventional single-phase metering systems require the constituents or "phases" of the

well streams to be fully separated upstream of the point of measurement. For production
metering this requirement is usually met automatically at the outlet of a conventional
process plant, since the main purpose of such a plant is to receive the sum of well streams
in one end and to deliver (stabilized) single phases ready for transport (and hence also
measurement) in the other end. Single-phase metering systems normally provide high-
performance measurements of hydrocarbon production.
The need for multiphase flow metering arises when it is necessary or desirable to meter
well stream(s) upstream of inlet separation and/or commingling. Multiphase flow
measurement technology may be an attractive alternative since it enables measurement of
unprocessed well streams very close to the well.
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The use of MPFMs may lead to cost savings in the initial installation. However, due to
increased measurement uncertainty, a cost-benefit analysis should be performed over the
life cycle of the project to justify its application.
MPFMs can provide continuous monitoring of well performance and thereby better
reservoir exploitation/drainage. However this technology is complex and has its limitations;
therefore care must be exercised when planning installations that include one or more
MPFMs. One of the limitations of the multiphase measurement technology is the
uncertainty of the measurement.
The main source for these higher measurement uncertainties of MPFMs in comparison to
single-phase metering systems (for example) is the fact that they measure unprocessed
and far more complex flows than what is measured by single-phase measurement
systems.
A second limitation in a multiphase application is the possibility to extract representative

samples. Whereas samples of the different fluids are readily captured from, for example,
the single-phase outlets of a test separator, no standard or simple method for multiphase
fluid sampling is yet available. Since most MPFMs on the market need some kind of a
priori information about the properties being measured (like densities, oil permittivity
and/or water conductivity/salinity), this information must be made available and be
updated on a regular basis.
A number of different MPFMs are available on the market, employing a great diversity of
measurement principles and solutions.
Some MPFMs work better in certain applications than others. Hence a careful comparison
and selection process is required to work out the optimal MPFM installation for each
specific application.
In selecting the optimal multiphase flow metering technology for a specific application, one
must first investigate and describe the expected flow regime(s) from the wells to be
measured and determine the production envelope
Subsequently one must assess if there exists MPFMs with a corresponding measuring
envelope making them suitable for the purpose of measuring the well streams in the
specific application. Exploration/ reservoir samples or well production forecasts can be
used in these considerations, and a useful aid in selection of MPFMs will be to use the
two-phase flow and composition maps.
The next step is to select a MPFM that is capable of continuously measuring the
representative phases and volumes within the required uncertainties. The well stream flow
rates will vary over the lifetime of the well, and it is important to ensure that the MPFM will
measure with the required uncertainty at all times. Alternatively, the MPFM may have to be
exchanged at some later stage in the production life. This will be an important issue to
consider when deciding upon the sizing of the MPFM..

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Careful selection of the type of MPFM is not the only important factor. In addition the
installation must include adequate auxiliary test facilities to allow calibration (and if needed
adjustment) and verification during operation to ensure confidence in the measurements
over the well lifetime.
If such periodic verification of the MPFM is not carried out, increased measurement
uncertainty must be expected. Simple testing may be performed with a static
measurement. More extended testing may be carried out by comparing the MPFM flow
rate and WLR/GVF measurements against a test separator (static or transportable) or by
other mean (tracer methods, etc.). The extent of such regular testing will depend on the
criticality of the application and operation.
There are many possible applications offered by MPFMs that might not be considered
prohibitive. Due to the higher measurement uncertainties, it is generally not recommended
to use a multiphase flow meter to replace a high accuracy fiscal measurement; however
MPFMs are now being used in some cases of marginal field developments where the cost
of processing facilities and metering downstream of separation cannot be justified.
Some general types of applications are briefly described in the next Sections:
Single well surveillance or monitoring
- Production optimisation
- Flow assurance
Well testing
Production allocation metering
Fiscal or custody transfer measurements.
7.2.1. Single well surveillance or monitoring
By continuous monitoring using a MPFM, the time resolution of the information is higher
compared with random well testing with a test separator. Using an MPFM instead of a
separator may therefore reduce the total uncertainty in well data, even if instantaneous
phase flow rates are measured with increased uncertainty, while changes in performance
between tests are not recorded by separators.
Access to continuous high-resolution data from a MPFM may be a valuable resource in

various decision processes, for example in connection with well overhauls.
Installing a new MPFM can save space, weight and cost compared to the installation of a
new test separator, and it can reduce the time occupation of existing test separators.

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Well instability is a well-known problem during decline of production, and in many cases it
is not acceptable that the well is connected to the production installation before some
degree of control has been achieved. It may be difficult to detect variations in flow rates
from instable wells (gas lifted wells for instance) using conventional separators, and in
such situations MPFMs becomes a useful tool for the production engineer.
MPFMs may be considered useful for - or even an integral part of - subsea installations. In
cases of subsea commingling and/or long flow lines (several kilometres) MPFMs may be
used for monitoring of flow rate from individual wells or flow lines. It must be noted,
however, that retrieval of a MPFM for maintenance or repair, may be expensive, difficult or
impossible. In-situ calibration is normally not available, and other, less direct verification
methods would have to be devised.
Figure 79 : MPFMs on the flow line of each well replacing test separator and its
instrumentation
Reliability and stability of subsea meters is of paramount importance and needs to be

addressed by the manufacturer of the MPFM, the subsea system integrator and the
operator.

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7.2.1.1. Production optimization
Production from oil wells may be assisted by gas lift for several reasons. Once gas lifting
has been implemented it is required to optimise the gas lift process (neither too much nor
too little gas for lifting is economical, and there is a clear optimum for the amount of lift gas
to be used to maximize the oil production).
MPFMs can be of help in finding the optimum gas lift injection rate as they are capable of
instantaneously showing the oil flow rate as function of injection gas flow rate.
Conventional test separators would need more time to provide the same information.
However, most gas lift operations are relatively high GVF applications (adding even more
gas to the system) and care should be taken that the MPFM is capable to handle this high
GVF operation. Alternatively a wet gas meter could be used.
Other similar optimisation considerations can be made for chemical injection, gas coning
detection, water breakthrough detection, etc.
7.2.1.2. Flow assurance
Flow assurance includes all aspects that are relevant to guarantee the flow of oil and gas
from reservoir to the sales or custody transfer point. It often involves facility engineers,
production technologists and operations staff, and they evaluate and study the hydraulic,
chemical and thermal behaviour of multiphase fluids.
By more frequent (or continuous) measurement with MPFMs it may be possible to identify
potential blockages in the production system (ex: hydrates, asphaltenes, wax, sand,
scale).
Often the trending here is more important than providing numbers with absolute accuracy.
In other words repeatability, for a flow assurance type of application, is often more
important than absolute accuracy.
7.2.2. Well Testing
There is a need to monitor the performance of each single well in order to optimise well
production and the lifetime of the field. For most large fields in the North Sea, important
decisions are based on well-test results using conventional test separators, like shutting
down of wells, drilling of new wells, reducing production rate from the reservoir, etc.
Standard well testing is by use of a test separator. A MPFM may be applied as a

replacement for, or a supplement to, a test separator if:
It is decided to not install a test separator in the processing plant,

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There is a need to increase the capacity for well testing, or there is a need to
increase the capacity for well testing, or
The test separator is left to other use, ex: as an ordinary production separator
(low pressure).
It should be noted that a test separator may be used also for purposes other than well
testing and hence may be installed in any case.
A MPFM cannot be expected to return phase flow rates with an uncertainty equivalent to
what is obtained from test separator measurements, for all flow rates, from all wells
producing to the process plant. This is certainly the case if in-situ calibration of the MPFM
is not available. The response time of a MPFM, however, is significantly less (minutes)
than that of a separator (hours), and more well tests may be carried out using the MPFM.
7.2.2.1. Conventional well testing
Conventional well testing is usually performed by means of an extra separator dedicated

for well test or special purposes. The well streams are measured by directing one well
stream at the time through the test separator.
Today, a test separator can be designed with meters and instrumentation that will be
capable of measuring the gas phase with an estimated uncertainty better than 5%,
potentially as low as 2% and 1% for the gas and oil phases respectively, if effort is made
to optimise the instrumentation and the separation is ideal.
During a well test, certain parameters such as choke opening, wellhead flow pressure, and
separator pressure and temperature are recorded. Fluid samples are normally also
captured at the test separator during these tests. Each well may be tested at one or more
settings of the well's choke. For each choke setting, all the corresponding measurements
are recorded.
The recorded information will be used until the next well test is performed to calculate the
theoretical contribution made by the well to the commingled output stream of the entire
processing facility.
For wells where daily control is needed, for example to keep wells stable or to produce at
optimum flow rates in order to utilize the full capacity of the production facilities, this
conventional system may not be satisfactory.

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Figure 80 : 1st stage production separator and test separator
7.2.2.2. Well testing by MPFMs
MPFMs may be installed and used in the same way as the test separator. If a MPFM is
installed in addition to an existing test separator, this arrangement provides an increased
flexibility.
One can either use both the test separator and the MPFM for well testing to increase the
overall testing capacity. Or one can use only the MPFM for well testing and hence use the
test separator as a normal production separator and thereby increase the total production
capacity of the processing facility.
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Metering
The main advantage of the MPFM over the test separator will be the reduction in time to
perform a measurement. While the separator must be allowed to fill and stabilise when
changing wells for test, the MPFM responds more quickly to changes in the well fluids and
needs less time to stabilise.
Figure 81 : Multiphase metering can be used to increase overall testing capacity

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The MPFM might also replace the test separator completely. This may be a solution for
fields in the decline phase where the production from the well does not match the size of
the test separator any more.
By using the two-phase flow map and the composition map, one can evaluate whether
there is a need for more than one MPFM to test all wells, i.e. whether several MPFMs with
different sizes and measurement ranges are required to cover all wells to be tested.
Figure 82 : Multiphase metering replacing test separator and its meters
7.2.3. Production allocation metering
For production allocation measurements, stronger requirements in terms of measurement

uncertainty, calibration of instruments and representative fluid sampling are usually
imposed than what is required for well testing.
A marginal field solution can be to let an unmanned wellhead platform have MPFMs on
each individual well for well surveillance and the main tie-in stream (into a manned
installation) be measured by a multiphase meter that is frequently “proved” to provide k-
factors by a test separator equipped with measurement equipment to a fiscal standard.
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Metering
Long proving periods should be used to minimise uncertainties due to e.g. slugging, when
accumulated oil, water and gas flow rates measured by the MPFM are compared to the
separator measurements, and in some cases proving should last for days.
Figure 83 : Satellite field ‘B’ with MPFMs for well testing and production metering
In this application the measurement of each well stream by means of MPFMs are
replacing the conventional well testing. And when the test separator is not used as a
“prover” it can be used for other purposes or to “prove” other tie-in streams.

Instrumentation
Metering
Well testing and production metering from the wells in a satellite field can be done by
means of MPFMs, and this removes the need for a separate test line and manifold system
for the satellite field. Assuming that a dedicated inlet separator would still be needed on
the production platform, a typical multiphase production metering concept could be as
shown
A guidance note for such an application can be found in the document published by the
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), Uncertainty in Measurement.
7.2.4. Fiscal and custody transfer measurement
When well streams from different production licenses are commingled into one single
processing facility or flow line, it is normally necessary to meter the production from each
license area separately before it enters the common processing facility or flow line. The
metering of the production from each license area is used to allocate each field owner's
ownership to the well streams at the outlet of the common processing facility.
Consequently national regulations or guidance notes for petroleum measurements govern

this production metering. Other optimisation considerations can be made for chemical
injection (e.g. methanol, demulsifier, etc.), gas lift optimisation, gas coning detection, water
breakthrough detection, etc.
Fiscal or custody transfer measurements are the basis for money transfer, either between
company and government or between two companies. Any systematic error in the
measurement will result in a systematic error in the money flow. Hence, it is of paramount
importance that sufficient verification processes are included.
Note that the classification fiscal or custody transfer does not specify any uncertainty
requirement; it just describes the purpose of the meter. The uncertainty needs to be further
negotiated. For fiscal MPFMs it is required to follow the regulations and guidelines as set
forward by the government authorities.
7.2.5. Summary of features MPFMs
A multiphase flow measurement system for well testing and production metering has the
following main features:
Positive
Continuous monitoring or metering is possible.
Installation and operating costs are low compared to those of a conventional system.
Test separator, test lines, manifolds and valve systems are eliminated.
Given the possibility of continuous metering, the total uncertainty will be lower than in a conventional
system.

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Negative
MPFMs are complex instrument systems that require awareness of the personnel operating the meters in
order to operate according to specifications.
MPFMs may not be stable over time.
MPFMs are sensitive to the physical properties of the phases to be measured.
Verification is strongly recommended. For allocation metering systems periodic verification is normally
required.
There is no standard for multiphase fluid sampling. It is difficult, if at all possible in practise.
Table 9 : Main features of MPFMs
7.3. MULTIPHASE FLOW
Multiphase flow is a complex phenomenon which is difficult to understand, predict and

model. Common single-phase characteristics such as velocity profile, turbulence and
boundary layer, are thus inappropriate for describing the nature of such flows.
The flow structures are classified in flow regimes, whose precise characteristics depend
on a number of parameters. The distribution of the fluid phases in space and time differs
for the various flow regimes, and is usually not under the control of the designer or
operator.
Flow regimes vary depending on operating conditions, fluid properties, flow rates and the
orientation and geometry of the pipe through which the fluids flow. The transition between
different flow regimes may be a gradual process.
The determination of flow regimes in pipes in operation is not easy. Analysis of fluctuations
of local pressure and/or density by means of for example gamma-ray densitometry has
been used in experiments and is described in the literature. In the laboratory, the flow
regime may be studied by direct visual observation using a length of transparent piping.
Descriptions of flow regimes are therefore to some degree arbitrary, and they depend to a
large extent on the observer and his/her interpretation.
The main mechanisms involved in forming the different flow regimes are transient effects,
geometry/terrain effects, hydrodynamic effects and combinations of these effects.
Transients occur as a result of changes in system boundary conditions. This is

not to be confused with the local unsteadiness associated with intermittent flow.
Opening and closing of valves are examples of operations that cause transient
conditions.
Geometry and terrain effects occur as a result of changes in pipeline geometry or

inclination. Such effects can be particularly important in and downstream of sea-
lines, and some flow regimes generated in this way can prevail for several
kilometres. Severe riser slugging is an example of this effect.
Instrumentation
Metering
In the absence of transient and geometry/terrain effects, the steady state flow
regime is entirely determined by flow rates, fluid properties, pipe diameter and
inclination. Such flow regimes are seen in horizontal straight pipes and are
referred to as “hydrodynamic” flow regimes. These are typical flow regimes
encountered at a wellhead location.
All flow regimes however, can be grouped into dispersed flow, separated flow, intermittent
flow or a combination of these.
Dispersed flow is characterised by a uniform phase distribution in both the radial

and axial directions. Examples of such flows are bubble flow and mist flow.
Separated flow is characterised by a non-continuous phase distribution in the
radial direction and a continuous phase distribution in the axial direction.
Examples of such flows are stratified and annular.
Intermittent flow is characterised by being non-continuous in the axial direction,

and therefore exhibits locally unsteady behaviour. Examples of such flows are
elongated bubble, churn and slug flow. The flow regimes are all hydrodynamic
two-phase gas-liquid flow regimes.
Flow regime effects caused by liquid-liquid interactions are normally significantly less
pronounced than those caused by liquid-gas interactions. In this context, the liquid-liquid
portion of the flow can therefore often be considered as a dispersed flow. However, some
properties of the liquid-liquid mixture depend on the volumetric ratio of the two liquid
components.
7.3.1. Multiphase flow regime map
Physical parameters like density of gas and liquid, viscosity, surface tension, etc. affect the
flow regimes and are not included in this graph.
A very important factor is the diameter of the flow line, if the liquid and gas flow rates are
kept constant and the flow line size is decreased from 4” to 3”, both the superficial gas and
liquid velocities will increase by a factor 16/9.
Hence, in the two-phase flow map this point will move up and right along the diagonal to a
new position. This could cause a change in flow regime, e.g. changing from stratified to
slug flow or changing from slug flow to annular flow. Multiphase flow regimes also have no
sharp boundaries but instead change smoothly from one regime to another.
Most oil wells have multiphase flow in part of their pipe work. Although pressure at the
bottom of the well may exceed the bubble point of the oil, the gradual loss of pressure as
oil flows from the bottom of the well to the surface leads to an increasing amount of gas
escaping from the oil.

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The term superficial velocity is often used on the axes of flow regime maps. For example,
the superficial gas velocity (v ) is the gas velocity as if the gas was flowing in the pipe
s,gas
3
without liquids, in other words the total gas throughput (q in m /s at operating
gas
temperature and pressure) divided by the total cross sectional area of the pipe (A). For the
superficial liquid velocity the same can be derived, and the simple expressions are given in
following Equations
vs,gas = Qgas / A
vs,liquid = Qliquid / A
The sum of the vs,gas and vs,liquid is the multi-phase mixture velocity, and the expression is
given in following equation:
vm = vs,gas + vs,liquid
However, the latter is a derived velocity and only has a meaningful value if the multiphase
flow is homogeneous and slip free.
7.3.1.1. Vertical flow
Figure 84 : Two phase vertical flow map

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In vertical flows, the superficial gas velocity will increase in a vertical flow and the
multiphase flow will change between all phases, bubble - slug - churn and annular. Note
that for a particular superficial gas velocity, the multiphase flow is annular for all superficial
liquid velocities.
7.3.1.2. Horizontal flow
In horizontal flows too, the transitions are functions of factors such as pipe diameter,
interfacial tension and density of the phases. The following map is a qualitative illustration
of how flow regime transitions are dependent on superficial gas and liquid velocities in
horizontal multiphase flow. A map like this will only be valid for a specific pipe, pressure
and a specific multiphase fluid.
Figure 85 : Two phase horizontal flow map
7.3.2. Slip effects
When gas and liquid flow in a pipe, the cross sectional area covered by liquid will be
greater than under non-flowing conditions, this is due to the effect of slip between liquid
and gas. The lighter gas phase will normally move much faster than the liquid phase; the
liquid has the tendency to accumulate in horizontal and inclined pipe segments.

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The liquid (αLiquid) or gas fraction (αGas) of the pipe cross sectional area (A) as measured
under two-phase flow conditions is known as liquid hold-up (λLiquid) and gas void fraction
(λGas). Owing to slip, the liquid hold-up will be larger than the liquid volume fraction. Liquid
hold-up is equal to the liquid volume fraction only under conditions of no-slip, when the
flow is homogeneous and the two phases travel at equal velocities.
Liquid hold-up : λLiquid = ALiquid / APipe
Gas void fraction : λGas = AGas / APipe
λLiquid + λGas = 1
αLiquid + αGas = 1
No-slip conditions Slip conditions
Figure 86 : Difference between gas void fraction and gas volume fraction
Only in no-slip conditions is the gas void fraction equal to the gas volume fraction, and the
Liquid Hold-up is equal to the Liquid Volume Fraction.
In the majority of flow regimes the Liquid Hold-up will be larger than the Liquid Volume
Fraction and the gas void fraction will be smaller than the gas volume fraction
and

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7.3.3. Classification of multiphase flow
Another way to classify multiphase flow, apart from the classification according to the flow
pattern, is by the GVF of the flow.
This method of classification is relevant to multiphase metering; one would expect that a
meter measuring predominately liquid with just a few percent gas would be significantly
different from one designed to operate in what is generally understood as a wet gas
application. Four classes are defined in the following Table
Indicative
Class Comment
GVF range
This Low GVF range of multiphase flow could also be termed

‘gassy liquid’.
In the lower end of this range traditional single-phase meters could

Low GVF 0 - 25% in many cases provide the sufficient measurement performance.
Increasing measurement uncertainty, and also risk of

malfunctioning must be expected as the GVF increases.
The Moderate GVF can be considered as the ‘sweet spot’ of

multiphase meters, i.e. the range where they have their optimum
Moderate GVF 25% - 85% performance, and where at the same time traditional single-phase
meters are not a viable option.
Entering this High GVF range the uncertainty of multiphase meters

will start to increase, with a rapid increase towards the upper end
of the range.
This increase in uncertainty is not only linked to more complex flow

High GVF 85% - 95% patterns at high gas fraction, but also because the measurement
uncertainty will increase as the relative proportion of the fraction of
the component of highest value (in this case the oil) decreases.
In some cases partial separation is used to move the GVF back

into the Moderate GVF range.
This upper end of the multiphase range could also be termed the
‘wet gas’ range. In the lower end of the very high GVF range the
measurement performance of in-line multiphase meters may still
be sufficient for well testing, production optimisation and flow
assurance.
Very high GVF 95% - 100%
For allocation metering, in particular at the high end of this range,
often gas is the main ‘value’ component, and a wet gas meter
would be the preferred option. This corresponds to a Lockhart-
Martinelli (LM) value in the range from 0 to approximately 0.3.
Table 10 : Classification of multiphase flow

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Metering
7.4. TECHNOLOGY
This chapter has been included in order to provide the reader with a general background
on the different technologies and concepts in use in MPFMs available on the market. It is
not our intention to cover all technologies or aspects in detail, and the reader is referred to
other literature for more information on the different subjects.
7.4.1. Meter categories
The following main categories can be applied to MPFMs and are briefly described in the
following Sections:
In-line meters
Separation type meters
- Full two-phase gas/liquid separation
- Partial separation
- Separation in sample line
Wet gas flow meters
Other categories of MPFMs
7.4.1.1. In line meters
In-line MPFMs are characterised in that all the measurements of the individual phase
fractions and total or individual phase flow rates are performed directly in the multiphase
flow line, hence, no separation and/or sampling of the fluids are required.
The volume flow rate of each phase is represented by the area fraction multiplied by the
velocity of each phase. This means that a minimum of six parameters has to be measured
or estimated. Some MPFMs assume that either two or all three phases travel at the same
velocity, thus reducing the required number of measurements. In this case either a mixer
must be employed or a set of calibration factors established.
In-line MPFMs commonly employ a combination of two or more of the following

measurement technologies and techniques:
Electromagnetic measurement principles
- Microwave technology
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- Capacitance
- Conductance
Gamma ray densitometry or spectroscopy
Neutron interrogation
Differential pressure using Venturi, V-cone or other restriction
Positive displacement
Ultrasonic
Cross-correlation of
electromagnetic, radioactive,
ultrasound signals (to calculate
flow velocities)
Figure 87 : Principle design of in-line

MPFM with mixer (optional)
7.4.1.2. Separation type meter
Separation type MPFMs are a class of MPFMs characterised by performing a complete or

partial separation of the multiphase stream, followed by in-line measurement of each of
the three phases.
The test separator, which is found on nearly every production platform, is basically a two-
phase or three-phase separation-type meter. It separates the three phases and carries out
flow measurements of the oil, water and gas.
Complete separation utilising three-phase separators will not be described further and is
only mentioned here to make the overview complete.
Full two-phase gas/liquid separation
This type of meter is characterised by its separation of the multiphase flow, usually
a full separation to gas and liquid (see the following figure)
The gas flow is then measured using a single-phase gas-flow meter with good
tolerance to liquid carry-over, and the liquid flow rate is measured using a liquid flow
rate meter. An on-line water fraction meter may determine the water-in-liquid ratio.

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Figure 88 : Principle design of a separation meter
Partial separation
This type of meter is characterised by separating only a part of the gas in the
multiphase flow into a secondary measurement loop around the main loop through
MPFM (see the following Figure).
Figure 89 : Principle design of a partial separation with a secondary measurement loop

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Since the separation is only partial, one must also expect some liquid to travel with
the gas through the secondary measurement loop, which then calls for a “wet gas”
measurement. The remaining multiphase stream will than have a reduced GVF and
thereby operate within the designed envelope of the flow meter.
Separation in sample line
This type of meter is characterised by the fact that separation is not performed on
the total multiphase flow, but on a bypassed sample flow (see the following figure).
The sample flow is typically separated into a gas and liquid flow; where after the
water-in-liquid ratio of the liquid sample stream can be determined using an on-line
water fraction meter.
Total gas/liquid flow rate and ratio must be measured in the main flow line, and
assuming the bypassed sample flow is representative of the main flow, the water in
liquid ratio is based on the by-pass measurement of this parameter.
Figure 90 : Principle of a MPFM with separation in sample line
In this configuration three measurements are required to determine the mass and
volume of the three phases, and the common alternative technologies can be used:
Gas / liquid ratio (GLR):
Gamma attenuation,
Vibrating tube,

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Neutron interrogation,
Weighing.
Multiphase flow rate:
Cross-correlation using radioactive, acoustic or electrical signals,
Differential pressure using Venturi, V-cone or Dall tube,
Mechanical, e.g. positive displacement or turbine
Water-in-liquid ratio (WLR):
Electrical impedance,
Vibrating tube.
7.4.1.3. Wet gas flow meters
There are several types of applications for wet gas meters, some of which are distinctly
different:
Measurement of gas with some entrained liquid. The liquid is of no value and only
represents a problem for the gas measurement. The objective is to make
correction to achieve a correct gas measurement. A single-phase meter is
normally used, corrected for liquid fraction.
Measurement of hydrocarbon gas and liquid (hydrocarbon + water). Also the

liquid needs to be measured. WLR is unknown or of no importance.
Measurement of hydrocarbon gas, hydrocarbon liquid and water. The need is to

measure hydrocarbons.
Measurement of water and small changes of water fraction. The application may
be flow assurance, for the purpose of hydrate mitigation, corrosion inhabitation
etc. This is a difficult task because the water fraction may be very low and the
changes in water fraction even lower. Water is of primary interest, but is normally
available only as a fraction. Hence, gas flow must be measured accurately in
order to determine water flow rate.
Measurement of water salinity or changes in water salinity. The purpose is to be

able to monitor wells for water breakthrough.

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A wet gas flow meter can be installed as a stand-alone system in typical wet gas
applications, or it can be installed in conjunction with a partial separation system.
A wet gas meter can be a combination of various measurement techniques as outlined.

Wet gas can, for example, be measured by single-phase flow meters like a venturi or a V-
cone meter.
However, when single-phase meters like these are used for wet gas flow measurements,
one must correct the standard single-phase measurement models using various models
and correction factors to compensate for the presence of liquid in the gas (orifice meters:
Murdoch (1962), venturi meters: De Leeuw (1997)). The liquid fraction is normally input as
a manual data entry.
Other wet gas flow meters measure two phases (hydrocarbon and condensate plus water).
Also there exist in-line three-phase wet gas flow meters capable of measuring oil, water
and gas. Some wet gas meters can even discriminate between produced
water/condensate water and formation water by measuring the salinity of the water.
Nucleonic density meters are normally not used because the liquid contributes very little to
the mixture density. Gas density may be calculated by means of PVT from gas
composition, pressure and temperature. Water content may be calculated from the
assumption that the gas is saturated in the reservoir.
The expected liquid and gas flow rates, flow profiles and eventually requirements for
formation water detection will together with the required uncertainty form basis for
selection of the wet gas meters for given applications.
Algorithms
The Liquid/Gas Ratio (LGR) strongly influences the apparent reading of a

differential pressure meter. During the calculation of the gas flow rate the flow
computer shall take account of the deviation introduced by the LGR. This deviation
shall be corrected for with an approved correction algorithm, preferably in the flow
computer based on the raw data from the installation. This correction procedure
may be implemented in the Hydrocarbon Accounting computer system.
Wet gas tests performed on venturi have been reported on in the open literature, for
example by Stewart (2003). These tests showed that the deviation as determined
by Chisholm (1967) or Murdock (1962) on orifice plates are also applicable for
venturi meters with some limitations (range, flow regime, uncertainty).
The formulae for the determination of the dry gas flow rate from the wet gas
measurements are as follows:
Murdock

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Chisholm
Where
for X < 1
Lockhart Martinelli parameter
Where:
qg is the (dry) gas flow rate
qtp is the gas flow rate calculated using the two-phase pressure drop
ρg is the density of the gas
ρl is the density of the liquid
However, the Murdock formula does not incorporate a pressure dependence term,
and at larger liquid/gas ratios the pressure dependence of the Chisholm formula
does not match experimental data.
A more recent formula for the determination of the dry gas volume has been
developed by De Leeuw (1997). The formula has been verified against an extensive
database of experimental data to establish its validity.
The formula was presented at the North Sea Flow Measurement Workshop in 1997
and was published at the Multiphase '97 Conference in Cannes by De Leeuw
(1997). Further work carried out at NEL (Steven, 2002)) has shown a dependence
on the β-ratio of the Venturi.
De Leeuw
Where

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(for Frg > 1,5)
Fr is the Froude number

G is the gravitational constant
D is the internal pipe diameter
Vsg is the superficial gas velocity
A V-cone meter manufacturer has established similar correction formulae, which

were published at the North Sea Flow Measurement Workshop in 2004 (Peter’s et.
al., 2004).
It is recommended that the rangeability of the measurement installation in terms of

dry gas be determined as for dry gas flow measurement. Preferably a smart digital
differential pressure sensor should be applied, allowing a turn down of 10:1 in gas
measurement, or a maximum of two differential pressure transmitters ranged high
and low.
The maximum value for the LGR corresponds to a Lockhart-Martinelli parameter of

0.3, or approximately 10% free liquid by volume. The uncertainty of the LGR value
shall be less than 10%.
For the collection of gas samples a sample point including a probe shall be installed
outside the straight lengths of the wet gas meter.
Where the LGR is determined by means of a tracer technique, sample injection and
collection points shall be made available.
The injection point shall be located in the bottom of the flow line at a sufficient
distance upstream of the pressure differential device to allow adequate mixing of
the tracer with the liquid phase.
The collection point shall be located in the bottom of the flow line downstream of the
pressure differential device.
Where the wet gas meter can be put in series with a test separator, gas and liquid
flow rates and samples may be taken at the test separator.
Gas and liquid properties may be derived by means of a flash calculation, and from
the data gathered it will be possible to check whether the wet gas meter is
functioning correctly.

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7.4.1.4. Other categories of MPFMs
Other categories of MPFMs include advanced signal processing systems (“virtual”

measurement systems), estimating phase fractions and flow rates from analysis of the
time-variant signals from whatever sensors are available in the multiphase flow line. Such
sensors may be acoustic, pressure or other types. The signal processing may be a neural
network or other pattern-recognition or statistical signal-processing system, for example.
There are also multiphase metering systems that have been developed on the basis of
process simulation programs combined with techniques for parameter estimation. Instead
of predicting the state of the flow in a pipeline at the point of arrival, its pressure and
temperature can be measured at the arrival point and put into the simulation program.
In addition, the pressure and temperature of an upstream or downstream location must

also be measured. When the pipeline configuration is known along with properties of the
fluids, it is then possible to make estimates of phase fractions and flow rates.
7.4.2. Measurement principles
7.4.2.1. Phase velocities and volume flow
Venturi meter
A venturi is often used to determine the velocity of the multiphase flow. In a venturi
meter the differential pressure across the upstream section and the throat section of
the device is measured and can be related to the mass flow rate through the
Venturi.
The venturi technology for single-phase flow is described in ISO 5167:2003.
The equations outlined in the ISO standard cannot be applied directly to multiphase
flows, and are thus modified for use in MPFMs.
Most manufacturers apply their own corrections or compensations to the standard

venturi equations
Cross correlation
A velocity measurement by cross-correlation is a standard signal processing

method to determine the velocity of flows.
Some property of the flow is measured by two identical sensors at two different
locations in the meter, separated by a known distance.

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As the flow passes the two sensors, the signal pattern measured by the first sensor
will be repeated at the downstream sensor after a short period of time (dt)
corresponding to the time it takes the flow to travel from the first to the second
sensor.
The signals from the two sensors can be input to a cross-correlation routine, which
moves the signal trace of the second sensor over the signal trace of the first sensor
in time.
The time-shift that gives the best match between the two signals corresponds to the
time it takes the flow to travel between the sensors. Knowing the distance between
the sensors, it is therefore possible to calculate the flow velocity.
If the x(t) and y(t) are the two signals, the cross-correlation function can be
expressed as:
Examples of technologies where cross-correlation techniques are often used are:
Microwave
Gamma-ray (density)
Differential pressure measurements
Electrical impedance principles
Positive displacement meter
Positive Displacement (PD) flow meters measure the volumetric flow rate of a liquid
or gas by separating the flow stream into known volumes and counting them over
time. Vanes, gears, pistons, or diaphragms may be used to separate the fluid.
As part of a MPFM, a PD meter will usually measure the total volumetric multiphase
flow rate (gas and liquid).
Examples of applications of these technologies and techniques
Some examples of applications of these technologies and techniques include:
Venturi measurements on multiphase flows can be corrected for gas

fraction and a number of algorithms have been published in international
literature describing how to correct the standard formulae given in e.g.
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ISO-5167:2003 to calculate the total multiphase flow rate from the venturi
differential pressure measurements and gas fraction.
Several meters using electromagnetic measurement principles apply

cross-correlation techniques to calculate a characteristic velocity of the
multiphase mixture. By careful selection of electrode designs one may also
(by means of cross-correlation of these signals) identify velocities of the
different phases in the multiphase flow.
Some MPFMs use positive displacement meters to determine the total

volumetric flow rate of gas and liquid.
7.4.2.2. Phase fractions
Gamma ray methods
A number of different gamma ray methods exist and that are applied in flow
metering, and here we will only discuss briefly the more common single-, dual- or
multiple energy gamma ray attenuation methods. In principle a gamma ray
attenuation measurement is applicable to all possible combinations of two-and
three-phase flows. There are few measurement limitations and the measurement
works in the whole range from 0 - 100% water cut and 0-100% GVF applications.
Single energy gamma ray attenuation measurement is based on the attenuation of

a narrow beam of gamma- or X-rays of energy E. Note that the single energy
gamma ray attenuation concept as a stand-alone measurement can only be applied
in a two-phase mixture. In a pipe, with inner diameter d, containing two phases the
attenuation is described with:
Im (e) is the measured count rate, Iv (e) is the count rate when the pipe is evacuated
and μi represent the linear attenuation coefficients for the two phases. Apart from
the fractions (αi), the attenuation coefficients (μi) are also initially unknown.
However, the latter can be found in a calibration where the meter is subsequently
filled with the individual fluids or they can be entered in the software after they have
been determined offline.
In both cases the following two equations can be used:

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These two calibration points together with the obvious relation that αWater + αOil = 1
can be rewritten as an expression for the water fraction in a two phase liquid/liquid
mixture (or the water cut) as shown in the following equation:
Single energy gamma ray attenuation can be used conveniently in liquid/liquid

system (oil/water) or liquid/gas system. If Single energy gamma ray attenuation
meters are used in multiphase meters where three phases are present, often
algorithms or correlations based on the output from the other measurements in the
multiphase flow meter are implemented in the software to correct the expression
The basics of the Dual Energy Gamma Ray Absorption (DEGRA) measurement are
similar to the single energy gamma ray attenuation concept, but now two gamma-
or X-rays of energies e1 and e2 are used. In a pipe, with inner diameter d, containing
a water, oil and gas mixture with fractions αOil, αWater and αGas measured count rate
Im (e) is:
Iv(e) is the count rate when the pipe is evacuated and μi w/o/g represents the linear
attenuation coefficients for the water, oil and gas phases. For two energy levels, e1
and e2, provided the linear attenuation coefficients between water, oil and gas are
sufficiently different, two independent equations are obtained. The third equation is
simply the fact that the sum of the three fractions in a closed conduit should equal
1. A full set of linear equations is given below. Ro, Rw, Rg and Rm now represents
the logarithm of the count rates for water, oil, gas and the mixture, respectively, at
energies e1 and e2.
The elements in the matrix are determined in a calibration process by filling the
instrument with 100% water, 100% oil and 100% gas (air) or alternatively by
calculations based on the fluid properties. Together with the measured count rates
at the two energy levels from a multiphase mixture it is then possible to calculate
the unknown phase fractions.

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Figure 91 : If oil, water and gas calibration points are plotted on a log-log scale a
composition triangle can be constructed
In this figure, this is graphically presented with the logarithm of the count rates of the
two energy levels plotted along the axis.
The corners of the triangle are the water, oil and gas calibrations, and any point inside
this triangle represents a particular composition of water, oil and gas, e.g. a point half
way on the water-gas line represents a 50% water and 50% gas mixture.
As for the single energy gamma ray attenuation concept, the contrast between the
phases should be high, i.e. a large cross-sectional area of the triangle in this Figure.
The shape of the triangle depends mainly on the energy levels used (thus the specific
radioactive source), pipe diameter and detector characteristics; however, fluid
properties may also influence the triangular shape. If the energy levels are too close
the triangle will transform into a line and obviously cannot be used for a three-phase
composition measurement.
Electrical impedance method
The main principle of electrical impedance methods for component fraction

measurements is that the fluid flowing in the measurement section of the pipe is
characterised as an electrical conductor.
By measuring the electrical impedance across the pipe diameter (using e.g. contact
or non-contact electrodes), properties of the fluid mixture like conductance and
capacitance can be determined.

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The measured electrical quantity of the mixture then depends on the conductivity
and permittivity of the oil, gas and water components, respectively. Permittivity is an
electrical property that will be different for each of the three components in an
oil/gas/water mixture, and the permittivity of the mixture is therefore a measure of
the fractions of the different components (permittivity is also sometimes called the
dielectric constant).
The permittivity can be measured using a capacitance sensor, typically by placing

one electrode on each side of the flowing medium, inside of the spool, but
separated from the steel pipe by an electrical insulator.
The electrodes will act as a capacitance detector and the resulting capacitance can
be measured between the electrodes. This capacitance will therefore vary when the
permittivity changes, i.e. according to the amount of oil, gas and water in the
mixture.
Figure 92 : A typical capacitance measurement principle
This capacitance measurement works as long as the flow is oil continuous, i.e. as
long as water is dispersed in the oil and does not form a continuous path of water
between the electrodes. Normally, the flow is oil continuous as long as the water cut is
below approximately 60 – 70%. For higher water cuts the flow will normally become
water continuous. For these situations the capacitance measurement must be
replaced by a conductivity measurement.
The conductivity will typically be measured by injecting a known or controlled electrical

current into the flow, and then measure the voltage drop between to electrodes along
an insulated section of the pipe. The current can be injected by contact electrodes or
in a non-contacting mode by coils (inductive mode).
Knowing the current and the voltage drop, the resistance (or conductance) can be
calculated using Ohm’s law. Since also the distance between the detector electrodes
is known, the measured resistance can be converted into a conductivity
measurement.

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Figure 93 : A typical conductance measurement principle
Microwave technology
Microwave measurements are also dielectric measurements, but are significantly

different from the capacitive measurement techniques as both the frequencies are
higher and the operation principles of the sensor devices are different. Several
operation principles have been described by Nyfors, E. & P. Vainikainen (1989):
Transmission sensor, measurement on a single frequency. Two probes

(i.e. antennas) are used, one for transmitting a signal and one for receiving
the same after transmission through the medium. Care must be taken to
avoid reflections in the pipe/sensor. Alternatively some kind of guided
wave transmission sensor can be used. The sensor may be based on the
measurement of the attenuation or the change of phase.
Transmission sensor, measurement on a varying frequency. Because the

attenuation in water-continuous fluids is high on high frequencies, it is an
advantage to change the measurement frequency with the permittivity of
the fluid. A particularly useful concept is to measure the change of phase
such that the meter detects the frequency, where the change of phase is
constant, i.e. the meter looks for the frequency, where the change of
phase is equal to a fixed value.
Resonator sensor. The resonant frequency changes with the permittivity

(ε) of the medium according to a simple equation:

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where f0 is the resonant frequency of the sensor filled with air, and fr is the measured
resonant frequency when the sensor is filled with the fluid.
An advantage is that the relation expressed is a physical relation that is

independent of the shape of the individual resonator, and therefore needs no other
calibration than the measurement of f0.
Hence the primary measurement is a measurement of frequency, which can be

performed very accurately with practically no drift.
Because also f0 only depends on the physical size and shape of the resonator, the
resonator measurement method is accurate with virtually no drift in measurements.
The main limitation of the resonator method is that it can only be used with low-loss
media, i.e. with oil-continuous fluids in this application.
Water-continuous fluids absorb the microwave energy too fast for resonance to
occur. Nyfors, E (2000) gives an account on principles for design of resonator
sensors in pipes.
A practical microwave MPFM uses the resonator principle for oil-continuous fluids,
and the varying frequency transmission principle in water-continuous fluids, utilizing
the same probes. When the attenuation is low, the pipe acts as a resonator and,
when the attenuation is high, the phase difference between two receiving probes is
detected. By using two sets of probes axially separated by a fixed distance, cross
correlation can be used to measure the velocity of the flow.
A microwave MPFM would typically also contain a gamma densitometer to obtain

enough measurements to solve the system of equations. The densitometer “sees” a
high contrast between liquid and gas, while the microwave sensor “sees” a high
contrast between water and hydrocarbons due to the fact that the permittivity of
water is high compared to that of both oil and gas.
Venturi meter
The standard venturi equations as given in ISO-5167:2003 can be solved in several

ways. Not only can mass flow rates be calculated based on measurement of the
differential pressure over the venturi and knowledge of parameters like the density
of the fluid. When used in multiphase flows one must also apply corrections to the
single-phase venturi equation, e.g. based on knowledge of the gas fraction.
But instead of calculating the mass flow rate, the equation may also be solved for
one of the other parameters, and hence when a corrected venturi equation is
applied, for instance, the gas fraction may be determined, given that information
about the total mass flow rate or the total fluid density is made available by other
means.

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Example of applications of these technologies
Some examples of applications of these technologies include:
A single gamma densitometer can be used to measure the total multiphase

mixture density, which then can be used to calculate the gas fraction when
electric impedance methods are used for measurement of WLR.
A dual gamma densitometer with different energy levels can be used to

calculate the gas fraction and water cut of the multiphase mixture.
Utilise the differential pressure over the venturi meter in conjunction with
other instruments to determine the mixture density and thereby the gas
fraction. To determine the WLR, microwave technology electric impedance
methods can be used.
7.4.3. Selection of technology and maintenance requirements
This Section briefly covers some important factors to keep in mind when selecting and
specifying a MPFM for a specific application (well) to help ensure that important issues
concerning the technology and maintenance requirements are highlighted and dealt with
at an early stage.
7.4.3.1. Pressure measurement
All pressure tappings and pressure transmitters require some degree of maintenance in
terms of for example inspection and cleaning. Maintenance requirements should therefore
be considered at an early stage when installations involving pressure measurements are
planned.
7.4.3.2. Positive displacement meters
Positive displacement meters contain moving parts, and if exposed to impurities in the
flow, the sensors may be damaged.
7.4.3.3. Electrical impedance and microwave sensors
Electrical impedance methods utilising capacitance measurement principles work only for
oil continuous fluids. For water continuous fluids, conductivity measurement principles
must be used.

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The switching between the different methods occurs whenever the fluid is changing
between oil and water continuous flows, this can introduce a higher uncertainty if the
sensor operates for a long time in the transition region (where the flow is more or less
rapidly changing between oil and water continuous flow inside the measurement volume of
the meter).
Sensors for electrical impedance must be robust to withstand erosion, as erosion may
change the characteristics of the sensor and cause drift in measurements. If non-contact
electrodes are used the insulating material (often Peek-materials are used) must withstand
the erosion. If contact-electrodes are used the electrodes themselves must withstand
erosion. Systems or routines should also exist to detect and handle deposits on the
insulating material or directly on contact electrodes as deposits may influence
measurements of some electrical impedance sensors.
Microwave technology based meters are often equipped with special microwave cables,
and typically the transceivers can be changed without removing the entire flow meter from
the installation.
7.4.3.4. Gamma ray technology
Single energy gamma ray attenuation systems may need recalibration whenever fluid
properties change. If, for example, either the oil density or the water density changes, the
new linear attenuation coefficients (or mass attenuation coefficients) should be entered in
the flow computer and if possible a new calibration should be performed to verify that the
instrument measures according to specification. Linear attenuation coefficients can be
updated based on compositional analysis of oil and gas. The linear attenuation coefficients
for water may be determined from a water analysis.
It is strongly recommended that the influences of changes in fluid properties and their
effect on the overall measurement uncertainty are determined at an early stage. If the
range of fluid properties is known, the manufacturer should be consulted to determine the
influence on the primary and derived measurements. For example, a change in oil density
from ρ1 to ρ2 kg/m3 will result in a systematic error of x% in water cut.
In both single and multiple energy gamma ray attenuation concepts, the attenuation
measurement involves a certain counting time. For a given period of time, the counts from
the gamma ray detector are registered and the total counts over that period are used in
the calculations. However, as the attenuation of gamma rays is an exponential
phenomenon, this is only correct if the composition is constant during the counting period.
The 100% water reference count rate in a single, dual or multiple energy gamma ray
attenuation concept is also strongly dependent on the salinity of the production water,
since salt has a high attenuation coefficient compared to water.
Systematic errors in the measured water, oil and gas fractions will occur if the salinity of
the production water changes and the 100% water reference count rate is not reflecting
the actual water salinity anymore.
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In many potential multiphase metering applications, the salinity of the production water will
indeed vary in time, or could be different for each well drilled in the same reservoir. In
water injection reservoirs, for example, the salinity will vary between that of formation
water and that of injection water.
Finally, the type of radioactive source is an important aspect and needs proper
consideration with respect to the end user (company policy), national and international
regulations
In general, whenever a major modification on a multiphase flow meter has been performed
the flow meter’s primary variables should be verified. A static calibration and an update of
the PVT data should be performed on a regular interval (preventive maintenance) to build
confidence. If the results do not change the interval between these tests could be
extended.
7.4.3.5. Limitations of technologies-use partial separation meter
Slug and annular flows are often the hardest flow regimes to measure. When the GVF
increases to the upper limit of the measuring range of the meter, this will normally cause
an increased measurement uncertainty.
If the measurement uncertainties obtained with a in-line MPFM (without separation of the
flow) are not within acceptable limits for use in these high gas volume applications, a
partial separation design may resolve this limitation in technology.
7.4.3.6. Calibration and fluid properties
Often the flow meter must to be removed from the installation or the skid in order to carry
out the required maintenance tasks and field calibration of meters, and the infrastructure at
the point of installation should therefore be carefully planned and prepared for these
operations.
It should be noted, however, that the type of calibration and process data/ fluid properties
that are required prior to start-up varies between the different makes. This also calls for
slightly different piping arrangements and infrastructure in the field to allow for field
calibrations (and if necessary adjustment) and other tests of meter performance in the
field.
Some MPFMs will be more robust to changes in process conditions and fluid properties
than others in some applications due to the applied technologies and designs, while in
other situations alternative MPFMs with different designs may be preferred. It is therefore
important to closely investigate each solution to find the best for the specific application.

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7.5. PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION
The performance of MPFMs is a key element in the assessment of whether multiphase

flow measurement technologies can be applied in a specific application, and it is also a
basis for selecting the most suitable technology.
There is a need however for more standardised performance specification of MPFMs, both
for comparison of measuring ranges and measurement uncertainties but also for more
efficient selection of technology and operation of the systems. More standardised
performance specifications will help users compare MPFMs proposed from different
manufacturers for specific applications.
This chapter does not provide specific numerical targets for performance, as this may vary
significantly between applications and the importance of the measurements, but we
provide a guideline for specifying the main performance parameters for multiphase flow
metering systems.
It should also be noted that a performance specification is not limited to measuring ranges
and measurement uncertainties, but also includes other equally important
features/properties like: rated operating conditions, limiting conditions, measuring ranges,
component performances (performance of primary measurement devices like pressure
and temperature transmitters, etc), sensitivities, influence factors, stability and
repeatability.
These must also be described and specified to ensure correct overall performance and
use of the systems.
Even though MPFMs are complex systems, often comprising a number of integrated
subsystems and advanced software, reference is made to the ISO 16131:1998 standard
describing methods of specifying flow meter performances in general terms.
The standard includes some general definitions and key principles which should also be
applied to MPFMs.
7.5.1. Technical description
Due to the complexity of multiphase flow metering systems it is required that

manufacturers provide clear technical descriptions of their MPFMs as part of the
performance specification.
This will be an essential prerequisite for users in their evaluation of the suitability and
expected performance of an MPFM for a specific application. The technical description
should include:
General overview of the MPFM and its basic principle of operation (e.g. block-
schematic)

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Descriptions and specifications for all sub-systems/ primary measurement

devices like sensors, transmitters, software, computers, that can affect the meter
performance
General outline of the basic measurement principles and models that can help
the user in assessing and predicting the meter behaviour (for instance, the type
of correction model used for liquid correction in a wet gas meter should be
specified with its uncertainty and validity domain if available)
Description of configuration parameters and required input data (like fluid

properties, etc.)
7.5.2. Specifications of individual sensor and primary devices
A multiphase flow metering system relies on a number of individual sensors and

transmitters that will each directly influence the overall quality of the measurements.
Detailed descriptions of the individual sensors and primary devices and their measuring
ranges, limiting conditions of use and measurement uncertainties should therefore be
included in the performance specification.
This applies to for example:
Pressure and temperature measurement devices
Differential pressure measurement devices
Gamma-ray instruments
Electrical sensors such as capacitance, conductance and microwave systems
Densitometers
7.5.3. Specifications of output data and formats
All measurements output from the MPFM to the user should be clearly described and
documented with corresponding output formats and units. It should be clearly stated
whether data are reported at actual or reference conditions (which should then be
specified). If data are converted to reference conditions, the method and models used in
these calculations should be specified, including specification of uncertainties and validity
ranges.
A three-phase MPFM normally provides the following outputs:
Oil, water and gas flow rates (volume and/or mass)

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Phase volume fractions (WLR, GVF)
Pressure and temperature
Instruments that have been developed specially for measurement in wet gas (very high
GVF applications) typically provide the following outputs:
Gas and liquid flow rates, or
Gas and water flow rates, or
Gas, oil and water flow rates
Pressure and temperature
Some also provide information on the presence of formation water.
7.5.4. Measuring range, rated operating conditions and limiting conditions
The performance specification should include information about:
Measuring range, i.e. the range within which the MPFM operates according to its
specification,
Rated operating conditions, i.e. the range within which specified metrological
characteristics of a measuring instrument are intended to lie within given limits,
and
Limiting conditions for which the MPFM and its components can be used without
failure or irreversible change in performance.
A typical specification of the measuring range, rated operating conditions and limiting
conditions for a particular meter should include environmental, process and fluid conditions
In addition, one should also include a list of compatible or non-compatible chemicals and
gases typically used for pressure leakage tests, scale-, wax- and corrosion inhibition, etc.
as part of the rated operating conditions.
One must also ensure compatibility with substances like H2S, Hg and similar if these will
be present in the well streams. The measuring range and limiting conditions of a MPFM
can also be interpreted as measuring and limiting envelopes and be plotted in two-phase
flow and composition maps.
This allows easy comparison with predicted production envelopes.

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7.5.5. Measurement Uncertainty
In order to use a MPFM in a specific application it is required that the meter has been
evaluated with respect to combined expanded measurement uncertainty for the various
measurements it will perform.
Such an uncertainty evaluation must include the uncertainties of the quantities input to the
MPFM and the functional relationships used. This evaluation should also include the
implementation of the models and measurement procedures in the MPFM, in order to
consider the meter as it really operates.
Uncertainty calculations should be performed according to the principles of the ISO Guide
to the expression of uncertainty in measurement (1995). For more details on how to carry
out uncertainty calculations in practise and documentation of such evaluations, we
recommend the reader to consult the NFOGM Handbook of Uncertainty Calculations –
Fiscal metering stations (2003).
The NFOGM Handbook of Uncertainty Calculations provides a simple introduction to the

issue of uncertainty calculations and contains an introduction to the terminology, step-by-
step procedures for uncertainty calculation and a number of practical examples.
7.5.6. Measurement uncertainty of evaluation MPFMs
Since MPFMs are very complex and extensive systems consisting of a number of
subsystems and primary devices that are closely integrated, a full and complete
quantitative uncertainty evaluation may not be possible.
Furthermore, a complete quantitative uncertainty evaluation is most certainly not sufficient,

since the major sources of uncertainty in these meters are related to less quantifiable
multiphase flow conditions and regimes.
The uncertainty evaluation should therefore also include results from independent
laboratory tests and field tests to document the meter measurement uncertainty for various
relevant flow conditions and regimes.
The two-phase flow map, the composition map, and the cumulative performance plot,
which provide alternative ways of presenting measuring ranges and measurement
uncertainties. These graphs should be included in addition to normal tabular presentation
of measurement uncertainties
The uncertainty evaluation should be properly documented and all information necessary
for a re-evaluation of the work should be available to others who may need it. This requires
references to sources and background material, and detailed outlining of the evaluations
where engineering judgement has been used.

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The confidence level of the specified measurement uncertainties of MPFMs should be

clearly stated, and 95% (k=2) should be the default confidence level.
Measurement uncertainties can be specified both as absolute or relative uncertainties, and

for MPFMs:
Flow rates are normally specified with relative uncertainties, and
Phase fractions are normally specified with absolute uncertainties.
7.5.6.1. Influence quantities and sensitivity coefficients
In addition to the above-described quantitative evaluations, it is strongly recommended

that a qualitative evaluation (quantitative if possible) is performed to consider influence
quantities.
Influence quantities are quantities that are not the measurand, but that still affect the result
of measurement. Examples of influence quantities to MPFMs are:
flow regimes salinity variations

ambient temperature variations pressure variations
Methanol scaling / wax / hydrates
pressure loss vibrations
MEG / DEG / TEG viscosity variations
if intrusive parts: cavitation
additives, e.g. emulsifiers, wax inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors
Installation effects, upstream straight lengths, bends, etc
Fluid properties (for example water salinity and conductivity, oil permittivity,
densities, etc.)
To determine how influence quantities affect the measurements, sensitivity coefficients

must be calculated / estimated.
Sensitivity coefficients describe how the output estimate varies with changes in the value
of an input estimate or quantity, and should be given to quantify the effect of these factors
on the combined expanded uncertainty of the MPFM measurements. For example, the
sensitivity coefficient for salinity influences on the WLR measurement can be given as a %
variation of WLR per % change in salt content.

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7.5.6.2. Reproducibility and repeatability
The reproducibility of a meter is a quantitative expression of the closeness of the

agreement between the results of measurements of the same value of the same quantity,
where the individual measurements are made under different conditions.
One significant difference between MPFMs and single-phase meters is that most of the
uncertainty of a multiphase meter is caused by variations in process conditions and fluid
properties, rather than the uncertainty of the primary measurement devices.
Therefore, the meter’s ability to reproduce its performance under different process
conditions, installation set-ups and flow regimes becomes a very important factor.
The reproducibility of a MPFM for a set of flow rates may be established by recording the
deviation between values measured by the meter and reference values obtained from
different test facilities.
Particular emphasis should be placed on the establishment of the reproducibility from

independent laboratory tests to field test conditions.
The repeatability of a MPFM should also be specified. It is a quantitative expression of the

closeness of the agreement between the results of successive measurements of the same
measurand carried out under the same measurement conditions, i.e. by the same
measurement procedure, by the same observer, with the same measuring instrument, at
the same location at appropriately short intervals.
7.5.6.3. Stability and time response
Since MPFMs can be used to continuously follow rapid variations in flow conditions and
flow regimes or for unattended applications (subsea), it can be helpful if time related
performances are specified.
Examples of such performance specifications can be (if applicable):
Response time for variations in flow regimes and conditions,
Response time for variations in fluid properties,
Measurement duration
drift in readings with time

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7.5.7. Guideline on MPFM performance specification
This section provides a brief guideline on MPFM performance specification, and the
purpose of this section is to propose a format for specifying the performance of MPFMs
that vendors may use when quoting for specific applications.
A MPFM performance specification should include the following items:
Technical descriptions
Specification of required input data
Specification of output data
Rated operating conditions
Measurement uncertainty
Two-phase flow map: measuring and limiting envelopes
Composition map: measuring and limiting envelopes
Sample formats for specifying these individual items have been included in the following
sections.
7.5.7.1. Technical description
The technical descriptions may also include references to relevant documentation

supporting the other specification statements.
Reference(s):
Included
No Documentation (to attached
(Y/N)
documents)
General overview and basic principle of operation (e.g. block
1
schematic)
2 General outline of basic measurement principles and models
Description and specifications of sub-systems / primary
3
measurement devices
Description of configuration parameters and required input
4
data
5
Table 11 : Technical description of MPFM

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7.5.7.2. Specification of input data
MPFMs typically require some a priori information of fluid properties like the typical
parameters listed in following table:
Input parameters Unit

Density per phase kg/m3
Water conductivity mS/cm
Oil Permittivity F/m
Linear attenuation coefficients per phase l/m
or
Mass attenuation coefficients per phase m²/kg
Viscosity per phase m⋅Pa
Table 12 : Specification of input data
7.5.7.3. Specification of output data
Table shows a sample format for specifying typical outputs from a MPFM at actual
conditions.
Output parameters Unit

Volume flow rate per phase Am3/h
Accumulated volume per phase Am3
Density per phase kg/m3
WLR %
GVF %
Temperature °C
Pressure Bar
Table 13 : Specification of output data
MPFMs provide primarily outputs at actual conditions, but most MPFMs can also give
outputs at standard conditions. In that case, the methodology and PVT models used to
convert from actual to standard conditions must be agreed between the user and the
vendor.

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7.5.7.4. Rated operating conditions and limiting conditions
Rated operating conditions Limiting conditions
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
Liquid velocity m/s m/s m/s m/s

Gas velocity m/s m/s m/s m/s
Oil density kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3
Gas density kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3
3
Water density kg/m kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3
Water conductivity
mS/cm mS/cm mS/cm mS/cm
range
Line pressure Bar Bar Bar Bar
Line temperature °C °C °C °C
Ambient pressure Bar Bar Bar Bar
Ambient
°C °C °C °C
temperature
Substances Compatible (Y/N) Maximum Maximum
H2S
Hg
MEG
DEG
TEG
Demulsifier
Sand
Table 14 : Rated operating conditions and limiting conditions

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7.5.7.5. Measurement uncertainty
Confidence level: 95% (k=2) Combined expanded uncertainties

Sub range GVF range Gas Liquid WLR
A x1 – x2% % % %abs
B x2 – x3% % % %abs
C x3 – x4% % % %abs
D x4 – x5% % % %abs
E x5 – x6% % % %abs
Repeatability: % % %abs
Reproducibility: % % %abs
Response time: s Update frequency: Hz
Influence quantities Effect
Salinity
Sand
Flow regime
Sand
Additives
Scaling
Wax
Hydrates
Fluid properties
References (documentation)
1
2
Table 15 : Measurement uncertainty
For dedicated wet gas meters, a similar table can be provided, but the WGR (Water Gas
Ratio) uncertainty may be specified rather than the WLR uncertainty.

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7.6. DESIGN GUIDELINES
This Chapter presents new guidelines for designing MPFM installations. As an aid in
designing MPFM installations, the two-phase flow map and the composition map are
introduced. In the two-phase flow map, liquid flow rate is plotted against gas flow rate,
whereas in the composition map the GVF is plotted against WLR.
These two maps provide convenient ways of first plotting the predicted well production, the
“production envelope”, which is due to be measured in a specific application.
The measuring range of a MPFM, the “measuring envelope”, may then be plotted on the
same maps, overlying the production envelope (estimated production over the field life
time).
This method for design of MPFM installations is described in more detail in the following
sections.
7.6.1. Production envelope
7.6.1.1. Plotting the production envelope in the two phase flow map
The two-phase flow regime maps are very general ones and use the diameter dependent
superficial gas velocity along the X-axis and the superficial liquid velocity along the Y-axis.
A more practical and convenient presentation is where the superficial velocity together with
the pipe diameter is converted in to actual flow rates, i.e. along the X and Y-axis now the
actual gas and liquid flow rates in m3/day are plotted, respectively.
Further convenience can be achieved if logarithmic scales are used. Compared to linear
scales this has the advantage that measuring envelopes of different size MPFMs have
equal cross sectional areas in the two-phase flow map and that uncertainty bands (or
deviations in test programs) in the low flow rates are equal in size throughout the two-
phase flow map.
For most applications it is often sufficient to cover three decades along each axis (see
following figure for an example). The actual boundaries between flow regimes are not as
sharp as is indicated in this figure. Apart from the pipe diameter used, these boundaries
also depend on density, viscosity, surface tension, pressure, geometry,
Gas and liquid flow rates of wells can be plotted in this flow map and over time the wells
will follow a certain trajectory, i.e. both the liquid and gas flow rates will change over time.
One or more of these trajectories can be defined as the production envelope of an oil field.
Often this production envelope is also indicated as an area between minimum and
maximum liquid and gas flow rates. Note that the units used along the X- and Y-axis is
Am3, i.e. the volumetric flowrate at the pressure and temperature of which the meter will
operate.
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Figure 94 : Two-phase flow map can be used to plot the trajectory of wells (production
envelope) and the measurement envelope of a MPFM
As these trajectories are often based on very preliminary information from reservoir
engineers, there is uncertainty attached to these trajectories and it is recommended that
these uncertainty ranges are also shown in the two-phase flow maps.
As an example a 10% and 25% uncertainty production envelope can be used. This
uncertainty can either be plotted as an area or uncertainty crosses can be used for each
point.
As will be explained in the following section, multiphase flow meters have measuring
envelopes and it is obvious that the production envelope and the measuring envelopes
should overlap. This is the first step in the selection of a suitable multiphase meter for a
particular application.
7.6.1.2. Plotting the production envelope in the composition map
An additional useful tool in the selection process of MPFMs is the composition map, with
WLR (in % or fraction) on the X-axis and GVF (in % or fraction) on the Y-axis.

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Note that the top line (GVF=100%) represents the gas phase, the left bottom corner
(GVF=0%, WC=0%) and the right bottom corner (GVF=0%, WC=100%) represent the oil
and water phase, respectively. If necessary, the scale can be adjusted to increase visibility
in a certain region, e.g. GVF axis from 80% to 100% for a high GVF application.
As WLR and GVF generally increase over time also a well trajectory in the composition
map can be plotted, similar to the well trajectory in the two-phase flow map.
One or more of these well trajectories will represent the production envelope in the
composition map.
MPFMs can also have their measuring envelope plotted in the composition map and
obviously the two envelopes should overlap. An example of a well trajectory in the
composition map is given in the following figure.
Figure 95 : Well trajectory in the composition map.
In this example a strong increase in GVF (from 75% to 95%) is noticed which is due to the
introduction of gas lift during later field life.
Again also the uncertainty in the reservoir engineering data should be taken into account
and if possible also plotted in the composition map.
This can be done either as an uncertainty area or with uncertainty crosses per year.

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7.6.2. MPFM measuring envelope
7.6.2.1. Plotting the MPFM measuring envelope in the two phase flow map
MPFMs have measuring envelopes that are specified by the vendor. Often the minimum
and maximum gas and liquid flow rates are given and uncertainties in liquid flow rate, gas
flowrate and WLR are specified as a function of GVF.
Like the production envelopes, the MPFM measuring envelopes can be plotted in the two-
phase flow map and if various uncertainties are quoted it is possible to plot various
measuring envelopes, one for each set of uncertainties. In the following figure an example
is presented where the 5% and 10% uncertainty measuring envelopes are plotted.
This allows the user to assess what the consequences in the measurement uncertainty are
over the field lifetime, and whether different measurement ranges need to be used over
the field lifetime (with different measurement uncertainties).
Figure 96 : Example of a MPFM measuring envelope in two phase flow map

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The diagonal lines in this two-phase flow map are lines of constant GVF. Generally oil
fields operate in a GVF region between 40% (high pressure operations) and 90-95% (low
pressure and/or gas lifted operations).
Oil field operations at the high flow rates, top right corner of the flow map, means high
productivity wells but also calls for high maintenance costs due to the mechanical
vibrations and erosion of production facilities.
This is a mechanical and not a fluid flow issue. Operating at the lower flow rates, the lower
left corner of the two-phase flow map means less than expected production rates and thus
oversized flow lines.
Both these corners of the flow map should be avoided. The most commonly encountered
flow regime in oil field operations is the slug flow regime in the middle of the flow map. Gas
field operations generally are situated on the right bottom side of the flow map, i.e. the wet
gas region.
7.6.2.2. Plotting the MPFM measuring envelope in the composition map
Figure 97 : Example of a MPFM measuring envelope plotted together with the production
envelope in the two phase flow map
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In a similar manner to plotting the measuring envelope in the two-phase flow map, one can
plot a measuring envelope in the composition map as well.
Generally MPFMs cover the entire range of 0-100% WLR and 0-100% GVF, but the
uncertainty specifications are often given as a function of the WLR and GVF.
In particular at the high GVF the uncertainties in the liquid flow rates will deteriorate.
7.6.3. Using the flow map during testing
When running test programs to verify the performance of MPFMs, the above-mentioned
two-phase flow map and the composition map also prove to be very convenient.
Both the reference measurements and the MPFM measurements can be plotted in the
two-phase flow map and the composition map, and by connecting these two points with a
single line the test point is represented (see following figure for an example). The
directions of the lines indicate whether deviations are in the liquid flow rates (mostly
vertical lines) or whether they are in the gas flow rates (mostly horizontal lines).
The length of the line indicates the magnitude of the deviation (again a logarithmic flow
map gives same length for a certain relative deviation in the entire map).
Figure 98 : Test results for a MPFM plotted in the two phase flow map
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Measurement deviations in MPFMs are often systematic due to partially correct/optimised

flow models or differences between the used and actual basic fluid properties.
The same test points can also be plotted in the composition map. Again deviation in WLR
and GVF can be presented and it is often easy to spot where the largest deviations occur.
The length of the lines between the reference measurement and MPFM measurement
point now indicates an absolute deviation between the reference and MPFM.
Figure 99 : Test results for a MPFM plotted in the composition map
7.6.4. The cumulative performance plot
With sufficient test points in an evaluation program it is possible to make cumulative

performance plots. These plots can be conveniently used to compare performance of
various MPFMs.
An example is given in following figure, where the X-axis represents the deviation between
reference and MPFM measurement and the Y-axis indicates the percentage of test points
that fulfil a certain deviation criteria. As an example the meter used in this figure shows
that approximately 70% of all test points show deviations of 10% or less in liquid flow rate,

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approx. 80% of the test points show deviations of 10% (absolute) or less in WLR and only
10% of all test points show a deviation of less than 10% in gas flow rate.
The test points to be used in the cumulative plots are obviously only test points that fall
within the measuring envelope of the MPFM. If the measuring envelope is specified with
various GVF ranges, it is recommended to construct cumulative deviation plots for each
GVF range, i.e. one plot for 0 < GVF < 30%, one for 30% < GVF < 90%, one for 90% <
GVF < 96% and one for GVF > 96%.
Figure 100 : Example of a cumulative performance plot
7.6.5. Other considerations
A number of other considerations should also be included in when designing a MPFM

installation and a short check list has been included to help identify important issues:
OK ?
Subject What to consider
(Y/N)
High or low Notice that operation of a MPFM in very high or low ambient temperatures
ambient may require extra shielding of the pressure lines and temperature transmitters
temperatures? and sometimes the whole meter needs to be insulated and/or heat traced.
Are the instrument resistant to H2S and chemicals used for hydrate
prevention, scale inhibition, etc?
H2S / Chemicals
Are concentration and physical properties of chemicals such that
measurement of phase fractions is affected?
Instantaneous vs. Depending on the flow conditions at the installation, there may be significant
average flow rates differences between instantaneous flow rates and average flow rates.

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OK ?
Subject What to consider
(Y/N)
Changes in fluid properties will call for sampling of the fluids for laboratory
analysis and a subsequent update of the fluid data in the MPFM flow
Changes in fluid computer. Hence, sensitivity for expected fluid property changes at the
properties specific installation must be considered, and facilities and routine for
measuring and tracking fluid properties with time must be included in the
design.
Some MPFMs introduce pressure drops that can be significant in some
Pressure drop
installations.
The MPFMs’ ability to tolerate forming of hydrate, scale or wax should be
Hydrate, scale or evaluated, and also susceptibility to the chemicals that might be used to
wax deposits prevent forming of these on a regular basis, or as part of a programme to
clean the pipelines and meter internals for such deposits.
The method of verification of the multiphase meter during operation should be
Method of
considered already in the design stage. This will ensure that any special
verification during
facilities, e.g. bypass, isolation valves, sampling points, or other, required for
operation
the selected method of verification will be in place
Test or
If a new type of MPFM is to be used, the user may decide that tests are
acceptance
carried out to establish or verify performance/suitability of the meter
programme /
Maintenance requirements should be clarified. Frequent maintenance
Maintenance
requiring manufacturers assistance at remote or offshore sites may be
requirements
expensive and disrupt MPFM operation
Installation and use of nucleonic devices in industrial plants is subject to
Nucleonic gauge
rigorous regulations, from Authorities and Operator, requiring conscious and
requirements
consistent handling, formally and physically.
Does the vendor have spare parts on the shelf, or must spare parts be
Spare parts
purpose made?
Support / service
on site / remote Is service/support locally available?
service
Options for verification or calibration of MPFMs may vary considerably from
one installation to another. It may not be a free choice. Reference
Verification and
measurements may be expensive or unavailable. The usefulness of a MPFM
calibration options
and credibility of absolute numbers will depend on calibration/verification
methods. Ref. Section 10.2
Can the MPFM take some wear and tear from abrasive particles in the flow?
Solids impact
Are there aspects of technical safety? How is MPFM performance affected?
Can the MPFM be accessed remotely? Are there sufficient communication
ports available to serve communication to plant control system (SAS),
information system (IMS), metering control system, local PC etc.
Remote access
simultaneously? Is remote access through a fire wall? Is communication
software running on remote PC? Or on local server (fire wall option)? How
can the manufacturer access the MPFM from outside company network?
Test media before delivery, prior to start-up and in regular operation must be
Test media
considered for representativity, suitability and availability.
Table 16 : Check list for some other important considerations to keep in mind when
designing MPFM installations

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7.7. TESTING, CALIBRATION AND ADJUSTMENT
Testing, calibration and adjustment can take place at different locations and for different
purposes in the course of manufacture through to commissioning on site.
This chapter covers some of the alternatives and highlights particular issues for each
alternative. In following table is shown a matrix of alternatives for locations and activities
that will be addressed.
Activity
Location
FAT / Testing Calibration
Static / Dynamic
Functional testing
• Model fluid
Factory
• Least expensive
Instrument testing
• Purpose built loop
Static / Dynamic
• Non-biased
Instrument check
• Extended test matrix
Test facility
• Reference instruments traceable to standards
Communication checks
• Representative fluids
• Live process fluids
Instruments check Static / Dynamic

• Baseline recording
In-situ Communication checks • Phase transition issues may arise
• Performance test
Commissioning • Satellite field start-up
Table 17 : testing, calibration and adjustment alternatives
Each of the rows “Factory”, “Test facility” and “In-situ” denote a location for calibration of a
MPFM. With “In-situ” is meant the final destination of the MPFM where it is going to be put
into service. The row “Test facility” includes several options for where the MPFM can be
tested. Details for different test locations are provided in separate sub sections. There
might be various reasons for selecting these locations. However, the aim is to end up at
the in-situ location where the MPFM will be put into service. The alternative routes are
then:
Factory → Test facility → in-situ,
Factory → in-situ.
That is, calibration at a test facility is usually an option.

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7.7.1. Factory acceptance testing (FAT)
Prior to shipping the MPFM to site, a comprehensive test should be completed by the
vendor. The purpose of the test is to ensure that the system performs all functions
satisfactorily. The test should be performed with the MPFM fully assembled. These
function tests do not necessarily require process flow.
The FAT should include a full functionality testing of all instrumentation, any flow computer
and communication to a service computer. This includes testing of software as well as
hardware. The FAT should include, but not be limited to, the following activities:
Equipment visual inspection
Power-up test of the whole system
Instrumentation tests
User interface / parameter check
Final result / result files
Alarms
Prior to the FAT the vendor should produce a report containing results from an
instrumentation setup and inspection.
The FAT procedure will be vendor specific, however it is recommended to use a form with
a format that indicates what to inspect and what the expected observation should be.
Finally, a tick box should be available where the client can tick off or sign whether or not
the item passed the check.
During the FAT, documentation of checked mechanical dimensions should be available for
the client. That is, some sort of measurement certification or a document where it is shown
that vital mechanical dimensions is checked and that the person who did the check also
has signed for each dimension checked.
7.7.2. Calibration of MPFMs
Most MPFMs are subjected to static calibration and adjustment at the factory. Flow loop
testing for dynamic calibration of the meter is usually optional. It is important to note that a
calibration of a measuring instrument is simply a verification of the meter performance
versus (traceable) reference instrumentation.
Although most MPFMs are solely based on static calibrations and subsequent adjustments
at the factory, some MPFMs do in fact require a dynamic flow loop calibration that can
form a necessary basis for adjusting the meter.

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In these cases the flow loop test for calibration is not simply used for verification of meter
performance, but as a basis for adjustment of the meter.
When the results from a calibration are assessed, one should bear in mind the significant
difference between MPFMs and single-phase meters. That is, the uncertainty of a MPFM
is mainly caused by changes in process conditions and fluid properties, rather than by the
uncertainty of the primary measurement elements.
The primary measurement elements that make up a MPFM can usually be calibrated
according to standard procedures, similar to those used for single-phase flow
measurements. However, the output of the primary measurements of a MPFM is used as
the input to the advanced signal-processing stage, giving individual phase flow rates as
the end result.
Flow rate calibration procedures, as we know them from single-phase metering, can
therefore not be directly transferred to MPFMs.
The following subsections will provide details regarding static and dynamic calibrations of
MPFMs.
7.7.2.1. Static calibration
A static test does not require flowing conditions and is usually done during FAT and
commissioning on site. Although the static tests will differ for each MPFM make, they will
have in common that the purpose is to establish a reference based on a known fluid inside
the measurement section of the MPFM.
The factory calibration performed by the manufacturer may consist of measurements of

geometric dimensions, gamma-meter count rates and static impedance measurements in
calibration fluids, etc., depending on the working principle of the primary measurement
elements.
Calibration of the pressure differential devices is usually independent of the process

conditions for which the instrument will be used.
The results from these static tests are usually stored and used as part of a maintenance
plan. The static tests can be repeated at regular intervals and compared. This is a very
convenient and simple health check of the MPFM. Such tests are usually performed when
the installation has a scheduled shutdown.
7.7.2.2. Dynamic calibration
Dynamic calibrations can be done in different ways and at different locations. Regardless
of the method, the purpose is to measure the oil, water and gas flow-rates from the MPFM
and compare against reference flow rates.
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The reference measurement systems used for dynamic calibrations may vary in size and
thus flow-rate capabilities. Therefore, prior to a dynamic calibration one must ensure that
the measuring envelopes for the MPFM and reference measurement system overlap.
If they do not overlap sufficiently, only calibration of a part of the measuring envelope of
the MPFM may be possible (such tests are often considered to be dynamic functionality
tests).
One can distinguish between at least three different methods for dynamic calibration:
Factory calibration
Test facility
In-situ calibration
Each method has its pros and cons, but before addressing each method a few important
issues concerning dynamic calibrations are highlighted.
Fluids
The ideal situation would be that the calibration facility could reproduce the
expected field conditions. This is rarely possible. For example the fluid constituents
of oil, water and gas should preferably be similar to those of the application fluid.
This might not be an open choice, as the fluids are usually specific for each
particular facility for dynamic calibrations.
The calibration fluid is either:
A model system, using some sort of model oil, water and air or nitrogen, or
A system with live crude, formation water and hydrocarbon gas, with mass
transfer between the oil phase and the gas phase.
Most dynamic calibration facilities use a model fluid, for reasons of cost, working
environment, etc. In many cases a model system is the only option available. Even
operating a model system may be subject to stringent conditions of use, and the
model oil may not have been selected for meter-testing purposes only.
One advantage with model calibration fluids is that they are normally well behaved
and their PVT properties are well known. That is, uncertainties regarding PVT
properties are reduced to a minimum. It is important to convert flow rates recorded
by the reference measurement system in the calibration loop to a common basis
(e.g. standard conditions or actual conditions at the MPFM) before the loop
reference measurements and the MPFM measurements are compared. The use of
live crude introduces the uncertainties of PVT conversions.

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One argument often used against model fluid is: The fluid is not representative of
the fluid to be measured, in terms of density, viscosity (and thus generation of flow
regime), dielectric constants, salinity, mass transfer between the phases, phase
surface active components, etc.
On the other hand, each oil field is different from the other and no flow loop fluid will
be representative unless those particular field fluids are brought into the loop and
operated at field pressure and temperature.
Another issue of using oil products as calibration fluids are related to the availability
of a suitable plant (the cost aspect) and the fact that such plants are built and
operated under a hazardous area regime. Since the properties of well streams
differ, a specific product used as calibration fluid may not be representative of any
other product or well stream.
It is possible to synthesise a product-type calibration fluid from stabilised crude oil,

water with salts added and gas synthesised from methane, ethane etc. Using a
synthesised product as calibration fluid is practical only for calibration facilities that
employ closed-loop circulation.
Operational constraints
In any given calibration facility one or more of the flow parameters:
Temperature and pressure
Oil, water and gas flow-rates
May be impossible to control, limiting the calibration capabilities.
The fluids in a calibration facility are normally circulated in a closed-loop system,

and there are at least two options:
Single phases of oil, water and gas are pumped and measured before
being mixed and passed through the test section. Downstream of the test
section, the multiphase fluid flow is again separated into single phases.
Reference measurements of each single phase are made before mixing,
even if a multiphase reference flow meter downstream of the mixing point
could also be used.
Oil, gas and water are first mixed and then pumped continuously as a
multiphase fluid in a closed loop. Gas and/or water fractions can be varied
by injecting or withdrawing fluid into/from the circulating mix. Phase flow
rates or fractions are determined by the mixing procedure and are
assumed to be constant until pumping or composition is changed by
adding or withdrawing fluid(s).

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MPFMs measure flow rates at the operating conditions of the fluid as it passes
through the meter (actual conditions).
If the reference instrumentation in the facility operates at conditions different from

those of the multiphase flow meter, flow rates must be calculated for the conditions
of the multiphase flow meter.
This would include calculation of mass transfer between the phases. Special care
must be exercised when testing in low-pressure loops; small deviations in pressure
will have significant impact on volumetric gas flow rates and often the low pressures
may even be outside the measuring range of the pressure transmitters of the
MPFMs.
Calibration matrix
Depending on the calibration facility flow-rate capabilities and degrees of freedom in

choosing fluid properties, a comprehensive calibration matrix can be set up.
A calibration matrix must be defined for each meter to be calibrated. In principle,

this is no different from other calibration situations, but with MPFMs the calibration
matrix can have a large number of points, due to the many combinations flow rates
and phase fractions. For example, with four flow rates per phase, 64 points are
needed to cover every possible combination of pressure, temperature, water
salinity, etc. The calibration matrix soon runs into hundreds of points.
For this reason it is usually necessary to reduce the number of points from "the full
set", to one or more subsets. With MPFMs, such a reduction is more difficult and
more important due to the very large number of possible variations.
The calibration points, which can be omitted with the smallest loss of information of
meter performance, must be identified. It is likely that the "most redundant" points
are different for different types of meters, due to their different working principles.
Reference measurement uncertainties
Calibration results are only as accurate as the reference measurements provided by

the calibration facility. When the results of MPFM calibrations are evaluated, the
measurement uncertainty of the reference measurements must also be taken into
consideration.
In some facilities one or more phases may not be measured directly, and in such
cases one should expect that these reference measurement uncertainties are
higher than those being directly measured.
Additional measurements or calculations may also be required, such as a water-in-

oil meter in the oil line to measure water carry-over.

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The reference flow meters must be subject to periodic calibration, traceable to

national or international standards.
Bearing the criteria and considerations regarding dynamic calibrations in mind, one
can review the different alternatives as provided in the next subsections.
7.7.2.3. Factory calibration
“Factory calibration” is a calibration performed by the manufacturer of the instrument, and

the calibration is usually carried out using facilities owned or controlled by the
manufacturer.
Factory calibration may be carried out for several reasons:
Investigation of the performance of a new type of meter during a development

phase.
Calibration (verification) of meters before delivery to customer/user.
Factory calibrations have advantages, as well as limitations, and the most important have
been listed in the following table
Positive
Easy access to calibration facilities and fewer limitations on calibration time, making larger
calibration matrices possible
Relatively in expensive
Calibration facility may be purpose-built for a specific make/type of meter
The range of phase flow rates may be wide
Negative
The calibration fluid is normally unlike that of an oil/gas well stream
Flow conditions/regimes are likely to be different from the real-life application
Calibrations cannot be regarded as independent, unless the facility is operated as a part of
the organisation which is independent of production, and with its own quality assurance
program
Normally low pressure
Table 18 : Advantages and limitations of factory calibrations

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7.7.2.4. Test facility
Some vendors have their own test facility; however, third party independent laboratory
facilities are also available. Some companies even have made their own test facility in
conjunction with a production plant where live hydrocarbons can be measured in a
dedicated test section. The independent laboratory and field test loop will be treated
separately.
Independent laboratory calibration
“Independent laboratory calibration” is a calibration performed by an organisation or

company which is independent of the manufacturer of the meter. An independent
calibration facility must be expected to have a quality assurance programme with
formalised procedures and reference instrumentation traceable to national or
international standards.
It is possible for a laboratory to obtain official accreditation. In principle, it is also

quite possible for a manufacturer to establish independent calibration according to
the description above.
The aim of independent laboratory calibration is to verify the MPFM performance in

a third-party facility and thereby increase the confidence of the MPFM calibration
compared to a factory calibration. Such calibrations are regarded as non-biased
and in addition calibrations may be standardized which allows for comparisons of
different meter performances. A good facility will also offer extensive calibration
matrices covering, at least, major parts of most MPFM measuring envelopes.
The value of any independent laboratory calibration will also depend on the
reproducibility of the MPFM under changing process and flow conditions. If a MPFM
gives the same output for identical flow rates under different process conditions and
physical properties of oil, gas and water, i.e. it displays good reproducibility and the
value of independent laboratory calibration will be high.
If the reproducibility of the MPFM is not known, or is not regarded as adequate, the
laboratory must be able to reproduce process conditions and physical fluid
properties as close as possible to those of the actual application. At least the gas
volume fraction, GVF, and water in liquid ratio, WLR, should resemble the field
data.
It is thus recommend that independent laboratory calibration is used with great care,
carefully evaluating all the information available on instrument reproducibility, i.e.
previous tests and field applications, before a calibration test program is performed.
At the time of writing, independent laboratory calibration facilities vary significantly

in terms of calibration capabilities and in cost levels. Various calibration fluids and
flow conditions are available, e.g. model systems and real hydrocarbon fluids. Flow

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rates, flow regimes, temperature and pressure ranges will differ among the different
calibration facilities.
Compared to factory calibration, some of the main features of independent

laboratory calibration have been listed in the following table:
Positive
Calibration is independent and results are non-biased.
A larger calibration test matrix in terms of flow rates, pressure and temperature is normally
possible, as is calibration with different fluids.
Negative
Calibration is more expensive
Table 19 : Main features of independent laboratory calibration
Field calibration
From a calibration point of view, the main difference between an independent

laboratory calibration and a Field Calibration is that representative fluid properties
are more likely to be obtained in a field test facility than in a laboratory. Some oil
companies have set up calibration facilities in their production plants and offers
Field Calibrations with live well fluids at real process operating conditions.
Various options are available for setting up the calibration bed in the process.
Reference measurements are normally carried out on single-phase outlets from a
separator, e.g. the test separator.
With this set-up, the available wells or fluids that can be routed via the separator
limit the selection of calibration points. Only changing the well being tested can
change fluid properties and phase fractions. Hence, although the flow rates are
selectable in theory, in practise the wells or flow rates available for testing relies on
the general plant operation which must not be hampered.
Some live process test facilities have been modified to offer the option of injecting,
withdrawing or re-circulating fluids. In such facilities fluid properties, flow rates and
phase fractions may be selected within a much wider range. Interference with
normal plant operation is also reduced. Such test facilities may be complex, and
direct reference measurements may be more difficult to obtain.
In some cases MPFMs are installed in a process for functionality test purposes
where reference measurements may be limited or non-existent. Even if tests are
very useful, such facilities are not really considered to be calibration facilities for the
purposes of this Handbook.

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7.7.2.5. In-situ calibration
“In-situ calibration” is a calibration performed after the MPFM has been installed at its final
location in the field. The aim of in-situ Calibration is to verify the measurement
performance of the MPFM compared against the results from a factory calibration, an
independent laboratory calibration or a Field Calibration.
Some meters may first require an initial static calibration in-situ using actual well fluids
before a dynamic calibration can be performed. Whenever possible, implementation and
periodic verification of this type of static calibration is recommended. It will establish an
important track record and changes in performance is easily spotted. Provision is made
that reliable reference measurements and/or reference fluids are available.
Since in-situ implies measuring a live process, it is important that good PVT data for the
fluids are available. Accurate PVT data are a prerequisite for any MPFM to measure flow
rates accurately. Thus, inaccurate PVT data will limit the accuracy of the calibration. The
quality of in-situ calibration is further limited by the accuracy of the reference
measurements made on site. Nevertheless, a calibration is important to build a track
record and to monitor changes in performance.
Unstabilised liquid hydrocarbons contain some light components that will be transferred
from liquid phase to the gas phase when the pressure is reduced. Thus, the mass flow rate
of hydrocarbons in the liquid and gas phases will change when the pressure is reduced.
For this reason the reference flow rates must be compensated for this phase transition. If
the pressure loss between the MPFM and the reference instruments is small, this effect
may be neglected.
If the pressure loss between the MPFM and the reference meters is large, a simulation
program can be used to compensate for the effect of phase transition. However, the
uncertainty of such a simulation may be large. On the other hand, if the uncertainty can be
considered to be the same for each calibration, a very useful track record can still be
established and monitored.
There exists a multitude of in-situ configurations, and two common configurations will be
addressed in more detail in the following:
Test separator used as reference
Start up of a satellite field
Calibration using test separator as reference
When the MPFM is used to measure a well stream which is occasionally routed
through a test separator, the test separator measurements can be used to calibrate
the MPFM.

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The results obtained from the test separator or MPFM usually need to be
compensated for phase transition due to changes in pressure and temperature in
the well stream between the location of the test separator and that of the MPFM.
One usually converts the flow rates either to a common basis, which can either be
the test separator, MPFM or standard conditions.
With good instrument repeatability for both the test separator and MPFM, the
conditions for establishing a track record should be good.
The phase transition uncertainties will be less pronounced for installations where
the distance between the MPFM and the test separator is short. When the
calibration results are assessed one should also consider the flow stability, i.e. that
the flow is not dominated by transient conditions (which can occur for example if the
MPFM is installed immediately downstream of a choke valve).
If transient conditions prevail and can not be avoided, one should verify that the
reference instruments and MPFM are not influenced significantly by the fluctuations.
MPFMs located at a subsea wellhead can in principle be calibrated using a vessel

prepared for well testing.
To establish a track record the MPFM flow rates can be compared to the flow rates
measured by reference instruments topside, i.e. a topside separator if possible.
Provided that the PVT properties do not change significantly, the performance can
be routinely verified and any anomalies are easily spotted.
If any discrepancies are spotted one should start to investigate PVT properties,
reference instruments or MPFM instruments.
This includes investigation for incorrect setup and instrument failure. If flow
conditions vary rapidly in time, and there is a long distance between the MPFM and
the separator, comparing accumulated values for a longer time period may be of
more value than comparing instantaneous measurements.
Calibration at start-up of a satellite field
A potential use of MPFMs is to place one MPFM on each single wellhead in a

satellite field. In this way, test line, test manifold and a large number of valves are
avoided.
If individual wells are put into production one by one, each meter can be calibrated
at the start up of each well. If a multi-rate test is done for each well at start up, it
should be possible to obtain quite a good calibration for each meter, provided the
production can be measured by an instrumented inlet separator or test separator.

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An option can be to record a set of flow rates through a multi-rate test with the
MPFM and the references, and to establish a calibration curve based on this data
set.
The calibration can also be done using a deduction technique. When calibrating by
deduction, the first well is opened and measured using the separator and a MPFM.
When the first meter has been calibrated, the second well is opened.
The increase in flow rate at the separator will now be due to the production of the
second well. If the production of the first well changes, this can be measured by the
first meter and compensated for.
Calibration by deduction will be more accurate with MPFMs placed on each well;
since the wells that have not been calibrated can be measured using previously
calibrated MPFMs.
This method should be used with great caution since several factors will influence
the calibration quality, for example:
Spread in well performances
Flow instability, i.e. slugging
Difference in fluid PVT properties
7.7.2.6. Calibration report
Regardless of how the calibration is performed, it needs to be reported in some format. A

standardised format is desirable, and in a suggestion for a calibration report table is
shown.
The calibration report should give the results both in terms of tables and graphs. The
tabular form might have a form as a certificate on which the vendor has signed.
The format in the following table is particularly suited to a MPFM where the uncertainty is
specified in terms of liquid flow rate, gas flow rate and WLR. Other formats might be more
suitable for other uncertainty specifications; however, the general idea should be clear.

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Table 20 : Calibration certificate sheet
In addition to the tabulated and graphical information already mentioned, the calibration
report can also include:
A sketch/pictures showing important details of the test installation:
o Horizontal / vertical upwards / vertical downwards flow through the MPFM.
o Straight upstream / downstream lengths.
o Phase commingling point / distance to meter under test.
o Position of reference measurements.

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Process conditions:
o Pressure and temperature recorded for each test point.
o Oil in water and water in oil measurements during calibration.
o Oil and water density measurements performed during calibration.
Reference measurements:
o Type and quality of reference measurements.
o Reference to installation point on installation sketch should be given.
MPFM setup prior to calibration:
o A qualitative description of the setup performed by meter manufacturer, or

by test institution, prior to the calibration.
Summary of calibration results:
o A representative number of calibration points should be filled in. This can

often be governed by the buyer's request for WLR and GVF test ranges.
o Test results are either converted to flow loop or MPFM conditions before
comparison.
o Any PVT conversion issues should be noted and explained
o Any particular observations during calibration should be identified in a

comments field.
7.7.3. Adjustment of MPFMs
Most MPFMs are adjusted based on a static calibration and do not require dynamic
calibration. However, as mentioned in the introduction to before chapter some also require
an adjustment based on a dynamic calibration.
7.7.3.1. Adjustment based on static calibration
The usual purpose of a static calibration is to generate input parameters to setup the
MPFM and to establish a baseline. Using the strict definition of the term calibration, some
of what is called a static calibration is not a calibration because there is no reference to
compare to.

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For example, it might be required to record transmitter data on a model fluid or a

representative well fluid to setup the transmitters correctly based on the recorded data.
Examples are mass attenuation coefficients for a nuclear system and dielectric constants
for a capacitive system.
7.7.3.2. Adjustment based on dynamic calibration
For the type of MPFMs that require adjustments based on dynamic calibrations, the
adjustment can be implemented using one of the following methods or combinations of
these methods.
Matrix calibration
The data obtained from the calibration can be used to establish a matrix of factors
relating the MPFM outputs to the reference measurements. When such a matrix is
used, the instrument chooses the factors valid for the flow conditions that occur in
the pipeline to correct the outputs accordingly.
Curve-fit calibration
Curve-fit adjustment is carried out by recording measured oil, gas and water flow
rates and reference flow rates for many points in a matrix.
Using these data, a function (equation) can be derived which relates signals in the
MPFM (e.g. primary measurements or derived values) to the reference flow rates,
and this equation is then used to calculate flow rates with the meter in normal
operation.
Factor calibration
If the meter will be used mainly in a small range of flow conditions, and it is possible
to obtain reference values for the meter when it used to measure at some point
within this limited range, a single calibration factor can be established for each of
the components for later use as a valid calibration within the given range.

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7.8. FIELD INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING
This chapter describes recommended procedures and practices for field installation and
commissioning of MPFMs.
The on-site installation includes the physical connection/installation of the MPFM to the
client’s production and piping system.
The on-site installation procedure covers all physical aspects related to the communication
and electrical hook-up of the meter to the client’s systems. After the installation process,
the MPFM should be subject to an on-site commissioning procedure.
For both these steps it is important to get an overview of the work involved, the staffing
required and a time schedule.
These parameters are especially important for offshore work as during start-up of a field or
well there will be a vast number of ongoing activities and bed space is usually a limiting
factor.
7.8.1. Installations consideration
Before the MPFM is finally selected and installation started, the following items should
have been considered:
Vendor’s installation requirements (when it comes to the meter installation).
Limits have been established for temperature, pressure and flow rates at the
MPFM location, and it has been ensured that these parameters and the
production envelope are within the Operating and measuring envelopes of the
MPFM.
PVT data at the MPFM location as required for optimal measurements.
Facilities to ease the installation and removal of the meter. It might be wise to
plan for the possibility to replace the MPFM with another sized MPFM to
accommodate unexpected well flow-rates.
Access for maintenance and service of instruments, single phase checking

cleaning of internal deposits that may form.
Bypass to prevent well shutdown during testing and service.
Facilities and access for flow rate checking. Header to local test separator or
connection to transportable test equipment. Injection point(s) for tracers.

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Power and communication lines to the meter computer for local and remote data
collection, configuration, operation and verification of comm. line.
Facilities to collect multiphase fluid samples. (Very difficult to get representative

samples of multiphase fluids. No standard yet available.)
Flow mixing requirements.
Backup facilities and spare parts.
Provided the main issues as described above have been covered, one can proceed to
install the MPFM according to the outcome of the considerations.
7.8.2. Installation and site integration
To ensure a smooth installation process, good communication and clarification of

responsibilities is required between client and vendor representatives.
This can be achieved after reviewing the vendor’s installation and commissioning
procedures. The outcome of the review should be a mutual agreement on the various
tasks to be performed.
This section presents some general guidance on some of the main preparatory issues to
be considered for a MPFM installation. The list is not exhaustive; however, it covers some
typical aspects. Some of the issues might not be applicable for a subsea installation,
although the principles will be similar.
Prior to the installation process, the actual documents and drawings should be reviewed
and compared with the MPFM scope of delivery and design dossier. Any deviations should
be reported and an action plan created to rectify any the deviations. This is important to
prevent delays in the installation process.
One may benefit from planning a field visit well in advance. Process and Instrument
Diagram (P&ID) and MPFM installation drawings should be agreed upon before the field
visit. The main purpose of the field visit is to verify spacing, dimensions, electrical supplies,
communication interfaces, etc.
The visit might also include hook-up of a MPFM simulator to the client control system to
verify communication and power supply. If a field visit has been performed and everything
is in accordance with the scope of delivery, an additional meeting should be arranged to
do a field visit review.

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Issue Comments Status
Meeting, review of field visit report. Organise a meeting with the following
personnel to review the additional issues presented in this check-list.
¤ Client project representative
1
¤ Client electrician/electrical engineer
¤ Client instruments engineer and communication expert (SCADA expert)
¤ Vendor representative involved in the field visit - Vendor project representative
Is all the referenced documentation from the installation procedure ready and
2
reviewed for installation?
Have both client and vendor representatives been designated for the installation
3
/ commissioning project?
Has the on-site electrician, instrument man or communication man for the
4
SCADA system been notified for the installation job?
Are P&ID and general arrangements for piping and zone classification ready
5
and reviewed as per reference documentation?
Drawing and dimensions verified against the physical components for the
6
installation?
7 Are the commissioning material and spares inventoried and physically counted?
8 Check meter and piping physical dimensions / accessibility.
Check piping / inlet & outlet connections, material, size, painting

9
requirements, …
10 Check the required mechanical support for the installation.
11 Check grounding (weld extra pad eyes …)
12 Are the operational procedures and JSA/Hazop already approved?
13 Review location of nearest power supply and MPFM power requirements.
14 Review routing to connect the MPFM to the power source (cable dimensions).
Table 21 : Installation check-list

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7.8.2.1. Installation requirements
One should as early as possible clarify if the vendor has any special installation
requirements. This might include:
Vertical / horizontal alignment
Requirements on straight pipe lengths before and after the MPFM
Special requirements for accessing the MPFM
Etc.
Does the vendor require access to the MPFM prior to mounting it to the pipe work?
7.8.2.2. Electrical connections and power requirements
The MPFM power and voltage requirements should be clearly stated by the vendor and an
interconnection diagram should describe the electrical hook-up. It is usually the client’s
responsibility to provide cabling and glands that satisfy both site hazardous area
installation requirements and the requirements stated by the vendor.
Before connecting the cabling, several checks should be performed:
Continuity checks of the cable using a multimeter, each wire and screen should
be checked.
Test the cable using a megger, each wire and screen vs. all other wire/screens in
the same cable
Check that the power supply has the correct output voltage.
7.8.2.3. Function test
After installation and hook-up, a physical inspection and system test should be performed.
The purpose of this test is to ensure that the system performs all specified functions
satisfactorily. The test should be performed with the complete system installed. Usually
there is no process flow during the function test.
The test could be a repetition of selected tests from the FAT usually performed at the
vendor’s factory. The results should be recorded for later use as reference documentation.

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7.8.3. Commissioning
The vendor should provide a commissioning document that describes the procedures that
will be carried out by the vendor when the MPFM is commissioned at the client’s site.
The on site commissioning scope should include the post-installation functional test and
field set up of the MPFM prior to initial flow. The commissioning test will ensure that the
system performs all specified functions satisfactorily.
The test should be performed with the complete system installed. Power and
communication should be tested during the commissioning process to ensure the reliability
of the installation. Complete MPFM set up should be performed (instrumentation readings
review, zero trim of required transmitters, baseline reference recordings).
Normally there will be no process flow during the commissioning phase.
7.8.3.1. Preparation
Verify that all installation tasks have been completed. It can be beneficial if an installation
handover has been completed and signed off.
If any activity has not been completed one should ensure that all the additional
tools/parts/procedures needed are available.
7.8.3.2. Documents and equipments
The vendor should provide a list of all necessary procedures, certificates, tools and
consumables so that the client can review it. Usually the vendor requires some information
from the client on how to set up the MPFM.
These requirements should be clearly stated in a separate document and made available
to the client as early as possible. If any special tools which cannot be easily transported
are needed the client should be notified so they can be included in the logistics as early as
possible.
7.8.3.3. On site authorisation
Depending on MPFM make, different authorizations are needed:
Mechanical / pressure system isolation and depressurisation
Electrical system isolation

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Electrical “Hot Work” permits
Radioactive source handling, if the MPFM contains a nuclear source
The permit(s) to work authorizing the above activities may specify certain installation
specific precautions to be followed by the vendor.
The installation may require additional documentation to be presented prior to

authorization being granted, and this could include risk assessments, pre-job safety
meetings, detailed job specific operational procedures and contingency planning, copies of
equipment and operator certification.
7.8.3.4. Commissioning activities
The vendor usually has a list of activities to be performed as part of the commissioning. A
generic sample of such a list might be:
System checks. The vendor will usually hook-up to the MPFM using a service
computer, either a laptop or a permanently installed computer to run various
system checks specific for the MPFM make.
System configuration. During commissioning the vendor will usually establish a

single or multiple baseline references for the MPFM. If required, fluid properties
data will be entered as a part of the system configuration.
System test. All readings from the MPFM to the customer’s supervisory system
are checked. The continuity of the communication system is checked by
monitoring the communication over an appropriate period.
Pressure test. On site testing falls under the responsibility of the client and shall
be performed according to client’s procedure. The vendor should be consulted
prior to pressure testing to reveal any limitations regarding test medium and test
procedure.
Final testing. Once all commissioning activities have been completed it is

recommended that a thorough quality check of the first flowing data through the
MPFM be undertaken to ensure consistency of results. This is a task typically
performed by the vendor.
The outcome of the activities listed here should be part of a commissioning handover
document, which outline in more detail all the activities and checks performed. Where
applicable, values should be stated and signed. Finally, the handover document should be
signed by both the client and vendor representative.

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7.9. VERIFICATION DURING OPERATION
MPFMs cannot easily be sent to a calibration facility for recalibration, yet there is a need
for regular calibration to verify the meter performance. Calibration or verification of
individual sensors is a simple and effective way to verify and validate parts of the MPFM.
In many installations there will be provision for checking the performance of the MPFM
using a permanently installed or portable test separator.
In these cases the calibration of the MPFM can be checked at regular intervals, taking
heed of the precautions and recommendations. The purpose of this section is to provide
some guidelines on how to verify meter performance in field during operation, assuming no
test separator is readily available.
The methods discussed are:
Baseline monitoring
Self checking / self diagnostics capabilities / redundancy
Two meters in series
Mobile test unit
Tracer technology
Injection
Sampling
Reconciliation factor
Geo-chemical fingerprinting
Which one, or which combination of several, of these methods should be used will be
application dependant, but it is recommended that the method of verification be considered
already in the design stage. This will ensure that any special facilities, e.g. bypass,
isolation valves, sampling points, or other, required for the selected verification method(s)
will be in place.
But before explaining these different verification methods in more detail, it is should be
noted that perhaps the most important factor is to verify that the meter operates within the
rated operating conditions given by the supplier, and that influence parameters, e.g. fluid
property data, has not drifted outside the tolerance bands for the meter.

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7.9.1. Baseline monitoring
Baseline monitoring is the simplest method for qualifying meter performance in field, yet it
is quite efficient and should constitute a minimum requirement for follow-up of any MPFM.
Baseline monitoring is the concept of establishing a baseline of key parameters describing

reproducible states of the MPFM.
The most typical will be key measurement parameters at empty and preferably
depressurised sensor, and typical parameters will be differential pressure, density
parameters and electrical impedance parameters.
A traceable log must be established for the parameters to be included in the baseline
monitoring, together with an acceptable tolerance band for each parameter.
The exact suite of baseline parameters will depend on the type of MPFM, and should be
agreed with the vendor to achieve best result.
Figure 101 : Example of a baseline monitoring
Empty sensor is a typical example of a reproducible state, and the baseline parameters for
this state should be logged first at factory calibration, later at field commissioning, and at
regular intervals there after. By plotting historical trend plots for the baseline parameters,
one may distinguish between random deviations within (or outside) the tolerance band, or
a systematic drift, even if this is within the tolerance band.
Other baseline parameters can be, for example, internal reference parameters in the
detector electronics, e.g. control voltages that are available by default, or could be made
available on request to facilitate a more robust baseline monitoring system.
In a more comprehensive version, measurement parameters when the meter is filled with
a known reference fluid can also be included in the baseline parameter suite.

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7.9.2. Self checking / self diagnostic / redundancy
The concept of self-checking can be described as an automated way of baseline

monitoring, but can also be significantly more advanced.
With the self diagnostic capabilities, the meter will automatically check and log single key
measurement parameters and built-in references, and can also cross-check these (e.g.
calculate a ratio), and verify whether the meter operate within tolerances, and also warn of
a systematic drift. In some meters there is also an inherent or purposely built-in
redundancy.
This will make the self-diagnostic capability more robust, in particular for the on-line
verification in flowing conditions.
7.9.3. Two meters in series
Additional redundancy, allowing diagnostic and verification possibility, can be achieved by

installing two MPFMs in series.
Typical applications for this method of verification are in applications where the required
measurement range is outside the measurement range for one MPFM only.
An example of an application using two meters in series is shown in following figure.
The configuration is that a small ID MPFM is installed in a bypass, and a ball valve and a
larger ID MPFM is installed in the main line. The ball valve is operated either fully closed or
fully open; fully closed is the low range, and all flow then passes through the small ID
meter.
The full multiphase flow will in all cases

pass through the large ID meter.
Figure 102 : Example of an installation

with two meters in series
From a flow map showing the

measurement ranges for these two
meters, we observe that the turndown in
flow rate for each phase has been
increased from a typical 10:1 to close to
100:1.
In addition, there is an overlapping range that can be used for verification. It is worth
mentioning that while both meters are operating within their specified range in this region,
one operates in the upper range and one in the lower.

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This further means that while flow rates are the same for the two meters, flow velocities
will be different, giving an added dimension to the verification compared to a case of two
identical meters in series.
Verification by two MPFMs in parallel can only be achieved in very stable conditions, as
these tests would necessarily have to be performed in sequence.
7.9.4. Mobile test units
Similar possibilities for diagnostic and verification as described above can be achieved
using mobile test units.
The mobile test unit could e.g. be a skid- or truck-mounted MPFM (or meters), or could be
a tailor made test package e.g. using partial separation and including facilities to obtain
fluid samples.
7.9.5. Tracer technology
The tracer technology works by injecting small volumes of tracers that are selective to oil,
water or gas phases.
These tracers could be dye tracers, but could also be other types of material, e.g.
fluorescent or radioactive tracers. By injecting these tracers at known rates, and by
analysing a sample of the multiphase flow sufficiently far downstream of the injection point,
the individual phase flow rates can be determined by measuring the dilution of tracer in the
sample.
A specialist company would typically deliver the tracer method for verification of MPFM
performance as a service.
The uncertainty of the tracer technique will depend on the composition and flow regime,
and the expected uncertainty should be established for each specific application. The use
of this technique requires that suitable points for injection and sampling be included in the
installation.
7.9.6. Injection
Similar to the tracer technology, this method works by injection into the flow line, but in this
case the injection is of a higher volume, and the injected medium is oil, water or gas. An
example is the injection of water into the flow line, which would verify if the meter
responded correctly to the change in WLR and water flow rate.

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Care must be taken to make sure the injection does not alter the production conditions,
e.g. pressure, in such a way that the production itself change, thereby invalidating this
method of verification, e.g. the use of lift gas cannot be used to validate the meter.
Also it is important to note that the fluid properties of the injected fluid must be similar to
those of the corresponding process fluid, and definitely within a range such that the fluid
properties of the combined phase are within the tolerance band specified for the MPFM.
7.9.7. Sampling
Representative sampling in a multiphase flow is difficult, and requires that rigorous

procedures are followed. The method is not recommended for verification of the gas
fraction measurement performance.
On the other hand, if a well-designed procedure is followed, sampling and offline analysis
of the water/liquid ratio can be a very efficient method for tracking the performance of a
MPFM. Obtaining a representative liquid sample is by no means straightforward, and the
complexity may vary between applications. Issues to consider are:
The sampling point should be in a vertical leg of the flow line, best position is
immediately downstream a flow line component providing a mixing effect.
A number of subsequent samples (minimum 5) should be taken. Each sample

must be allowed to completely separate before the WLR is measured. For some
crude oils this will require use of de-emulsifier.
All samples must be taken within a time frame where the WLR is stable, i.e. with
variations less than the uncertainty required for the verification.
The sampling point should be close to the MPFM, and the time frame for the
samples must be selected such that the samples are representative for the liquid
passing through the MPFM during the same time frame.
If the difference between the highest and the lowest WLR of the samples
obtained is greater than the uncertainty required for the evaluation, the
verification test should be terminated, and a complete new set of samples must
be obtained.
The average WLR of the samples should be used for the comparison with the
MPFM. The uncertainty of the average WLR will be no better than 2 times the
standard deviation of the samples.

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7.9.8. Reconciliation factor
Use of reconciliation factor as a means of monitoring the quality of the data from the
MPFMs and according to Stephen (2001) can be a very efficient method.
The method can be exemplified by the field layout shown in following figure:
Three satellite fields are commingled into a common transport pipeline to a

processing facility.
Each satellite produces a number of wells; in this example 5 well per satellite.
Each satellite has a MPFM to continuously measuring the total production for that
satellite.
The measured production from each satellite is converted to rates at the same
conditions as the measurement conditions at the processing facility.
At the central processing facility the total production is separated and measured
to a high standard.
Figure 103 : Example of a typical field layout

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The flow rates measured at the central processing facility should be directly proportional to
the satellite production, and a reconciliation factor for each phase can be calculated as:
Phase flow rate at central platform

Reconciliation Factor =
The sum of the satellite flow rates
Ideally the reconciliation factor should be equal to 1, and a reconciliation factor close to 1
gives an added confidence in the accuracy of the meters.
However, in the context of monitoring and tracking the performance of the MPFMs, it is the
stability of the reconciliation factor that is important rather than its absolute value. If the
reconciliation factor remains constant despite variation in the relative flow rate of the
metered inputs, then the system can be considered as equitable.
For the reconciliation factor system to provide an efficient method for periodic verification
of the MPFMs, the uncertainty and the expected repeatability of the reconciliation factor
should be established.
Based on this one can establish a tolerance band. In addition to the tolerance band,
monitoring the reconciliation factor is recommended for early detection of systematic drift,
even if it is within the accepted tolerance band.
If all the wells of the satellite are measured by MPFMs as well, then a similar system of
reconciliation factors may be established for each satellite, which in turn makes it possible
to identify exactly which satellite has a measurement problem if a deviation in the
reconciliation factor for the central processing facility is detected.
This will enable detection of inconsistencies and may for basis for initiation of further
verification procedures.
Ideally this should be carried out for gas, oil and water flow rates on a volume (or
preferably mass) basis.
7.9.9. Subsea systems verification
In subsea applications for which access to equipment is difficult, specific procedures can
be implemented on a case-by-case basis. Such procedures will depend on measurement
quality requirements.
Some alternatives may be:
injection of specific fluids in the meter for verification (for example Methanol),
test / calibration “by difference”,
test by permutation (several well configurations tested in sequence), or

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by perturbation (choke changes) using topside measurements as described by

Cooley et. al. (2003),
Sensor and system redundancies also offer possibilities for cross checking and validating
measurements. If required, compensations for fluid properties changes must be managed
through subsea sampling or direct measurement of fluid properties.

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7.10. EXAMPLES OF MULTIPHASE METERING
7.10.1. Dual gamma (Ofon)
The Schlumberger / Framo technology combines the

"flow rate and fraction measurement” functions in a single
venturi tube (here on Ofon)
Figure 104 : SCHLUMBERGER – FRAMO Vx

TECHNOLOGY multiphase meter
Venturi
Detector
Source
Figure 105 : Exploded view of a
P SCHLUMBERGER – FRAMO Vx
TECHNOLOGY multiphase meter
ΔP Composition
Meter
T Flow
7.10.2. Gamma + electric (Northern

sector in the Congo)
Six extremely compact MFI/Roxar meters are

installed on 4 satellite fields (Tchibouela,
Tchibeli, Kombi and Likalala. They are used
in the gas fraction ranges (GVF), up to 90%
for well tests and field metering.
Figure 106 : Very compact multiphase meter

on a satellite platform in Congo

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7.10.3. Sincor
Multiphase metering has established itself as

the ideal well metering solution in this heavy
crude development, where the test separator
option has turned out to be costly and very
difficult to use due to the rheology of the
effluents.
The Roxar technology (gammametry +

microwaves) was chosen after a qualification
process, and 32 multiphase meters are now
in operation.
The success of this operation is due to the

high involvement of the various reservoir and
production specialities during the different
deployment phases: design, commissioning
and production.
Figure 107 : Installation of a skid-mounted

meter on Sincor
7.10.4. Implementation
Multiphase metering technology is now field proven; it

can be used in unmanned and subsea environments.
Certain rules must, however, be respected in the field
deployment phases: verify the operating range,
choose the right dimensions, characterise the fluids to
be metered (also valid for other technologies)
Figure 108 : Multiphase meter for integration on a

subsea wellhead (Dalia project)
A PVT analysis (Pressure, Volume, Temperature) is

recommended at design stage, and the fluid
properties should be monitored throughout the life of
the field (e.g. salinity, water density) if good accuracy
is to be maintained.
The multiphase metering solution also has an

indisputable advantage in terms of metering and well
monitoring: streamlining of installations (no test line),
continuous measurements for production monitoring,
reduction in production losses due to switchover
solutions, etc.
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Other spin-off benefits are expected in terms of additional barrels of oil or m3 of gas thanks
to the use of multiphase metering systems in the domain of flow and event monitoring, and
their management (slugs, water inflows, clean up management, etc.).
7.10.5. Summary of flowmeters for liquid hydrocarbons
Ultrasonic flowmeters, rotameters and electromagnetic flowmeters are not recommended
Meters
Oil
Orifice Turbine Volumetric Coriolis Vortex
Normal dynamics 3 to 10 10 10 to 20 10 to 20 10 to 20
Accuracy in% 1,2 0,5 to 2 0,5 to 1 0,5 2 to 4
Presence of vibrations * * * 0 0
Pulsed flows * 0 * ** 0
Abrasive and erosive fluid * 0 0 * 0
Viscosity variations ** * * ** *
Low pressure drop

* ** * 0 **
required
Presence of free gas ** 0 * * 0
Presence of water ** * * ** **
Maintenance ** * 0 ** **
Ease of calibration ** * * * *
Light
Adaptation to fluid ** * * *0
condensates
Cost ** * * * **
0: Choice incompatible or not

*: Can be used with reservations **: Suitable
recommended
Table 22 : Summary of flowmeters for liquid hydrocarbons

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8. METERING STATION
8.1. METERING STATION PRINCIPLE
The flow indicated for a meter requires a certain number of corrections due to associated
values such as pressure, temperature, density, viscosity, etc.
The metering device is thus surrounded by instrumentation which controls these different
values. This assembly forms the METERING STATION.
Figure 109 : Girassol metering station flow diagram

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8.2. LIQUID METERING STATION
8.2.1. Description
A liquid metering station consists of:
an inlet manifold,
parallel meter runs with a volumetric or turbine meter, and a flow conditioner
(when a turbine meter is used), pressure and temperature measurements,
isolating valves and flow control,
an output manifold,
a calibration loop containing a section of prover pipe of known volume, delimited

by one or two pairs of sphere passage detectors and a sphere launch trap. The
fluid is routed by one or more valves. (4-way for a bi-directional loop),
one or more metering computers.
Figure 110 : Liquid metering station

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8.2.2. Example : the Girassol UA 312 metering loop
The UA 312 metering loop, represented in the previous PFD and PID, is used to meter the
oil exported to the buoy or offloaded in tandem. The metering station consists of three
meter runs, each of 2,000 m3/h nominal (the maximum flow rate per metering line is 2,200
m3/h) and of an automatic calibration run. (See following diagram)
Figure 111: Girassol metering station
A minimum export flow rate of 1,500 m3/h must be reached for the sampling run to
operate.
Each meter run mainly comprises a filter, a flow conditioner, a turbine to measure the
stabilised oil passing through the branch, a flow control valve and a motorised ROV.

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Each meter run also has a connection equipped with a motorised ROV for connection to
the automatic calibration line.
The metering station is fed by the export manifold (upstream line). Downstream, at the
meter station outlet, the oil is sent into a manifold common to the export booster pumps
(suction side).
The metering station pressure drop is 1.4 bar à 6 000 m3/h.
For offloading in tandem, the oil is sent via this manifold directly to the offloading tanker
without passing through export booster pumps.
A bypass line has been provided so that the export operation can still go ahead if the
metering station is unavailable. The exported stabilised oil is then measured by the
difference in level in the storage tanks. This line is equipped with a fiscal manual block
valve with leak detection. This line's takeoff is located upstream of the metering station on
the export manifold and uses the common outlet line of the metering station's meter runs
as downstream line (inside the station)

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8.3. GAS METERING STATION
8.3.1. Description
The following diagram shows the main components of a metering installation:
Instrumented inlet manifold (analysers + sensors)
Meter run(s) with instruments
Output manifold (analysers + sensors)
Figure 112 : Gas metering station

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The other components of the installation are described in the installation drawing.
Safety equipment (safety valves, blowdown lines, etc.)
Manifolds and instrumentation cabinet
Junction box(es)
Electric cubicle (power)
Metering computers
Supervision and printout systems
Communications instrumentation – transmitters – computer – supervision –

etc.
8.3.2. Operating principle
The gas is analysed at the inlet manifold. The data gathered are sent to each computer via
the installation's supervision system.
The manifold is designed to distribute the flow uniformly over the different meter runs
allowing for at least one backup run.
Each meter run delivers data (differential pressure or pulses, static pressure, temperature,
density) to its dedicated computer.
Each computer determines the quantities transferred to the associated meter run, and
sends this calculated data to the supervision system for real time or batch processing.
The metered and analysed gas finally enters the outlet manifold and is transferred to the
downstream installations.
At the end of the transaction, the measured quantities (expressed in volume, masse and/or
energy), and all the events relating to the current delivery (alarms, threshold overshoots,
etc.) are available via the supervision system for transmission and/or printing (reports).
8.3.3. Manifold and Instrumentation
The inlet and outlet manifolds are oversized to keep the flow velocities low, to limit flow
disturbances and to distribute the flows into the meter runs. Recommended practice is to
use manifolds (inlet and outlet) with a cross sectional area greater than 1.5 times the sum
of the cross section areas of the meter runs.

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The "Z" geometry of the run assembly ensures that the pressure drops, and therefore the
flow velocities, are uniform throughout the installation, whichever runs are active.
The manifolds have a recommended nominal diameter greater than: D 1.5 xN

D: Pipe diameter (measurement line)
N: Number of measurement lines (in parallel)
The inlet manifold has tappings allowing the following equipment to be connected:
Quick sampling loop
To an in-line chromatograph
To a water dew point analyser
Densimeter
Water dew point analyser (if none on the quick sampling loop)
An automatic sampler
The measurements performed using this equipment are sent to each dedicated computer
to calculate the influence quantity necessary to determine the transferred quantities.
8.3.4. Isolating valves
Isolating valves are installed upstream and downstream of each meter run. They are
double block and bleed valves, offering a double seal.
The manually operated inlet valve is designed only to isolate the measuring line during
maintenance operations (decompression, orifice plate change, inspection, etc.).
The outlet valve, which is also used during maintenance operations, is motorised and can
be controlled:
Remotely, by the operator from the control room
Locally, by a site operator
Remotely, via the supervision system (Alarms), particularly to:
Open a run that has been isolated on appearance of an excess

flow on one or more of the active runs.
Close an active run on appearance of a flow rate lower than the

configured threshold or on a transmitter fault.
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The manual or motorised valves are equipped with end-of-travel detectors, which indicate
their status to the control room.
8.3.5. Meter runs
The metering installation consists of "n" meter runs mounted in parallel. During normal
operation, at least one of the runs is isolated so that it may be available in case a run in
service fails, or to perform a maintenance operation on one of these runs.
8.3.6. Safety Equipment
The metering installation is equipped with "Gas" and "Fire" safety protection systems
described in the General Documentation specific to the installation.
Relief valves
Thermal safety valves
Pressure switches
Blowdown lines
etc.
The seals used in the installation are designed to resist the effects of severe
depressurisation.
8.3.7. Calibration Equipment
The installation is designed and operated to guarantee the specified uncertainty level
(regulations, contract, etc.) established at the origin. The stability of the initial uncertainty
level can be obtained only by perfectly controlling the uncertainties due to the different
factors involved in its estimation.
This control is guaranteed by the implementation of a surveillance process for each source
of uncertainty (transmitter, sensor, computer, process, etc.), which includes verification,
calibration or adjustment of the transmitters or sensors concerned. These regular
operations consist in confirming that the measurements carried out by the system
composed of the transmitter (or sensor) and the computer remain within an interval
defined at the origin as being the Maximum Permissible Error (MTE).

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All the equipment used in these operations and which has an effect on the final result has
Calibration Certificates showing their traceability to the reference standards (national or
international).
The verification and calibration equipment is managed by the installation's Metering

Supervisor who must, in particular:
Validate the calibration and verification procedures for the installation's equipment
Ensure that these procedures are correctly applied at the appropriate dates.
Ensure that the calibration equipment is stored and conserved in the correct
conditions
Define the acceptability limits for the calibration equipment
Ensure that the calibration equipment connections are correct

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8.4. EXAMPLES OF PIDs: METERING STATION
8.4.1. Reminder of the symbols
Orifice plate flowmeter
Integrated orifice flowmeter
Flowmeter with orifice holder

(facilitates orifice removal)
Float flowmeter (Rotameter)
Blade / turbine flowmeter
Electromagnetic flowmeter
Ultrasonic flowmeter
Vortex flowmeter
Vortex flowmeter (insertion type)

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Coriolis flowmeter
Target flowmeter
F
Thermal flowmeter
T°
Positive displacement flowmeter
Pitot tube flowmeter
F
Nozzle
F
Venturi
Table 23: Meter symbols for PID diagrams

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Figure 113 : PID Oil export metering GIRASSOL

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Figure 114: PID gas metering

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8.5. METERING STATION AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
In this chapter we shall discuss auxiliary equipment located on a metering station. A

measuring package is not limited to just a meter…
In the Legal Metrology sense, a measurement package comprises, at the minimum:
A meter
A transfer point
A hydraulic system transporting the product to be measured to the transfer point,

taking into account the supply conditions (hydraulic).
For the system to operate correctly, it is often necessary to include called "additional
equipment" to it:
An air and gas elimination system
A filtering system
A pumping system
Systems for correcting temperature, viscosity, pressure, etc.
Finally, the measuring package can be equipped with "supplementary" devices:
A printing system
A data storage system
A conversion system
A predetermination system
Note: The additional and supplementary systems may or may not be subject to legal
metrology inspections depending on their role in the measuring package, and national
regulations.
As mentioned above, a measuring package is not limited to a just meter but is a set of
elements adapted to the context of the measurement to be carried out.
The equipment ensuring the main functions in a measuring package can be divided into 6
categories:
Protection equipment
Conditioning equipment
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Metering
Primary measuring equipment
Associated measuring and product quality equipment
Acquisition and calculation equipment
Surveillance and supervision equipment
Figure 115 : Metering station auxiliaries
8.5.1. Instrument protection equipment
8.5.1.1. Filters
As the name indicates, this equipment is designed to protect the measuring equipment
and the installation in general from any damage arising from the process and the operating
conditions:
Product contamination
Lack of product homogeneity
Capacity overshoot (pressure, temperature, flow rate, etc.)

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Figure 116 : Filters: Protection equipment
For measuring gases, just as for measuring liquids, the filters are designed to protect the
whole installation from the effects of solid particles that might be introduced into the
measuring package.
Solids may:
Damage the measuring or control equipment
Affect the measurements
Modify pipe geometry
Give rise to corrosion (coupling of materials)
Etc.
The dimensions of the filters are matched to the application thanks to different
technologies, different sizes and different mesh sizes.
When choosing the filter dimensions, consideration must be given to the fluid flow velocity
(flow rate/cross sectional area), the required filtration level and the admissible pressure
drop. As is often the case, the product chosen is generally the result of a compromise
which includes, in particular, the expected maintenance costs.

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The level of filter fouling is generally monitored using a clogging indicator or a system
measuring the pressure drop between the upstream and downstream sides of the filter
element. The maximum admissible relative pressure drop value is chosen to determine the
limit after which a cleaning operation is required. Self-cleaning technologies are available
which limit the intervention time.
8.5.1.2. Deaerator / Gas separator
"The measuring assemblies must be constructed and installed in a way designed to

ensure that there is no air ingress or gas release in the liquid upstream of the meter during
normal operation. If there is a risk that this condition will not be met, the measuring
assemblies must include deaerators to correctly remove any undissolved air and gases in
the liquid before it enters the meter".
In other words, when there is a risk of air or gas being present in the pipe at the measuring
point (whatever the measurement technology used), it is recommended or even essential
that a system to remove this gas phase be installed upstream.
A gas separator must guarantee that the air or gas present in the liquid flow does not
affect the measuring result by more than 0.5 to 1.0% of the quantity measured. This level
of performance must be checked for levels of up to 30% gas, for a total flow rate greater
than or equal to 20 m3/h.
The conventional operating principle consists of “bursting” the flow to help liberate the gas
phase and to release the volume of liquid at the bottom of the tank. There are also
systems available which use centrifugal force to remove the gas concentrated at the
centre of the tank.
Simple gas removal devices are used to evacuate the gases through a mechanical float
system while other systems incorporate level detectors and a pilot-operated electrovalve
which manages the liquid level and ensures the homogeneity of the product measured. In
addition, these systems can also be used to interrupt the current delivery by acting on the
flow control valve.
8.5.1.3. Gas purge
Unlike the gas separator which is basically designed to remove dissolved gases, the gas
purge is mainly designed to eliminate "pockets" of air or gas present in the flow.
A gas purge must therefore remove a volume corresponding to the minimum delivery
volume of a measuring package, at the maximum service flow rate, without introducing an
error greater than 1.0% of that minimum measured quantity.

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8.5.1.4. Flow and pressure control valves
To guarantee that the operating conditions are maintained within acceptable limits by the
equipment used (particularly in terms of flow rate and pressure), valves usually located
downstream of the primary measuring instrument ensure that the previously defined
threshold values are respected, via the PID loops.
Respecting the flow rate thresholds guarantees that the measuring system functions in its
optimum operating range and protects it from possible overspeeds.
Respecting the pressure thresholds prevents cavitation phenomena that may deteriorate
the measurement, and protects the installation against any accidental overpressures.
8.5.2. Instrumentation conditioning equipment
The measurement of fluid quantities is based on a certain number of hypotheses, among

them:
Product homogeneity
Flow stability (for certain measuring technologies)
Stability of the pressure and temperature variables
Specific equipment may be integrated in the measuring packages, where necessary, to

approximate these hypotheses by theoretical definitions.
8.5.2.1. Static mixer
This type of equipment is basically used on crude oil measuring packages. Whether the
package is located downstream of a separator or at the wellhead, the fluid is only very
rarely homogenous enough for satisfactory measurements to be performed.
The effects due to the stratifications resulting from density variations and the presence of
water are attenuated by installing one of these devices upstream of the measurement
point.
The static mixer consists of flow disturbance mechanisms (inclined plates, tubes, etc.) that
very significantly increase the flow turbulence level, thus creating a homogenous flow
upstream of the measurement.

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Figure 117 : Static mixer - Conditioning equipment
8.5.2.2. Flow conditioners
Most fluid quantity measuring equipment is sensitive to the upstream flow conditions. Apart
from the volumetric meters and, with reservations, the Coriolis flowmeters, all volume
measurement systems are more or less sensitive to flow profile dissymmetry and to swirl
in the fluid stream.
Therefore the standards define the specific installation conditions for each technology
(turbine, ultrasonic, orifice plate, etc.) and specify, in particular, the lengths of the straight
pipes upstream of the measurement system and the position, or even the type, of the
conditioning system to be used.
The various pipe and accessory configurations upstream of the measurement create
different levels of flow disturbance.
Two parameters must be considered when defining a flow profile
Axial symmetry
Swirl
The first disturbance (bend outlet, butterfly valve, etc.) generates displacement velocities
which vary according to the position in the pipe.
Figure 118 : First flow disturbance (axial symmetry)

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The second disturbance (outlet of two non-coplanar bends, manifold, non-concentric

reducer, etc.) generates displacement velocities (radial) thus generating one or more
swirls in the fluid stream.
Figure 119 : Second flow disturbance (swirl )
In the case of a single centred swirl it is obvious that the direction of rotation will not affect,
for example, two turbines with rotors rotating in opposite directions in the same way.
This type of disturbance can be dealt with more or less effectively by different
technologies.
The most frequently used flow conditioner consists of a bundle of 19 tubes uniformly
distributed in the upstream pipe section. This technology generally reduces the swirl in the
stream very effectively, but does not attenuate the dissymmetry.
Figure 120 : Different types of flow conditioners

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Conversely, the plate flow conditioners developed in particular by K-Lab (NOVA), or

SMITH create a symmetrical flow stream by increasing the flow turbulence level, but only
very partially reduce any swirl which may be present.
The Gallagher Flow Conditioner (GFC) associates both the previous principles by
combining a tube bundle (or a straight vane section) and a plate in series, upstream of the
measurement.
It is available as separate elements or as a fully integrated version according to the

diameters and the applications.
Figure 121 : GFC flow conditioners
Pressure control systems have already been mentioned as protection equipment and are
used to maintain a pressure level compatible with the measurement. The product
equilibrium depends on the pressure (vapour pressure), and the pressure drops inherent in
the installation can produce cavitation phenomena (phase change) incompatible with
reliable measurements.
When there may be large variations in the product temperature according to the process,
or when, for example, a gas has to be expanded before it can be measured, conditioning
systems must be installed to control the fluid temperature:
Reheating system (e.g. upstream of an expander)
Thermal insulation of the pipes
Heat exchangers
Etc.

Instrumentation
Metering
8.6. CALCULATIONS, CORRECTIONS AND ASSOCIATED

INSTRUMENTS
In metering systems the pressure transmitter and the temperature transmitter play an
essential role. The acquisition of these measurements on a local flow computer system, on
the prover computer and on a DCS control system enables flow measurements to be
corrected using a predefined algorithm.
A mass flow rate can thus be measured by associating an upstream pressure and
temperature measurement with the differential pressure measurement.
The following diagram shows a flow rate correction with a pressure differential device for a
gas application:
Figure 122: Flow rate correction
IMPORTANT: the flow rate correction is necessary because the density of a gas is highly
dependent on temperature and pressure. The pressure differential device has been
installed and calibrated using a gas taken in certain conditions (e.g. marked P0 and T0),
but the real conditions are rarely the same as these conditions. The indicated value must
therefore be corrected.

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Metering
8.6.1. Pressure transmitter
Figure 123 : Pressure transmetteur ABB type 264
8.6.1.1. Representation
Figure 124 :Representation pressure transmitter
Remember that we are looking inside a sensor which has a relative pressure, an absolute
pressure or a differential pressure and that the transmitter supplies a 4-20 mA output
signal.
As with all electronic circuits, the transmitter must be energised.
Therefore we will now examine the three types of electrical connections on the transmitter.
8.6.1.2. Connection diagrams
Two-wire configuration
In this type of configuration, the receiver (DCS, regulator, etc.) is active, i.e. the transmitter
output (4-20 mA) is wired in series on the receiver's input.

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Metering
The receiver thus supplies 24 VDC on the transmitter's 4-20 mA output.
Note:
A 4-20 mA signal is always supplied with DC.
Three-wire configuration
This type
of configuration has one specific feature, it is supplied at 24 or 48 VDC. It is little used.
Four-wire configuration
In this type of configuration the transmitter is powered by an external 230V AC supply, the
4-20 mA output is again wired in series on the receiver.
This configuration has the specific feature that it is very self-contained because it does not
depend on the receiver.
8.6.1.3. Calibration
As in the case of the pneumatic transmitter, we find the two standard transmitter
adjustments:
Zero adjustment
Span adjustment

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Metering
If the transmitter does not have a display, it will be adjusted using two screws (one for the
zero and the other for the span).
Instead of connecting a pressure gauge to the transmitter's output signal, this time for the
electric transmitter you connect an ammeter in series.
You must also check that the output signal is proportional to the pressure applied at the
sensor inlet.
Figure 125: Example of wiring for calibration
Calibration procedure:
1. Connect the test rig to the transmitter's HP side

2. Supply the transmitter's + and – terminals with 24 VDC
3. Switch on your multimeter and set it to DC milliammeter
4. Connect the milliammeter across the transmitter's + and – test terminals
5. Apply a pressure equivalent to the transmitter's low scale
6. Press the transmitter's zero button and check that the milliammeter displays 4mA.
7. Apply a pressure equivalent to the transmitter's high scale
8. Press the transmitter's span button and check that the milliammeter displays 20 mA.
9. Then check all the measurement points (0, 25, 50,75 and 100% of scale)

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Metering
For example:
For a transmitter with a measurement scale of 0-1 bars, we must always obtain the
following values:
% of full scale 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Transmitter scale (E) (in bar) 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1
Transmitter output signal (S) (in mbar) 4 8 12 16 20
E (bar)
0,75
0,50
0,25
4 8 12 16 20 S (mA)
Figure 126: Example of transmitter with 0-1 bar scale

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8.6.1.4. Digital pressure transmitter
Figure 127: Example wiring for configuration and calibration
Figure 128 : Digital transmitter wiring

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Metering
8.6.1.5. Calibration
Two adjustments can be made via the console or we can

use the two buttons on the transmitter.
Figure 129 : "ZERO and SPAN" buttons integrated in the

transmitter
The HI and LO switch selects the sensor's fallback

position:
HI: high fallback position (21 mA)
LO: low fallback position (3.8 mA)
The SECURITY switch switches ON or OFF the transmitter's write protection. Once it has
been configured and calibrated the SECURITY switch must be set to ON to prevent any
changes to the configuration.
Calibration procedure using the transmitter's buttons
Apply a pressure corresponding to the transmitter's minimum scale.
Press the ZERO button for a few seconds to zero it (4 mA).
Apply a pressure corresponding to the transmitter's maximum scale.
Press the SPAN button for a few seconds to adjust the measurement scale
(20 mA).
Note: The transmitter's buttons can only be used for the adjustment if the transmitter has
been configured.
In my experience, they are used during maintenance when we wish to rezero a sensor
after a measurement drift.
Calibration procedure using the programming console
The calibration procedure is different when a programming console is used.
Before the calibration operation, the transmitter must be configured as follows:
Configure the measurement unit (e.g. bar, mbar, etc.)

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Configure the transmitter's low range value
Configure the transmitter's high range value
Configure the damping
Figure 130 : Example of a digital transmitter configuration menu (ABB type 264)

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Metering
Choose the transmitter output signal type: Linear
Calibrate the transmitter by pressing SET PV ZERO
Calibrate the transmitter by pressing SET PV SCALE
This calibration method is an example for an ABB Type 264 pressure transmitter, since the
menus differ according to the manufacturer.
Therefore, refer to the manufacturers' documentation to correctly calibrate each

measurement instrument.
8.6.1.6. Selection criteria for pressure transmitters
The operating domain is basically defined by:
Measurement range: Minimum and maximum value of the pressure to be

measured. In principle, these are the values for which the sensor transmitter must
give credible data.
Example: A sensor with measurement range 0.5 to 1 bar. The accuracy and the
qualities announced by the manufacturer must be guaranteed within this
measurement range.
Max. admissible pressure: It is the highest pressure which the sensor can
accidentally withstand without irreversible deterioration. For some sensors, this
pressure can be three times higher than the maximum value of the measurement
range.
Fluid type: Poses the problem of the compatibility between the sensor's
materials in contact with the fluid and this fluid, and may lead to the choice of a
protection accessory (e.g. separator).
Pressure change rate: If it varies rapidly, the sensor's response time must be as
short as possible to monitor the variations with an acceptable delay. Its sensitivity
is linked to the dimensions of the measuring element, and to the length of the
pressure tapping determining its dead volume and its breathing volume.
Influence quantity and environment type: They are linked with the fluid (its
temperature can sometimes require a sensor cooling device), or with the
environment (ambient temperature, vibrations, relative humidity, electromagnetic
interference, etc.). A damp, dusty and corrosive environment is also an important
factor to be taken into consideration when choosing a sensor.

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Metering
8.6.2. Temperature transmitter
8.6.2.1. Definition
Resistance probes or thermoelectric probes are also called platinum probes (pT100). They
consist of a sensing element made of platinum and its ohmic value varies according to
the temperature.
Platinum probes have an ohmic value of 100 ohms at 0°C. This sensing element is made
of platinum and is therefore a metal conductor.
The conductor's resistance varies according to the temperature, hence the relationship:
Rt = Ro (1 + αt)
Rt: resistance at temperature t

Ro: resistance at temperature 0 °C
α: Resistance coefficient of the conductor
The value of Rt is given in standardised tables (see "Table of correspondence of

resistance according to temperature") for Ro = 100 Ω (Pt 100) and α = 0.00385 Ω/Ω/°C in
the measurement range 0 to 100 °C.
Callendar-Van Dusen (CVD) equation
[
Rt = R0 1 + At + Bt 2 − C (t − 100)t 3 ]
Where RT = resistance at T°C, R0 = resistance at 0°C, α = temperature coefficient at 0°C
in Ω/Ω/°C, δ = linearisation coefficient, β = second linearisation coefficient for the negative
temperature values (β = 0 for T > 0°C).
This equation has been

converted so that it is easier to Coefficient Value Value Value
use with coefficients A, B and C
given by the DIN 43760 (IEC α 0,003850 0.003926 0.003911
751) standard and the
component data sheets. δ 1.4999
β 0.10863
A 3.9083e-3 3.9848e-3 3.9692e-3

Table 24: Coefficients for
B -5.775e-7 -5.870e-7 -5.8495e-7
different values of α
C -4.18301e-12 -4.000e-12 -4.2325e-12

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These three α values represent the three main specifications for the RTDs.
0.003850 Ω/Ω/°C: DIN 43760 and IEC 751 standards and other international
specifications, called the European Standard .
0.003926 Ω/Ω/°C: Requires a 99.999% pure platinum or better, called the

American Standard.
0.3911 Ω/Ω/°C: Often called the U.S. Industrial Standard.
8.6.2.2. Sensing element
The sensing element is electrically insulated and

protected by a sheath. It is used to measure a
precise temperature to check (indication) or
regulate the T°C on an industrial production
process.
Figure 131: Detail view of a sensing element

(pT100)
The wires ("end wires") fitted to the probes are copper-based connection wires.
The probes can be fitted with special extension cables also made of copper
(see "Instrumentation accessories" course).
These wires are connected either to a terminal block or to an R/I converter in the head of
the probe.
Figure 132 : Example of a pT100 probe
8.6.2.3. Tolerance class
As an instrument technician you will hear the terms class A, A/2 or B pT100 probe used in
your profession. Don't be surprised, this is just a accuracy tolerance on the resistance
temperatures probes.
Tolerance class definition (NF EN 60751 standard):
Class B: Δt = ± (0.3 + 0.005 θ) – from 0 to 850 °C

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Metering
Class A: Δt = ± (0.15 + 0.002 θ) – from 0 to 600 °C
1/3 Class B: Δt = ± 1/3(0.3 + 0.005 θ) – from 0 to 850 °C
θ: measured absolute temperature value (°C)
Class B Class A 1/3 Class B

T°
°C Ω °C Ω °C Ω
0 ± 0.3 ± 0.12 ± 0.15 ± 0.06 ± 0.04 ± 0.06
100 ± 0.8 ± 0.3 ± 0.35 ± 0.13 ± 0.1 ± 0.13
200 ± 1.3 ± 0.48 ± 0.55 ± 0.2 ± 0.16 ± 0.2
300 ± 1.8 ± 0.64 ± 0.75 ± 0.27 ± 0.21 ± 0.27
400 ± 2.3 ± 0.79 ± 0.95 ± 0.33 ± 0.26 ± 0.33
500 ± 2.8 ± 0.93 ± 1.15 ± 0.38 ± 0.31 ± 0.38
600 ± 3.3 ± 1.06 ± 1.35 ± 0.43 ± 0.35 ± 0.43
700 ± 3.8 ± 1.17
800 ± 4.3 ± 1.28
850 ± 4.6 ± 1.34
Table 25: Standardised tolerance class table for pT100 probes
8.6.2.4. Wiring
There are 3 connection configurations for the probes:
2-wire configuration: The simplest measurement. Low accuracy since the ohmic
values of the probe and extension cables are added together. This can be
avoided by using probes with several wires. Configuration to be avoided.
3-wire configuration: The most

commonly used. The resistance
created between conductors 1 and 2
is subtracted from the ohmic value
obtained between conductors 1 and
3. The resistance of the conductors is
limited. The contact resistance still
remains.
Figure 133: 3-wire configuration

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Metering
4-wire configuration: 2 possible connection configurations:
Wheastone bridge measurement:

Same principle as for measurement
using the 3-wire configuration,
increases the measurement accuracy.
The resistance of the conductors does
not affect the measurement, only the
contact resistance remains.
Figure 134: 4-wire Wheastone bridge

configuration
Kelvin measurement: The most accurate configuration. A current flows in

conductors 1 and 4. We measure the voltage across the terminals of the probe
between wires 2 and 3, and from this we deduce the ohmic value of the probe.
The resistance of the

conductors and the contact
resistance no longer affect the
measurement.
Figure 135: 4-wire Kelvin measurement

configuration
8.6.2.5. Composition of a temperature probe
A temperature probe is equipped with:
A thermowell
An extension
A sensing element
A connection head
Thermowell:
The thermowell (also called "thimble"). The probe equipped with this thermowell can thus
be directly in contact with the fluid.
Thermowell are available in screwed, welded or flanged configurations. They can be drilled
from solid bar stock or welded.
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Metering
Figure 136 : Examples of a thermowell
The main function is to allow the sensing element to be quickly replaced without having to
stop the process, particularly when high pressures or temperatures are used.
Interchangeable sensing elements
Converter Therminal block Output wires

ELC ELB ELF
Figure 137 : Examples of interchangeable sensing elements
To simplify maintenance, the manufacturers have produced probes with interchangeable

sensing elements.
They are equipped either with:
An R/I converter
A terminal block
Wire output
The measurement converter provides an image of the resistance at a 4-20 mA output to

be able to transmit the signal to a receiver (e.g. DCS). The converter is thus directly
integrated in the head of the probe.
The terminal block is used to connect a converter which is usually located in a local cubicle
or in a technical room. The output wires are often used to connect a local indicator with a
3-wire pT100 input.
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Figure 138 : Detail view of a temperature probe

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Metering
Connection head:
The connection head is used to connect

the cables and protect the connections. It
is completely sealed.
Figure 139: Example of a connection head
Complete temperature probe
Figure 140 : Example of a complete temperature probe
8.6.2.6. The transmitter
The transmitter is a resistance/current (R/I) converter for a pT100

temperature probe.
It is fitted either in the head of the probe, or remotely in a local instrumentation cubicle or in
an instrumentation technical room.
It is also either a "conventional" analogue converter or a "new generation" digital

converter.
Converter integrated in the head of the probe:
Figure 141 : Example of a digital temperature transmitter integrated in the head of the
probe
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Metering
This type of converter is now very common, it uses the HART communication protocol. But
there are others available with various communication protocols
On this model we can clearly see the pT100 input terminals to which are connected the
sensing element's wires which arrive in the head of the probe and the two + and –
4-20mA output terminals.
This converter is fully configurable using software. The parameters are extremely simple,
you choose the desired temperature scale, the current output (4-20mA or 0-20mA), the
sensor TAG, etc.

Instrumentation
Metering
8.7. CALIBRATING A METER ON THE METERING STATION
This operation consists of establishing a relationship between the reading on a meter

(apparent flow rate) and reality. Meter error is not based on any law; we have to proceed
point by point to finally produce a calibration curve.
8.7.1. Methods
8.7.1.1. Calibration on the tank
The meter reading is compared to the volume measured on the tank. It is a relatively
imprecise method and is less and less used.
8.7.1.2. Master meter
This method is reliable because you place this master meter in series with the real meter.
You then just have to compare the two measurements and thus make a diagnostic of the
measurement errors.
Figure 142: Master meter

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Metering
8.7.2. Calibration loop (also known as Prover loop)
It is now the most commonly used method. There are several variations:
Calibration on the operating site: We can work in operating conditions: same

fluid, same undisrupted flow, same measurement conditions. The loop is
permanently incorporated in the installation or can be mobile and connected to
the installation for the duration of the calibration.
Calibration in a central station: This requires the meters to be removed and

transported to the central station. The product used and the calibration conditions
are often different. To overcome these difficulties, the TRAPIL Company has
developed a method which produces a universal calibration curve which
incorporates viscosity.
We will see an example of a calibration curve when we cover the chapter on turbine
meters.
8.7.2.1. Types of calibration loops
It consists of a length of calibrated tube between two detectors which detect the position of
a sphere which acts like a measurement piston. To reduce its size this tube has one or
more bends, which is why it is called a "loop".
Unidirectional loops are loops where the sphere always travels in the same direction; the
sphere is then transferred at the end of the operation from the downstream side to the
upstream side by an appropriate system.
Figure 143 : Example of unidirectional calibration loop

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Metering
There are manual-return unidirectional tubes (basic shape) or automatic return tubes
(endless loop).
In the bidirectional tubes, the sphere travels in both directions; each additional calibration
point requires the sphere to travel in one direction and then back again.
Figure 144 : Example of a bidirectional calibration loop
A piping/4-way valve switching system is used to change the effluent flow direction and the
sphere travel direction in the calibration loop.
For this type of loop, each meter calibration operation requires the sphere to travel in one
direction and then back again.
Both types of calibration loops are designed so that the totality of the liquid which flows
through the meter to be calibrated also flows through the prover tube.
8.7.2.2. Components of the calibration loop
The ‘prover tube’ or ‘prover pipe’ is the part of the loop whose volume is precisely
known. It is this volume which is calibrated since the tube is a standard piece of
equipment.
The weld penetrations are carried out with care and the inner surface is generally epoxy
coated which allows the sphere to slide more easily and protects the tube against
corrosion.

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Metering
A ‘sphere’ made of thick neoprene is inflated with water and is displaced by the fluid flow
in the loop. Its external diameter is increased to approximately 102% of the internal
diameter of the prover tube. A pig trap-type opening is normally used to allow the sphere
to be removed for inspection.
The calibrated part of the loop is located between two pass (or position) detectors.
When the sphere passes, they operate an electric contact which starts or stops the
calibration pulse totaliser.
If the flow is bidirectional, the flow in the loop and the flow direction are determined by fast-
acting motorised valves. For example, they can be conventional valves grouped in a
manifold, or special 4-way valves. A leak detection system is essential.
In the unidirectional loops the transfer of the sphere from downstream to upstream is
performed by the ‘interchange unit’. A leak detection system is also used.
The measurement correction

requires the use of a pressure gauge
with a precision at least equal to 2%
its scale. The associated
thermometer must be graduated in
quarters of a °C.
The calibration pulse totaliser is

normally associated with the meter
instrumentation.
Figure 145 : Calibration loop sphere
Figure 146 : Example of a calibration loop diagram

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Metering
The tubes are used as a reference volume to calibrate the transactional metering station
meters. The design and operating procedure for the prover tubes must achieve the
precision levels defined by the metering metrological specifications.
8.7.2.3. Critical points during calibration
Leaks
The sphere launch traps, the flow reversal systems and each valve must be
perfectly positioned and sealed when the sphere passes between the detectors.
During calibration, it is essential the totality of the effluent passing through the
meter also passes through the metering loop. Therefore the isolating valves, four-
way valves and bleed valves must be perfectly sealed since each leak is a source
of errors.
The spaces between the valve seal seats must be connected to pressure
detectors and small bleed valves to check their integrity (to be checked each time
a valve is closed).
Impacts
At the nominal flow rate, the sphere must stop smoothly (without impacts) at the
end of its travel.
Integrity, deposits and internal condition of the prover

The prover internals must be verified to ensure they are perfectly uniform.
They must be checked to see if any deposits are present. An internal inspection
may be necessary.
Cavitation and degassing.
In the normal flow rate, pressure and temperature conditions, there must be no
risk of cavitation in the pipe or through the valves with the effluent used.
Drawing fluid from a tank in which the level is low can generate a vortex effect
causing carry-over of air or gas in the measured liquid. A vortex breaker must be
installed in the tanks and a gas eliminator upstream of the meter.
Flow rate stability
The effect of flow rate variation on the metering accuracy can be ± 0.1% for a
variation of 10% in the flow rate.

Instrumentation
Metering
The measurement performances depend on the stability of the flow rate during
calibration and on maintaining the nominal flow rate.
The flow conditions must be stable upstream and downstream of a turbine. For
example, there must be no valves or restrictions.
Effluent quality
The correction factors depend on the density of the effluent used.

An error of 0.1% when determining the density produces an error of 0.001% when
determining the correction factors.
The liquid's vapour pressure must be less than the pressure in the meter or in the
calibration loop (downstream pressure must be checked).
Temperature stability
The order of magnitude of the volume corrections to be made for the

temperature variations is ± 0.1% per degree.
For better results, the calibration and metering temperatures must be stabilised. It
must be possible to detect and record the temperature variations during calibration
if precise results are to be obtained. This should be carried out at night in countries
with a high daily temperature variation.
The thermometers used must be "master" class i.e. ± 0.1°C.
Pressure stability
The order of magnitude of the volume corrections to be made for the

pressure variations must be +/- 0.01% per bar.
The pressure measurement apparatus must be able to measure pressures with an

uncertainty of ± 0.5 bar up to 25 bars and of ± 1% for the higher pressures.
Effect of wear, damage and deposits in the meter or straight sections.
In use, the meter correction factors gradually change. The meters must be
regularly cleaned and calibrated.
Turbine meters are particularly sensitive to organic deposits.
Similarly, the fouling of the internals modifies the velocity of the liquid in the meter
and generates measurement error. The solid deposits must be removed from the
effluent by filtration upstream of the meter.
The temperature variations have an effect on a volumetric meter's mechanical

clearances (just as much as the fluid viscosity).
Instrumentation
Metering
Integrity of instrumentation and electronic equipment
All the loop equipment, such as sphere detectors, contactors, transmitters and
recorders must have been tested and adjusted.
Master meter condition
The master meters must also have been checked.

A meter can miss counting pulses generated. In all cases, the reading will be low.
Metering which is too low is often caused by a sensitivity setting which is too low
or an electrical fault that develops.
A meter can also pick up signals from an outside source and treat them as pulses.
The metering will be high (electric power source, welding equipment, radio
transmitter, etc.). These signals are intermittent and difficult to detect.
Sphere/prover sealing
The longer the sphere travel time between the detectors the greater will be the
effect of a leak around the circumference of the sphere when determining the
volume of the loop.
For example, it may be 40 min. during calibration instead of 30 seconds during

loading, i.e. a ratio of 100.
These leaks can be reduced by increasing the nominal inflation of the sphere. In
principle, the sphere must be inflated so that its minimum diameter is slightly
greater than the internal diameter of the prover.
The purpose is to create a seal without excessive friction. This is generally

achieved by inflating the sphere to a diameter 2% greater than that of the prover.
Bear in mind that the greater the diameter of the sphere the higher the inflation
needed. The inflation limit corresponds to a repeatability with less than
0.02% difference between the volume measurements of the different calibration
passes.

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Metering
9. OPERATING PARAMETERS
The first requirement for the metering station is to comply with the instructions in force on
the site.
In addition to these instructions, there are actions that will help ensure that the metering
installations are operating correctly
9.1.1. Quality assurance
All the metering system operating (calculations, maintenance, control) and control and
monitoring procedures must be formally defined to:
check their compliance with the standards and regulations,
ensure that they are respected and monitored,
meet the contractual requirements,
allow audits to be conducted (both internal and external).
9.1.2. Validation by monitoring tank/metering station/ship discrepancies

(tanker loading metering)
9.1.2.1. Discrepancy assessment
In the general case of a cargo metered using a metering station, the measured quantity
can be checked by comparison with the quantities:
measured in the tanks by gauges,
measured in the tanks by gauges and corrected by the Terminal Experience Factor,
received by the ship,
received by the ship and corrected by the ship's experience factor, also known as
the Vessel Experience Factor (VEF).
In addition, the tank measurements can also be checked using the tank's fixed instruments
which often relay the measurements to the control room (non-approved equipment).
Finally, a subsequent check can be carried out for unloading measurements but the
terminal rarely has access to these except for claims purposes.
Instrumentation
Metering
The source of any excessive discrepancies with the ship must be found, if possible before
the ship's departure so that it can be validated by the loadmaster.
Note: the metering station values prevail when no technical incidents have disrupted its
operation. Therefore, it is not necessary to disclose the tank gauging results to the
loadmaster or to make the tank strapping tables available to him.
9.1.2.2. Discrepancies
Monitoring the tank/metering station/ship discrepancies over several loads may also reveal
a discrepancy in one of the metering systems.
In the case of a metering station, there is normally a difference of around 0.2% between
the gauge measurement and the metering station measurement (Terminal Experience
Factor). Any changes in this value, in one direction of the other, indicate a discrepancy and
must be detected.
By comparing the changes in the tank/metering station differences, the metering

station/ship differences (with VEF) and the tank/ship differences (with VEF), we can isolate
the system at the origin of the discrepancy. It is more difficult to detect when no metering
station is used.
Important: during comparisons with the tanks it is essential to clearly and correctly identify
the tanks, as the whole of the error may be due to a single tank (e.g.: passing valve,
incorrect tank strapping table, etc.) and it is important to know which. Thus a significant
difference may appear at one loading operation and disappear at the next if the tank with
the anomaly was not used for the second loading operation.
9.1.3. Checks
Depending on the configuration of the terminal lines, a full-scale test on the metering
systems can be carried out:
by directly transferring the contents of one tank to another,
by directly transferring the contents of one tank to another via the metering station,
while continuing the ship loading operations.
Reminder: for the gauging to be sufficiently precise, the volumes to be transferred must
generate level variations of at least 3 m in the tanks.

Instrumentation
Metering
9.2. RECOMMANDATIONS ACCORDING TO TYPE OF FLUID
In this chapter we will cover the recommended types of metering according to the fluid to
be measured and, to a lesser extent, the min. / max. capacities of each type of metering.
Liquid Gas Vapour

Flowmeter type
Highly Multi-
Clean Charged Viscous Corrosive Clean Charged Saturated Dry
charged phase
Press. differ.
device (*)
Yes Yes ± Yes Yes ± Yes Yes Yes Yes
- Target, Bend,
V
- Orifice plate Yes No No ± Yes No Yes No Yes Yes
- Nozzle,
Yes ± ± ± Yes No Yes ± Yes Yes
Venturi
- Pitot Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes ± Yes Yes
Variable section Yes No No ± Yes No Yes No Yes Yes
Turbine Yes No No ± Yes No Yes ± Yes Yes
Volumetric Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No No No
Electromagnetic Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes ± No No No No
Vortex Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Ultrasonic
Yes ± No Yes Yes ± Yes Yes ± ±
(transit)
Ultrasonic
No Yes ± ± Yes ± No No No No
(Doppler)
Coriolis Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes ± Yes Yes ± ±
Thermal Yes No No Yes Yes No Yes ± No No
This information is given as an indication only, it may vary from one supplier to another
(*) These differ widely depending on the type of pressure differential device
(**) There are no reliable methods for measuring flow rates on multiphase mixtures (liquid / gas)
Table 26 : Recommendation on types of meters according to the type of fluid metered

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Metering
10. TROUBLE SHOOTING

Summary of the main metering anomalies for each type of flowmeter
10.1. CORIOLIS FLOWMETER
Problems due to the instrumentation : See the manufacturer documentation to

find the source of the incidents (no output signal, output signal insensitive to flow
rate variations, variation unconnected to the flow rate, intermittent output signal).
Problems due to the fluid : An unstable random density signal may be due to
degassing in the pipes. A minor error in the density readings may indicate the
formation of a deposit in the pipes. The pipes must be cleaned and flushed with
solvent, hot water or other suitable fluid before being recalibrated using air then
water.
10.2. PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL ORIFICES
Flow pulses.
Take-off points clogging problems.
Fouling or erosion of the plates.
Changes in the viscosity or density of the fluid metered.
Disturbances in the flow (swirl, etc.).
Distorted plate.
Effect of temperature on the take-off points (pressure, vaporisation).
10.3. TURBINES
Metering errors due to pulses or to vortices.
Meter over-reading due to excess speeds.
Meters used for flow rates which are too low (example: for flow rates < 10% Qmax).
Electrical problems (preamplifier, cables).

Instrumentation
Metering
Mechanical problems: rotor imbalance, hub component wear.
Errors due to viscosity changes (quality or temperature change).
10.4. VOLUMETRIC METERS
Damage due to overspeeds.
Presence of cavitation.
Mechanical deterioration due to possible solids.
Liquid leaks or slip at low flow rates.
Over-reading if entrained gas present.
10.5. VORTEX FLOWMETERS
Anomalies on liquid metering may be due to:
pressure pulses,
vibrations,
max. flow rate exceeded by more than 20%,
electrical interference,
cavitation or presence of gas in the pipe,
fouling of the vortex generator,
poor flow conditions or Reynolds number,
straight lengths too short.
10.6. ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETERS
Failure due to deposits on the electrodes (adherence of foreign bodies causing a

finite resistance).

Instrumentation
Metering
Incorrect assembly or deterioration of insulating materials.
Signal too low due to an insufficient velocity or insufficient conductivity (< 5 μs/cm).
Flowmeter incorrectly filled, presence of bubbles.

Instrumentation
Metering
11. FIGURES
Figure 1 : Measured and calculated flow rates ..................................................................10
Figure 2 : LNG sales metering before departure of the gas carriers ..................................12
Figure 3 : Route taken by the oil from its storage point on the Girassol FPSO to its
offloading buoy ...........................................................................................................13
Figure 4: Phase envelope of a fluid ...................................................................................16
Figure 5 : Tree diagram of the different types of measuring systems ................................31
Figure 6 : Turbine flowmeter for gas metering ...................................................................33
Figure 7 : Ultrasonic meter on a gas pipe ..........................................................................33
Figure 8: Extract from a PID ..............................................................................................34
Figure 9: Table from General Specification GS_EP_PVV_112..........................................35
Figure 10 : Example of piping material specification GS_EP_PVV_112 ............................36
Figure 11 : Example datasheet of a differential pressure transmitter.................................37
Figure 12: Exploded view of a turbine flowmeter ...............................................................38
Figure 13 : Example of a flat-blade turbine meter (exploded view) ....................................39
Figure 14 : High performance helical blade turbine ...........................................................39
Figure 15 : Example of calibration reading – turbine meter................................................41
Figure 16 : Example of calibration curve for HELIFLU meter.............................................42
Figure 17: Universal calibration curve................................................................................42
Figure 18 : Installation of a turbine without a flow conditioner............................................45
Figure 19 : Installation of a turbine with a flow conditioner ................................................45
Figure 20 : Example of turbine positioning.........................................................................46
Figure 21 : Examples of turbines .......................................................................................49
Figure 22 : Rotary piston meter .........................................................................................51
Figure 23 : Vane meter ......................................................................................................52
Figure 24 : Screw meters...................................................................................................52
Figure 25: Oval gear meter ................................................................................................53
Figure 26 : Examples of volumetric meters........................................................................54
Figure 27: Electromagnetic flowmeter operating principle .................................................57
Figure 28 : Electromagnetic flowmeter principle ................................................................58
Figure 29 : Electromagnetic flowmeter ..............................................................................59
Figure 30: Installation on vertical pipe ...............................................................................60
Figure 31 : Installation on horizontal pipe ..........................................................................60
Figure 32 : Example of an electromagnetic flowmeter .......................................................61
Figure 33: Measurement uncertainty curve for KHRONE flowmeters................................62
Figure 34: Vortex flowmeter principle ................................................................................63
Figure 35 : Main components of a Vortex flowmeter..........................................................63
Figure 36 : Vortex flowmeter..............................................................................................64
Figure 37 : Examples of Vortex flowmeters .......................................................................66
Figure 38 : Coriolis flowmeter operating principle ..............................................................68
Figure 39 : Example of Coriolis ROSEMOUNT Micro motion ............................................69
Figure 40 : Exploded view of a Coriolis flow meter ............................................................69
Figure 41 : Débitmètre massique Coriolis avec tubes en épingle ......................................70
Figure 42 : Installation of Coriolis flowmeters ....................................................................71
Figure 43 : Operating principle ultrasonic flow meter.........................................................73
Figure 44 : Ultrasonic flowmeter operating principle ..........................................................75
Instrumentation
Metering
Figure 45 : Ultrasonic meter for liquids ..............................................................................75

Figure 46 : Ultrasonic flowmeter ........................................................................................75
Figure 47 : Examples of ultrasonic flowmeters ..................................................................76
Figure 48 : Examples of ultrasonic flowmeters – Doppler ..................................................77
Figure 49 : Example of connecting the pulse output of a Krohne vortex flowmeter ...........79
Figure 50: Representation of a pulse.................................................................................79
Figure 51: Pressure differential device ..............................................................................85
Figure 52 : Representation of pressure reduction through a diaphragm............................90
Figure 53: Principe de fonctionnement débitmètre à diaphragme......................................91
Figure 54: Pressure profile.................................................................................................92
Figure 55: Pressure taps....................................................................................................92
Figure 56 : Orifice plate in place ........................................................................................93
Figure 57: Quarter circle orifice plate .................................................................................93
Figure 58: Taper inlet orifice plate .....................................................................................94
Figure 59:Segment orifice plate .........................................................................................94
Figure 60: Eccentric orifice plate........................................................................................94
Figure 61 : Installing orifice plates .....................................................................................94
Figure 62 : Orifice plate meter components .......................................................................95
Figure 63 : Orifice plate meter ...........................................................................................96
Figure 64 : Orifice plates and plate meter ..........................................................................97
Figure 65 : Pressure differential device – V-cone ..............................................................97
Figure 66: Venturi principle ................................................................................................98
Figure 67 : Examples of Venturi devices ...........................................................................99
Figure 68: Fluid Mechanics..............................................................................................100
Figure 69 : Schematic diagram of a Pitot tube .................................................................101
Figure 70: Pitot tube operation.........................................................................................101
Figure 71 : Examples of Pitot tubes .................................................................................102
Figure 72 : Diagram of an Annubar probe........................................................................103
Figure 73 : Example of annubar probe with integrated differential pressure transmitter and
P and T correction ....................................................................................................104
Figure 74: ROSEMOUNT differential pressure transmitter model 3095 ..........................105
Figure 75: Exploded view of the ROSEMOUNT 3095 transmitter....................................106
Figure 76: Flow rate coefficient........................................................................................107
Figure 77: Installation of the transmitter according to the fluids .......................................108
Figure 78: Key to colours and symbols ............................................................................121
Figure 79 : MPFMs on the flow line of each well replacing test separator and its
instrumentation .........................................................................................................124
Figure 80 : 1st stage production separator and test separator..........................................127
Figure 81 : Multiphase metering can be used to increase overall testing capacity ..........128
Figure 82 : Multiphase metering replacing test separator and its meters.........................129
Figure 83 : Satellite field ‘B’ with MPFMs for well testing and production metering .........130
Figure 84 : Two phase vertical flow map..........................................................................134
Figure 85 : Two phase horizontal flow map .....................................................................135
Figure 86 : Difference between gas void fraction and gas volume fraction ......................136
Figure 87 : Principle design of in-line MPFM with mixer (optional) ..................................139
Figure 88 : Principle design of a separation meter...........................................................140
Figure 89 : Principle design of a partial separation with a secondary measurement loop140
Figure 90 : Principle of a MPFM with separation in sample line.......................................141
Instrumentation
Metering
Figure 91 : If oil, water and gas calibration points are plotted on a log-log scale a
composition triangle can be constructed...................................................................150
Figure 92 : A typical capacitance measurement principle ................................................151
Figure 93 : A typical conductance measurement principle...............................................152
Figure 94 : Two-phase flow map can be used to plot the trajectory of wells (production
envelope) and the measurement envelope of a MPFM ............................................168
Figure 95 : Well trajectory in the composition map. .........................................................169
Figure 96 : Example of a MPFM measuring envelope in two phase flow map.................170
Figure 97 : Example of a MPFM measuring envelope plotted together with the production
envelope in the two phase flow map.........................................................................171
Figure 98 : Test results for a MPFM plotted in the two phase flow map ..........................172
Figure 99 : Test results for a MPFM plotted in the composition map ...............................173
Figure 100 : Example of a cumulative performance plot ..................................................174
Figure 101 : Example of a baseline monitoring................................................................198
Figure 102 : Example of an installation with two meters in series....................................199
Figure 103 : Example of a typical field layout...................................................................202
Figure 104 : SCHLUMBERGER – FRAMO Vx TECHNOLOGY multiphase meter ..........205
Figure 105 : Exploded view of a SCHLUMBERGER – FRAMO Vx TECHNOLOGY
multiphase meter ......................................................................................................205
Figure 106 : Very compact multiphase meter on a satellite platform in Congo ................205
Figure 107 : Installation of a skid-mounted meter on Sincor ............................................206
Figure 108 : Multiphase meter for integration on a subsea wellhead (Dalia project)........206
Figure 109 : Girassol metering station flow diagram........................................................208
Figure 110 : Liquid metering station.................................................................................209
Figure 111: Girassol metering station ..............................................................................210
Figure 112 : Gas metering station....................................................................................212
Figure 113 : PID Oil export metering GIRASSOL ............................................................219
Figure 114: PID gas metering ..........................................................................................220
Figure 115 : Metering station auxiliaries ..........................................................................222
Figure 116 : Filters: Protection equipment .......................................................................223
Figure 117 : Static mixer - Conditioning equipment .........................................................226
Figure 118 : First flow disturbance (axial symmetry)........................................................226
Figure 119 : Second flow disturbance (swirl ) ..................................................................227
Figure 120 : Different types of flow conditioners ..............................................................227
Figure 121 : GFC flow conditioners .................................................................................228
Figure 122: Flow rate correction ......................................................................................229
Figure 123 : Pressure transmetteur ABB type 264 ..........................................................230
Figure 124 :Representation pressure transmitter.............................................................230
Figure 125: Example of wiring for calibration ...................................................................232
Figure 126: Example of transmitter with 0-1 bar scale .....................................................233
Figure 127: Example wiring for configuration and calibration...........................................234
Figure 128 : Digital transmitter wiring ..............................................................................234
Figure 129 : "ZERO and SPAN" buttons integrated in the transmitter .............................235
Figure 130 : Example of a digital transmitter configuration menu (ABB type 264) ...........236
Figure 131: Detail view of a sensing element (pT100).....................................................239
Figure 132 : Example of a pT100 probe ..........................................................................239
Figure 133: 3-wire configuration ......................................................................................240
Figure 134: 4-wire Wheastone bridge configuration ........................................................241
Instrumentation
Metering
Figure 135: 4-wire Kelvin measurement configuration .....................................................241

Figure 136 : Examples of a thermowell............................................................................242
Figure 137 : Examples of interchangeable sensing elements..........................................242
Figure 138 : Detail view of a temperature probe ..............................................................243
Figure 139: Example of a connection head......................................................................244
Figure 140 : Example of a complete temperature probe ..................................................244
Figure 141 : Example of a digital temperature transmitter integrated in the head of the
probe ........................................................................................................................244
Figure 142: Master meter.................................................................................................246
Figure 143 : Example of unidirectional calibration loop....................................................247
Figure 144 : Example of a bidirectional calibration loop...................................................248
Figure 145 : Calibration loop sphere................................................................................249
Figure 146 : Example of a calibration loop diagram.........................................................249

Instrumentation
Metering
12. TABLES
Table 1: Typical fluids of the Oil & Gas world ....................................................................15
Table 2: Metering disturbances according to the type of accessory present upstream......18
Table 3: Pressure units equivalences ................................................................................21
Table 4: Equivalences °C / °F ............................................................................................25
Table 5: Table of flow velocities according to pipe diameter..............................................59
Table 6 : Table of measurement uncertainties for a Krohne vortex flowmeter ...................66
Table 7: Exemple of a Krohne flow rate transmitter menu .................................................84
Table 8 : Subscripts and symbols ....................................................................................121
Table 9 : Main features of MPFMs...................................................................................132
Table 10 : Classification of multiphase flow .....................................................................137
Table 11 : Technical description of MPFM.......................................................................163
Table 12 : Specification of input data...............................................................................164
Table 13 : Specification of output data.............................................................................164
Table 14 : Rated operating conditions and limiting conditions .........................................165
Table 15 : Measurement uncertainty ...............................................................................166
Table 16 : Check list for some other important considerations to keep in mind when
designing MPFM installations ...................................................................................175
Table 17 : testing, calibration and adjustment alternatives ..............................................176
Table 18 : Advantages and limitations of factory calibrations ..........................................182
Table 19 : Main features of independent laboratory calibration .......................................184
Table 20 : Calibration certificate sheet.............................................................................188
Table 21 : Installation check-list.......................................................................................193
Table 22 : Summary of flowmeters for liquid hydrocarbons .............................................207
Table 23: Meter symbols for PID diagrams......................................................................218
Table 24: Coefficients for different values of α.................................................................238
Table 25: Standardised tolerance class table for pT100 probes ......................................240
Table 26 : Recommendation on types of meters according to the type of fluid metered..255


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INSTRUMENTATION

3. DIFFERENT TYPES OF METERS ................................................................................31

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

4.1.7. Typical applications .........................................................................................61

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

6.3.2. Operating principle of a diaphragm .................................................................91

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

7.4.3. Selection of technology and maintenance requirements ...............................154

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

7.8.2.1. Installation requirements ..........................................................................194

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

8.6. CALCULATIONS, CORRECTIONS AND ASSOCIATED INSTRUMENTS ...........229

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

2. FUNCTIONS AND CONSTRAINTS OF METERING

2.1. WHAT IS METERING USED FOR?

By extension, the operations and measurements giving access to different components of

Figure 1 : Measured and calculated flow rates

Metering can be broken down into two domains:

This corresponds to allocation metering and high-accuracy (<1%) commercial

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

The technical domain is an activity under the direct responsibility of Field

Field (reservoir monitoring) and well monitoring.

Production balances: effluents produced, discharged, exported, injected

Installation control and checks.

2.2. LOCATION AND CRITICALITY

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

2.3.1. Production effluents

An oilfield produces effluent which comprises:

crude oil or condensate,

2.3.2. Gross production and net quantity

water and sediments in suspension.

Since it is impossible to completely

To do this, we therefore determine

Figure 2 : LNG sales metering

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

2.4. METERING INSTALLATIONS

2.5. FLUID AND FLOW ASPECTS

2.5.1. State of the fluids under metering conditions

Under metering conditions, the petroleum effluents may be:

in single phase state (liquid, vapour) consisting of one or more components

in multiphase state, comprising two simultaneous phases (liquid and vapour).

The single phase effluents may be saturated effluents or unsaturated effluents.

2.5.2. Different types of metered fluids

Non-stabilised liquid: liquid which, in the same conditions as above, produces

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

P reservoir > Bubble point pressure

Typical GOR < 1 000 Scf/STB

P reservoir = Bubble point pressure

1 000 Scf/STB < GOR < 5 000 Scf/STB

P reservoir = Bubble point pressure

5 000 Scf/STB < GOR < 50 000 Scf/STB

No hydrocarbon liquid formation in reservoir

50 000 Scf/STB < GOR

GOR >> 100 000 Scf/STB

Table 1: Typical fluids of the Oil & Gas world

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

Figure 4: Phase envelope of a fluid

2.5.3. Fluid homogeneity

Example: oil/water mixture.

Conversely, a non-homogenous flow comprises a fluid of variable density in space,

Training Manual : EXP-MN-SI120-EN

2.5.4. Some definitions