Medical and Veterinary Entomology (2010) 24, 1–8

Environmental interactions with the toxicity of plant

essential oils to the poultry red mite Dermanyssus
gallinae
1 1 2 1
D. R. G E O R G E , O. A. E. S P A R A G A N O , G. P O R T , E. O K E L L O ,
1 1
R. S. S H I E L and J. H. G U Y
1 Faculty
of Science, Agriculture and Engineering, School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle University,
Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K. and 2 Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering, School of Biology, Newcastle University,
Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K.

Abstract. The toxicity of a range of plant essential oils to the poultry red mite,
Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer) (Acari: Dermanyssidae), a serious ectoparasitic pest
of laying hens throughout Europe and elsewhere, was assessed in the laboratory.
Dermanyssus gallinae may cause losses in egg production, anaemia and, in extreme
cases, death of hens. With changes in legislation and consumer demand, alternatives
to synthetic acaricides are needed to manage this pest. Fifty plant essential oils were
selected for their toxicity to arthropods reported in the literature. Twenty-four of
these essential oils were found to kill >75% of adult D. gallinae in contact toxicity
tests over a 24-h period at a rate of 0.21 mg/cm2 . Subsequent testing at lower rates
showed that the essential oils of cade, manuka and thyme were especially toxic to
adult D. gallinae. The toxicity of the seven most acaricidal essential oils was found
to be stable at different temperatures likely to be encountered in commercial poultry
housing (15◦ C, 22◦ C and 29◦ C), although results suggest that humidity and dust might
influence the toxicity of some of the oils tested. The toxicity of clove bud essential oil
to D. gallinae, for example, was increased at high humidity and dust levels compared
with ambient levels. The results suggest that certain essential oils may make effective
botanical pesticides for use against D. gallinae, although it is likely that issues relating
to the consistency of the toxic effect of some oils will determine which oils will be
most effective in practice.

Key words. Dermanyssus gallinae, botanical pesticide, essential oil, pest manage-
ment, poultry.

Introduction birds in these systems, of approximately 72 weeks, allows time

The poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer), is
the most economically deleterious parasite of laying hens in
Europe (Chauve, 1998). It is an obligatory haematophagous
ectoparasite of both domestic and wild birds, known to obtain
its bloodmeal from a range of alternative species, including
man (Bruneau et al., 2001). Although not entirely species-
specific, D. gallinae is seen most frequently in systems for
laying hens. This is largely because the lengthy turnover of
for large populations of D. gallinae to become established in
the poultry house (Höglund et al., 1995). A study by Guy et al.
(2004) confirmed the widespread prevalence of D. gallinae in
commercial laying hen housing systems in the U.K. with the
finding that 87.5% of premises surveyed were infested and
population levels were higher in free-range units compared
with cage systems. Increased D. gallinae populations in
free-range systems have also been reported by Arkle et al.
(2006).

Correspondence: Dr David George, School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1
7RU, U.K. Tel.: +44 191 222 8893; Fax: +44 191 222 6720; E-mail: D.R.George@ncl.ac.uk

© 2010 The Authors

Journal compilation © 2010 The Royal Entomological Society 1
2 D. R. George et al.
The consequences of infestation by D. gallinae are severe
for both the welfare of the birds and the economic sustain-
ability of the enterprise. The feeding mite can cause irritation,
restlessness and either mild or severe anaemia, occasionally
resulting in death (Wojcik et al., 2000; Cosoroaba, 2001).
Behavioural observations have also shown increases in canni-
balistic feather pecking associated with D. gallinae infestation
(Kilpinen, 1999). Production is affected through reductions in
the growth rate of hens, egg production and egg quality, in
which poor shell integrity and blood-staining of the shell sur-
face may occur (Chauve, 1998). In a study of a caged housing
system, mortality of birds rose from 1% to 4% as a result of
parasitism by D. gallinae and egg production was reduced by
approximately 10% (Wojcik et al., 2000). Dermanyssus galli-
nae is also a threat in the spread of disease, as it may act as
a vector for a number of pathogenic poultry infections, both
bacterial and viral (Chirico et al., 2003).
The tendency of D. gallinae to occupy small cracks and
crevices in the poultry house substructure (Bruneau et al.,
2001), its ability to survive for extended periods without taking
a bloodmeal (Axtell, 1999) and its rapid population growth
(under optimal conditions the lifecycle of D. gallinae from
egg to adult can be completed within 1 week) make eradication
very challenging (Kilpinen, 2001). The most common form of
control for D. gallinae involves the application of synthetic
pesticides. However, the number of effective pesticides
registered for application in poultry houses is relatively low for
various reasons, including the development of mite resistance
(Beugnet et al., 1997; Kim et al., 2004; Fiddes et al., 2005),
chemical and antibiotic residues in food and undesirable
environmental effects (Dalton & Mulcahy, 2001).
Plant-derived products including essential oils may offer
an alternative and effective means of managing D. gallinae
populations. Such products may be attractive as botanical
pesticide candidates as they are environmentally non-persistent
and generally possess low mammalian toxicities, unlike many
of the available synthetic alternatives (Isman, 2000, 2006).
Several pesticides based on plant constituents are already used
widely in certain areas of pest management. For example,
products based on extracts from the neem tree, particularly its
seeds, are common. Indeed, neem extracts are reported to have
biocidal effects against 200 species of arthropod pest (Choi
et al., 2004).
In the case of veterinary ectoparasites, work has shown
that an aqueous extract from camomile flowers (10%) resulted
in 100% mortality of Psoroptes cuniculi (Delafond), a mite
responsible for causing otoacariasis in domestic animals
(Macchioni et al., 2004). Perrucci et al. (1995) found that
both thymol and eugenol, the primary components of thyme
and clove bud essential oils, respectively, killed 100% of the
same mite species in both contact and inhalation toxicity tests.
In a study by Mignon and Losson (1996), a phyto-aromatic
gel based on more than a dozen plant-derived products was
effective in controlling the ear mite Otodectes cynotis (Hering)
in both dogs and cats. A similar product had the same effect
when used against the mange mite Sarcoptes scabiei (L.) on
dogs (Das, 1996). Plant-derived products may also be of use
in managing pests of livestock. The pig mange mite, Sarcoptes
scabiei var. suis, for example, has been effectively controlled
Journal compilation © 2010 The Royal Entomological Society, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 24, 1–8
by volatile oil preparations of either citronella or tea tree (Mägi
et al., 2006). After two applications, preparations of both of
these oils reduced in vivo mite infestation levels by 95%. In
addition, the mode of action of essential oils might benefit
their use as acaricides for D. gallinae. Kim et al. (2004, 2007)
suggested that the acaricidal effect of selected essential oils
against D. gallinae was attributable to action in the vapour
phase. This would be beneficial in the management of pests
that have a predisposition to seek refuge in cracks and crevices.
The aim of the present study was to identify one or more
botanical pesticides effective against D. gallinae from a range
of plant essential oils. This was achieved by a two-stage pro-
cess: firstly, by producing a shortlist of the most acaricidal
essential oils and, secondly, by assessing the toxicity of the
most effective oils to D. gallinae under varying environmental
conditions similar to those encountered in commercial poultry
housing systems.
Materials and methods
Selection of plant essential oils
Fifty plant essential oils were chosen for study based
on a review of the literature describing plant-derived prod-
ucts that have been shown to control ectoparasites, with
an emphasis on those effective against mites. The essential
oils were obtained from New Directions U.K. (Southampton,
U.K.), Absolute Aromas (Alton, U.K.) and Fleur Aromatherapy
(Kingham, U.K.).
Dermanyssus gallinae source
Dermanyssus gallinae were collected weekly from a com-
mercial free-range unit in Northumberland, U.K., and stored in
sealed plastic bags at 22◦ C under a 16:8 h light : dark (L : D)
regime. Mites were collected by directly transferring groups of
individuals from the poultry house structure into the bags used
for storage. Mites were collected on Fridays and used in tests
within 6 days of collection. To ensure consistency of results,
only recently fed adult females were used where mites that
were darker in colour were assumed to have fed more recently
than paler individuals.
General methods
All of the following toxicity tests were conducted by
impregnating filter papers (Whatman No. 2, 4.25 cm in diam-
eter; Fisher Scientific, Loughborough, U.K.) with the desired
amount of essential oil in 50 μL ethanol. All experiments
included control treatments in which filter papers were impreg-
nated with 50 μL ethanol only. Following application of the
treatments, individual filter papers were placed in glass Petri
dishes (4.8 cm in diameter, 1.2 cm in height; Fisher Scien-
tific) and left for 3 min in a fume cupboard. Approximately 23
D. gallinae were then added to each dish, which was sealed
with a layer of cling-film and a layer of Parafilm and left for a
© 2010 The Authors

period of 24 h. All experiments, unless otherwise stated, were
conducted in a climate-controlled growth room (22◦ C, 16:8 h
L : D) at Newcastle University, U.K. Mortality was assessed
under a mounted lens at 4× magnification. In all experiments,
mites were classed as dead if they exhibited no movement after
repeated agitation with an entomological pin.
Where data have been transformed prior to statistical
analysis, this has been done to fit the residuals from the
analysis to a normal distribution, as required by the statistical
methods used. Normality was assessed in all cases by the
Anderson–Darling test. Statistical analysis for all experiments
was performed using minitab (Version 14) (Minitab, Inc.,
State College, PA, U.S.A.).
Experiment 1. Screening 50 essential oils for toxicity to
D. gallinae. A total of 50 different plant essential oils
(Table 1) were used to impregnate filter papers at a rate
of 0.21 mg/cm2 . Four replicates were performed for each
essential oil. The mortality of D. gallinae after exposure
to Ficam W (bendiocarb 80% w/w; Bayer Environmental
Science, Cambridge, U.K.) at the manufacturer’s recommended
rate, which equated to 0.21 mg of product in 50 μL ethanol per
filter paper, was also assessed for comparison.
The percentage mortality of D. gallinae was calculated with
Abbott’s correction (Abbott, 1925) to account for the control
mortality for each essential oil and Ficam W. It was not
possible to test all essential oils at the same time, so seven
runs of the experiment were conducted, each of which tested
selected essential oils, plus a Ficam W treatment and a control.
Replicates for any given oil were completed in one run only.
Mortality was compared between treatments using a one-
way analysis of variance (anova) with corresponding Tukey’s
tests. Where mortality was 100% in all replicates for a given
treatment, only one treatment was used in the analysis. Data
were arcsine square-root transformed prior to analysis.
Experiment 2. Lethal dose determination for selected essen-
tial oils. The 24 most toxic essential oils from Experiment 1
were used to impregnate filter papers at 0.42, 0.21, 0.11, 0.05,
0.03 and 0.01 mg/cm2 . Control filter papers received 50 μL
ethanol only and hence 0.00 mg/cm2 of essential oil. Four
replicates were carried out for each essential oil.
Lethal dose (LD) values of LD50 , LD90 and LD99 were
calculated for each essential oil using Probit analysis and com-
pared between oils by a one-way anova with corresponding
Tukey’s tests. LD50 values were cube-root transformed, LD90
values were square-root transformed and LD99 values were
untransformed, prior to analysis. Following analysis, essential
oils were ranked for their increasing toxicity to D. gallinae.
Experiment 3. Determining the toxicity of seven selected
essential oils to D. gallinae under varying environmental
conditions. The seven essential oils inducing the greatest
D. gallinae mortality in Experiment 2 were used to impregnate
filter papers at each oil’s respective LD50 (in mg/cm2 ). The
© 2010 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2010 The Royal Entomological Society, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 24, 1–8
Plant essential oil toxicity to Dermanyssus gallinae 3
seven essential oils were those of manuka, cade, pennyroyal,
thyme, garlic, clove bud 1 and cinnamon bark (Table 1), which
displayed LD50 , LD90 and LD99 values of ≤0.1, ≤0.2 and
≤0.3 mg/cm2 , respectively. Separate tests were run to assess
the effect of temperature (15◦ C, 22◦ C, 29◦ C), humidity [40%
or 95% relative humidity (RH)] and dust level (0 mg or 18 mg
of dust per dish) on the toxicity of essential oils to D. gallinae.
The dust used was collected from the poultry unit from
which the D. gallinae had been obtained, where a level of
18 mg of poultry house dust per Petri dish equated to the
average amount of dust to settle on an undisturbed surface
in a 24-h period. The three temperature treatments were run
concurrently in three different climate-controlled growth rooms
at Newcastle University in complete darkness. A humidity
level of 95% was achieved by adding 200 μL distilled water
to the filter papers in addition to the essential oil or ethanol
prior to use. When this water was not added, RH values in
Petri dishes were recorded at 40%. Relative humidity was
measured by a simple needle and dial-type herpetologist’s
humidity gauge in 1400-mL sealed glass vessels, scaled up
to have received treatment comparable with that of the Petri
dishes. Four replicates for each essential oil were carried out
in all tests.
The percentage mortality of D. gallinae was calculated
for each essential oil and the control. Mortality between
treatments, and between individual oils and the control, was
then compared by a two-way anova. Data collected at varying
temperatures were cube-root transformed prior to analysis.
Humidity and dust data did not require transformation prior
to analysis.
Results
Experiment 1. Screening 50 essential oils for toxicity
to D. gallinae
There was a significant difference in D. gallinae mortality
between the 50 essential oils (F(41,126) = 15.82, P < 0.001)
(Table 1). Mortality ranged from 100% for 10 of the essential
oils to <10% for a further six oils. The lowest level of
mortality (2.24%) resulted from exposure to the essential oil of
juniper leaf. The average D. gallinae mortality after exposure
to Ficam W was 97.62%.
Experiment 2. Lethal dose of selected essential oils
for D. gallinae
There was a significant difference between the LD values
obtained for the different essential oils at all LD levels
(LD50 : F(23,72) = 12.16, P < 0.001; LD90 : F(23,72) = 12.35,
P < 0.001; LD99 : F(23,72) = 9.16, P < 0.001). Table 2 shows
the essential oils ranked by mortality of D. gallinae. For most
essential oils, there was considerable consistency in the ranking
of lethality levels; the top seven essential oils were ranked very
consistently in their toxicity to D. gallinae across LD50 , LD90
and LD99 levels. Eucalyptus, lavender 1, citronella, lemongrass
and pine essential oils were ranked notably differently for
4 D. R. George et al.

Table 1. Nomenclature, origin, source and acaricidal activity of selected essential oils against Dermanyssus gallinae at 0.21 mg oil/cm2 .

% mortality
Essential oil Latin name Country of origin Supplier (with Abbott’s correction)

Cade Juniperus oxycedrus L. France New Directions 100.00 ± 0.00a

Clove bud 1 Eugenia caryphyllata L. Madagascar Absolute Aromas 100.00 ± 0.00a
Garlic Allium sativum L. Mexico New Directions 100.00 ± 0.00a
Lavender 5 Lavandula officinalis Chaix Croatia New Directions 100.00 ± 0.00a
Lemongrass Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. Madagascar Absolute Aromas 100.00 ± 0.00a
Manuka Leptospermum scoparium Forst. New Zealand New Directions 100.00 ± 0.00a
Pennyroyal Mentha pulegium L. France New Directions 100.00 ± 0.00a
Pine (Scots) Pinus sylvestris L. Hungary New Directions 100.00 ± 0.00a
Tea tree Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel Zimbabwe Absolute Aromas 100.00 ± 0.00a
Thyme Thymus vulgaris L. France New Directions 100.00 ± 0.00a
Citronella Cymbopogon nardus L. Sri Lanka Fleur 98.81 ± 1.19ab
Pimento leaf Pimenta dioica L. Jamaica New Directions 98.69 ± 1.31abc
Ficam W NA—synthetic positive control — Bayer Environmental Science 97.62 ± 0.01abcd
Peppermint Mentha piperita L. England Absolute Aromas 97.39 ± 2.61abcd
Lavender 6 Lavandula dentata L. France New Directions 89.97 ± 0.27abcde
Lavender 3 Lavandula angustifolia Miller France/Pop* New Directions 89.96 ± 2.07abcde
Clove leaf Eugenia caryophyllata Thumb. India New Directions 86.83 ± 10.14abcde
Lavender 4 Lavandula officinalis Chaix France New Directions 86.58 ± 6.64abcde
Lavender 1 Lavandula angustifolia Miller Australia New Directions 86.52 ± 5.29abcdef
Cinnamon bark Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyn. France New Directions 84.74 ± 7.63abcdef
Palmarosa Cymbopogon martini Roxb. India New Directions 84.30 ± 3.67abcdefg
Coriander Coriandrum sativum L. Russia New Directions 78.94 ± 5.02abcdefgh
Eucalyptus 3 Eucalyptus citriodora Hook China New Directions 78.83 ± 11.55abcdefg
Savory Satureja Montana L. France New Directions 77.80 ± 8.00abcdefg
Clove bud 2 Syzgium aromaticum L. India New Directions 75.61 ± 10.42abcdefgh
Lavender 2 Lavandula angustifolia Miller France/MB* New Directions 64.74 ± 7.84bcdefghij
Cinnamon leaf Cinnamomum verum Presl. France New Directions 63.95 ± 12.23abcdefghi
Eucalyptus 4 Eucalyptus staigeriana Muel. Australia New Directions 61.05 ± 13.53bcdefghij
Cinnamon seed Cinnamomum burmanii Blume Sri Lanka New Directions 58.25 ± 8.23cdefghijk
Neroli Citrus aurantium L. France New Directions 54.46 ± 7.12defghijkl
Caraway Carum carvi L. France New Directions 52.86 ± 12.18efghijklm
Geranium Pelargonium graveolens L’Herit France New Directions 51.08 ± 4.41efghijklm
Tansy Tanacetum vulgare L. U.S.A. New Directions 50.65 ± 14.07efghijklmn
Marjoram Origanum marjorana L. France New Directions 44.82 ± 12.04efghijklmno
Oregano Origanum vulgare L. Spain New Directions 37.14 ± 12.89fghijklmno
Sage Salvia officinalis L. Croatia New Directions 32.05 ± 6.75ghijklmno
Wormwood Artemisia scoparia Waldst. China New Directions 30.84 ± 4.41ghijklmno
Absinthe Artemisia absinthium L. China New Directions 29.98 ± 9.70hijklmno
Fir needle Abies siberica Ledeb. Siberia New Directions 27.04 ± 8.37hijklmno
Bay Pimenta racemosa Miller West Indies New Directions 25.85 ± 5.47hijklmno
Spearmint Mentha spicata L. U.S.A. New Directions 20.88 ± 7.81ijklmno
Lime (pressed) Citrus aurantifolia Swing. Italy New Directions 20.58 ± 7.68ijklmno
Eucalyptus 2 Eucalyptus radiata Sieber Australia New Directions 20.23 ± 7.40ijklmno
Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis L. France New Directions 20.21 ± 6.16ijklmno
Eucalyptus 1 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. China New Directions 13.03 ± 6.10jklmno
Ginger Zingiber officinalis Roscoe France New Directions 9.91 ± 1.69klmno
Lime (distilled) Citrus aurantifolia Swing. Italy New Directions 6.86 ± 4.10mno
Chamomile Chamaemelum nobile L. Hungary New Directions 6.39 ± 2.34lmno
Juniper berry Juniperus communis L. India New Directions 6.26 ± 5.04lmno
Pepper (black) Piper nigrum L. India New Directions 4.75 ± 1.96no
Juniper leaf Juniperus communis L. India New Directions 2.24 ± 4.30o

Percentage mortality rates (± standard errors) have been corrected using Abbott’s correction and are displayed as derived from the original
untransformed data. n = 4 for all means corresponding to essential oils and n = 28 for Ficam W (the positive control). Values followed by the
same letter do not differ significantly (P < 0.05) (Tukey’s test).
∗ For Lavender 2 and 3 essential oils, trade names are MB, Mont Blanc and Pop, Population, respectively.

© 2010 The Authors

Journal compilation © 2010 The Royal Entomological Society, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 24, 1–8
 Plant essential oil toxicity to Dermanyssus gallinae 5

Table 2. Lethal doses (LD) in mg oil/cm2 and rank order for 24 essential oils against Dermanyssus gallinae.

LD mg/cm2 Rank order

Essential oil LD50 LD90 LD99 LD50 LD90 LD99 Overall

Cade 0.01 ± 0.00a 0.04 ± 0.01a 0.06 ± 0.02a 1 1 1 1

Thyme 0.02 ± 0.01a 0.07 ± 0.02ab 0.11 ± 0.03ab 2 2 3 2
Manuka 0.03 ± 0.00ab 0.07 ± 0.00abc 0.10 ± 0.01ab 3 3 2 3
Pennyroyal 0.09 ± 0.01bcd 0.16 ± 0.00bcd 0.22 ± 0.01abc 5 4 4 4
Cinnamon bark 0.08 ± 0.00bc 0.18 ± 0.01cde 0.26 ± 0.01abcd 4 5 5 5
Garlic 0.10 ± 0.01bcd 0.19 ± 0.03def 0.27 ± 0.04bcde 6 6 6 6
Clove bud 1 0.10 ± 0.00cd 0.20 ± 0.01def 0.28 ± 0.01bcde 7 7 7 7
Clove bud 2 0.11 ± 0.01cd 0.23 ± 0.02def 0.32 ± 0.03cdef 9 8 9 8
Lavender 4 0.12 ± 0.03cd 0.23 ± 0.05def 0.33 ± 0.06cdef 11 10 10 9
Lavender 1 0.13 ± 0.03cd 0.23 ± 0.04ef 0.31 ± 0.05cde 15 9 8 10
Pine 0.11 ± 0.01cd 0.24 ± 0.00def 0.35 ± 0.01cdef 8 12 13 11
Lemongrass 0.14 ± 0.03cd 0.24 ± 0.06def 0.33 ± 0.07cdef 17 11 11 12
Coriander 0.12 ± 0.02cd 0.25 ± 0.04def 0.36 ± 0.06cdef 12 14 15 13
Savory 0.14 ± 0.01cd 0.25 ± 0.02def 0.34 ± 0.02cdef 16 13 12 13
Tea tree 0.13 ± 0.01cd 0.26 ± 0.01def 0.36 ± 0.02cdef 14 15 14 15
Citronella 0.16 ± 0.04cd 0.27 ± 0.05def 0.36 ± 0.06cdef 21 16 16 16
Lavender 6 0.15 ± 0.03cd 0.29 ± 0.04def 0.41 ± 0.05cdef 18 17 18 16
Palmarosa 0.13 ± 0.02cd 0.30 ± 0.02def 0.43 ± 0.03def 13 18 22 16
Clove leaf 0.16 ± 0.01cd 0.30 ± 0.02def 0.41 ± 0.03cdef 19 19 19 19
Eucalyptus 3 0.11 ± 0.04cd 0.36 ± 0.08f 0.53 ± 0.11f 10 24 24 20
Lavender 5 0.17 ± 0.02cd 0.31 ± 0.02def 0.42 ± 0.02cdef 23 20 20 21
Peppermint 0.20 ± 0.01d 0.31 ± 0.03def 0.41 ± 0.06cdef 24 22 17 21
Pimento leaf 0.17 ± 0.01cd 0.31 ± 0.02def 0.43 ± 0.02def 22 21 21 23
Lavender 3 0.16 ± 0.01cd 0.33 ± 0.01def 0.47 ± 0.01ef 20 23 23 24

All values are derived from the original untransformed data and presented with ± standard errors. n = 4 for all means, except eucalyptus 3 LD90
and LD99 values, for which n = 3. Values followed by the same letter do not differ significantly (P < 0.05) according to Tukey’s tests. Overall
ranks were obtained by taking the average ranking from LD50 , LD90 and LD99 values.

LD50 values than for the other two lethality levels. There were
significant differences between the top and lower oils in lethal
rates at all levels considered (Table 2). For LD90 and LD99
results, one of the data points for eucalyptus 3 essential oil
was removed from the analysis as a rank outsider.
Experiment 3. Determining the toxicity of seven selected
essential oils to D. gallinae under varying environmental
conditions
Temperature had no significant effect on D. gallinae mor-
tality overall (F(2,72) = 1.53, P = 0.224) and there was no
interaction between temperature and effect of essential oil
(F(14,72) = 0.39, P = 0.973) (Fig. 1). There was a significant
difference between essential oils in the mortality of D. gallinae
(F(7,72) = 9.84, P < 0.001). The toxicity of the seven essen-
tial oils to D. gallinae was significantly higher than that of
the control (P < 0.05), and pennyroyal and garlic were more
acaricidal than cade (P < 0.05).
Humidity had a significant effect on the mortality of
D. gallinae overall (F(1,48) = 21.59, P < 0.001). There was
a significant interaction between humidity and essential oil
(F(7,48) = 4.77, P < 0.001). High humidity led to increased
D. gallinae mortality; this increase was significant (P < 0.05)
for both cinnamon bark and clove bud 1. There was also a
significant difference in the toxic effect of different essential
© 2010 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2010 The Royal Entomological Society, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 24, 1–8
oils to D. gallinae (F(7,48) = 29.25, P < 0.001), with the
toxicity of thyme, cade and the control treatment being similar
and significantly lower (P < 0.05) than the toxicity of the
other oils (Fig. 2).
Dust had a significant effect on the mortality of D. gallinae
overall (F(1,48) = 89.41, P < 0.001) (Fig. 3). There was also a
significant interaction between dust and essential oil (F(7,48) =
4.61, P < 0.01). High dust led to increased D. gallinae
mortality, but this increase was again significant only for
cinnamon bark and clove bud 1 (P < 0.05). There was also
a significant difference in the toxic effect of different essential
oils on D. gallinae (F(7,48) = 65.12, P < 0.001). Pairwise
differences are given in Fig. 3.
Discussion
The aim of the present study was to identify an effective
botanical pesticide for D. gallinae by producing a shortlist of
the most acaricidal essential oils and assessing the toxicity
of these under varying environmental conditions. Of the 50
essential oils initially selected for study, a high proportion were
effective as acaricides for D. gallinae. Although some, such as
black pepper and juniper leaf essential oils, resulted in low
mortality, 24 oils exhibited mortality ≥75% at 0.21 mg/cm2
and were as toxic as Ficam W applied at the manufacturer’s
recommended rate.
6 D. R. George et al.

Fig. 1. Mean mortality (± standard error) (n = 4) of selected essential oils against Dermanyssus gallinae at the LD50 concentration for each oil
at three temperatures. All values are derived from the original untransformed data.

Fig. 2. Mean mortality (± standard error) (n = 4) of selected essential oils against Dermanyssus gallinae at the LD50 concentration for each oil
at high (95%) and ambient (40%) relative humidity.

Garlic essential oil was toxic to D. gallinae in the current
study. Garlic-based products are available in several countries
for use against ectoparasites of poultry. Birrenkott et al. (2000)
found topical application of Garlic Barrier® (Garlic Research
Labs, Inc., Glendale, CA, U.S.A.) reduced Ornithonyssus
sylviarum (Canestrini & Fanzago) incidence on treated hens
in the U.S.A. and Breck-a-Sol™ (ECOspray Ltd., Hilborough,
U.K.), a garlic-based acaricide advertised for use against
D. gallinae, has recently been approved for use in the U.K.
Journal compilation © 2010 The Royal Entomological Society, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 24, 1–8
Kim et al. (2004) tested 56 plant essential oils for their
acaricidal effects on D. gallinae. Oils from bay, cade, cin-
namon, clove bud, coriander, horseradish, lime (distilled 5F),
mustard, pennyroyal, pimento berry, spearmint and thyme pro-
duced 100% mite mortality in contact toxicity tests at a rate of
0.07 mg/cm2 . In the present study, several of the same essential
oils were tested, but were found to be less toxic to D. gallinae
than in the experiments reported by Kim et al. (2004). This
difference for essential oils of the same plant species may
© 2010 The Authors

Fig. 3. Mean mortality (± standard error) (n = 4) of selected essential oils against Dermanyssus gallinae at the LD50 concentration for each oil
at high (18 mg per dish) and zero (0 mg per dish) dust levels. Values for treatments for which pairs of bars share a common letter do not differ
significantly (P < 0.05).
reflect variations in the chemical composition of products
used in different studies. Variations have been reported in the
chemical composition of essential oils obtained from differ-
ent varieties of the same plant species (Eyres et al., 2007;
Moreno et al., 2007) or different parts of a single plant (Talal
et al., 2005; Moreno et al., 2007). Numerous factors may affect
the composition of essential oils obtained from the same or
similar species of plant. Geographic origin (Muñoz-Bertomeu
et al., 2007; Raal et al., 2007), seasonality (Barra et al., 2007;
Flamini & Cioni, 2007), method of oil extraction (Chiasson
et al., 2001), year of harvest (Chalchat et al., 2007) and even
storage conditions (Chalchat et al., 2007) have been reported
to influence the constituents of essential oils and so could influ-
ence their toxicity to D. gallinae.
The seven essential oils most toxic to D. gallinae tested
in the present study had a consistent effect across three
temperatures (15◦ C, 22◦ C, 29◦ C). In most cases, the toxic
effects of these essential oils remained consistent at different
humidity and dust levels. However, both dust and humidity
influenced cinnamon bark and clove bud 1 toxicity to
D. gallinae. The remaining essential oils (manuka, cade,
pennyroyal, thyme and garlic) all appeared to be relatively
constant in acaricidal effect across a range of environmental
conditions in which they might be utilized in poultry systems
(in temperate climates at least).
In summary, the results obtained identify a number of
essential oils that are acaricidal to D. gallinae and are stable
under different environmental conditions. The future challenge
to using plant essential oils as acaricides for D. gallinae may
lie in identifying oils that are reliable when sourced from
different countries, years or plant varieties. Alternatively, it
may be possible to develop standards for commercial plant
growth and oil extraction which yield essential oils that
© 2010 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2010 The Royal Entomological Society, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 24, 1–8
Plant essential oil toxicity to Dermanyssus gallinae 7
are consistent in their chemistry and toxicity to D. gallinae.
Although between-study variability in the acaricidal effects of
essential oils is an issue that may need to be addressed, there
are nevertheless numerous factors supporting the use of plant
essential oils as acaricides for D. gallinae.
Acknowledgements
This work was carried out as part of the MITEeHEN project
to develop plant-based acaricides to control Dermanyssus
gallinae, for which funding from Defra, U.K., is gratefully
acknowledged. The authors are also grateful to representatives
of the U.K. poultry industry, including British Free Range
Egg Producers Association (BFREPA), the National Farmers
Union (NFU) and Noble Foods Ltd., Tring, U.K., for providing
technical advice on the development of alternative control
strategies for D. gallinae.
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Accepted 30 October 2008
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