Computers chem. Engng Vol. 20, Suppl., pp.

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Copyright © 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
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ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
IN F O O D P R O C E S S I N G S I M U L A T I O N

G.D.SARAVACOS 1, A.E. KOSTAROPOULOS 2

1 Department of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University

Zografou Campus, 157 80 Athens, GREECE
2 Department of Food Science ant Technology, Agricultural University of Athens
Votanikos, 118 55 Athens, GREECE

Abstract - The design, simulation, optimisation and control of food processing

operations require basic engineering properties of foods. Due to the complex
physical and chemical structure of foods, theoretical prediction is not possible, and
experimental data are needed for the thermophysical, transport, and mechanical
properties of raw and processed food products. Special consideration is necessary
for the quality changes, microbiological / biological safety, and sanitation of food
processing. Tables of scattered data and limited databases have been published, but
there is a need for more reliable data and models, especially for the transport
properties, i.e. the fluid flow, heat and mass transfer properties of food products.
Typical experimental values and semi-empirical models for the mechanical
properties, the apparent viscosity, the thermal conductivity, and the moisture
diffusivity are presented for model foods and fruit / vegetable products. Application
of the engineering properties to the simulation of food processing operations, such
as thermal processing and drying, is discussed. Reliable pilot-plant and industrial
data are essential, since some engineering properties, such as interphase transfer
coefficients and fouling factors, are affected strongly by the food product
processing equipment system.

INTRODUCTION
Computer Aided Process Engineering ( CAPE ) is well developed in Chemical Engineenng, where
sufficient physical property data and prediction models are available, especially for liquids and gases
( Winter, 1992 ). Application of CAPE to Food Engineering and Processing is lagging behind, due to
the complex physical, chemical, and biological structure of foods, which are mostly solid or semi-
solid materials. Contrary to the extensive physical databases for chemical processes and operations,
limited data bases and computer programs for foods have been published ( Singh, 1993; Miles et al.,
1983).
Two cooperative research projects, COST 90 and COST 90bis, were undertaken in the European
Union on the physical properties of interest to the food industry ( Jowitt et al., 1983 ; Jowitt et al.,
1987). It was concluded that the physical properties of foods depend not only on the specific food
material, but also on the processing of the food and the method of measurement.
A computer program was developed for the thermal properties of foods, COSTHERM ( Miles et al.,
1983), but the diverse and variable data of the other properties prevented the development of other
computer programs.
Tables of physical and engineering properties of foods have been published in handbooks and
special books of Food Engineering ( Heldman and Lund, 1992; Okos, 1986; Lewis, 1987, Rahman,
1995). Reliable property data are available for food liquids, such as oils, juices, and beverages..
However, most data on solid and semi-solid foods are specific for a certain structure and processing
treatment.

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$462 European Symposium on Computer Aided Process Engineering---6. Part A

The importance of computers in food process engineering, especially in thermal processing of foods
has been recognized ( Teixeira and Shoemaker, 1989 ). A special symposium on European research
and applications of computers in food process engineering was organized by the IChemE in
Cambridge, U.K. ( IChemE, 1992 ). Computer-aided techniques have been suggested for food
technology applications, especially for prediction of quality changes of stored foods (Saguy, 1982).
The lack of appropriate properties of foods has limited the wider application of these techniques
Modeling and simulation of food processes can be based on the same principles as chemical
processing. However, there is a need for more and reliable data on the physical / engineering
properties of foods in simulation and design of food processes. The need for accurate data is
particularly important in processes dealing with the safety and sensory quality of process-sensitive
foods. This paper discusses the importance of the physical / engineering properties of foods in the
simulation and design of food processes. Typical experimental data and semi-empirical models for food
products, especially for model foods and fruits / vegetables are presented.

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF FOODS

The engineering design of food processes and equipment requires basic physical and engineering
properties of the food materials. Most of these properties are determined experimentally, and some of
them are correlated with semi-empirical models and correlations.

Physical / Mechanical Properties

The bulk and solids densities ( Pb, Ps ) of solid foods are determined experimentally and they can
be used to estimate the bulk porosity ( E ) of the solid food materials ( 1 ). Changes in porosity during
processing may have significant effects on the heat and mass transport properties, and the quality
(nutritive and sensory) of the food product.
E = 1 - pb/Ps (1)
Most liquid foods are non-Newtonian fluids and the power-law model ( 2 ) may be applied.
Rheological measurements of stress (1;) / strain (~') yield the rheological constants ( K , n ), from
which the apparent viscosity ( 1; / y) of the liquid product can be estimated at a given shear rate, i.e.
flow conditions ( Saravacos and Kostaropoulos, 1995).
1;= K.y n (2)
Table 1 shows the rheological constants of tomato juice and concentrates at 25 ° C. The flow
consistency coefficient ( K ) increases sharply as the solids concentration (o Brix ) of the product is
increased, while the flow behavior index ( n ) decreases. Low ( n ) values mean that the apparent
viscosity decreases considerably at high shear rates ( ¥ ), i.e. high agitation or high velocity.

Table 1. Rheolol]ical constants of tomato juice / concentrates

Product K ( Pa s n) n (-)
Tomato juice / concentrate
9 o Brix 0.8 0.55
14 o ,, 4.0 0.40
22 o . 17.0 0.30
32 o " 52.0 0.20

The majority of solid and semi-solid foods are viscoelastic, and an appropriate model can be fitted to
experimental mechanical stress / strain data. Thus, a three - element Maxwell model was obtained from
experimental data on raisins ( Karathanos et al., 1994 ). Rheological properties are important in
designing mechanical equipment for handling, separating, and storage of particulate foods such as
resins and cereal products..

Heat Transport Properties

The thermal conductivity ( X ) of solid foods depends strongly on the porosity ( e ) of the material. It
is also affected by the moisture content, the temperature, and the fiber direction of the material. The
thermal diffusivity ( ct ) is usually determined from the thermal conductivity ( ~. ), the bulk density
(Pb) and the specific heat ( Cp ) of the product, according to equn. ( 3 ).

e~ = ~./ Pb Cp (3)
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Structural models have been suggested to predict the effective thermal conductivity of starch-based
solid foods from the thermal conductivities of the solid and gas phases ( k s , La ) and the porosity ( I~ )
of the material ( Maroulis et al., 1990; Maroulis et al., 1991; Saravacos and Kostaropoulos, 1995). For
granular/porous solids the parallel model (equn. 4) is recommended, while for gelatinized starch
materials the series model is more appropriate (equn. 5):

k = ~.k a + (l-e).~. s (4)

llk = elk a + (l-e)/k s (5)

For starch-based foods, the following values were estimated : k s (porous) = 0.139 W / m K ,
k s ( non porous) = 0.320 W / m K , k a = 0.023 W / m K.
The thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of porous foods at low moistures is a non linear
function of the moisture content, due to significant changes of bulk porosity. At moistures higher than
30%, these thermal properties increase linearly with the moisture. Tabulated data on various foods
have appeared in the literature ( Kostaropoulos, 1971; Okos, 1986 ; Vagenas et at., 1989).
The specific heat of foods, in most cases, can be predicted accurately from the chemical composition
of the major components, water, carbohydrate, protein, and lipids (Miles et al., 1983).
The convection heat transfer coefficient ( h ) and the overall heat transfer coefficient ( U ) are
important energy transport properties in the design and operation of food thermal processes.. The
values of ( h ) and ( U ) depend strongly on the apparent viscosity of the fluid foods and the processing
equipment. Pilot plant and industrial data are essential, since fouling of the heat transfer surface may
reduce significantly the heat transfer rate. Agitation and high velocities may improve heat transfer in
pseudoplastic (non Newtonian) food fluids, due to the significant decrease of the apparent viscosity.
Table 2 shows typical overall heat transfer coefficients in thermal processes of fruits / vegetables
(Saravacos and Kostaropoulos, 1995) :

Table 2. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients in Food Processes

Processing equipment Food Product U , W / m2 K
Air - dryer, 2 m / s Solid food 40
Agitated kettle Fruit pulp 1000
Falling film evaporator Clarified juice, 40 ° Brix 2000
. . . . . . Cloudy.iuice, 30 ° Brix 1200

Mass Transfer Properties

Moisture transport is the most important mass transfer operation in food processing, and most of the
literature on the subject is concerned with these properties. Little information is available on the
transport of the food components, e.g. sugars, salt, and flavor (aroma) compounds (Saravacos,1995a).
The moisture transport properties include the moisture diffusivity, the interphase moisture transfer
coefficient, and the moisture permeability (Saravacos, 1995b). The first two properties are of great
importance to food process engineering, while moisture permeability concerns mainly fc~d ~ c k a g i n g
Extensive data have been published on the moisture diffusivity, but very little information is available
on the interphase moisture transler coefficients in food processing.

Moisture Duffusivity
The transport of water in solid and semi-solid foods is usually expressed by the effective moisture
diffusivity ( D ) , which is an overall transport coefficient, assuming that the driving force is a
concentration gradient of water (SX / 8z). The transport of water may involve liquid or gas diffusion,
surface diffusion, capillary flow, or hydrodynamic flow. The diffusivity ( D ) is estimated from a
solution of the unsteady-state diffusion (Fick) equation, usually in one (z) direction :
,~x/~t - 8/~z {D(~X/~ z)} (6 )
where ( X ) is the moisture content, dry basis (kg water / kg dry matter), and ( t ) is the time.
Analytical solutions of the diffusion equation are available for standard solid shapes ( sphere, slab,
and infinite cylinder ). In most foods, ( D ) changes considerably during the moisture diffusion process,
and numerical solutions are applied, using computers. Prediction of ( D ) on theoretical grounds is not
possible, and experimental techniques are used, including sorption/desorption kinetics, drying rate,
distribution of moisture, and moisture permeability (Saravacos, 1995a, 1995b). The values of ( D ) in
foods may depend on the expenmental technique, due to the changes of the food structure during the
measurement. Thus, ( D ) values obtained from drying (desorption) measurements are, in general,
higher than the values obtained from moisture adsorption or moisture distribution.
$464 European Symposium on Computer Aided Process Engineering----6. Part A

Tabulated data of ( D ) in various foods span over a wide range, ( 0.01 - 100)xlO -tO m 2 / s. The
lower diffusivities are found in gel-like food materials of low porosity at low moistures, while the
highest values are observed in highly porous, freeze-dried, and puffed (extruded) food products.
Table 3 shows the order of magnitude of the moisture diffusivity ( D ) in various food materials.

Table 3. Order of Magnitude of Moisture Diffusivit~" ~ D ) in Food Materials

Food Material Order of Mal~nitude D , m 2 / s
Porous biopolymer 1x 10 -9
Biopolymer gel 1x 10" tO
Biopolymer / sugar lxl0-1 l
Biopolymer / protein 1x l 0-12
Biopolymer / lipid I x 10-13

Most of the experimental data have been obtained with starch materials (Saravacos, 1995a), but
similar values are expected with other food biopolymers, like cellulose and proteins. In general, the
values of (D) decrease when the porosity decreases, pressure is applied, or sugars, proteins, or lipids
are added to the food polymer matrix.
Most dehydrated and semi-dry food products are porous, and the apparent moisture diffusivity ( D )
is a strong function of the bulk porosity ( e ). In porous materials, the moisture content ( X ) and the
temperature ( T, K ) have minor influence on the ( D ). In non-porous materials , moisture and
temperature have stronger positive effects, due to the plastisization of the dry polymer with water.
The effective moisture diffusivity ( D , m 2 / s ) in porous starch materials can be estimated from the
following empirical equation (Marousis et al., 1991) :

D={4842+0.57X- 4-34 +34212 [ E 3/(1 - e )2] exp(- 4.5/RT)}10 -10 ( 7)

where the gas constant R = 0.00198 kcal / mole.

Moisture Transfer Coefficients

The interphase transfer coefficients are important in drying, refrigeration, freezing, and storage
applications of food processing. Depending on the moisture transfer driving force, three moisture
transfer coefficients ( kc , k y , and kp ) can be defined in the lbllowing equations :
J = k c ( C s - C a ) = ky (Ys - Y a ) = kp (Ps - Pa) (8)
Here, ( J ) is the moisture transfer rate or flux ( kg / m 2 s ), and ( C, Y , p ) are respectively the
moisture concentration ( kg / m 3 ), the moisture fraction ( kg water / kg dry air ), and vapor pressure of
water ( Pa ). The corresponding units for the moisture transfer coefficients are, kc = m / s, ky = kg/m 2 s
and kp = kg / m 2 s Pa. The subscripts (s) and (a) refer ,respectively, to the surface of the solid and the
surrounding air.
The moisture transfer coefficients for specific geometries and (air) flow conditions can be estimated
from semi-empirical correlations of chemical engineering. Heat / mass transfer analogies, like the
Lewis relation, can be applied, provided that the appropriate conditions exist, i.e. air turbulence and
wet surface of the food material (Saravacos, 1995b). The moisture transfer coefficient during frozen
storage of foods may decrease sharply, due to the formation of a dried surface layer. Table 4 shows
some typical values of the mass transfer coefficient ( ky or k c ) for various food processes. Most of
the data refer to estimations from available values of the convection heat transfer coefficient.

Table 4. Estimated (est.) and Experimental (exp.) Moisture Transfer Coefficients ( ky or kc)
Air / Food h ky, g / m 2 s
System W /m-s or k c , m m / s
Drying starch spheres
Convection air, 2 m / s 35 (est.) 35 (exp.)
Bakery oven
Convection air 15 - 30 (exp.) 15 - 30 (est.)
Thawing frozen solids
Convection air, 1-6 m/s 15- 40 (exp) 15 - 40 (est.)
Freezing meat balls
Convection air, 1-7 m/s 15 - 30 (exp.) 15 - 30 (est.)

For the air - drying of solids, empirical models for estimation of the mass Wansfer coefficient have been
proposed, as a fimction of the air velocity and the temperature ( Marinos-Kouris and Maroulis, 1995).
 European Symposium on Computer Aided Process Engineering--6. Part A $465

Phase Equilibria
Extensive literature data and empirical models of water vapor/solid food equilibrium (moisture
sorption isotherms ) are available, which are important in food processing and food packaging/storage
( Iglesias and Chirife, 1982 ; Jowitt et al., 1983 ; Saravacos, 1995a).
Vapor/liquid equilibria (VLE) of volatile food components are essential in evaporation, drying and
essence recovery (distillation) operations. Chemical engineering databases on VLE and thermodynamic
properties can be utilised in food processing. The activity coefficients (volatilities) of food aroma
components in aqueous solutions increase significantly in the presence of soluble sugars and should
be taken into consideration. These systems are highly non ideal in the liquid phase, and the UNIFAC
computation model has been suggested (Saravacos et al, 1990).
Liquid/liquid and liquid/solid equilibria from chemical engineering databases could be used in some
food processes, involving mass transfer, such as extraction of caffeine and lipids from food products.
Electrical/Optical Properties
Recent research and development on the application of electrical methods to food processing
(microwave, ohmic heating) require electrical properties of foods. Of particular interest are the
dielectric properties of foods, needed in microwave processing (Mudgett, 1995). The optical
properties of food materials are essential in quality control and in the design of machine vision systems
for the inspection and control of food processing lines.

SIMULATION IN FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING

Process simulation has been applied only recently to food process engineering, mainly to the thermal
processing and the drying of foods. In addition to process design, operation and control, process
simulation can also be a useful tool for training operators in food processing plants, especially where
new, complex processes are applied (Skjoldebrand et al., 1994).

Thermal Processing of Foods"

Thermal processing is used in the food industry to inactivate by heat the spoilage microorganisms and
enzymes ( sterilization or pasteurization ), without damaging the quality of the food product. It was the
first food process where mathematical modeling was applied, because of its great importance to the
public health safety and the economics of food processing. The modeling of batch thermal processing
of a solid food in a can consists of unsteady-state heating by conduction and first-order kinetics of
inactivation of a target microorganism (or enzyme). Simultaneously the quality of the food product
should not be damaged, i.e. the change in a measurable quality factor should be minimized. The
model predicts the heating and cooling times in a sterilizer (retort) to obtain the optimum result.
Numerical simulation requires the thermohysical properties of the food product ( Teixeira and
Shoemaker, 1989 ).
A process simulator ( ASEP ) for the continuous aseptic thermal processing of liquid foods,
containing solid particles, was developed at the Swedish Food Research Institute SIK ( Skjoidebrand
and Ohlsson, 1993 ). The model estimates the desired degree of inactivation of the target
microorganism or safety factor ( F - value ), the food quality factor ( C - value ), and the residence time
or the length of the holding tube. The input data can be changed during the simulation. Sensitivity tests
have demonstrated the significance of the thermophysical properties, particularly the specific heat, the
thermal conductivity, and the bulk density of the product..

Air- Drying of Foods

The importance of the engineering properties and modeling in the air-drying of solids is well
recognized (Marinos-Kouris and Maroulis, 1995). A modular simulator of a belt dryer was developed
by Kiranoudis et al. (1994). The simulator consists of a mathematical model of heat / mass transfer
and a physical properties data'base. The system was applied to the dehydration of potato slices.
Decent developments in the fast drying of pasta require better control of the drying conditions, so
that the quality of the product will not be damaged. A model involving the heat and mass transfer
equations of drying , and the viscoelastic properties (textural quality) of the pasta product was
developed by de Cindio et al., (1994). Simulation results suggest optimum drying conditions ( time -
temperature ) to prevent product deformation and cracking.

Acknowledgement
The experimental research contributions of our associates and graduate students are acknowledged.
$466 European Symposium on Computer Aided Process Engineering----6.Part A

Notation
Cs , Ca moisture concentration of air at solid surface and in bulk air , k g / m 3
D diffusivity , m 2 / s
h convection heat transfer coefficient , W / m 2 K
.1 mass flux , kg / m 2 s
kc ,ky,kp moisture transfer coefficients , m / s , k g / m 2 s , k g / m 2 s P a
Ps , Pa water vapor pressure at solid surface and in bulk air, Pa
R gas constant ,0.00198 kcal / mole
T temperature , K
t time , s
U overall heat transfer coefficient , W / m 2 K
X moisture content of food , kg water / kg dry matter
Ys , Ya moisture content of air at solid surface and in bulk air , kg water/kg dry air
z lcngth , m

Greek Letters
a thermal diffusivity , m 2 / s
~, shear rate , 1 / s
porosity , --
Z. thermal conductivity , W / m K
Pb , Ps bulk , solids density , k g / m 3
T shear stress , Pa

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