Enginering Profession

Introduction to Engineering Skills, September 2010
Table of Contents
Contents Page
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................ i
Part I: Introduction to Science, Technology and Engineering ....................................................................... 1
Chapter One: Globalization ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Defining Globalization........................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 History of Globalization....................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Modern Globalization .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Measuring Globalization ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Effects of globalization ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.6 Anti-globalization: ............................................................................................................................... 6
Chapter Two: Industrial Revolution ............................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Background of the Industrial Revolution ............................................................................................. 8
2.2 Urbanization ......................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Communication and the Industrial Revolution .................................................................................... 9
2.4 Transportation ...................................................................................................................................... 9
2.5 Top 10 Significant Industrial Revolution Inventors............................................................................. 9
2.6 THE GLOBAL CHALLENGE – Engineering perspectives ............................................................. 11
Chapter Three: Science, Technology and Engineering ................................................................................ 13
3.1 What is Engineering? ......................................................................................................................... 13
3.2 The Nature, Domain and Relationships of Science and Technology Education................................ 15
3.3 The Core Concepts and Guiding Principles in Science, Technology, Engineering and Engineering
Technology .............................................................................................................................................. 20
3.4 The role and purposes of science technology and engineering? ....................................................... 22
PART II: Reasoning and Problem Solving Skills ........................................................................................ 27
Chapter One: Introduction to Problem Solving ............................................................................................ 27
1.1 Introduction to Problem Solving ........................................................................................................ 27
1.1.1 What is a Problem? ..................................................................................................................... 27
1.1.2 The Importance of Goals in Problem Solving ............................................................................ 28
1.1.3 What is a Solution? ..................................................................................................................... 29
1.1.4 General Guidelines for Problem Solving .................................................................................... 33
Chapter Two: Problem Solving Techniques................................................................................................. 45
2.1. Assumption Articulation ................................................................................................................... 45
2.2. Techniques for Approaching a Problem ........................................................................................... 50
2.3. Rival Hypotheses .............................................................................................................................. 52
2.4. Rules for Generating and Testing Hypotheses .................................................................................. 53
2.5. Role Playing ...................................................................................................................................... 54
2.6. Modeling ........................................................................................................................................... 55
2.7. Using Criticism and Suggestion ........................................................................................................ 59
2.8. Searching Techniques ....................................................................................................................... 60
PART III: Introduction Engineering disciplines of Bahir Dar University, Engineering Faculty (To be
arranged by each department) ...................................................................................................................... 64
Glossary of Selected Science and Technology/Engineering Terms ............................................................. 64
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Part I: Introduction to Science, Technology and Engineering

Chapter One: Globalization
After completing this chapter students will be able to:
• Define globalization
• Briefly explain the history of globalization
• Interpret modern globalization
• Know the factors contributing to measuring globalization
• Understand the effects of globalization
• Explain about anti-globalization
1.1 Defining Globalization
Globalization: - in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional

phenomena into global ones. It refers to the process of global integration of the economies of
nations by allowing the unrestricted flow of goods, services, investments and currencies between
countries.
It can be also described as a process by which the people of the world are unified into a single
society and function together. This process is a combination of economic, technological, socio-
cultural and political forces.
Globalization is often used to refer to economic globalization, that is, integration of national
economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows,
migration, and the spread of technology. Economic globalization has had an impact on the
worldwide integration of different cultures.
Human societies across the globe have established progressively closer contacts over many
centuries, but recently the pace has dramatically increased. Jet airplanes, cheap telephone
service, email, computers, huge oceangoing vessels, instant capital flows, all these have made the
world more interdependent than ever. Multinational corporations manufacture products in many
countries and sell to consumers around the world.
As a result, laws, economies, and social movements are forming at the international level. Many
politicians, academics, and journalists treat these trends as both inevitable and (on the whole) will
come.
Sometimes the terms internationalization and globalization are used interchangeably but there is a
slight formal difference. The term "internationalization" refers to the importance of international
trade, relations, treaties etc. International means between or among nations. "Globalization"
means erasure of national boundaries for economic purposes; international trade (governed by
comparative advantage) becomes inter-regional trade (governed by absolute advantage).
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1.2 History of Globalization

The term "globalization" has been used by economists since the 1980s although it was used in
social sciences in the 1960s; however, its concepts did not become popular until the latter half of
the 1980s and 1990s.
The earliest written theoretical concepts of globalization were penned by an American
entrepreneur-turned-minister Charles Taze Russell who coined the term 'corporate giants' in 1897.
Globalization in a wider context began shortly before the turn of the 16th century, with two
Kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula - the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of Castile.
Portugal's global explorations in the 16th century, especially, linked continents, economies and
cultures to a massive extent. Portugal's exploration and trade with most of the coast of Africa,
Eastern South America, and Southern and Eastern Asia, was the first major trade based form of
globalization.
A wave of global trade, colonization, and enculturation reached all corners of the world. Global
integration continued through the expansion of European trade in the 16th and 17th centuries,
when the Portuguese and Spanish Empires colonized the Americas, followed eventually by
France and Britain. Globalization was achieved by the British Empire (the largest empire in
history) due to its sheer size and power. British ideals and culture were imposed on other nations
during this period.
The 19th century is sometimes called "The First Era of Globalization." It was a period
characterized by rapid growth in international trade and investment between the European
imperial powers, their colonies, and, later, the United States. It was in this period that areas of
sub-Saharan Africa and the Island Pacific were incorporated into the world system. The "First Era
of Globalization" began to break down at the beginning of the 20th century with the first World
War.
The "First Era of Globalization" later collapsed during the gold standard crisis in the late 1920s
and early 1930s.
1.3 Modern Globalization

Globalization, since World War II, is largely the result of planning by economists, business
interests, and politicians who recognized the costs associated with protectionism and declining
international economic integration. Their work led to the Breton Woods conference and the
founding of several international institutions intended to oversee the renewed processes of
globalization, promoting growth and managing adverse consequences. These institutions include
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank), and the
International Monetary Fund.
Globalization has been facilitated by advances in technology which have reduced the costs of
trade, and trade negotiation rounds, by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),
which led to a series of agreements to remove restrictions on free trade.
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GATT is the foundation has included:

1. Promotion of free trade:
o Reduction or elimination of tariffs; creation of free trade zones with small or no
tariffs
o Reduced transportation costs, especially resulting from development of
containerization for ocean shipping.
o Reduction or elimination of capital controls
o Reduction, elimination, or harmonization of subsidies for local businesses
2. Restriction of free trade:
o Harmonization of intellectual property laws across the majority of states, with
more restrictions.
o Supranational recognition of intellectual property restrictions (e.g. patents granted
by China would be recognized in the United States)
The Uruguay Round (1984 to 1995) led to a treaty to create the WTO (World Trade Organization)
to mediate trade disputes and set up a uniform platform of trading. Other bilateral and multilateral
trade agreements, including sections of Europe's Maastricht Treaty and the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) have also been signed in pursuit of the goal of reducing tariffs and
barriers to trade.
Global conflicts, such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States of America, is interrelated
with globalization because it was primary source of the "war on terror", which had started the
steady increase of the prices of oil and gas, due to the fact that most OPEC member countries
were in the Arabian Peninsula.
World exports rose from 8.5% of gross world product in 1970 to 16.1% of gross world product in
2001, because of globalization.
1.4 Measuring Globalization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hksycss.jpgLooking specifically at economic globalization,
demonstrates that it can be measured in different ways. The four main economic flows that
characterize globalization:
• Goods and services :- exports plus imports as a proportion of national income or per
capital of population
• Labor/people : - net migration rates; inward or outward migration flows, weighted by
population
• Capital : - inward or outward direct investment as a proportion of national income or per
head of population
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• Technology : - international research & development flows; proportion of populations

using particular inventions (especially 'factor-neutral' technological advances such as the
telephone, motorcar, broadband)
As globalization is not only an economic phenomenon, a multivariate approach to measuring
globalization is the recent index calculated by the Swiss think tank KOF. The index measures the
three main dimensions of globalization: economic, social, and political.
1.5 Effects of globalization

Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways such as:
• Industrial - emergence of worldwide production markets and broader access to a range of
foreign products for consumers and companies. Particularly movement of material and
goods between and within national boundaries.
• Financial - emergence of worldwide financial markets and better access to external
financing for borrowers. Simultaneous though not necessarily purely globalist is the
emergence of under or un-regulated foreign exchange and speculative markets.
• Economic - realization of a global common market, based on the freedom of exchange of
goods and capital.
• Political - some use "globalization" to mean the creation of a world government, or cartels
of governments (e.g. WTO, World Bank, and IMF) which regulate the relationships
among governments and guarantees the rights arising from social and economic
globalization. [13] Politically, the United States has enjoyed a position of power among the
world powers; in part because of its strong and wealthy economy. With the influence of
globalization and with the help of The United States’ own economy, the People's Republic
of China has experienced some tremendous growth within the past decade. If China
continues to grow at the rate projected by the trends, then it is very likely that in the next
twenty years, there will be a major reallocation of power among the world leaders. China
will have enough wealth, industry, and technology to rival the United States for the
position of leading world power.
• Informational - increase in information flows between geographically remote locations.
Arguably this is a technological change with the advent of fibre optic communications,
satellites, and increased availability of telephony and Internet.
• Language - the most popular language is English.
o About 75% of the world's mail, telexes, and cables are in English.
o Approximately 60% of the world's radio programs are in English.
o About 90% of all Internet traffic is using English.
• Competition - Survival in the new global business market calls for improved productivity
and increased competition. Due to the market became worldwide not specific area, there
are many industries around the world. Industries have to upgrade their products and use
technology skillfully for facing the competition and increasing their competitive.[16]
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• Cultural - growth of cross-cultural contacts; advent of new categories of consciousness

and identities which embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to increase one's standard of
living and enjoy foreign products and ideas, adopt new technology and practices, and
participate in a "world culture". Some bemoan the resulting consumerism and loss of
languages. Also see Transformation of culture.
• Ecological- the advent of global environmental challenges that might be solved with
international cooperation, such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air pollution,
over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive species. Since many factories are
built in developing countries with less environmental regulation, globalism and free trade
may increase pollution. On the other hand, economic development historically required a
"dirty" industrial stage, and it is argued that developing countries should not, via
regulation, be prohibited from increasing their standard of living.
• Social (International cultural exchange) - increased circulation by people of all nations
with fewer restrictions.
o Spreading of multiculturalism, and better individual access to cultural diversity
(e.g. through the export of Hollywood and Bollywood movies). Some consider
such "imported" culture a danger, since it may supplant the local culture, causing
reduction in diversity or even assimilation. Others consider multiculturalism to
promote peace and understanding between peoples.
o Greater international travel and tourism
o Greater immigration, including illegal immigration
o Spread of local consumer products (e.g. food) to other countries (often adapted to
their culture).
o Worldwide fads and pop culture such as Pokémon, Sudoku, Numa Numa, Origami,
Idol series, YouTube, Orkut, Facebook, and MySpace. Accessible to those who
have Internet or Television, leaving out a substantial segment of the Earth's
population.
o Worldwide sporting events such as FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games.
o Incorporation of multinational corporations in to new media. As the sponsors of
the All-Blacks rugby team, Adidas had created a parallel website with a
downloadable interactive rugby game for its fans to play and compete. [17]
• Technical
o Development of a global telecommunications infrastructure and greater
transborder data flow, using such technologies as the Internet, communication
satellites, submarine fiber optic cable, and wireless telephones
o Increase in the number of standards applied globally; e.g. copyright laws, patents
and world trade agreements.
• Legal/Ethical
o The creation of the international criminal court and international justice
movements.
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o Crime importation and raising awareness of global crime-fighting efforts and

cooperation.
Whilst it is all too easy to look at the positive aspects of Globalization and the great benefits that
are apparent everywhere, there are also several negative occurrences that can only be the result of
or major motivating factors that inspire some corporations to globalize.
Globalization – the growing integration of economies and societies around the world – has been
one of the most hotly-debated topics in international economics over the past few years. Rapid
growth and poverty reduction in China, India, and other countries that were poor 20 years ago,
has been a positive aspect of globalization. But globalization has also generated significant
international opposition over concerns that it has increased inequality and environmental
degradation.
1.6 Anti-globalization:
Anti-globalization is a term used to describe the people and groups who oppose globalization.
Anti-globalization may occur in order to put brakes on the international transfer of people, goods
and ideology, particularly those determined by the organizations such as the IMF or the WTO in
imposing the radical deregulation program of free market fundamentalism on local governments
and populations.
Deglobalization, also deglobalisation (chiefly UK/Ireland), refers to a process of diminishing

interdependence and integration between units around the world, typically nation-states. It is in
contrast to, and over the course of history between, globalization, where units become
increasingly integrated over time.
There are five forms of growth are identified as leading to unsustainable development. The
whole process is fueled by globalization.
1- Jobless growth results when economic output increases amidst high unemployment and
underemployment.
2- Ruthless growth is forcing millions of Filipinos to live in poverty, constraining them from
developing as full human beings. Meanwhile, a few individual billionaires/millionaires
enjoy an income level equivalent to the combined income of the millions in poverty.
Globally, for example, the 1999 UNDP Human Development Report estimated that the
$140 billion combined asset of Bill Gates and the two other top owners of Microsoft is
more than the combined gross national product (GNP) of the 43 least economically
developed countries and their 600 million people.
3- Futureless growth results from the destruction of nature through improper mining
practices, use of pesticides, insufficient and improper environmental planning for the
construction of dams and a range of other ecologically unsound development projects.
4- Rootless growth refers to the cultural decay and loss of meaning and identity which often
accompany economic growth fueled by globalization and the entrance of materialistic
lifestyles of industrialized countries.
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5- Voiceless growth is economic growth racing ahead of direct human rights and democratic
processes and participatory governance essential to modern societies.
Generally, the anti-globalization people says globalization as a Meaningless growth, which

results when some combination of the other five forms of undesirable growth blocks the
creativity of the human spirit.
The resulting loss in creativity, perspective, meaning, hope, and morality necessarily
expresses itself in suicide, violence, drug addiction, crime, corruption and other social ills.
Self-test questions
1. What do you understand by globalization?
2. Can one restrict/reverse globalization?
3. Why the topic of globalization is so important for engineering students?
4. What is economic globalization?
5. The world is more interdependent that ever. Write the most significant factors for this to
happen.
6. Name some of the multinational corporations and describe their contribution for globalization.
7. Explain the difference between globalization and internationalization
8. What is the contribution of Charless Taze Russel for Globalization?
9. Explain the effect of colonization for globalization.
10. Why the 19th century is known as the first era of globalization?
11. What are the factors contributed for the collapse of the first era of globalization?
12. Under modern globalization, describe the contributions of the followings:
a. Breton Woods Conference
b. GATT
c. Uruguay Round (1984-1995)
13. Discuss the four main economic flows that characterize globalization
14. Explain a multivariate approach to measuring globalization
15. Discuss the positive and negative impacts of globalization
16. What is the significance of anti-globalization?
17. What are the five forms of growth identified as leading to unsustainable development?
Explain all of them and their causes.
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Chapter Two: Industrial Revolution

After finishing this chapter students will be able to:
• Understand the background of the industrial revolution
• Know the relationship between communication and the industrial revolution
• Understand the effect of industrial revolution on transportation
• Know the top 10 significant industrial revolution inventors
• Interpret the global challenge from engineering perspectives
2.1 Background of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution (1820-1870) was of great importance to the economic development of
the United States. However, there were actually two Industrial Revolutions. The first occurred in
Great Britain during the late eighteenth century, and the second began during the mid-nineteenth
century. The Second Industrial Revolution centered on the United States and Germany.
The Industrial Revolution itself refers to a change from hand and home production to machine
and factory. The first industrial revolution was important for the inventions of spinning and
weaving machines operated by water power which was eventually replaced by steam. This helped
increase America’s growth. However, the second industrial revolution truly changed American
society and economy into a modern urban-industrial state.
The real impetus for America entering the second Industrial Revolution was the passage of the
Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Americans were upset over an incident with the
Chesapeake whereby the British opened fire when they were not allowed to search the ship. They
also seized four men and hung one for desertion. This resulted in much public outrage and the
passage of the Embargo Act which stopped the export of American goods and effectively ended
the import of goods from other nations. Eventually, America went to war with Great Britain in
1812. The war made it apparent that America needed a better transportation system and more
economic independence. Therefore, manufacturing began to expand.
Industrialization in America involved three important developments. First, transportation was
expanded. Second, electricity was effectively harnessed. Third, improvements were made to
industrial processes such as improving the refining process and accelerating production. The
government helped protect American manufacturers by passing a protective tariff.
2.2 Urbanization
As industries and factories arose, people moved from farms to cities. This led to other issues
including overcrowding and disease. However, advances were made in agriculture too including
better machines and cultivators. For example, Cyrus McCormick created the reaper which
allowed quicker and cheaper harvesting of grain. John Deere created the first steel plow in 1837
helping speed up farming across the Midwest.
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2.3 Communication and the Industrial Revolution

With the increased size of the United States, better communication networks became ultra
important. In 1844, Samuel F. B. Morse created the telegraph and by 1860, this network ranged
throughout the eastern coast to the Mississippi.
2.4 Transportation
The Cumberland Road, the first national road, was begun in 1811. This eventually became part of
the Interstate 40. Further, river transportation was made efficient through the creation of the first
steamboat, the Clermont, by Robert Fulton. This was made possible by James Watt’s invention of
the first reliable steam engine.
The creation of the Erie Canal created a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes thereby
helping stimulate the economy of New York and making New York City a great trading center.
Railroads were of supreme importance to the increase in trade throughout the United States. In
fact, by the start of the Civil War, railroads linked the most important Mid West cities with the
Atlantic coast. Railroads further opened the west and connected raw materials to factories and
markets. A transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869 at Promontory, Utah.
With the great advances of the Second Industrial Revolution, inventors continued to work
throughout the rest of the 19th and early 20th century on ways to make life easier while increasing
productivity. The foundations set throughout the mid-1800's set the stage for inventions such as
the light bulb (Thomas Edison), telephone (Alexander Bell), and the automobile (Karl Benz).
Further, Ford's creation of the assembly line which made manufacturing more efficient just helped
form America into a modern industrialized nation. The impact of these and other inventions of the
time cannot be underestimated.
2.5 Top 10 Significant Industrial Revolution Inventors

The Industrial Revolution that occurred in the 19th century was of great importance to the
economic development of the United States. Industrialization in America involved three
important developments. First, transportation was expanded. Second, electricity was effectively
harnessed. Third, improvements were made to industrial processes. These improvements were
made possible by the great American inventors. Here is a look at ten of the most significant
American inventors during the 19th century.
1. Thomas Edison
Thomas Edison and his workshop patented 1,093 inventions. Included in this were the
phonograph, the incandescent light bulb, and the motion picture. He was the most famous
inventor of his time and his inventions had a huge impact on America's growth and history.
2. Samuel F. B. Morse
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Samuel Morse invented the telegraph which greatly increased the ability of information to move
from one location to another. Along with the creation of the telegraph, he invented morse code
which is still learned and used today.
3. Alexander Graham Bell
Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876. This invention allowed communication to
extend to individuals. Before the telephone businesses had to rely on the telegraph.
4. Elias Howe/Isaac Singer
Elias Hower and Isaac Singer both were involved in the invention of the sewing machine. This
revolutionized the garment industry and made the Singer corporation one of the first modern
industries.
5. Cyrus McCormick
Cyrus McCormick invented the mechanical reaper which made the harvesting of grain more
efficient and faster. This helped farmers have more time to devote to other chores.
6. George Eastman
George Eastman invented the Kodak camera. This inexpensive box camera allowed individual to
take black and white pictures to preserve their memories and historical events.
7. Charles Goodyear
Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber. This technique allowed rubber to have many more
uses due to its ability to stand up to bad weather. Interestingly, many believe the technique was
found by mistake. Rubber became important in industry as it could withstand large amounts of
pressure.
8. Nikola Tesla
Nikola Tesla invented many important items including fluorescent lighting and the alternating
current (AC) electrical power system. He also is credited with inventing the radio. The Tesla Coil
is used in many items today including the modern radio and television.
9. George Westinghouse
George Westinghouse held the patent to many important inventions. Two of his most important
inventions were the transformer which allowed electricity to be sent over long distances and the
air brake. The latter invention allowed conductors to have the ability to stop a train. Previous to
the invention, each car had its own brakeman who manually put on the brakes for that car.
10. Dr. Richard Gatling
Dr. Richard Gatling invented a rudimentary machine gun that was used to a limited degree by the
Union in the Civil War. However, they were used extensively in the Spanish-American War.
Summery Table
Person Invention Date
James Watt First reliable Steam Engine 1775
Eli Whitney Cotton Gin, Interchangeable parts for muskets 1793, 1798
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Robert Fulton Regular Steamboat service on the Hudson River 1807

Samuel F. B. Morse Telegraph 1836
Elias Howe Sewing Machine 1844
Isaac Singer Improves and markets Howe's Sewing Machine 1851
Cyrus Field Transatlantic Cable 1866
Alexander Graham Bell Telephone 1876
Thomas Edison Phonograph, Incandescent Light Bulb 1877, 1879
Nikola Tesla Induction Electric Motor 1888
Rudolf Diesel Diesel Engine 1892
Orville and Wilbur Wright First Airplane 1903
Henry Ford Model T Ford, Assembly Line 1908, 1913
2.6 THE GLOBAL CHALLENGE – Engineering perspectives

1. The global economy is changing at an unprecedented rate.
Advances in technology have dramatically reduced the time and cost involved in conducting
economic transactions over long distances.
Product cycles are accelerating in response to consumer demand, and have halved every five
years over the past two decades, leading to the development of more fragile, globally networked
value chains.
In all countries, economic activity is under pressure to move up the value chain, with
developing and emerging economies fast catching up to established players: already, these
countries account for one third of global high technology exports.
China and India are investing increasingly in skills and research, and are attracting globally
mobile research and development (R&D) investment. For example, US R&D investment in
China alone grew from US$7 million in 1994 to US$500 million in 2000.
Chinese investments in R&D doubled between 1996 and 2002.
Together, China and India each produce over 2 million university graduates per year,
compared to around 250,000 in the UK.
2. Science and innovation are at the heart of these transformations, not only because technology
is itself a key driver of globalization, but also because countries will increasingly derive their
competitive edge from the speed with which they are able to innovate.
The link between innovation and increases in productivity and economic growth is well-
established.
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New ideas drive enterprise, create new products and markets, and improve efficiency,
delivering benefits to firms, customers and society.
As more countries move up the value chain, the nations that will thrive in the global knowledge
economy will be those which are not only able to produce the highest-quality research, but can
also translate this most effectively into innovative new products and services.
3. This presents both challenges and opportunities for our country.

Recognizing these challenges and opportunities, the Government gave due consideration to
Engineering Capacity Building, a program under ministry of capacity building. In order to
overcome the challenges designing of strategy and creating the right “ecosystem” for science and
innovation, ensuring that its world-class science base connects with business, and that the right
mix of incentives, skills, and support mechanisms are in place to grow new knowledge-based
firms and take advantage of commercial opportunities arising from research.
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Chapter Three: Science, Technology and Engineering

After completing this chapter students will be able to:
1. Define Engineering, Science and Technology
2. Interpret the nature, domain and relationships of science and technology education
3. Understand the core concepts and guiding principles in science technology and
engineering
4. Describe the role and purposes of science, technology and engineering
3.1 What is Engineering?

Science is often paired with the arts (and Humanities and Social Sciences) in the “College of Arts
and Science” of a traditional university.
Engineering is the creation, maintenance, and development of things that have not existed in the
natural world and that satisfy some human desire or need. A television set does not grow on a
tree. It is the creation of human ingenuity that first fulfilled a fantasy of a human need and then
went on to change the very society that created it. The term "things" is used because one should
include computer programs, organizational paradigms, and mathematical algorithms in addition to
cars, radios, plastics, and bridges.
Science is the study of what is and engineering is the creation of what can be.
Only recently has engineering developed the set of characteristics that make it a legitimate
academic discipline.
A more illuminating comparison might be between the humanities and engineering. One might
find more similarity in style (not content) between English literature and engineering than
between science and engineering.
Both literature and engineering are the study of human created artifacts. Both teach creation in
the form of creative writing and engineering design. Both teach analysis in the form of literary
criticism and engineering analysis. Both are intimately connected with the needs and desires of
individuals and society.
A similar analogy could be made between art and engineering looking at studio art, art criticism,
and art history.
Most scientists (but not all) feel there is some unique objective truth behind the physical
phenomena they are studying. Their goal is to find it and describe and explain it, and this truth is
unique although the approaches and approximations to it are certainly not.
In literature and engineering, the designed entity is not unique to the situation, but it is a creation
of the particular writer or designer and perhaps unique to the creator.
The boundary between science and engineering can be and often is murky. Many items of
study in science are influenced if not literally created by people. This is obviously true in biology
and the life sciences but also true in physics where certain elements in the periodic table do not
exist in nature. Perhaps, therefore, the areas of pure science are very limited. On the other hand,
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since people are members of our natural system, an argument can be made that their products are
as natural as anything else and, therefore, the areas of pure scientific study are very broad.
Clearly engineering is constrained in what it can create by the laws of science as everything is.
Nevertheless, there is a difference in spirit in the two disciplines worth trying to delineate.
As engineering is concerned with the application of science and thus cannot be studied to an
appreciable level without a suitable understanding of science (which is provided for on your
school curriculum and in the early stages of the degree) you may not fully understand what
engineering is all about. However, if you are taking some science subjects, these are the
foundations of an engineering career since engineering is concerned with converting ideas
into reality. Earlier, engineering often was viewed only as the application of natural science.
Now, engineering has developed its own engineering science for the study of human made
things to supplement natural science which was developed to study natural phenomena. Parts of
computer science are wonderful examples of that. Engineering is more than applied science
now.
Engineering has its own philosophy and methodology and its own economics.
We differentiate science and engineering, not because their difference is great, but because, in
many ways, it is small.
Science could not progress without technology and engineering certainly could not flourish
without science and mathematics.
Development of Engineering
Until the Industrial Revolution there were only two kinds of engineers.
The military engineer built such things as fortifications, catapults, and, later, cannons.
The civil engineer built bridges, harbors, aqueducts, buildings, and other structures.
During the early 19th cent. in England mechanical engineering developed as a separate field to
provide manufacturing machines and the engines to power them.
The first British professional society of civil engineers was formed in 1818; that for mechanical
engineers followed in 1847.
In the United States, the order of growth of the different branches of engineering, measured by
the date a professional society was formed, is civil engineering (1852), mining and metallurgical
engineering (1871), mechanical engineering (1880), electrical engineering (1884), and chemical
engineering (1908). Aeronautical engineering, industrial engineering, and genetic engineering are
more modern developments.
The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States
Military Academy (West Point) in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich Univ. in 1819, and
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1825.
Yesterday
In early times, the practice of engineering was that of a trade or craft with training occurring
through some form of apprenticeship. As it developed into a profession and more recently as an
14
academic discipline, it took on the shape of other academic disciplines, with preparation being
an education rather than training.
I. An important turning point in the Unites States was the land grant college act (Morrill act) of
1862 which established an institution for the teaching of agriculture and the mechanical arts
(engineering) in each state. This officially legitimated engineering in higher education
although it still had the form of training. Interestingly, this act came into being during the
American Civil War and was signed by Abraham Lincoln.
II. World-War II was the second turning point when it was discovered that many of the
technical innovations necessary for that effort came from scientists, mathematicians, and
theoretically educated engineers rather than traditionally trained engineers. Most engineers
prior to that time had been trained to develop and apply ideas already in existence, not to
create new solutions to new problems.
After WWII, the university curricula in engineering became much more scientific and
mathematical. It took on more elements of an education rather than training. It slowly became a
real academic discipline in its own right rather than only an application of other disciplines.
However, it retains the integrating role of applying the physical and life sciences using some of
the tools of the social sciences, law, and policy and the values derived from the humanities,
letters, arts, and business.
Today
III. We are now going through a third transition in engineering in response to many factors in
society and in technology itself. In the larger picture, society went through the agricultural phase,
the industrial phase, and now the information phase. These three phases of civilization created
and were created by the most powerful and applicable technologies of the time.
Tomorrow
Engineering is and will be the creative element in the information age as it has been in preceding
ages.
Engineering is more than a discipline or a career. It's a way of thinking. An approach to solving
problems and inventing new and better ways of doing things.
Engineers draw upon science and mathematics, communication and interpersonal skills - and
their own ingenuity - to make the world a better place.
3.2 The Nature, Domain and Relationships of Science and Technology

Education
The Nature of Science

Science may be described as the attempt to give good accounts of the patterns in nature. The
result of scientific investigation is an understanding of natural processes. Scientific explanations
15
are always subject to change in the face of new evidence. Ideas with the most durable explanatory
power become established theories or are codified as laws of nature. Overall, the key criterion of
science is that it provides a clear, rational, and succinct account of a pattern in nature. This
account must be based on data gathering and analysis and other evidence obtained through direct
observations or experiments, reflect inferences that are broadly shared and communicated, and be
accompanied by a model that offers a naturalistic explanation expressed in conceptual,
mathematical, and/or mechanical terms. Here are some everyday examples of patterns seen in
nature:
The sun appears to move each day from the eastern horizon to the western horizon.
Virtually all objects released near the surface of the earth sooner or later fall to the ground.
Parents and their offspring are similar, e.g., lobsters produce lobsters, not cats.
Green is the predominant color of most plants.
Some objects float while others sink.
Fire yields heat.
It is beyond the scope of this document to examine the scientific accounts of these patterns. Some
are well known, such as that the rotation of the earth on its axis gives rise to the apparent travel of
the sun across the sky, or that fire is a transfer of energy from one form to another. Others, like
buoyancy or the cause of extinction, require subtle and sometimes complex accounts. These
patterns, and many others, are the puzzles that scientists attempt to explain.
Science has its own philosophy with an epistemology, esthetics, and logic.
Science has its own technology in order to carry out its investigations, build its tools, and pursue
its goals. Science has its organizations, culture, and methods of inquiry.
Science has its "scientific method" which has served as a model (for better or for worse) in many
other disciplines.
Science came out of antiquity, developed in the middle ages, blossomed in the renaissance,
was the tool of the enlightenment, and came into its present maturity in modernity.
Indeed, the history of science is, in some ways, a history of intellectual development. This is
certainly only true in conjunction with many other strains of philosophical, economical,
theological, and technological development, but science is a central player in that story.
The Nature of Technology/Engineering

Technology/engineering seeks different ends from those of science. Engineering strives to design
and manufacture useful devices or materials, defined as technologies, whose purpose is to
increase our efficacy in the world and/or our enjoyment of it. Can openers are technology, as are
microwave ovens, microchips, steam engines, safety glass, zippers, polyurethane and bridge. Each
of these, with innumerable other examples, emerges from the scientific knowledge, imagination,
persistence, talent, and ingenuity of practitioners of technology/engineering. Each technology
represents a designed solution, usually created in response to a specific practical problem that
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applies scientific principles. As with science, direct engagement with the problem is central to
defining and solving it.
The Relationship between Science and Technology/Engineering
In spite of their different goals, science and technology have become closely, even inextricably,
related in many fields. The instruments that scientists use, such as the microscope, balance, and
chronometer, result from the application of technology/engineering. Scientific ideas, such as the
laws of motion, the relationship between electricity and magnetism, the atomic model, and the
model of DNA, have contributed to achievements in technology and engineering, such as
improvement of the internal combustion engine, power transformers, nuclear power, and human
gene therapy. The boundaries between science and technology /engineering blur together to
extend knowledge.
Technology/engineering works in conjunction with science to expand our capacity to understand
the world. For example, scientists and engineers apply scientific knowledge of light to develop
lasers and fiber optic technologies and other technologies in medical imaging.
The Domain of Technology
Lifelong learners are able to understand and apply the design process and the use of technology in
society.
Technology
1. Human innovation in action that involves the generation of knowledge and processes to
develop systems that solve problems and extend human capabilities;
2. The innovation, change, or modification of the natural environment to satisfy perceived human
needs and wants.
Technology Education A study of technology, which provides an opportunity for students to

learn about the processes and knowledge related to technology that are needed to solve problems
and extend human capabilities.
Technology and Science
Common:
Technology is intimately connected to science and they are combined in a framework in that
Both adopt a reasoned approach to the world; both rely heavily on mathematics; and
Both are best learned through Inquiry.
Science and Technology domain
Lifelong learners are able to use the methods of inquiry to participate in scientific investigation
and technological problem solving.
Science:
Science involves the discovery of fundamental relationships that help explain the natural world.
The Domains of Science, fundamental questions include
"What do I observe?" "What is its nature?" and "What if?"
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Domains of Science
Lifelong learners are able to understand and apply the principle, laws and fundamental
understandings of the natural sciences.
Technology:
Technology, on the other hand, creates tools that expand our capacities and help us solve
problems we face. It extends human potential for controlling the natural and human-made
environment.
The Domain of Technology asks fundamental questions such as
"How does this work?" "How can this be done?" and "How can this be done better?"
Interaction of Science and Technology:

The progress of science is dependent on technology. From bolts to bytes, science research relies
so heavily on technology that most scientific advances can be traced to improvements in
technology. Similarly, technical advances often occur when scientific understandings have been
applied to a particular problem. More centrally, both science and technology are practices based
on inquiry: asking questions, making conjectures, predicting, designing tests, solving
problems, and rethinking ideas.
Technologies developed through engineering include the systems that provide our houses with
water and heat; roads, bridges, tunnels, and the cars that we drive; airplanes and spacecraft;
cellular phones, televisions, and computers; process machineries many of today's children's toys;
and systems that create special effects in movies, more important well designed processed and
18
packed healthy safe and nutritious food and drinks for our daily need. Each of these came about
as the result of recognizing a need or problem and creating a technological solution.
Summary on Science and Technology:
Finally and most importantly, science and technology are not abstract subject areas but
integral parts of our daily lives, and they have significant impact on human life and the life of
the planet.
Questions like
"What are the implications of this?"
"Who benefits and who suffers?" and
"What should my town do about this?"
These are basic questions for those seeking
• A balance between economic well-being,
• Stewardship of the earth, and
• Quality of life.
"Not so long ago, most Americans did not worry about their environment. Now, with the
global population explosion, worldwide industrialization, increased use of natural resources
and degradation of rain forests and agricultural land, students need to develop skills to
analyze the environmental issues that face them today and that will challenge them
tomorrow."
Science, Technology and Human Affairs
Lifelong learners understand questions and problems of science and technology in the context of
human affairs.
Science and Engineering- are separate but very closely disciplines. One of the first distinctions
that must be made is between science and engineering. It is not a simple distinction because the
two are so interdependent and intertwined, but whatever difference there is needs to be
considered.
Science is the study of “natural” phenomena.
It is the collection of theories, models, laws, and facts about the physical world and the
methods used to create this collection.
Physics, chemistry, biology, geology, etc. try to understand, describe, and explain the
physical world that would exist even if there were no humans. It is creative in building
theories, models, and explanations, but not in creating the phenomena that it studies.
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3.3 The Core Concepts and Guiding Principles in Science, Technology,

Engineering and Engineering Technology
CORE CONCEPT in Science and Technology

Owning the Questions
If students are to come to know and own the questions of science and technology, they need to
engage with them the way scientists and technologist do.
They
Wrestle with contradictions
Puzzle through paradoxes
Evaluate evidence, and
Search for connections.
These pursuits require students to deal with the
"Real world" -- both natural and human-made -- and they often find that one question just
lead to another.
Habits of Mind
Curiosity
Open Mindedness Balanced with Skepticism
A Sense of Stewardship and Care
Respect for Evidence
Persistence
Guiding Principles of Science and Technology

1. Significant science and technology learning builds on students' curiosity and intuitions.
2. Investigation and problem solving are central to science and technology education.
3. Students learn best in an environment that acknowledges, respects and accommodates
each learner's background, individuality and gender.
4. Assessment in science and technology is an opportunity for student learning, a tool for
guiding instruction, as well as a way to document student progress.
5. Science and technology connect with other disciplines, and have a particularly integral
relationship with mathematics.
6. A comprehensive PreK-12 Science and Technology program includes all sciences every
year. Emphasis on the underlying principles of each discipline and their connections
across the domains of science is critical.
7. Science and Technology study in grades PreK-10 becomes differentiated in grades 11 and
12 based on students' interests and career goals.
8. Communication and collaboration are essential to teaching and learning in science and
technology.
9. Access to the expertise of others is needed in order for teachers to implement the cross-
domain and interdisciplinary approach advocated in this framework.
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Engineering technology
Engineering Technology (ET) is a field of study which focuses on the applications of

engineering and modern technology, rather than the theoretical.
Education
In the United States, Engineering Technology programs are accredited through the Technology
Accreditation Commission of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology.
Depending on the institution, associate and/or bachelor degrees are offered, with a few institutions
also offering advanced degrees. The type, length, and quality of education offered can vary
greatly depending on the educational institution and the specialty pursued within Engineering
Technology.
Worldwide Perspectives
The Sydney Accord is an agreement among the signatory nations acknowledging the academic
equivalence of accredited Engineering Technology programs.
Professional Engineer Licensure
Many U.S. states allow Engineering Technology graduates from accredited programs to sit for the
Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam to become an Engineer Intern (E.I.), and the Principles
and Practices of Engineering (PP) exam to become a Professional Engineer (P.E.), but they
require several additional years of experience before doing so.
Typical Positions
Positions vary according to the degree received. Graduates acquiring an associate's degree or
lower typically find careers as Engineering Technicians.
Those acquiring a bachelor's degree or higher “...often are hired to work as technologists or
applied engineers, not technicians. “Entry-level positions such as product design, testing,
development, systems engineering, technical operations, and quality control are all common
positions for Engineering Technology graduates.
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3.4 The role and purposes of science, technology and engineering?

The role of science technology / Engineering
Science, engineering, and technology (SET) literacy is increasingly becoming a prerequisite for
active and informed citizenship. As the global economy expands and workforce demands change,
the need to improve the knowledge and application of these disciplines will only grow.
The Purpose of Science and Technology/Engineering Education
Investigations in science and technology/engineering involve a range of skills, habits of mind, and
subject matter knowledge. The purpose of science and technology/engineering education in is to
enable students to draw on these skills and habits, as well as on their subject matter knowledge, in
order to participate productively in the intellectual and civic life of the society and to provide the
foundation for their further education in these areas if they seek it.
Science, Technology and Engineering – for the development and welfare of the people.
The Purpose of Science and Technology/Engineering Education
Investigations in science and technology/engineering involve a range of skills, habits of mind, and
subject matter knowledge.
The purpose of science and technology/engineering education is to enable students
to draw on these skills and habits, as well as on their subject matter knowledge,
in order
to participate productively in the intellectual and civic life of the society and
to provide the foundation for their further education in these areas if they seek it.
Engineering versus Engineering Technology Programs
The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology describes the difference between
engineering and engineering technology as: "Engineering and technology are separate but
intimately related professions.
Here are some of the ways they differ:
• Engineering undergraduate programs include more mathematics work and higher level
mathematics than technology programs.
• Engineering undergraduate programs often focus on theory, while technology programs
usually focus on application.
• Once they enter the workforce, engineering graduates typically spend their time planning,
while engineering technology graduates spend their time making plans work.
• At ABET, engineering and engineering technology programs are evaluated and accredited
by two separate accreditation commissions using two separate sets of accreditation
criteria.
• Graduates from engineering programs are called engineers, while graduates of technology
programs are often called technologists.
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• Some U.S. state boards of professional engineering licensure will allow only graduates of
engineering programs—not engineering technology programs—to become licensed
engineers."
The National Society of Professional Engineers describes the difference between engineering and
engineering technology: NSPE
"Engineering programs are geared toward development of conceptual skills, and consist of a
sequence of engineering fundamentals and design courses, built on a foundation of complex
mathematics and science courses.
Engineering technology programs are oriented toward application, and provide their students
applied mathematics and science courses, and only a qualitative introduction to engineering
fundamentals. Thus, engineering programs provide their graduates a breadth and depth of
knowledge that allows them to function as designers. Engineering technology programs prepare
their graduates to apply designs."
The work of an engineer is well summed up by Paddy Purcell, former director general of the
Institution of Engineers of Ireland (IEI):
"There would be a perception of the hard hat on a rainy day on a building site with rain
trickling down the back of your neck or an engineer with his or her head stuck into a rusty
engine. Most images are so far from the reality. It's a high-tech, inter-personal profession,
with a large amount of teamwork with colleagues, the use of computers, of high-tech
equipment, financial analysis and planning. It's very far removed from the stereotype."
Engineering
Engineering involves the knowledge of mathematical and natural sciences (biological and
physical) gained by study, experience, and practice, applied with judgment and creativity to
develop ways to utilize the resources of nature and convert in to manufactured product for the
benefit of mankind as follows.
1. Resource In a technological system, the basic technological resources are energy, capital,
information, machines and tools, materials, people, and time.
Material The tangible substance (chemical, biological, or mixed) that goes into the makeup of a
physical object. One of the basic resources used in a technological system.
Matter, states of Matter ordinarily exists in one of three physical states: solid, liquid, or gas. A
given object's state depends on what the molecules are doing at the object's current temperature
and pressure, i.e., are the molecules not holding together at all, holding together weakly, or
holding together so tightly that they are locked into a stationary position. The transition between
the states occurs at definite temperatures and pressures. A fourth state of matter, plasma (ionized
gas in which the electrons are separated from the nuclei), can exist at extremely high
temperatures. Plasma is found on the sun and other stars.
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2. System A group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements or parts that function

together as a whole to accomplish a goal.
3. Engineering Design The systematic and creative application of scientific and mathematical
principles to practical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and
economical structures, machines, processes, and systems.
4. Process
1. Human activities used to create, invent, design, transform, produce, control, maintain, and use
products or systems;
2. A systematic sequence of actions that combines resources to produce an output.
5. Manufacturing The process of making a raw material into a finished product; especially in
large quantities.
Engineering Disciplines
Engineering is a highly diversified field of study than an ordinary person can imagine
Chemical engineering deals with the design, construction, and operation of plants and
machinery for making such products as acids, dyes, drugs, plastics, and synthetic rubber by
adapting the chemical reactions discovered by the laboratory chemist to large-scale
production. The chemical engineer must be familiar with both chemistry and mechanical
engineering.
Civil engineering includes the planning, designing, construction, and maintenance of
structures and altering geography to suit human needs. Some of the numerous subdivisions are
transportation (e.g., railroad facilities and highways); hydraulics (e.g., river control, irrigation,
swamp draining, water supply, and sewage disposal); and structures (e.g., buildings, bridges,
and tunnels).
Electrical engineering encompasses all aspects of electricity from power engineering, the
development of the devices for the generation and transmission of electrical power, to
electronics. Electronics is a branch of electrical engineering that deals with devices that use
electricity for control of processes. Subspecialties of electronics include computer
engineering, microwave engineering, communications, and digital signal processing. It is the
engineering specialty that has grown the most in recent decades.
Industrial engineering, or management engineering, is concerned with efficient production.
The industrial engineer designs methods, not machinery. Jobs include plant layout, analysis
and planning of workers' jobs, economical handling of raw materials, their flow through the
production process, and the efficient control of the inventory of finished products.
Mechanical engineering is concerned with the design, construction, and operation of power
plants, engines, and machines. It deals mostly with things that move. One common way of
dividing mechanical engineering is into heat utilization and machine design. The generation,
distribution, and use of heat is applied in boilers, heat engines, air conditioning, and
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refrigeration. Machine design is concerned with hardware, including that making use of heat
processes.
Computer Engineering (or computing science) is the study and the science of the
theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and
application in computer systems. Computer engineers are engineers who have training in the
areas of software design and hardware-software integration.
Textile engineering is a profession that deals with application of scientific and engineering
principles to the design and control of all aspects of fiber, textile materials, textile chemistry,
products and machinery. These include natural and man made materials, interactions of
materials with machine, safety and health, energy conservation and waste and pollution
control. Additionally the professionals are enabled to do textile plant design and layout, textile
manufacturing and wet processing design improvement and designing and creating textile
products.
Other engineering: - Aeronautical engineering is applied in the designing of aircraft and
missiles and in directing the technical phases of their manufacture and operation. Mineral
engineering includes mining, metallurgical, and petroleum engineering, which are concerned
with extracting minerals from the ground and converting them to pure forms. Other important
branches of engineering are agricultural engineering, engineering physics, geological
engineering, naval architecture and marine engineering, and nuclear engineering.
25
Self-test questions
1. Differentiate science, technology and engineering
2. Is the boundary between science, technology and engineering high or small?
3. Explain the development of engineering
4. Describe the nature of science, technology and engineering
5. Describe the domain of science, technology and engineering
6. Explain the relationship between science, technology and engineering
7. What are the guiding principles of science and technology?
8. Explain the role and purposes of science, technology and engineering.
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PART II: Reasoning and Problem Solving Skills
Chapter One: Introduction to Problem Solving
After finishing this chapter students will be able to:

• Define problem
• Understand the importance of goals in problem solving
• Define solution
• Describe the general guidelines for problem solving
1.1 Introduction to Problem Solving
Regardless of what they do for a living or where they live, most people spend most of their
waking hours, at work or at home, solving problems. Most problems we face are small, some are
large and complex, but they all need to be solved in a satisfactory way. Before we look at the area
of problem analysis and solution, though, let's take a few moments to think about just what we
mean by a problem.
1.1.1 What is a Problem?

One of the creative thinker's fundamental insights is that most questions have more than one right
answer and most problems have more than one solution. In keeping with this insight, we will
offer more than one definition of a problem, in hopes of filling out its meaning as fully as
possible. Different definitions yield different attitudes and approaches and prevent us from
becoming fixed in the rut of "Oh No! A Problem!"
1. A problem is an opportunity for improvement. A problem can be a real break, the stroke of
luck, opportunity knocking, a chance to get out of the rut of the everyday and make yourself or
some situation better. Note that problems need not arrive as a result of external factors or bad
events. Any new awareness you have that allows you to see possibilities for improvement brings a
"problem" for you to solve. This is why the most creative people are "problem seekers" rather
than "problem avoiders."
Developing a positive attitude toward problems can transform you into a happier, saner, more
confident person who feels (and is) much more in control of life. Train yourself to respond to
problems with enthusiasm and eagerness, rising to the opportunity to show your stuff, and you
will be amazed at the result.
2. A problem is the difference between your current state and your goal state. A problem can
result from new knowledge or thinking. When you know where you are and where you want to
27
be, you have a problem to solve in getting to your destination. The solution can and should be fun
and exciting as you think over the various possible solution paths you might choose. When you
can identify the difference between what you have and what you want, you have defined your
problem and can aim toward your goal.
3. A problem results from the recognition of a present imperfect and the belief in the
possibility of a better future. Isn't it interesting here that hope produces problems? The belief
that your hopes can be achieved will give you the will to aim toward the better future. Your hopes
challenge you, and challenge is another definition of a problem.
1.1.2 The Importance of Goals in Problem Solving

As you read these definitions, I hope you noticed that they all include the ideas of goals and ideal
states. When a goal is met, the problem should be concluded if the goal was an appropriate one
for solving the problem.
Another way of thinking about this would be to say that the goal or ideal state defines how much
of a problem exists or even whether or not there is a problem.
For example, let's say you have just brought a pizza home from the pizza parlor and it is
beginning to cool. If your ideal state is to eat very hot pizza, then you have a problem, whether
you define it as how to keep the pizza from cooling, how to heat it back up, how to eat it quickly,
or whatever. On the other hand, if you like moderately warm pizza, then you do not have a
problem. Similarly, if your friend comes over an hour later and you offer him a piece of leftover
pizza, only to discover that your oven is on the blink, you have a problem: how to heat the pizza
up again. But if the friend says, "I really like cold pizza better than hot," you no do not have a
problem.
This example demonstrates that one's goal must be considered in conjunction with one's current
state in order to determine whether a problem exists and to what extent it exists. People who don't
take time to think about their goals before attacking a problem thus don't fully understand the
problem. You've probably heard that cracked proverb, "If you don't know where you're going,
you'll probably end up somewhere else."
Another important truth to derive from this understanding about goals is that as your goals
change, so will the nature of the problems you face. Life operates in real time rather than in
timeless theory, so that as we move through our existence, our goals are in a constant state of flux.
Some goals change radically, or even reverse, while others undergo minor adjustments and
refinements. Be sure that your problems and solutions stay current with your goals.
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Self test questions

1. Clearly state the meaning behind each of the following definitions of a problem. Give an
example in each case.
a) A problem is an opportunity for improvement.
b) A problem is a difference between the current state and the goal state.
c) A problem results from a recognition of the present imperfect and the belief in the
possibility of a better future
2. Is there a similarity between the three definitions of a problem or they are completely
different? Define a problem in your own words.
3. State a problem and answer the following questions.
a) Do you think that you can only have a specific solution for the problem you stated?
b) What are the causes for these problems?
4. Briefly state the importance of goal setting in problem solving.
5. Is there any goal for the problems you have stated in question number 1? If so, what are the
goals?
6. Which one of the followings is wrong?
a) The nature of a problem depends upon the stated goal
b) A condition which is a problem for someone may not be a problem for someone
another
c) If a goal is stated at one particular time, there is no need to refine this goal at any
particular time in the future.
d) b and c
1.1.3 What is a Solution?

In our ordinary discourse, we often think of "solving a problem" in the sense of making it go
away, so that the problem no longer exists. This indeed is one kind of solution, but it is not the
only kind. Some problems cannot be eliminated entirely: we are never likely to eliminate trash, or
the wear on automobile tires, or the occurrence of illness. We can, however, create solutions or
treatments that will make each of these problems less harmful.
For our purposes, then, we will define a solution as the management of a problem in a way that
successfully meets the goals established for treating it. Sometimes the goal will be to eliminate
the problem entirely; sometimes the goal will be only to treat the effects of the problem. The
possibilities inherent in the problem, together with the ambitiousness, resources, and values of the
problem solver, will help shape the goals.
There are two basic approaches to solving problems, one where the cause or source of the
problem is attacked and the other where the effects or symptoms of the problem are attacked. For
ease of remembering, we can call these the stop it and the mop it approaches, respectively. Each
of these approaches has three basic forms. As we detail these approaches and their forms, let's use
the problem of a leaking water tank to illustrate each one.
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Stop It
A stop-it approach is designed to cure a problem, so that, insofar as possible, the problem no
longer exists. Its three forms are prevention, elimination, and reduction.
Prevent It. By preventing a problem from occurring (or recurring) we have perhaps the ideal
solution. In our water heater example, we would build a very high quality water heater, perhaps
with a copper tank, so that it would never leak. The prevention approach is often a difficult one to
apply because it requires predictive foresight ("this might be a problem someday if we don't act
now") and it is often costly. And, of course, most problems crash into us unexpectedly or for
some other reason cannot be prevented.
For example, if you can prevent a cold, or an automobile accident, you will not have to deal any
further with a problem or its effects. Similarly, by preventing misunderstandings, the need for lots
of damage control and emotional healing can be avoided.
Eliminate It. Eliminating a problem once and for all is also an excellent way of attacking a
problem. In our leaking water heater example, an elimination solution would be to plug or seal or
otherwise repair the leak, the cause of the problem (all that water on the floor). Elimination
solutions should be considered in nearly every problem situation.
For example, a neighbor where I used to live had chronic trouble getting TV reception to suit him.
Every weekend he was on his roof installing another antenna (he eventually had three), rotating
one, putting another up on a higher mast, and so on. He even put in a satellite dish. He might have
eliminated the problem by subscribing to cable TV or moving to an area where the reception was
better.
Elimination solutions can be expensive and politically unpopular, however, so that they are not
always feasible.
For example, an elimination solution to the AIDS problem might involve changing social
behaviors (including sexual practices and drug use). Such changes would be resisted. Thus, the
usual approach to AIDS is a mop-it one (see below).
Reduce It. As we mentioned earlier, some problems, like trash production, cannot be eliminated
entirely. In such cases, a strategy of reduction can be highly effective. Almost any problem can be
made less of one by reducing its size. In our water heater example, suppose we couldn't perform a
repair (an elimination solution) until a day or two later. We could reduce the problem by turning
off the incoming water. Without line pressure on the tank, the leak would slow down; that would
be better that a full force leak.
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For example, current approaches to the flow of illegal drugs into the country include reduction
strategies. The flow of drugs cannot be eliminated as long as demand continues, so interdiction
focuses on "as much as possible."
Mop It
A mop-it approach focuses on the effects of a problem. As you can guess, the name comes from
our leaking water heater example. Instead of treating the leak itself, we mop up the water on the
floor--the effects of the problem.
Treat It. Here the damage caused by the problem is repaired or treated. We mop up the water, fix
the damaged floor, hang the rugs out to dry. Note two things: (1) by itself a treat-it solution is not
going to be nearly as effective as some form of stop-it solution and (2) treat-it solutions are often
needed in addition to an elimination or reduction form of solution.
For example, some of our drug and alcohol treatment programs are aimed at symptomatic relief of
the effects of these problems rather than at eliminating the problems to begin with.
Tolerate It. In this form of mop-it approach, the effects of the problem are put up with. In our
leaky water heater example, we might install a drain in the floor, or waterproof the floor. The
effects are taken for granted and measures are taken to endure them.
For example, graffiti and vandalism are now taken for granted in many large cities, so tolerance
measures have been implemented, such as installing lights that are harder to break or cheaper to
replace, not planting trees that would be destroyed, and so on.
Redirect It. Here the problem is deflected. Sometimes the problem will simply be redefined as
not a problem. It's hard to think of a legitimate redirection for our leaking water heater problem,
but suppose that the leak is small and the floor is not being damaged. We might say, "Well, we
need the humidity; the leak is actually a good thing." Remember that a problem is a problem only
when someone defines it as such.
Some police departments have been known to buy bus or airline tickets for chronic offenders
(prostitutes, usually) to send them to another state far across the country, thus "solving" their own
problem.
Sometimes, as when you get a cold, a mop-it solution is all that's available: there is no elimination
solution that works yet. In general, however, be careful to investigate the possibility of
implementing a stop-it solution before you focus on mop-it ones. There is a temptation to focus
on symptomatic treatments for our problems when we should be looking for treatments of the
underlying causes.
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Self test questions

1. Which of the followings is true?
a) We can always set a goal that can entirely eliminate the effect of the problem
b) In some cases, we can only set a goal that can treat the effects of the problem.
2. What are the possible determining factors to shape/set the goal of a problem?
3. Differentiate the two approaches of problem solving
4. From the followings identify the true statements about the Stop It approach of problem
solving
a) It is used where the cause or the source of the problem can be attacked
b) Its three basic forms are prevention, elimination, and reduction
c) It focuses on the effects of the problem
d) It is designed to cure a problem so that the problem will no longer exists
e) Its three basic forms are Treat it, tolerate it and redirect it
f) It focuses on the sources and causes of the problem
g) It is the best solution for to eliminate cold
5. Which of the statements listed under question 4 above are true about Mop It approach of
problem solving?
6. A shoe manufacturing factory has faced a problem of delivering products to its customers on
time. This has caused customer dissatisfaction. It is found that this problem is mainly occurred
due to:
The lack of raw materials such as leather and sole
The absence of proper production planning and control system
The lack of appropriate human management system
A delay in transportation/distribution
The following two options have been produced to tackle the problem:
1. Some of the management body of the factory has agreed to avoid the above sources of the
problem to satisfy their customers.
2. The other management body of the factory has produced the following idea to improve
customer satisfaction and to attract new customers:
Reducing the price of the products to satisfy the existing customers
Making several advertisements including brochures, billboards, TV, Radio to attract
new customers
a) If the factory has agreed to consider option 1, then which of the problem solving
method have been followed?
b) If the factory has agreed to consider option 2, then which of the problem solving
method have been followed?
c) Set a goal when option 1 is used
d) Set a goal when option 2 is used
7. Which one of the followings is/are true about the prevention (Prevent It) strategy?
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a) It is a way of preventing a problem from occurring/recurring

b) It can give ideal solutions
c) It is the difficult one to apply as it required predictive foresight it is often costly
d) All of the above
8. Which one of the followings is/are false about the elimination strategy?
a) It involves eliminating/ repairing a problem once and for all
b) Though elimination solutions can be expensive, they are politically popular and are
always feasible
c) It is the best approach to the AIDS problem.
d) a and b
e) b and c
9. Which one of the followings is/are false about the Reduce-It strategy?
a) It is used when the problem cannot be eliminated entirely
b) It can be effectively applied to reduce trash production
c) It can be effectively applied to reduce the flow of illegal drugs
d) It is used to eliminate the occurrence of the problem entirely
10. Which one of the followings is/are false about the Treat It strategy?
a) The damage caused by the problem is repaired or treated
b) It is nearly as effective as preventive form of Stop-It solution
c) Treat-It solutions are often needed in addition to an elimination or reduction form of
solution
11. Which one of the followings is/are false about the Tolerate-It strategy?
a) In this form of strategy, the effects of the problem are taken for granted and measures
are taken to endure them
b) In this case the problem is deflected/redefined as not a problem
12. Some police departments have been known to buy bus or airline tickets for chronic offenders
(prostitutes, usually) to send them to another state far across the country, thus “solving” their
own problem. This strategy is
a) a prevent It approach
b) a reduce it approach
c) a Treat It approach
d) a Redirect It approach
e) a Tolerate It approach
1.1.4 General Guidelines for Problem Solving

Here are some guidelines that will help you analyze, define, and solve problems in an orderly
way. Use these guidelines to help create a problem-solving habit of mind and to give some
structure to your problem solving activity. Remember, though, that problem solving does not
proceed by recipe, nor is it necessarily linear, as these guidelines might imply. Problem solving is
a recursive process; you must continually go back and forth between steps and do some parts
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again. Similarly, you might not always proceed in exactly this order. Thus, these guidelines are
not meant to be rigid and absolute. Think of them rather as a checklist designed to assure that you
include all the important features of problem analysis in your thinking. (After the outline of the
guidelines you'll find a commentary and elaboration on them.)
I. Problem Exploration
1. State the Problem.
A. State what the problem is
B. Restate the problem
C. State the problem more
2. Clarify the Problem.
A. Define the Key terms of the problem.
B. Articulate the assumptions
C. Obtain needed information
3. Explain the Problem.
A. Discuss the problem with someone else.
B. Look at the problem from different viewpoints.
C. Ask a series of whys.
4. Put the Problem in Context.
A. What is the history of the problem?
B. What is the problem environment?
C. What are the constraints?
II. Goal Establishment

1. Consider Ideal Goals.
2. Establish Practical Goals.
III. Idea Generation

1. Generate Ideas for Possible Solutions.
IV. Idea Selection

1. Evaluate the possibilities.
2. Choose the solution(s).
V. Implementation
1. Try the solution.
2. Make adjustments.
VI. Evaluation
1. Determine whether the solution worked.
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Discussion of the Problem Solving Guidelines
I. Problem exploration
The problem is investigated, broken into sub problems, terms are defined. A determination is
made about the nature of the problem (sociological, personal, technological, and historical). Some
research is made into whether or not it has been met in the past, and if so, how. Steps:
1. State the Problem.
A. State what the problem is. Does it have multiple aspects? If so, what are they? This should
include a written description of the problem in the clearest way it can be put. The statement might
begin with the problem as given; put in quotation marks to remind you that that's the way it was
received. But the problem should always be stated in your own words, too. Make the problem
your own, and do not let it become attached to the verbal clothing in which it was originally
delivered to you.
A useful aspect of any definition or problem statement is to state what the thing is not. By clearly
identifying what is not the problem, you'll clarify what it is.
B. Restate the problem in entirely different words, or in a completely different way. Do this
several different times (three to eight is recommended). Again, the purpose of this process is to
break the problem away from confusing or restricting verbal maps of it, so that the "problem in
itself" can be isolated.
For example, "Carry the filing cabinet upstairs to my office." How about "Take the file to my
office upstairs," or "Move the cabinet into my office." This latter description may enable you to
cease focusing on the stairs and carrying and to remember that there is an elevator nearby.
C. State the problem more generally or more broadly. Put it abstractly or even philosophically.
The idea here is to find out whether the given wording of the problem is really only a specific
statement of a more general problem. Often general statements allow the problem to be seen in
entirely different terms and therefore suggest solutions that otherwise wouldn't be thought of.
Compare the difference in orientation: Design a better mattress, or Design a better bed, or Design
a better way to sleep. The mind moves from considerations of springs and padding to the
possibilities of a water bed, air flotation, maybe even an armchair design bed. How about sleeping
standing up? Or in a big armchair? Or floating in a tank of water?
2. Clarify the Problem.
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A. Define the key terms of the problem. (What is an X?) Use synonyms; move from genus to
species or species to genus. Continue to define in more and more general or specific ways. This
kind of definition allows the breaking of the problem into attributes, components, and general
features. The result is to shake loose some possible solutions.
For example: Problem: Rides cost a lot to build and when people get tired of them they cost a lot
to replace. Moreover, they take up a lot of space. Goal: Build a ride in a small space that's cheap
and easy to replace. Definition question: What is a "ride"? It's an experience, physical,
psychological, of sight, sound, motion, events. A feeling or process of going from beginning to
end and seeing or experiencing things along the way, usually exciting and different. Okay, how
can we build a ride in a small space that will give this long experience of motion and movement,
and that's cheap and easy to replace? Solution: Build a ride simulator. Implementation: Star Tours
at Disneyland. A programmable simulator allows bumps and motion. A film creates visual
effects. The simulator doesn't move laterally so it takes up little space. And when ride gets tiring,
a new film and a new program of different bumps yields a new ride.
Clarify anything about the problem that is ambiguous or uncertain. Often, problems as given are
unclear in their original form. "Improve the magazine," is an unclear assignment because it
doesn't specify what the area of improvement should be. Does this mean choose better articles,
change the typefaces and layout, get classier advertisers, get a bigger circulation, or what? "Cure
condition X" might be problematic until we discover for certain whether condition X is an
infectious kind of disease, a hereditary condition, a chemical poison, or what.
B. Articulate the assumptions being made about the problem and describe the way a solution
would have to work. Assumptions can be tricky because they tend to be automatic and
submerged--not consciously made. This articulation step in the problem solving procedure
involves the conscious listing of all assumptions that can be identified. The listing is without
prejudice or judgment or hostility. Just list as many as can be thought of.
It is especially important when listing assumptions to list the extremely obvious ones, because
often it is those that later turn out to be alterable. Examine these assumptions to discover if they
are necessary, not necessary, or uncertain as to their necessity. Many assumptions are quite
necessary, of course. In the problem, Develop a better way to destroy kidney stones, one obvious
and necessary assumption is that the patient should be alive after the procedure. But often
assumptions turn out to be made for no good reason--that is they are not necessary assumptions.
These can be challenged and new routes to success can then be discovered.
C. Obtain needed information. Research into past approaches to the problem or to similar
problems will help you get new ideas as well as gain understanding of the nature and environment
of the problem itself. If your problem is to improve self-stick brackets, you might do some
research into how glues work.
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3. Explain the Problem.
A. Discuss the problem with someone else. Explain it carefully. Listen to your own explanation.
Discussion has two important features. First, there is the possibility that you will find a solution in
the head of another person. Discussion enables you to get information, suggestions, and ideas.
Important: even if the ideas have nothing to do with the problem, or if they are in themselves
unworkable, they can still be valuable stimuli because they will show a new approach to the
problem or they will suggest something practical to you. So even though your friend can never
understand your problem technically, emotionally, intellectually, artistically, or whatever, you can
still gain valuable insight by discussing it and by hearing a response.
Secondly, discussing your problem with someone allows you to see what you really think.
Philosophers and writing theorists have long noted that people think and work out ideas as they
talk. You don't really know what you think until you consciously verbalize it. Francis Bacon
noted that one value of friendship was to have someone to talk to so that you can see how your
ideas look when they are turned into words. Some people have reported remarkable insights just
by talking to their pets, where no intellectual feedback from the "listener" was possible. So when
you discuss your problem or idea, listen to yourself as well as to the other person.
Explain why the problem is a problem. What are its negative or undesirable features? Again, a
couple of functions here. One, by explaining why the problem is problematic, you discover more
about its nature and whether it really is a problem. James Adams remarks that there have been a
lot of solutions to problems that didn't exist. So this explanation phase allows you to discover just
whether a problem is real.
Next, by explaining in detail the negatives of the problem, a set of more specific targets can be
identified, thus better lending themselves to being solved.
For example, first statement: Here at the amusement park, our problem is that rides are expensive
and people get tired of them. Why is this a problem? Because we have to replace the rides so
people will continue to come to the park. The negatives are that we have to (1) keep tearing the
ride down, (2) building a new ride, (3) spending a lot of money, (4) disturbing the amusement
park with major construction, (5) advertising the new ride, etc.
This statement allows the clarification of possible goals, like building a ride people won't tire of,
figuring out a way to build rides quickly and cheaply, and so forth.
B. Look at the problem from different viewpoints. How would different people look at it? (What
are the thoughts of those who cause it, those who suffer from it, those who have to fix it, those
who have to pay for it, etc.?) Remember that your view of reality, as an intelligent, concerned,
conscientious, middle class person, is only one view. By imaginatively taking on the viewpoints
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of various other people affected by a particular problem, you can sometimes discover solutions
that you as yourself would never think of.
For example, let's say your assignment is to reduce litter on the beaches. One way to proceed
would be to write out the viewpoints of various people. How do the people doing the littering
view the situation? Are they thinking, "I like littering?" Or are they thinking, "I'd throw this in a
can, but there isn't one nearby, so I'll toss it on the ground," or "I see that can nearby, but it smells
so I don't want to go near it"? What about the person who has to pick up the trash? What are his
thoughts? What about the taxpayers, or the beachgoers?
Again, suppose your job is to improve the juvenile justice system. Imagine that you are, in turn,
the juvenile offender, the parents, the victim, the sheriff or arresting officer, the head of Juvenile
Hall, the judge, a man on the street, and so forth. By constructing these different viewpoints, you
will be able to generate solutions that meet some of the cynical, prejudiced, or even thoughtful
attitudes of the various parties.
Another example. We, as users of medical services, often complain about the poor service, lack of
knowledge, and high costs. What does the doctor think? He's probably worrying about getting
sued. Addressing his concerns as well as our own will be the most likely way to improve the
situation, rather than, say, passing new laws based only upon our own viewpoint.
The importance of being able to see different sides or angles has been reinforced in folk wisdom
worldwide. The French have a saying, for example, "To know all is to forgive all." The American
Indians have the saying, "Don't criticize your neighbor until you have walked a mile in his
moccasins." The better you become at understanding where others "are coming from," the better
you'll become at choosing solutions that will be acceptable and effective for all involved.
C. Ask a series of clarifying whys. By asking "why" of every statement of the problem, possible
solution, or identified goal, clearer definitions are made. Asking why can serve a purpose similar
to that of broadening the definition of the problem, and can lead to new ways of looking at the
problem and at possible solutions.
Example problem: Let's make computers smaller and lightweight and portable. Why? So people
can carry them around? Why do we want people to carry them around? So they can take them on
trips with them and use them, say in hotels. Why do we want them to use them on trips and in
hotels? So they can make efficient use of their extra time when traveling. (Possibility: put
computers in hotel rooms for guests to use.)
Example problem: We need a better way to kill mice. Why? Because we are overrun by mice and
they are bothering us. Why are we overrun? Because there is food all over. Maybe we should get
rid of the food. Or, maybe we should redefine the problem into, We need a better way to keep
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mice from bothering us. This may suggest a different solution from that of killing them, like
driving them away, keeping them out of the house in the first place, etc.
Is the problem really a symptom or result of another problem? Is there a problem behind the
"problem"?
For example, the "problem" of low quality cars may really be only a symptom, with the real
problem behind it quite different, like poor management, low quality parts and materials, old
machinery, careless labor, or whatever. A search for the causes of a problem often reveals one or
more underlying problems which need to be solved first or which, when solved, will solve the
originally identified problem.
4. Put the Problem in Context.
A. What is the history of the problem? Knowing where it came from can help focus your efforts
toward a solution to try or away from a solution not to try. If a particular solution has been tried
already and met with a sensational disaster, you might not want to try it first again. The problem
solvers who caught Typhoid Mary eventually noticed that various families' problems with typhoid
began just after Mary began to work for them.
B. What is the problem environment? What are the surrounding contexts? Are there associative
factors that helped cause or perpetuate the problem? Have there been similar problems and
solutions that may be useful in solving this one?
An understanding of contributing or perpetuating factors will help you to take steps to prevent a
problem from coming right back once you solve it. Similarly, studying how similar or analogous
problems have been solved may lead you to a shortcut solution to this one.
C. List the constraints of the problem. What limitations are imposed, what is required, what must
be observed in solving the problem? This is pretty straightforward. Constraints are givens that
must be followed--a budget you cannot exceed, legal or contractual requirements that must be met
and so on.
For example, if your problem is to develop a new American sports car, one constraint is that it
must meet federal air pollution standards. If your problem is to make an educational tour more
affordable for students, one probable constraint is that the tour company can't go broke in the
process.
Constraints are simply requirements to keep in mind, part of the problem's basic dimensions.
Writing them down helps to keep them in the foreground as you work toward solutions. And, of
course, occasionally the identified constraints turn out, upon listing and examination, not to be
necessary after all. They can be eliminated or worked around.
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II. Goal Establishment
1. Consider Ideal Goals. We too often set our goals as the solving of the immediate problem or
the minimum solution rather than considering how we would like reality to be ideally.
For example, if Jane always criticizes everything I say, I could set as my goal that she would stop
criticizing me. But what would my ideal goal be? That not only would she stop criticizing me, but
she would begin to support and encourage me, and even become a partner in my efforts. Instead
of the goal of reducing pollution on the beach, or even stopping it, why not a goal of an improved
ecology, where the beach will be cleaner than ever before?
2. Establish Practical Goals. What are the goals to be achieved that would make this problem be
declared solved? The listing of definite and precise goals is useful in problem solving because the
attempts at solution can then be measured against the goals to see how much progress is being
made.
Example problem: Unemployment is too high in inner city America. We want to reduce it. What
will the solution look like? Goal: Reduce unemployment for both males and females over
eighteen to five percent or less within the next year.
Note that setting up goals (1) helps to clarify the direction to take in solving the problem and (2)
gives you something definite to aim at. What will the solution be like? That is, what will occur as
a result of the solution? Describe the world as it will be after the solution is implemented.
In our unemployment example above, we could say the solution will involve setting up a
permanent job finding service that will continue to operate after the goal is met, to insure that
unemployment (the problem) doesn't return later on. The solution might also include educational
services to train workers or to train people in job finding strategies (like looking in the paper,
going to job sites, and so forth).
Note that the description of the solution here can be pretty vague and dreamy if necessary,
because sometimes you will have only an uncertain notion of what that solution will ultimately
be. But try to be as specific as possible. If your problem is an unhappy marriage or love
relationship, you could say that your goal is "a happy relationship," but more progress toward the
goal will be probable if you can be more specific, such as, "stop yelling at each other," "become
more affectionate," "do more things together," and so forth.
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III. Idea Generation
1. Generate Ideas for Possible Solutions.
A. Read, research, think, ask questions, discuss. Look for ideas and solutions. Begin with a period
of information gathering and mental stimulation. Knowledge is power. Get facts. Learn as much
as you can about the problem.
For example, suppose you are faced with the task of making a more durable conveyor belt. You
might think on your own about using stronger materials, like Kevlar or steel reinforcing, but a
little research would reveal how many other people have solved the same problem, and you might
happen upon the idea of the Mobius strip. Here, you simply rotate one end of the belt half a turn
before connecting the two ends of the belt together. This produces a belt with only one side, with
twice the life of an ordinarily made belt. It's a brilliant idea that you might never come across
unless you did a little research.
B. Use idea generation techniques (brainstorming, forced relationships, random stimulation, and
so on). Generate a large number of ideas of all kinds so that you'll have a good selection to choose
from, adapt, or stimulate other ideas. Don't worry about whether the ideas are practical or wild at
this point. As we will continue to see throughout the class, some wild ideas turn out to be quite
practical. Just one example: Problem: How to inhibit corrosion and increase electrical contact on
electronic plugs. Solution: plate them with gold--an excellent corrosion inhibitor and conductor.
That's what's often done. This "wild" solution became practical because gold can be plated on
very thin, reducing the cost to something very reasonable.
C. Allow time to incubate during various phases of idea generation. The major cycle of creativity
that has long been identified is preparation (initial thought, research, study, work), incubation
(time to let the unconscious work), insight (the flash of recognition of a solution path--the eureka
experience), implementation (working out the solution), and evaluation.
Small problems will require only a short period of incubation. Difficult problems will require
longer periods. Some people require longer periods than other people. The main thing is to
remember the cycle of work, incubate, work, incubate. The eureka flashes do not come without
previous periods of preparation and hard thinking. In the mythology of genius we often see the
wizard sitting around when the flash suddenly comes to him. And that's often what happens--the
insight comes during a period of relaxation. But what's left out is that same genius' long months of
very hard work.
Do allow time for incubation, though. When you have worked a long time and are up against a
wall, leave the problem and go out and do something relaxing. Then return to the problem. The
idea of "sleeping on it" is excellent.
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IV. Idea Selection
1. Evaluate the Possibilities. Evaluate the collection of ideas and possible solutions and
approaches. What possible solutions, either individually or in conjunction with each other, will
solve this problem? An important thing to remember here is not to get fixated on the single
solution idea. You may want to adopt two or three separate solution paths at the same time--kind
of like the triple antibiotic ointment approach. You might also want to set up "Plan B," a possible
solution approach that can be implemented if your main plan does not work. So in your
evaluation, don't focus on choosing just one solution and tossing the others away.
When you evaluate, you want to find the solution that will be the most effective (work best),
efficient (cost the least, whether in terms of money, time, emotions, or whatever), and have the
fewest drawbacks or side effects.
2. Choose the Solution(s).
A. Select one or more solutions to try. In the evaluation state above, you should establish some
rank ordering. Choose from among those near the top of the list. Note that (as we will find later
on in decision analysis), the very top ranked solution is not always the one to get chosen for
implementation. Subjective, emotional factors, sudden changes, peculiar circumstances, the desire
for beneficial side effects not directly related to the solution, intuitive feeling, and so forth, often
shift the choice to something ranked below number one or two.
It's just like hiring someone or marrying someone. The person who looks best on paper may not
"feel" right, and you may have a preference for someone further down the so-called objective list.
B. Allow others to see and criticize your selected solution and to make suggestions for
improvements or even alternatives. The best way to turn your idea light bulb into a chandelier or
floodlight is to let other people comment on it. This takes a certain amount of ego strength, since
only intermediate friends will say how good the idea is. Strangers and close friends will quickly
point out absurdities and weaknesses. But that's good, because you'll have a chance to improve
your solution idea before attempting to implement it.
You have to walk a narrow path here. Don't be swayed too easily by criticism to change an idea
that you are confident is really good; after all, the typical person is not a creative visionary and
will be controlled by the prejudices of ordinariness. You can expect resistance to good new ideas.
On the other hand, don't be so in love with your idea that you cannot see the legitimacy of
criticisms that point our genuine weaknesses. And always be willing to incorporate new ideas and
improvements from fresh minds looking at the problem and solution from a different perspective.
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V. Implementation
1. Try out the solution(s). Experiment, test. "Do it, fix it, try it." "Ready, fire, aim." The real
test of an idea is to try it out. The key concept here is action. Get going and begin the solution.
Once you choose a solution path, get to work on it. Don't worry if objections or problems remain.
Start working. Samuel Johnson noted that if all possible objections to a proposal must first be
overcome, nothing would ever be attempted. And remember to give your solution sufficient time
to work. Too hasty an abandonment of a solution or solution path is as common a problem as too
obsessive a commitment to a particular solution path. A solution may take weeks or months (or
years) to work, so use judgment in determining how long to wait before abandoning the choice.
2. Make adjustments or changes as needed during implementation. Remain flexible in this

application phase. Practically every solution needs some modification in the process of being put
into effect. Blueprints are changed, scripts are rewritten, your parenting methodology is adjusted.
Don't expect that your solution will be exactly as you originally proposed. Remember that the
goal is to solve the problem, not mindlessly to implement the solution exactly as proposed.
VI. Evaluation
1. Investigate to determine whether the solution(s) worked, and to what extent. Do

modifications need to be made? Do other solutions need to be selected and tried? Is a different
approach needed? One of the most frequent failures of problem solving is the lack of evaluation
of the implemented solution. Too often in the past, once a solution has been chosen and
implemented, people have wandered off, assuming that the problem was solved and everything
was fine. But the solution may not have worked or not worked completely, or it may have caused
other problems in the process. Staying around long enough to evaluate the solution's
effectiveness, then, is an important part of problem solving.
2. Remember that many solutions are better described as partially successful or partially
unsuccessful, rather than as an either/or in a success/failure division. If you propose a
solution that reduces drug addiction by even ten percent, your solution is a good one, even though
it didn't work for the other ninety percent of cases. In many cases, an incomplete remedy is better
than none at all.
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Self test questions

1. A general guideline for problem solving which consists of the steps problem exploration,
goal establishment, idea generation, idea selection, implementation and evaluation is
mainly used for
a) To produce some guidelines to solve problems in an orderly way
b) To create a problem-solving habit of mind and to give some structure to our
problem solving activity
c) To show that problem solving is necessarily linear, some one has to strictly and
rigidly follow the steps and that problem solving is not a recursive process
d) Only a and b
e) a, b and c
2. One is wrong about the Problem Exploration phase of problem solving?
a) The problem is investigated, broken into sub-problems
b) A determination is made about the nature of the problem (sociological, personal,
technological, and historical)
c) Some research is needed into whether or not it has been met in the past, and if so,
how
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Chapter Two: Problem Solving Techniques

After learning this chapter students will be able to:
• The need for assumption articulation
• The techniques for approaching a problem
• Define rival hypotheses
• Understand the rules for generating and testing hypotheses
• Understand the significance of role playing in problem solving
• Differential the type of models
• Use criticism and suggestion during problem solving
• Know searching techniques
Problem Solving Techniques
As with creative thinking, flexibility is a crucially important feature in problem solving. Many of
these techniques you will begin to use regularly for each major problem you address. Others you
will use selectively.
2.1. Assumption Articulation

A first and frequently overlooked step in problem solving is to identify the assumptions you are
making about the situation. Many of the assumptions will be hidden and unrecognized until a
deliberate effort is made to identify them. Often it is the unrecognized assumption that prevents a
good solution. However, before we get too critical of assumptions, we should note their value and
necessity. So we begin there.
Assumptions are Necessary
Assumptions and constraints are necessary for three reasons:
1. They set limits to the problem and thus provide a framework within which to work. These
limits might include constraints of possibility, economics, or some other desired narrowing.
2. Assumptions reflect desired values, values that should be maintained throughout the solution.
For example, in punishing criminals, we assume that we are still concerned about their humanity,
so that, say, torture with electric prods will not be considered as a possibility for punishment.
3. Assumptions simplify the problem and make it more manageable by providing fewer things
to consider and solve. A problem with no assumptions is usually too general to handle.
Assumptions are often Self-imposed

In spite of the necessity of having assumptions, many assumptions produce self-imposed limits.
That is, the impossibilities or fixed constraints in a problem are often not imposed by nature or the
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laws of physics, but by ourselves through our understanding of the situation or through the desire
to focus the problem.
In assumption articulation, then, our goal is to identify the assumptions being made and to
determine the following:
1. Is the assumption necessary? If not, can or should it be dispensed with?
2. If the assumption is not necessary, is it appropriate? That is, many rather arbitrary
assumptions and constraints are nevertheless desirable.
For example, when we say, "We have only two weeks to solve this problem," those two weeks
may be entirely appropriate as an outside time limit for generating and implementing the solution,
simply because the problem's importance in relation to the rest of life warrants no more than those
two weeks.
Examine the Assumptions behind your Problem

1. Make a list of assumptions. As you think about your problem, force to the surface every
given, taken for granted, assumed fact about the situation you can think of. Many, if not most,
assumptions do not really fit into categories like those in the checklist below. Instead, most
assumptions are statements about reality that we believe to be true. Many of them are "obvious"
and we normally would not think to question them. Yet that is exactly why we so often get
blocked when we try to solve a difficult problem.
For example, the design of women's swim suits was long constrained by limited technology. How
can we make a new design that will stand up to the rigors of swimming in salty or highly
chlorinated water? Only a few fabrics are strong enough and printing or decorations don't hold up
well. The completely obvious and absolutely unquestionable assumption being made here is that
most women do a lot of swimming in their swim suits. Of course, dummy, why else would they
buy them? Some brave soul, who was probably called a fool, decided to question this assumption
and do some research. It was discovered that 90% of women's swim suits never get wet (except
perhaps in the laundry). This was quite a revelation for suit designers, because it opened up a
whole new world of materials and designs that would stand up to sunning but wouldn't take
swimming. Who would have thought that anyone would buy a swim suit marked "dry clean
only"?
When you have thought of all the miscellaneous assumptions you can, you might find it helpful to
use a checklist of assumption areas like this:
A. Time. How quickly or slowly am I assuming it will take? Can the solution be sped up or can
more time be found somewhere?
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B. Money. Are the limits of money I'm assuming necessary? Can I find more money? Or, more
creatively, can I do it for less money or no money? Can I get someone else to pay? Money is a
common block to the solution of many problems. We say, If only I had the money, I could do it.
Often, however, we can find ways of accomplishing the same thing with less money or with none
or with other people's money. Don't let the money psychology block you. Example: We need
computers and hard disks but we don't have the money. Possibilities: donated funds, find lower
price, get manufacturers or dealers to donate the parts.
C. Cooperation. Am I assuming that certain people will be in favor of the solution, support it, help
implement it, when in fact they might not? Or am I assuming that certain people will be against it
when they might not be?
D. Physics. Are the laws of physics interfering? The problem is "impossible" of solution? What at
first seems physically impossible may on reflection not be so after all. Remember the pear in the
bottle, "moving" the Statue of Liberty, or even launching rockets out of the atmosphere.
E. Law. Is the solution blocked by law? Can the law be changed, circumvented (for moral
purposes only), or even broken (for the right cause)? Maybe it can be reinterpreted to permit the
solution. Example: Bible clubs in high schools. According to one high school's interpretation, the
Freedom of Association law permits students to get together to pray but not to advertise their
prayer group. Can this regulation be skirted by word of mouth advertising or by holding a prayer
meeting right after another non-prayer meeting?
F. Energy. We can devote only so much energy to any given solution. Is the amount assumed to
be appropriate or maximum really so? It's better to expend a little more energy to solve a problem
well the first time than to have to redo the entire thing after a half-energetic solution.
G. Cost/Benefit. How much is it worth to solve the problem? Costs can include an investment of
time, energy, money, emotion, or other resource--mental effort, eyesight, whatever.
H. Information. Is the information available correct? This assumption often proves wrong. Double
check the so-called facts surrounding the problem. Note that in most cases, more information can
always be obtained. Are we assuming that all available information or all pertinent information is
at hand? New information often changes the entire appearance of the problem?
I. Culture Binding. Is the solution being limited because of attitudes in the culture or practices of
recent history? How did or do other peoples solve the problem? These ideas that are socialized
into us often go unexamined. Why do we balk at eating squid or dogs? Up until about seventy-
five years ago, it was common for men to marry women fifteen or twenty years younger than
themselves. Now we consider that unusual and some people even consider it wrong, just as we
consider older women marrying younger men unusual.
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2. Focus your assumption identification on the crux or sticking point of the problem. You
may be making an unnecessarily limiting assumption about something right at the point of
blockage.
For example, let's say your problem is to clean the mineralization off the water faucets in the
bathrooms of your house. You have gone to a hardware store or home center and tried every
cleaner in the house wares department but nothing has been satisfactory. You think, "I've used
every household cleaner I can find." Examine your assumptions: I'm assuming that household
cleaners are found in the house wares department. Is that true or necessary? What about other
kinds of cleaner that might be found in the automotive, plumbing, hardware, or garden
department? Also, what about products not even described as cleaners but that might clean off the
mineralization? The solution you finally come up with is to use an automotive chrome bumper
cleaner or perhaps some household vinegar to clean off the mineralization and then to apply some
car wax to the chrome to protect it from future build up. Your assumptions about store locations,
product names and types and uses have all been challenged and found not necessary.
3. Look over your written statements of the problem and your lists of constraints and write
out a list of the assumptions behind each item. In these three steps, you'll have a three-part list:
A. General assumptions. These are the assumptions you make without thinking or realizing that
you have made them. Some of them are necessary, but some may not be. Write out even the most
obvious ones.
B. Assumptions at the crux. These assumptions are usually made consciously, but are not often
examined critically to determine whether they are necessary or not. Again, write them out so that
each one may be examined and tested individually.
C. Assumptions determining the constraints. These are the assumptions about cost, time, effort,
size, results and so forth that you make in order to establish the boundaries of the solution. Most
of them are desirable. Sometimes one or more of them will be made too hastily, though, so that
they deserve reexamination as well as the other kinds.
An Example
Let's say you are the manager of a factory that makes portable electric generators. Your product is
largely bolted together at final assembly by workers using air wrenches. The wrenches, like those
you hear screaming in auto repair shops, make a lot of noise, hurting the workers' hearing and job
satisfaction. Your problem is, "How can we reduce the noise made by these air wrenches?"
Note that as with most problem statements, the problem as stated implies certain solutions. If you
simply accepted the problem as stated, you would probably think of some possible alternatives
like these:
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• put silencers or mufflers on the wrenches

• build a sound proof room for the wrench assembly
• install lead curtains around the assembly area to soak up the noise
• install a sound "canceller"
But instead of this, you decide to do some assumption articulation. Here are some of the
assumptions being made:
1. Air wrenches are noisy.

2. We must use air wrenches to put the parts together.
3. People must use the air wrenches.
4. We must use wrenches.
5. The fastening must take place in this area or in this factory.
6. Bolts must be used to hold the pieces together.
7. The employees don't like the noise.
As you think about these assumptions, some new ideas come to you:
1) Air wrenches are noisy. Are all air wrenches equally noisy? Can we buy a quieter brand?
Is there a "silent air wrench" being sold?
2) We must use air wrenches to put the parts together. Why not use manual wrenches, or
electric wrenches, or hydraulic wrenches?
3) People must use the air wrenches. Why not use robots? Can we use the wrenches less?
Rotate employees so that each one uses the wrenches just a little each day.
4) We must use wrenches. Why not use other tools? Nut drivers?
5) The fastening must take place in this area of the factory. Why not move it outside?
Subcontract it? Put it in a special soundproof room?
6) Bolts must be used to hold the pieces together. Why not rivets? Spot welding? Adhesive?
Screws? Clamps? Mold some of the pieces together so they need not be bolted or fastened
at all?
7) The employees don't like the noise. Get employees who like noise? Who don't hear it (like
deaf people)? Give them ear muffs? Play loud music to mask the noise?
Note that ideas like robots, deaf employees; adhesive bonding and so on would not be suggested
by the original form of the problem statement, which is based on several perhaps unnecessary
assumptions. A little assumption articulation breaks our thinking out of these restraints and allows
us to see some new possibilities.
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2.2. Techniques for Approaching a Problem

Here are several ways to attack a problem, each way designed to clarify the problem, suggest
alternatives, or break a fixation. You will want to experiment with the applicability of these for
various situations.
Entry Points
An entry point is, as Edward de Bono has said, "the part of a problem or situation that is first
attended to." In our linear, traditional problem solving mindset, this usually means a particular
point--usually the most obvious--on the front end of the problem. However, there is no reason that
some other point cannot be chosen as an entry point, nor is there any reason that the problem
cannot be approached from the middle or even the end. Let's look at each of these.
1. Front end entry points. Most problems are attacked on the front end first, which is to say, by
stating the problem. However, there is really more than one front end because a give problem can
be attacked from any one of several angles. Too often we assume that the first front-end angle that
comes to mind is the method of approach, the only way to attack the problem. But that is not so.
Example problem: How to keep rain off of you while you walk on the street.
Possible entry points:
1) Inadequacies of current umbrellas. (Suggests "improve the umbrella" as a problem

direction.)
2) Irritation of having to carry an umbrella. (Suggests "develop easily portable umbrella.)
3) Let the government do it. (Suggests public works items like awnings, free taxis, and
underground corridors.)
4) Let the individual do it. (Why not just get wet? Why does getting wet matter? What are
the problems? Do they really need to be solved?)
5) Walking. (Why walk? Why not ride? Conveyances?)
6) Street. (Why go out on the street in the first place? Why not stay at home? Keep out of the
rain? Solve the problem that made you go onto the street in the first place. E. g. to get a
video, why not TV or cable movie or read a book or make popcorn and talk about rainy
days?)
Notice here that what seems to be just one problem actually has several possible entry points, and
depending on the point chosen, entirely different solutions will result. Edward de Bono comments
about the importance of choosing an entry point:
Usually the obvious entry point is chosen. . . . There is no way of telling which entry point
is going to be best so one is usually content with the most obvious one. It is assumed that
the choice of entry point does not matter since one will always arrive at the same
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conclusions. This is not so since the whole train of thought may be determined by the
choice of entry point.
Example problem: ATC's cause many injuries and deaths each year.
Possible entry points:
1) They tip over easily. (Redesign them?)
2) They are not toys. (License users? require age minimums?)
3) Riders don't know how to use them safely. (Educate riders?)
4) Many head and spinal injuries result. (Roll bars? seat belts?)
Problem: How to have secret conversations in the bugged embassy in Moscow. Possible entry
points:
1. Conversations can be heard (notes, sign language, special room)

2. Diplomats must share information (disinformation?)
3. The whole building is bugged (leave building? erect internal room?)
2. Beginning at the end. When a particular solution state is clearly defined, a problem can often
be more easily solved by starting with the solution and working backwards toward the problem,
filling in the necessary steps along the way.
The classic example is the problem: Divide a triangle into three parts so that the parts can be put
together to form a square. That's very hard. But if you start from the solution end, with a square,
it's easy to divide it into three parts all of which form a triangle.
Example: How do you count the number of people in a stadium that's over ninety percent full?
Count the number of empty seats and subtract from the number of seats in the stadium. Easier
than counting people.
Example: How do you improve your relationship with your parents when you're not quite sure
what's wrong with it--what the problem is? Start at the end, with the solution. Envision how you
want the relationship to be and work backwards toward a discovery of the problem.
Whenever the solution or goal state is clearer than the problem, then changing the entry point to
the end may be the best approach. Start with the goal or solution and look for ways to work back
to the problem.
3. Somewhere between the beginning and the end. After all, there's no law that says you have
to start at one end or the other. So why not start in the middle?
Ancient Greek epics typically start in medias res, in the middle of things, and later go on to fill
out preceding and succeeding action. You can do this in problem solving. It's, again, sort of the
"ready, fire, aim" approach.
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For example, say you want to put up a new building. Why not assume that the funding and
planning have already been done and begin with the construction phase, which contractors to hire,
etc. Then work in both directions--backward toward planning where to put the building and how
to get the money, and forward toward arranging for tenants.
Note that you can really begin at any point on this alleged continuum, with location, tenants,
architect, and work in both directions:
Building type---architect---location---contractors---tenants
Movies are put together this way all the time. The "obvious" order is
Idea---script---producer---actors---studio---filming
But many movies get actors first, then a producer, then a script, etc.
Beginning in the middle has some risks, but it's especially good for getting things done quickly
and for beginning to do something even when you're not quite sure of either the problem or the
solution. It's the kind of thing that will sometimes get you labeled as rash and hasty and
sometimes as brilliant and visionary.
2.3. Rival Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a collection of data. A rival hypothesis is an
alternative explanation for the same sets of data, another way of explaining the same results or
events. Often the hypothesis is a statement about causation: the data indicate that X caused Y or
that B occurs when A is present. It is critically important to remember, however, that in the realm
of hypothesis and explanation, the data do not speak for themselves; they must be interpreted. The
act of interpretation involves many difficulties, including those of experimenter bias, the
confusion between correlation and cause, and non-random sampling.
Dangers of Having only One Hypothesis

The danger of limiting ourselves to one hypothesis to explain a collection of phenomena is
twofold.
1. Some evidence will be ignored. If we are focused on a single hypothesis, we will overlook as
not relevant any information that does not bear on the truth or falsity of the hypothesis. However,
such information might bear on the truth or falsity of some other hypothesis.
For example, if our hypothesis is that suspect X burglarized the Turner's house, we will focus on
evidence that helps to establish or disprove our theory. As a result, we will probably overlook the
fact that the story told by the Turner's son does not add up. That's just an ignorable anomaly. If,
on the other hand, one of our hypotheses is that the Turner's son might have faked a burglary and
stolen the missing items himself, then the difficulties in his story will not be overlooked.
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2. We may become emotionally committed to our hypothesis. The idea of falling in love with a
pet theory is not limited to problem solving, of course. Wherever it happens, the lover begins to
search for and select out only the evidence that supports the hypothesis, ignoring or
subconsciously filtering out information that argues against the pet.
For our example, here's a story: An experimenter carefully conditioned a flea to jump out of a box
when a bell was rung. Then he pulled off the first pair of the flea's legs. The flea still jumped out
of the box. So he pulled off the second pair of legs. The flea could still jump out. Finally, he
pulled off the last pair of legs. This time, when the bell was rung, the flea didn't jump our of the
box. The experimenter concluded that his theory was correct: "When all the legs of a flea have
been removed, it will no longer be able to hear."
To avoid these two problems, then, we should attempt to generate as many rival hypotheses as
possible for each set of data, and then test each of them against the known facts.
2.4. Rules for Generating and Testing Hypotheses

1. The hypothesis should account for all possibly relevant data. An explanation that covers
only part of the data or that is in conflict with a major fact is not a good explanation. Remember,
though, that especially early on, all explanations will have problems and will fact some seemingly
conflicting data. Facts are refined and clarified as better information becomes available. So don't
throw out all but "perfect" explanations; you won't have any.
2. Simpler explanations are usually to be preferred over more complex explanations.
3. More probable explanations are usually to be preferred over less probable ones. Many
things are possible; fewer things are probable. It is possible that ancient astronauts built the
pyramids, but it is more probable that the Egyptians did.
4. The consequences following from the truth of the hypothesis must match the facts. If, for
example, you hypothesize that a bomb destroyed an airplane and caused it to crash, you will
expect to find bomb residue as a consequence of this hypothesis.
When you first read how facts match a theory, you might be tempted to think, "Why, yes, that
must be it." However, when you make the effort to research (or even take a few moments to
generate on your own) a few rival hypotheses--alternative explanations--the original hypothesis
becomes suddenly less persuasive. As with many other things in life, When you have a choice of
only one, it seems to be the right choice; but when you have a choice of many, your taste
improves. There is even a Biblical passage relevant to this issue: "The first to present his case
seems right, till another comes forward and examines him" (Proverbs 18:17).
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When you begin to examine a proposed explanation for some data, ask yourself, "What other
variables are involved that might also account for the result?
Try It Yourself
Rival Hypotheses. What rival hypotheses can you think of for each of these explanations?
1. Speed Kills? In 1973, when the national speed limit was 65 miles per hour, there were 55,000
automobile-related deaths. In 1974, when the speed limit was reduced to 55 mph, deaths declined
20 percent. In 1975, they declined 2 percent more. However, in 1976, as motorists began to ignore
the speed limit and drive at 65 once again, deaths increased. The conclusion is clear: lower speed
limits save lives.
2. Wedded Bliss? Many studies over long periods have established that married people are
generally healthier than single (never married, widowed, divorced) people. Lung cancer, stroke,
and coronary heart disease are all lower in married people. Married men live longer than men who
do not marry. One researcher attributes these facts to the harmful consequences of loneliness. Are
there any other possible explanations for these differences?
3. Coffee Coffin? A recent study has found that men who drink more than six cups of coffee per
day have a much higher heart attack rate than those who drink fewer than six cups a day. Clearly,
drinking coffee causes heart attacks. Or is there a rival hypothesis?
2.5. Role Playing

Role playing consists of several techniques, having in common the use of the mind to imagine a
different reality, to change what you have to what you want.
1. Mental Practice. Before attempting a solution or doing something--taking a test, driving to a

new area, writing a paper, asking for a raise--practices the situation mentally.
For example, Abraham Lincoln imagined what he would do and say as president before he was
ever elected. Dr. Charles Mayo of Mayo Clinic fame always mentally practiced his surgical
operations before doing them--he would find a quiet spot and then go through the whole
procedure in his mind: cutting, asking for instruments, examining, suturing. Many athletes
rehearse their upcoming performances mentally to gain confidence and familiarity with the
moment of performance.
Visualize the problem and your solution to it and you'll be able to solve it or do it better. One
woman imagined driving on the left side of the road, turning, passing, merging, etc. before taking
a trip to England. When she finally got to England, she found that she could drive easily--it was
already a familiar experience.
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2. Becoming another person. The second form of role playing is to imagine that you are
someone else--involved in either the solution or the problem.
A. Problem Person. Imagine that you are the litterbug, the reckless, drinking driver, or the short
tempered, hard to live with friend. What makes you this way? What might improve you? What
are the nuances of your personality?
B. The Solver. Imagine that you are an expert who can solve the problem with your special
knowledge. What do you know and what do you do? Solutions take direction from past
experience. They derive from what is already done or known. We go with the familiar and use
what we have learned--or what we imagine we have learned or experienced.
For example, suppose you must build a canal. Imagine first that you are not a canal builder but a
pipeline maker. How would he build the canal? (Perhaps by using reinforced half pipeline
sections?) Now imagine that you are a tunnel maker. Now how would you solve the problem?
(Perhaps by using an inverted tunnel?) Now imagine that you are a swimming pool builder. How
would you solve it? (Perhaps by using steel rebar and spray-on gunite?)
3. Mental metamorphosis. In this kind of role playing, you change yourself into the problem
thing--become a bearing, a helicopter, an electric current, a germ. Michael Faraday imagined that
he was an atom under pressure and thereby developed his electromagnetic theory.
For example, suppose you want to find a solution for rusty and leaking gasoline tanks. Imagine all
the attributes of the situation: the metal tank, its color, temperature, touch, the leak in it, the sound
of the dribble of gasoline as is plops to the sandy soil under the tank. What does it feel like to be a
tank in the sun, to feel your side leaking, to smell the wet sand/gasoline combination under you?
What do you taste like? When the service man puts the wrench on your valve, how does it feel?
Do your insides itch as they rust? What would help that? A coating? Does the gasoline running
down your side bother you? What would soak that up or seal it off?
2.6. Modeling
A model is a representation or pattern of an idea or problem. That is, a model is a way to describe
or present a problem in a way that aids in understanding or solving the problem. Models serve
several purposes:
The Purpose of Modeling

1. To make an idea concrete. This is done by representing it pictorially or symbolically. We are
very visually oriented creatures, and it is easy to bring about understanding or conceptualization
through an image--much the way analogy works, only now you use a picture, drawing, map,
boxes, circles. A drawing can show a relationship, connection, arrangement, hierarchy, and so
forth much more quickly than words alone can.
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Another use of representative modeling is to enhance creativity by converting an idea into

something that can be experienced by the senses. "Okay, this salt shaker is our blocked plan, and
these French fries are the people opposing the plan by holding up the rules--this napkin--in front
of it. Well, what can we do? Lift the salt shaker, move it around, over, through, empty it."
Many a problem solver has drawn on a napkin, arranged the food on his plate, scratched a stick in
the sand, sketched a form of some sort, or even played with some children's blocks.
2. To reveal possible relationships between ideas. Relationships of hierarchy, support,

dependence, cause, effect, etc. can be revealed by constructing a visual model.
For example, what is the relationship between faith and reason? This can be shown by one block
on top of another (a hierarchy), one circle inside another (one concept as part of the other), two
blocks side by side, one each on a balance, and so on. Each model suggests a different
relationship, each easy to remember.
A fact that needs special emphasis is that the model one uses for understanding will have a
profound effect on perception and conceptualization. In fact, to a large extent, a model will
determine your perception of an idea or problem and control your thinking about possibilities,
relationships between parts, and so on. That's why multiple models are often highly desirable:
they allow a person to think of the same concept in several different ways without the
unconscious controlling influence that a single model might have.
Another example: The saying, "Ready, fire, aim" seems funny and illogical to most people
because they automatically assume a rifle or pistol or arrow model, and with such a model, the
saying doesn't make sense. These people are trapped by their own thought processes and
automatic modeling. However, if we construct a different model--that of a machine gun, fire hose,
laser beam, flame thrower, heat gun, fire extinguisher, blowtorch, hammer drill or whatever, then
the saying makes great sense after all.
We have to be careful, then, how much we let our models control our thinking.
3. To simplify the complex to make it manageable or understandable. Almost all models are
simplifications because reality is so complex. The whole economy, weather system, human
personality, geological structure of the earth, air flow over airplane wings--all are too complex to
be treated as is, so models are constructed that present simplifications that can be treated.
Simplification is both benefit and danger, and when dealing with a model, one must always be
sure not to forget that the model and reality might not match perfectly--and sometimes not well at
all.
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4. The main purpose of modeling, which often includes all of the above three purposes, is to
present a problem in a way that allows us to understand it and solve it. That is, by seeing the
problem in a different form or from a different angle, we can gain the insight necessary to find a
solution. We take a problem and simplify it, make it visual, and provide a familiar pattern.
Types of Models
1. Categories. Models can be put into one of two categories, conceptual and structural. Of the
types listed below, many of them can fall into either category depending on the use made of them.
A. Conceptual. Models used for concretizing or reifying an idea, used to aid conception or
understanding. These can be ultimately symbolic or arbitrary, whatever is necessary or useful.
Also models to aid memory or teaching and relationship models.
B. Structural. Physical models of physical structures--oil refineries, DNA helixes, buildings,

architectural model, a new kind of record player or bicycle. A model is almost always constructed
before a prototype is made for a product and models are usually made for all large construction
projects.
2. Types. These are not fixed and exclusive boxes--they often overlap, as in visual symbolic.
A. Visual. Draw a picture of it. If the problem is or contains something physical, draw a picture of
the real thing--the door, road, machine, bathroom, etc. If the problem is not physical, draw a
symbolic picture of it, either with lines and boxes or by representing aspects of the problem as
different items--like cars and roads representing information transfer in a company.
Visual models are among the most effective because we are highly visually oriented beings.
Remember Confucius' saying that is now a cliche but a true statement nonetheless: A picture is
worth a thousand words.
B. Physical. The physical model takes the advantages of a visual model one step further by
producing a three dimensional visual model. Again, you can use a real model or a symbolic one.
C. Mathematical. Many problems are best solved mathematically, by using calculations for speed,
area, projected income, national unemployment. Thinking beyond three dimensions visually or
four dimensions physically is very difficult. But with math, ten or fifteen dimensions are no
problem. Ideas of speed, acceleration, and accelerating acceleration are often more understandable
mathematically.
Example problem: Whom to hire. A mathematical model, such as a decision matrix, enables the
thinker to quantify subjectivity and to be sure that all considerations (or criteria) are taken into
account to the degree desired. The expected value calculation is another mathematical method of
making a choice based on probable effects and preferred outcomes.
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D. Metaphorical or Symbolic or Analogical. Remember what we said about metaphor and

analogy, that the unfamiliar becomes understandable by comparing it to the familiar. That's how
this kind of modeling works. Both understanding and structure can be established for a problem
by using a metaphor or symbol. Here are some examples useful kinds:
General Paradigms
1. System model. A system is a collection of interrelated elements working together to
accomplish a common goal. The parts are input, processing, [storage], output, feedback, and
control. Example systems are house heating system with thermostat, circulatory system.
Example problem: Interpersonal relationship improvement.

Input: words, actions
processing: reactions
output: happiness, mutual support or discontent
feedback: communication (words actions)
control: change of processing (reactions and actions and output)
2. Design model. Design is planning with a concern for pattern and overall harmony. Component
parts are identified and worked together into a whole. The key to design consideration is to plan
so that the result to be an effective presentation. (For more details on design, see Chapter 7.)
Example problem: Vacation. Design a vacation

Sketch out parts--what should be included in a vacation? How will one part affect other parts?
How does travel method affect sightseeing? Boat, rail, plane, care, walk, bike ride, etc.
3. Construction model. This model emphasizes sequential building. Part by part.
Example problem: Term paper. How can I build this paper? Foundation? Walls? Roof? or
Beginning, ending, drawings, outline, other parts? Order of information?
4. Recipe model. This model emphasizes ingredients and proportions, with perhaps some
consideration given to minor items that add "spice" or "flavor" to a project. The Japanese seem to
use the recipe model in making many of their consumer products, from stereos to cars. Many cars
include a toolkit, first aid kit, sometimes a trouble light--things that American manufacturers
sometimes think of negatively as gimmicks or gadgets. The recipe model could be a list or
formula for success. Great in advertising, products with features, certain kinds of fiction, etc.
Specific Metaphors:
1. Garden model. How is problem or solution like a garden? Vegetative, growing, expansive,
fruitful, weedy, nurturant, bug infested, etc.
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2. Machine model. How is problem like a machine? Parts working together, parts worn or
broken, energy input or driving force, work output?
3. Symphony model. How like a symphony? Conductor? Harmony? Soloists? Percussion? What
is the music they are playing? What orchestrates the interaction of the parts?
4. Human body model. How like a body? What makes it move? What is life energy? What are
hands, feet, mouth, eyes, ears?
5. Vehicle model. Ship, plane, boat, car, train, blimp, bike, skateboard. What powers it? Who are
passengers? Where going? What are its wheels?
Other metaphors useful for modeling are sculpting, movie making, an island, the ocean, a
computer.
2.7. Using Criticism and Suggestion

Making use of the observations of critics to improve a plan or idea is a fairly obvious technique,
but one that is not often used simply because most people don't like criticism. Our ideas are our
precious children and to be told that they are ugly or defective is painful and offensive.
However, it is possible to work around the ego sensitivity we have by renaming our criticism
seeking into "suggestion seeking" and by viewing the procedure as a formal technique for
exploiting the minds, experiences, and ideas of other people. What better way to get other
viewpoints than to ask real, other people?
Basic Guidelines
Remember that in problem exploration it was suggested to talk over a problem with others to get
insight into it. Well, now we come to the preliminary solution idea and do the same thing. Here
are some suggestions:
1. Choose in advance a fixed number of people you will talk to, to reduce fear and make the
process more formulaic (which will make it less ego damaging). Four to six is usually a good
number.
2. Frame your request for criticism in a positive way, so that the criticizer will have to suggest
improvements rather than just point out defects.
For example:
A. I have an idea to sell concentrated or dehydrated apple juice. Can you think of some ways to
improve it?
B. I'm asking several of my most thoughtful friends how I can improve this idea for making
59
concentrated fruit drinks. Can you think of anything?

C. I'm working on the problem of reducing shipping costs for drinks by concentrating or
dehydrating them. I wonder if you could help me find a solution? Here's what I've come up with
so far. (This puts the other person in a solution mindset rather than a criticism mindset.)
3. Ask all kinds of people, not just people knowledgeable in the area. Ask children, even.
Remember the value of mind stimulation, where an idea may not be directly useful but may
suggest something else.
4. When you get more confidence, you can ask for an analysis of defects or inadequacies.
For Example:
A. What am I missing? What am I not thinking of? What am I not taking into account?
B. What don't you like about this? What's wrong with it? How would you have done it
differently?
5. Use the dual method of asking for suggestions. There are two ways to operate the idea and
suggestion technique.
A. Ask each person to improve the original plan or suggestion. Go to several people and propose
the same plan and ask for input about it. This way you will get several different responses to the
original.
B. After each suggestion, alter the idea to incorporate the suggestions and criticisms, and then
present the new idea to the next person for suggestion and criticism. That way, the idea builds and
improves with each criticism. The drawback is that certain other fundamental suggestions may be
eliminated because the subsequent suggesters don't see the original idea.
It is important for you as a creative thinker to see yourself as independent and separate from your
ideas. Don't get your ego so involved in an idea that you will be unwilling to alter it if you
discover or are told about needed changes. And don' be unwilling to abandon it if you discover a
better idea. Keep a whole sackful of possibilities that can be rotated or combined to form the best
solution, and put your pride in solving the problem, the result, not in the particular solution path
you are currently thinking of.
2.8. Searching Techniques

Heuristic Methods
A heuristic is a guide, a rule of thumb, a learn as you go strategy, typified by trial and error. It
involves choice, hunch, knowledge, and a lot of creativity. It's the way most education works.
However, no heuristic can guarantee a solution. A heuristic simply increases the probability of
finding a solution. An example heuristic method follows.
60
1. Trial and error. The trial and error search involves the non use of directional information.
That is, the search proceeds without any sense of choice or likelihood of one path over another.
Trial and error can be made much more efficient if it is systematic rather than blind, that is, when
a record of attempts and failures is kept so that the same path or solution is not tried more than
once. So take good notes.
Algorithmic Methods
There is another kind of technique called an algorithm that can guarantee a solution. An algorithm
is a list of set procedures, a recipe, a formula, or set of exact directions--computer programs and
math formulas for finding volumes and areas are algorithms. There are a couple of common
search algorithms:
1. The maze algorithm. This algorithm guarantees that you will be able to solve or walk through
a maze. All you have to do is follow the same wall all the way through. In practical terms this
means put your hand on the wall and keep it there as you walk through. Either hand and either
wall.
2. The split-half method. This powerful technique is used for finding a problem or phenomenon
along any linear system. It is used by electricians, plumbers, mechanics, electronics technicians
and others to find trouble in equipment. (e.g. faulty doorbell, leak in pipe). The method involves
going immediately to the halfway point in the linear system and checking to see if the problem or
a symptom of the problem appears there. If it does, the problem is in the first half of the system. If
it doesn't, the problem appears in the second half. Next, the investigator goes to the half of the
system where the problem is now know to occur and checks at its halfway point to see if the
problem or symptom appears there. The answer eliminates another quarter of the system. Note
that in just two steps, two checks, three quarters of the system has been eliminated from
possibility. The halving continues until the problem is located. This is much faster than random
checking or than by starting at one end of the linear system and proceeding toward the other end.
Example uses:
• Someone is stealing oil from our transdesert pipeline; where?

• Our packages are arriving from Germany all beat up; where are they being damaged?
• Somewhere along the manufacturing line our product is getting dented on the corner;
where is this occurring?
• Somewhere between here and Sacramento the river is being polluted; where is this
happening?
• Somewhere in our spy network information is leaking to the Soviets; who is doing it?
• Somewhere in the process of transmitting data from the factory floor to the main office,
information is being lost or garbled. Where is this happening?
61
Note that many systems are or can be perceived as linear, whether the thing moving through them
is water, paint, food, information, television sets, smog, whatever.
Other Techniques
Here are some general techniques for help in solving problems.
1. Public Solution. Post the problem on a bulletin board or circulate it in a newsletter, memo, or
whatever written medium is in use in your organization or group. Make a note that suggestions
and solutions are solicited and that ideas should be sent to you.
This technique causes public discussion of the problem at an intellectual rather than personal
level. If your problem is employee absenteeism, poor quality parts, financial difficulty, or
something similar, the public discussion will tend to focus on solutions rather than on blame
attribution. If the problem does not derive from people difficulty, as in how to pack light bulbs
more safely or how to hold books upright on partially filled library shelves, posting the problem
can hook solutions that may have been applied to a similar problem elsewhere. And of course, the
basic strategy behind posting a problem is that it gets several minds working on the problem, both
independently and in discussion with others. People in the organization will talk about the
problem in their idle moments.
During group problem solving discussions, posting a problem on the board is useful because it:
(1) Stimulates interest and discussion in the problem,
(2) Makes people willing to take responsibility for the problems of others, and
(3) Develops problem solving attitudes in all members of the group.
Problem Solving Hints and Wisdom

1) Take time to examine and explore the problem thoroughly before setting out in search of a
solution. Often, to understand the problem is to solve it.
2) Breaking the problem into smaller parts will often make solving it much easier. Solve each
part separately.
3) The resources for problem solving are immense and ubiquitous.
4) You can always do something.
5) A problem is not a punishment; it is an opportunity to increase the happiness of the world,
an opportunity to show how powerful you really are.
6) The formulation of a problem determines the range of choices: the questions you ask
determine the answers you receive.
62
7) Be careful not to look for a solution until you understand the problem, and be careful not
to select a solution until you have a whole range of choices.
8) The initial statement of a problem often reflects a preconceived solution.
9) A wide range of choices (ideas, possible solutions) allows you to choose the best from
among many. A choice of one is not a choice.
10) People work to implement their own ideas and solutions much more energetically than
they work to implement others' ideas and solutions.
11) Remember the critical importance of acceptance in solving problems. A solution that is
technologically brilliant but sociologically stupid is not a good solution.
12) When the goal state is clear but the present state is ambiguous, try working backwards.
13) Procrastinators finish last.
14) Denying a problem perpetuates it.
15) Solve the problem that really exists, not just the symptoms of a problem, not the problem
you already have a solution for, not the problem you wish existed, and not the problem
someone else thinks exists.
16) A maker follows a plan; a creator produces a plan.
17) Creativity is the construction of something’s new out of something’s old, through effort
and imagination.
Self-test questions
1. In problem solving assumptions are necessary:
a) to set limits to the problem
b) to simplify the problem
c) to reflect desired value
d) all of the above
e) none of the above
2. One of the followings is false
a) Most assumptions are statements about reality that we believe to be true
b) It is essential to focus our assumption identification on the crux or sticking point of
the problem
c) Assumptions at crux are usually made consciously, but are not often examined
critically to determine whether they are necessary or not
d) Assumptions determining the constraints are about cost, time, effort, size, results
and so forth that you make in order to establish the boundaries of the solution.
e) None of the above
3. Time, money, cooperation, physics, law, energy, cost/benefit, information, culture binding
are the checklists of assumption areas. Explain each how.
4. Say you are a person to design a methodology to make all the teaching learning processes
in the Engineering Faculty to be active/student centered. What can be the possible
assumptions you can articulate?
63
5. A kind of assumption that you can make without thinking or realizing that you have made
them is
a) General assumption
b) Assumption at the crux
c) Specific assumption
d) Assumptions determining the constraints
6. Explain the following techniques for approaching a problem: Front end entry point,
beginning at the end, and somewhere between the beginning and the end.
7. What is hypothesis and rival hypothesis?
8. Discuss the rules for generating and testing hypotheses
9. What do you understand by role playing? Explain the following forms of role playing.
10. In general, when one represents an idea or a problem in a way to describe or present it in a
manner that aids for understanding the idea or solving the problem, it is called
a) Modeling
b) Literature
c) Writing
d) Simulation
e) Assumption
11. Why one has to model an idea or a problem?
12. What is the difference between conceptual and structural models?
13. What do you understand by visual, physical, mathematical, and Metaphorical or Symbolic
or Analogical models? Understand the difference between them.
14. What are System model, Design model, Construction model and Recipe model?
15. What is the difference between Heuristic method and Algorithmic method?
16. Explain about the maze algorithm and the split-half methods.
PART III: Introduction Engineering disciplines of Bahir Dar University, Engineering

Faculty (To be arranged by each department)
Glossary of Selected Science and Technology/Engineering Terms
Adaptation A modification of an organism or its parts that makes the organism more fit for
existence under the conditions of its environment.
Atmosphere The gaseous envelope of a celestial body (as a planet).
Biotechnology Any technique that uses living organisms, or parts of organisms, to make or
modify products, improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific uses.
Climate The average course or condition of the weather at a place, usually over a period of years,
as exhibited by temperature, wind velocity, and precipitation.
Communication The successful transmission of information through a common system of
symbols, signs, behavior, speech, writing, and/or signals.
64
Conductor A material capable of transmitting energy (e.g., heat, sound, electricity).

Constraint A limit to the design process. Constraints may be such things as appearance, funding,
space materials, or human capabilities.
Construction The systematic act or process of building, erecting, or constructing buildings,
roads, or other structures.
Consumer An organism requiring complex organic compounds for food that it obtains by preying
on other organisms or by eating particles of organic matter.
Decomposer Any of various organisms (e.g., many bacteria and fungi) that return constituents of
organic substances to ecological cycles by feeding on and breaking down dead protoplasm.
Design An iterative decision-making process that produces plans by which resources are
converted into products or systems that meet human needs and/or wants, or that solve problems.
Design brief A written plan that identifies a problem to be solved, its criteria, and its constraints.
The design brief is used to encourage consideration of all aspects of a problem before attempting
a solution.
Design process A systematic problem-solving strategy, with criteria and constraints, used to
develop many possible solutions to solve a problem or satisfy human needs and/or wants, and to
narrow down the possible solutions to one final choice.
Ecosystem A community of organisms and their environment, functioning as an ecological unit.
Electric circuit The complete path of an electric current, usually including the source of electric
energy.
Electric current A flow of electric charge.
Energy The capacity for doing work.
Engineer A person who is trained in and uses technological and scientific knowledge to solve
practical problems.
Engineering A profession involving the knowledge of mathematical and natural sciences
(biological and physical) gained by study, experience, and practice, applied with judgement and
creativity to develop ways to utilize the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of human-
kind; work performed by an engineer.
Engineering design The systematic and creative application of scientific and mathematical
principles to practical ends, such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and
economical structures, machines, processes, and systems.
Environment The complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors (e.g., climate, soil, living
things) that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine their
forms and survival.
Erosion The gradual wearing away of rock or soil by physical breakdown, chemical solution,
and/or transportation of material, as caused, for example, by water, wind, or ice.
Food chain An arrangement of the organisms of an ecological community according to the order
of predation, in which each uses the next, usually lower, member as a food source.
Force An agency or influence that, if applied to a free body, results chiefly in an acceleration of
the body and sometimes in elastic deformation or other effects.
65
Fossil A remnant, impression, or trace of an organism of a past geologic age that has been
preserved in the earth’s crust.
Gas/gaseous state Gas is a state of matter. Gas molecules do not hold together at all, so gas
spreads out in all directions, including straight up. Gas changes both its shape and its volume very
easily.
Habitat The place or environment where a plant or animal naturally or normally lives and grows.
Heat The energy associated with the random motions of the molecules, atoms, or smaller
structural units of which matter is composed.
Igneous Formed by solidification of magma.
Inherited To receive from ancestors by genetic transmission.
Insulator A material that is a poor conductor of electricity, heat, or sound.
Life cycle The series of stages in form and functional activity through which an organism passes
between origin and expiration.
Light An electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range including infrared, visible,
ultraviolet, and X-rays, traveling in a vacuum with a speed of about 186,281 miles (300,000
kilometers) per second; specifically: the part of this range that is visible to the human eye.
Liquid/liquid state Liquid is a state of matter. Liquid molecules hold together weakly, so liquids
flow. Liquids do not change their volumes significantly but do change their shapes easily.
Machine A device with fixed and moving parts that modifies mechanical energy in order to do
work.
Magnet An object that can attract certain metals, such as iron and nickel. It can also attract or
repel another magnet, or the mineral lodestone. All magnets have a north-seeking pole and a
south-seeking pole.
Magnetic field Magnets and wires carrying electric current have a magnetic field. Magnetic fields
interact to produce a force of attraction or repulsion.
Manufacturing The process of making a raw material into a finished product, especially in large
quantities.
Material The tangible substance (chemical, biological, or mixed) that goes into the makeup of a
physical object. One of the basic resources used in a technological system.
Matter, states of Matter ordinarily exists in one of three physical states: solid, liquid, or gas. A
given object’s state depends on what the molecules are doing at the object’s current temperature
and pressure, i.e., Are the molecules not holding together at all, holding together weakly, or
holding together so tightly that they are locked into a stationary position? The transition between
the states occurs at definite temperatures and pressures. A fourth state of matter, plasma (ionized
gas in which the electrons are separated from the nuclei), can exist at extremely high
temperatures. Plasma is found on the sun and other stars.
Medium A substance regarded as the means of transmission for a force or effect.
Metamorphic rocks A rock formed from preexisting rocks that were subjected to very high
pressure and temperature, resulting in their structural and chemical transformation.
66
Metamorphosis A marked and more or less abrupt developmental change in the form or structure
of an animal (e.g., butterfly or frog) occurring subsequent to birth or hatching.
Mineral A solid homogeneous crystalline chemical element or compound that results from the
inorganic processes of nature.
Natural material Material found in nature, such as wood, stone, gases, and clay.
Orbit A path described by one body in its revolution about another (e.g., Earth about the sun, an
electron about an atomic nucleus).
Organism An individual self-sustaining unit of life or living material. Five forms of organisms
are known: plants, animals, fungi, protists, and bacteria.
Pitch The property of a sound, and especially a musical tone, that is determined by the frequency
of the waves producing it: highness or lowness of sound.
Plasma/plasma state Plasma is a state of matter, often called “the fourth state.” The atoms in
plasma move around in all directions at high speed. Plasmas are usually very hot and they glow.
The sun, northern lights, lightning, and the glowing “gases” in neon sign tubes and fluorescent
lamp tubes are examples of plasmas.
Precipitation A deposit on the earth of hail, mist, rain, sleet, or snow; also: the quantity of water
deposited.
Process 1. Human activities used to create, invent, design, transform, produce, control, maintain,
and use products or systems; 2. A systematic sequence of actions that combines resources to
produce an output.
Producer Any of various organisms (e.g., a green plant) that produce their own organic
compounds from simple precursors (e.g., carbon dioxide and inorganic nitrogen), and many of
which are food sources for other organisms.
Property A characteristic, attribute, or trait of an object.
Prototype A full-scale working model used to test a design concept by making actual
observations and necessary adjustments possible.
Reflection The return of light or sound waves from a surface.
Refraction Deflection from a straight path undergone by a light ray or energy wave in passing
obliquely from one medium into another (e.g., from air into glass), in which its velocity changes.
Resource In a technological system, the basic technological resources are energy, capital,
information, machines and tools, materials, people, and time.
Revolve To move in a curved path around a center or axis.
Rotate To turn about an axis or a center.
Sedimentary Rocks formed from materials deposited as sediment by water, wind, or ice,
including debris of organic origin, and then compressed and cemented together by pressure.
Simple machines The simple machines are the lever, pulley, and inclined plane, along with their
most basic modifications, the wheel and axle, wedge, and screw. A complex machine is a
machine made up of two or more simple machines.
Sketch A rough drawing that represents the main features of an object or scene that is often made
as a preliminary study.
67
Solar system The sun together with the group of celestial bodies that are held by its attraction and
revolve around it.
Solid/solid state Solid is a state of matter. Solid molecules hold together very tightly and often
line up in exact patterns; therefore, solids do not flow. Solids do not change their shapes or
volumes.
Sound A kind of energy contained in vibrating matter. Sound travels through solids, liquids, and
gases. The eardrums convert this vibrational energy into signals that travel along nerves to the
brain, which interprets them as voices, music, noise, etc.
Streak The color of the fine powder of a mineral obtained by scratching or rubbing against a hard
white surface and constituting an important distinguishing characteristic. Note: the streak color
may be completely different from the color observed at the surface of the mineral.
Synthetic material Material that is not found in nature (e.g., glass, concrete, plastics).
System A group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements or parts that function
together as a whole to accomplish a goal.
Technology 1. Human innovation in action that involves generating knowledge and processes to
develop systems that solve problems and extend human capabilities; 2. The innovation, change, or
modification of the natural environment to satisfy perceived human needs and/or wants.
Technology education The study of technology, which provides an opportunity for students to
learn about the processes and knowledge related to technology that are needed to solve problems
and extend human capabilities.
Texture The nature of the surface of an object, especially as described by the sense of touch, but
excluding temperature. Textures include rough, smooth, feathery, sharp, greasy, metallic, and
silky.
Weather The state of the atmosphere with respect to heat or cold, wetness or dryness, calm or
storm, clearness or cloudiness.
Weight The force with which a body is attracted toward the earth or a celestial body by
gravitation, and which is equal to the product of the mass and the local gravitational acceleration.
68

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Introduction to Engineering Skills, September 2010

Part I: Introduction to Science, Technology and Engineering

1.1 Defining Globalization

Globalization: - in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional

1.2 History of Globalization

1.3 Modern Globalization

GATT is the foundation has included:

1.4 Measuring Globalization

• Technology : - international research & development flows; proportion of populations

1.5 Effects of globalization

• Cultural - growth of cross-cultural contacts; advent of new categories of consciousness

o Crime importation and raising awareness of global crime-fighting efforts and

Deglobalization, also deglobalisation (chiefly UK/Ireland), refers to a process of diminishing

Generally, the anti-globalization people says globalization as a Meaningless growth, which

Chapter Two: Industrial Revolution

2.1 Background of the Industrial Revolution

2.3 Communication and the Industrial Revolution

2.5 Top 10 Significant Industrial Revolution Inventors

Robert Fulton Regular Steamboat service on the Hudson River 1807

2.6 THE GLOBAL CHALLENGE – Engineering perspectives

3. This presents both challenges and opportunities for our country.

Chapter Three: Science, Technology and Engineering

3.1 What is Engineering?

3.2 The Nature, Domain and Relationships of Science and Technology

The Nature of Science

The Nature of Technology/Engineering

Technology Education A study of technology, which provides an opportunity for students to

Interaction of Science and Technology:

3.3 The Core Concepts and Guiding Principles in Science, Technology,

CORE CONCEPT in Science and Technology

Guiding Principles of Science and Technology

Engineering Technology (ET) is a field of study which focuses on the applications of

Professional Engineer Licensure

3.4 The role and purposes of science, technology and engineering?

Engineering versus Engineering Technology Programs

Here are some of the ways they differ:

2. System A group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements or parts that function

PART II: Reasoning and Problem Solving Skills

Chapter One: Introduction to Problem Solving

After finishing this chapter students will be able to:

1.1 Introduction to Problem Solving

1.1.1 What is a Problem?

1.1.2 The Importance of Goals in Problem Solving

Self test questions

1.1.3 What is a Solution?

Self test questions

a) It is a way of preventing a problem from occurring/recurring

1.1.4 General Guidelines for Problem Solving

II. Goal Establishment

III. Idea Generation

IV. Idea Selection

Discussion of the Problem Solving Guidelines

1. State the Problem.

2. Clarify the Problem.

3. Explain the Problem.

4. Put the Problem in Context.

II. Goal Establishment

III. Idea Generation

1. Generate Ideas for Possible Solutions.

IV. Idea Selection

2. Choose the Solution(s).

2. Make adjustments or changes as needed during implementation. Remain flexible in this

1. Investigate to determine whether the solution(s) worked, and to what extent. Do