Research Article

Cite This: ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 42780−42789 www.acsami.org

High-Efficiency Bifacial Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells for Application

under Indoor Light Conditions
Shanmuganathan Venkatesan,† Wei-Hsun Lin,† Hsisheng Teng,†,‡ and Yuh-Lang Lee*,†,‡
†
Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan, R.O.C.
‡
Hierarchical Green-Energy Materials (Hi-GEM) Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan, R.O.C.
*
S Supporting Information

ABSTRACT: High-efficiency, stable bifacial dye-sensitized

See https://pubs.acs.org/sharingguidelines for options on how to legitimately share published articles.

solar cells (DSSCs) are prepared for application under indoor

light conditions. A 3-methoxypropionitrile solvent and cobalt
redox couples are utilized to prepare the electrolytes. To
obtain the best cell performance, the components of the
Downloaded via WESTERN UNIV on July 13, 2020 at 06:49:11 (UTC).

DSSCs, including electrolytes, photoanodes, and counter

electrodes (CEs), are regulated. The experimental results
indicate that an electrolyte comprising a Co (II/III) ratio of
0.11/0.025 M, 1.2 M 4-tert-butylpyridine, Y123 dye, a CE
with the platinum (Pt) layer thickness of 0.16 nm, and a
photoanode with titanium dioxide (TiO2) layer thickness of
10 μm (6 μm main layer and 4 μm scattering layer) are the
best conditions under which to achieve a high power conversion efficiency. It is also found that the best cells have high
recombination resistance at the photoelectrode/electrolyte interface and low charge transfer resistance at the counter electrode/
electrolyte interface, which contributes to, respectively, the high current density and open-circuit voltage of the corresponding
cells. This DSSC can achieve efficiencies of 22.66%, 23.48%, and 24.52%, respectively, under T5 light illumination of 201.8,
607.8, and 999.6 lx. For fabrication of bifacial DSSCs with a semitransparent property, photoanodes without the TiO2 scattering
layer, as well as an ultrathin Pt film, are utilized. The thicknesses of the TiO2 main layer and Pt film are reregulated. This shows
that a Pt film with 0.55 nm thickness has both high transmittance (76.01%) and catalytic activity. By using an 8 μm TiO2 main
layer, optimal cell efficiencies of 20.65% and 17.31% can be achieved, respectively, for the front-side and back-side illuminations
of 200 lx T5 light. The cells are highly stable during a long-term performance test at both 35 and 50 °C.
KEYWORDS: cobalt redox couple, liquid electrolyte, indoor light, thin Pt layer, bifacial DSSCs

1. INTRODUCTION In the past several years, the operation of photovoltaic (PV)

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have acquired significant
interest in both academia and industry in the past 20 years as a
good alternative to classical photovoltaic devices owing to their
low manufacturing cost, compact design, fascinating colors,
and good power conversion under different light condi-
tions.1−3 Impressive power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of
12.29%, 13%, and 14.7% have been obtained for cells using
ruthenium complex dye, porphyrin dye, and organic dye,
respectively.4−6 However, these cells require liquid electrolytes
(LEs) to obtain such high PCEs. The utilization of LEs causes
critical issues of leakage and vaporization of organic solvents at
elevated temperatures that markedly reduce the long-term
durability of the DSSCs. Thus, suitable sealing methods are
vital for preparing liquid-state cells. This issue has been
eliminated by substituting LEs with solid-state and polymer gel
electrolytes.7,8 DSSCs using these electrolytes have long-term
durability but have lower PCEs compared to the liquid-state
DSSCs. This is due to inadequate contact of the solid into a
nanoporous titanium dioxide (TiO2) electrode and the low
conductivity of these electrolytes.9
devices have been continuously switching from global air mass
(AM) 1.5G conditions (100 mW cm−2) to indoor light
conditions since the PCE and stability of PV devices have been
proven to be higher under indoor light conditions than under
AM 1.5G.10−28 This characteristic is important for the
production of room light DSSCs for diverse applications.
Currently, the Internet of Things (IoT) has received significant
interest in the field of science and technology because its usage
encompasses smart homes, agriculture, health care, trans-
portation, and industry.29,30 For long-term IoT applications,
tiny IoT devices connected via wireless networks always
require stable, reliable energy sources.30 Energy storage devices
such as batteries may be utilized as energy sources for IoT
devices. However, maintenance and device replacement are
considered to be very expensive. These issues do not occur in
DSSCs since the DSSCs straightly turn indoor light into
electric energy without a demand for additional energy supply.
Received: August 19, 2019
Accepted: October 16, 2019
Published: October 16, 2019

© 2019 American Chemical Society 42780 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14876

ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 42780−42789
ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
Besides, the energy required for IoT devices is much less than
what can be provided by the use of DSSCs under indoor
lighting conditions. Thus, DSSCs are viewed to be ideal energy
sources for IoT devices.
In the literature, the performance of iodide LEs and novel
dye-based DSSCs under indoor light conditions has been
thoroughly studied.14−28 These studies revealed that two
different optimal conditions are required to use DSSCs under
indoor light and AM 1.5 G conditions. It is well-known that
only because relatively fewer electrons are excited, the excited
electrons recombining with electrolytes decrease the open-
circuit voltage (Voc) of the cells.31 Also, because of the
remarkable decrease in excited holes, a low amount of iodide
will be needed to minimize the holes. These two outcomes
greatly impact the ideal concentration of iodide/triiodide
needed to acquire a good PCE of the DSSCs under indoor
light environments. The related impact of light intensity has
also been discussed in studies of electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) as well as on the incident photon to
current conversion efficiency (IPCE) performance. These
problems have been minimized by replacing iodide LEs with
cobalt and copper LEs.23−27
It is well-known that the fabrication of a bifacial design is a
good method to improve the PCE of DSSCs. Bifacial DSSCs
with highly transparent electrodes can produce up to 50%
more electrical energy than the classical DSSCs.32−36 In this
study, we focused on the fabrication of bifacial DSSCs to
operate efficiently under indoor light conditions. A 3-
methoxypropionitrile (MPN)-based cobalt LE, Y123 dye, a
highly transparent platinum (Pt) counter electrode (CE), and
a photoanode with a TiO2 main layer were utilized to fabricate
the bifacial DSSCs. To acquire a high PCE, the essential
components of the DSSCs, including electrolytes, photo-
anodes, and CEs, are systematically regulated. The cells under
the most favorable conditions achieved high efficiency and
stability under indoor light conditions.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
2.1. Materials and Methods. Fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO)
glass (TEC 7, SnO2:F, 6∼8 Ω cm−2, 2.2 mm) was purchased from
Hartford Glass Co., Ltd. The TiO2 paste, DSL 30 NR-D TiO2 (30
nm), was purchased from Dyesol Ltd. The TiO2 paste PST-400C was
received from JGC Catalysts and Chemicals Ltd. Titanium
diisopropoxide bis(acetylacetonate) in isopropanol (TiAcAc, 75 wt
%), MK2 dye, tert-butanol, chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA), dimethyl
sulfoxide (DMSO), ammonium hexafluorophosphate (NH4PF6), 4-
tert-butylpyridine (TBP, 96%), MPN (>98%), and lithium perchlorate
(LiClO4, 98%) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Titanium(IV)
chloride (TiCl4, 98%) was obtained from Fluka. The N719 (99%),
Z907 (93%), and Y123 (>98%) dyes, respectively, were acquired from
Solaronix, Everlight Chemical Industrial Co., and Dyenamo, Ltd.
Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate (CoCl2·6H2O, 98%), 2,2′-bipyridine
(bpy, 99%), and nitrosonium tetrafluoroborate (NOBF4, 98%) were
obtained from Alfa Aesar. Methanol (99.8%) was received from J. T.
Baker Chemical Co. Acetonitrile (ACN, 99.5%) was acquired from
Riedel-de Haen.
2.2. Preparation of Electrolytes. MPN was employed as the
solvent to prepare the LEs containing various ratios of
CoII(bpy)3(PF6)2/CoIII(bpy)3(PF6)3 (0.07/0.017 M to 0.22/0.05
M), different concentrations of TBP (0.2−1.6 M), and 0.1 M
LiClO4.25 The ACN-based LE was also prepared by mixing 0.11/
0.025 M Co(II)/Co(III), 1.2 M TBP, and 0.1 M LiClO4 into the
ACN solvent.
2.3. Fabrication of the DSSCs. Based on previously reported
procedures, a DSSC with an active area of 0.16 cm 2 was
42781
Research Article
fabricated.23−25 FTO conducting glass was employed to fabricate
the photoanode and CE. The glass was first washed with a neutral
cleaner and then cleaned with deionized water, acetone, and
isopropanol successively. After that, the FTO was treated with
TiCl4 to form an underlayer on the conducting surface. A mesoporous
TiO2 layer with a thickness of 4 μm was coated on the FTO glass
using the screen printing process. This TiO2 layer consisted of a 2 μm
thick main layer (Dyesol) and a 2 μm thick scattering layer (PST
400C). The thickness of the main and scattering layers was regulated
for the optimization experiments. The TiO2 layer was slowly heated to
70 °C and then to 500 °C at a heating rate of 10 °C min−1 in an
oxygen atmosphere and thereafter sintered at that temperature for 30
min. After cooling to 80 °C, the TiO2 electrode was dipped in 0.5 mM
N719, 0.5 mM Z907, 0.3 mM MK2, and 0.1 mM Y123 dye solutions.
The dye solutions were prepared following the methods already
published in the literature.23,24 After washing with ethanol, dye-
sensitized photoanodes were thus procured. The CE was fabricated by
sputtering Pt on the conducting surface of the FTO that already had
predrilled holes. For the sputtering process, a sputtering current and a
base pressure of 40 mA and 10−2 Torr, respectively, were employed.
The thickness of the Pt layer was regulated based on various
sputtering times (5−105 s). The above-prepared photoanode was
combined with the CE; these electrodes were separated by a 60 μm
thick spacer and sealed using a hot-pressing technique. The electrolyte
was injected into the space between these two electrodes using a
vacuum pump. For the measurement of the impedance spectra,
dummy cells were utilized. These cells were prepared by combining
two identical Pt electrodes, where only one had predrilled holes.
These two electrodes were separated by a 25 μm thick Surlyn and
sealed by heating. The active area of the dummy cell was 0.5 × 0.5
cm2.
2.4. Measurements. Following published reports,14−27 the PCE
and long-term durability of the indoor light DSSCs were evaluated.
The current density−voltage (J−V) characteristics of the DSSCs were
measured using a Keithley model 2420 source meter and a T5
fluorescent lamp, (TL5 Essential 14W/865, Philips). The lamp was
located in a box fitted with a motor-controlled lamp holder. The light
intensity was controlled by changing the position of the lamp holder.
The energy conversion efficiencies of the cells were derived using the
following formula: Jsc × Voc × fill factor (FF) / incident power (Pin) ×
100%. The incident light intensities were 63.84, 190.626, and 311.47
μW cm−2 for 201.8, 607.8, and 999.6 lx, respectively. J−V curves were
also obtained under AM 1.5 G irradiation with a light intensity of 100
mW/cm2. For this purpose, a source meter (6240A, computer-
controlled, ADCMT) and a solar simulator (XES-301S, AM 1.5 G,
AAA class) were utilized. The IPCE spectra of the DSSCs were
measured using a QE-R3001 instrument, Enlitech, Taiwan. The EIS
curves for the dummy cells and DSSCs were obtained using a
potentiostat (PGSTAT30, Autolab) equipped with an FRA2. The
frequency range explored was 100 kHz to 10 mHz with a 10 mV
alternating current sinusoidal signal. The chemical capacitance, charge
transfer resistance at the photoanode/electrolyte interface (Rct),
electron lifetime, and charge transfer resistance at the CE/electrolyte
interface (RPt) were derived from the EIS curves. The EIS curves were
fitted to the related equivalent circuits by using ZView software
(Scribner Associates, Inc.). For the measurement of the transmittance
of the Pt layers on FTO glasses, ultraviolet−visible (UV−vis) spectra
were acquired using an HP 8453 spectrophotometer. Atomic force
microscopy was employed to calculate the thickness of the Pt layers
on the FTO glass as indicated in a previous study.37
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Optimization of Cell Components. 3.1.1. Effects of
Ratio of Redox Couples and TBP Concentrations. The
photovoltaic properties of the DSSCs under T5 light
illumination were examined by using different redox couple
ratios, different concentrations of TBP, various kinds of dyes,
different organic solvents, and a photoanode and CEs with
different TiO2 and Pt layer thicknesses, respectively, as
DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14876
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 42780−42789
ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces Research Article

Table 1. J−V Parameters Derived for the MPN-Based DSSCs Using Different Redox Couple Ratios, Various TBP
Concentrations, Various Kinds of Dyes, and Different TiO2 Layer Thicknesses under 201.8 lx Illumination, 63.84 μW cm−2
DSSC components Jsc (μA cm−2) Voc (V) FF Pmax (μW cm−2) PCE (%)
a
0.07 M Co(II)/0.017 M Co(III) 23.62 0.732 0.630 10.91 17.06
0.11 M Co(II)/0.025 M Co(III)a 24.03 0.726 0.660 11.50 18.03
0.15 M Co(II)/0.033 M Co(III)a 24.12 0.712 0.660 11.33 17.75
0.22 M Co(II)/0.05 M Co(III)a 24.43 0.666 0.687 11.17 17.50
0.6 M TBPb 21.81 0.750 0.730 11.94 18.70
0.8 M TBPb 21.96 0.760 0.740 12.39 19.40
1.0 M TBPb 21.99 0.773 0.730 12.45 19.49
1.2 M TBPb 21.75 0.774 0.774 12.63 19.78
1.4 M TBPb 21.66 0.764 0.750 12.42 19.43
N719c 4.54 0.495 0.774 1.74 2.72
Z907c 14.18 0.591 0.796 6.68 10.46
MK2c 19.83 0.607 0.775 9.34 14.63
Y123c 21.75 0.774 0.774 12.63 19.78
2 + 4 μmd 23.05 0.764 0.736 12.98 20.33
4 + 4 μmd 23.20 0.757 0.741 13.04 20.42
6 + 4 μmd 24.33 0.756 0.732 13.47 21.09
8 + 4 μmd 24.35 0.745 0.743 13.49 21.13
10 + 4 μmd 23.86 0.694 0.775 12.86 20.14
a
2 + 2 μm TiO2 layer, Y123 dye, 0.2 M TBP, 12.1 nm Pt layer. b2 + 2 μm TiO2 layer, Y123 dye, 0.11 M Co (II)/0.025 M Co (III), 12.1 nm Pt
layer. c2 + 2 μm TiO2 layer, 0.11 M Co (II)/0.025 M Co (III), 1.2 M TBP, 12.1 nm Pt layer. dY123 dye, 0.11 M Co (II)/0.025 M Co (III), 1.2 M
TBP, 12.1 nm Pt layer.

Table 2. J−V Parameters Obtained from the MPN-Based Cobalt Liquid-State DSSCs Using Various Pt Layer Thicknesses
under Indoor Light and AM 1.5 G Conditions
sputtering time thickness Jsc Pmax PCE RPt Rdiff
light intensity (s) (nm) (μA cm−2) Voc (V) FF (μW cm−2) (%) (Ω cm2) (Ω cm2)
63.84 μW cm−2 (201.8 lx) 5 0.55 23.19 0.765 0.726 12.89 20.19 38.41 49.00
15 1.61 25.78 0.785 0.714 14.47 22.66 11.00 36.62
45 5.19 24.72 0.773 0.735 14.07 21.99 13.53 30.57
75 8.75 24.46 0.765 0.733 13.73 21.50 14.45 32.02
105 12.10 23.65 0.768 0.726 13.21 20.69 16.16 33.05
190.26 μW cm−2 (607.8 lx) 5 0.55 66.01 0.812 0.741 39.74 20.88
15 1.61 74.06 0.827 0.729 44.69 23.48
45 5.19 70.37 0.817 0.747 43.01 22.60
75 8.75 70.78 0.811 0.742 42.67 22.42
105 12.10 68.33 0.817 0.734 41.03 21.56
311.47 μW cm−2 (999.6 lx) 5 0.55 111.51 0.836 0.739 68.98 22.14
15 1.61 124.38 0.846 0.725 76.39 24.52
45 5.19 119.66 0.839 0.748 75.14 24.12
75 8.75 119.85 0.833 0.743 74.28 23.84
105 12.10 114.82 0.839 0.741 71.44 22.93
100 mW cm−2 (AM 1.5G) 5 0.55 4020 0.906 0.530 1.93
15 1.61 4070 0.933 0.552 2.10
45 5.19 4120 0.955 0.575 2.26
75 8.75 4110 0.903 0.639 2.37
105 12.10 3980 0.906 0.609 2.30

presented in Tables 1 and 2 and Table S1. It is well-known that
the ratio of the redox couples in electrolytes greatly influences
the performance of the cells under both AM1.5 G and indoor
light conditions. In the present work, the electrolytes were also
prepared by dissolving different ratios of Co(II)/Co(III) redox
couples in MPN solvent. The photovoltaic properties of the
cells using these electrolytes were studied under 200 lx
illumination. Figure 1a and Table 1 show the J−V curves and
the related parameters, respectively. The Jsc increased from
23.62 to 24.43 μA cm−2, and the Voc decreased from 0.732 to
0.666 V when the Co(II)/Co(III) ratio was increased from
0.07/0.017 to 0.22/0.05 M. The cells using Co(II)/Co(III)
42782
ratios of 0.07/0.017 and 0.22/0.05 M, respectively, obtained a
higher Voc (0.732 V) and Jsc (24.42 μA cm−2) than the other
cells. However, a higher PCE (18.03%) was obtained for the
cell using a Co(II)/Co(III) ratio of 0.11/0.025 M. Therefore,
this ratio was considered to be optimal for the subsequent
optimization experiments. It has been reported in the literature
that the introduction of specific chemical additives such as
TBP in the electrolytes will result in an improvement in the
PCEs of the cells. 38 In the present work, different
concentrations of TBP (0.2−1.4 M) were employed to prepare
the LEs (Table 1). The photovoltaic characteristics of the cells
using these electrolytes are compared in Figure 1b and Table 1.
DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14876
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 42780−42789
ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
Figure 1. J−V curves obtained for the DSSCs using (a) different redox couple ratios and (b) various concentrations of TBP under 208.1 lx
illumination. (c) Chemical capacitance and (d) Rct of the cobalt liquid-state cells using 0.2 and 1.2 M TBP.
When the TBP amount increased from 0.2 to 1.2 M, the Jsc
decreased from 24.03 to 21.75 μA cm−2; the Voc increased
from 0.726 to 0.774 V, and the PCE increased from 18.03% to
19.78%. The increase in the Voc at 1.2 M TBP was attributed to
the high PCE of the related DSSC. This PCE reduced with
further increases in the amount of TBP. To study how the
existence of a high concentration of TBP causes such high Voc,
the EIS analyses were performed on the DSSCs containing 0.2
and 1.2 M TBP. The capacitance of these cells is given in
Figure 1c. The cell using 1.2 M TBP had a lower capacitance
than the DSSC using 0.2 M TBP (Figure 1c), implying that the
Fermi level of the photoanode upshifts in the presence of 1.2
M TBP. Table 1 indicates that, at 1.2 M of TBP, the Jsc value
for the cell was significantly lower than that for the cell using
0.2 M TBP; thus, the high PCE was attributed to the high Voc
in the corresponding DSSC. The upshifts of the Fermi level
were responsible for the decrease in the Jsc and the increase in
the Voc of the DSSC. The Rct of these DSSCs is shown in
Figure 1d. The DSSC using 1.2 M TBP had a higher Rct value
in comparison to the DSSC using 0.2 M TBP. The higher Rct
value implied lower charge recombination at the photoanode/
electrolyte interface. Furthermore, the cell Voc values were
consistent with the electron lifetime values (Figure S1). The
electron lifetime for the 1.2 M TBP-based cell was longer than
that of the 0.2 M TBP-based cell. Therefore, the corresponding
cell obtained high Voc. With 1.4 M TBP, the values of the Jsc
and Voc become smaller, which decreases the PCE of the
related DSSC. As the concentration of TBP in the LE was
increased, a larger number of TBP molecules could be free in
the liquid electrolyte after their adsorption on the dye-free sites
on the photoelectrode. It has been reported that the free TBP
molecules and [Co(bpy)3]3+ species have the weak ion-dipole
attraction which results in the formation of a TBP-shielded
[Co(bpy)3]3+ complex in the liquid electrolytes.38 This
complex inhibited the electron transfer from the TiO2
photoelectrode to the Co3+ species in the electrolyte and,
thereby, reduced electron interfacial recombination. This effect
can be accountable for the larger upshifts of the Fermi level,
42783
Research Article
high recombination resistance, and the longer electron lifetime
for the cells using 1.2 M TBP, which has a high amount of the
TBP-shielded [Co(bpy)3]3+ complex in the electrolyte. There-
fore, Voc was higher for the cell using 1.2 M TBP as compared
to 0.2 M TBP.
3.1.2. Effects of the Photosensitizers. Besides the ratios of
Co(II)/Co(III) and the amounts of TBP, the photovoltaic
characteristics of the DSSC were observed to be greatly
influenced by the structure of the dyes. In this study, the
photoanode was prepared using various dyes for the DSSCs,
including N719, Z907, MK-2, and Y123. The J−V data of the
cells using these dyes are shown in Figure 2a and Table 1. The
outcomes of this research imply that the Jsc and Voc of the cell
using the Y123 dye are higher than those of the cells using
other dyes. IPCE measurements were performed to study the
details of the higher Jsc of the cell using the Y123 dye. Figure
2b shows the IPCE spectra for the cells using Y123, MK2,
Z907, and N719 dyes in the 300−800 nm wavelength region.
For the cell using Y123, the IPCE value was higher than those
of the DSSCs using other dyes. The higher IPCE value
acquired for the Y123-dye-based cell was consistent with the
higher Jsc value of the related cell. Since Y123 has donor-π-
acceptor structure, it allows rapid movement of the electrons
into the TiO2 conduction band. This reduces the recombina-
tion of the electrons at the electrode/electrolyte interface.
Therefore, the cell using Y123 obtained a high Voc of 0.774 V.
Owing to the high Jsc and Voc, the cells sensitized using Y123
showed a high PCE of 19.78%, surpassing the results acquired
for N719, Z907, and MK2 of 2.72%, 10.46%, and 14.63%,
respectively.
3.1.3. Influence of Photoanode Thickness. It is well-known
that the optimal thickness of the TiO2 layer is vital for the
preparation of high-efficiency DSSCs. In the previous sections,
a TiO2 layer thickness of 4 μm (a main layer thickness of 2 μm
and a scattering layer thickness of 2 μm) was employed to
fabricate the photoanodes. By using this electrode, the cells
have achieved a PCE of 19.78% (Table 1). To further improve
the cell performance, first of all, scattering layer thickness was
DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14876
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 42780−42789
ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
Figure 2. (a) J−V curves for the liquid cells using different kinds of
dyes under 208.1 lx illumination. (b) IPCE spectra for the liquid cells
using different kinds of dyes.
increased. As shown in Table 1, the cell using the photoanode
with main layer and scattering layer thicknesses of 2 and 4 μm,
respectively, obtained a PCE of 20.33%. Although the cell Voc
significantly decreased, the high PCE was due to the increase
in the Jsc of the cell from 21.75 to 23.05 μA cm−2. Second, the
main layer thickness was increased to further increase the Jsc
and PCE of the cells. Photoanodes with main layer thicknesses
Figure 3. (a) J−V curves, (b) IPCE, (c) chemical capacitance, and (d) Rct measured for the liquid cells using various TiO2 layer thicknesses. J−V
curves obtained under 208.1 lx illumination.
42784
Research Article
of 4, 6, 8, and 10 μm and a scattering layer thickness of 4 μm
were prepared. The photovoltaic characteristics of the DSSCs
using these photoanodes were evaluated and are compared in
Figure 3a and Table 1. The Jsc increased from 23.20 to 24.35
μA cm−2 when the main layer thickness increased from 4 to 8
μm. Over the same TiO2 layer thickness range, the Voc
decreased from 0.757 to 0.745 V. Although the cell Voc values
decreased, the PCE increased from 20.42% to 21.13%. This
increase in PCE was primarily due to the increase in the Jsc of
the cells. The enhancement in Jsc suggested a large number of
excited electrons injected into the TiO2 conduction band edge,
which can be due to the increased amount of dye along with
the increase in the TiO2 layer thicknesses. The performance of
the cell did not improve with further increases in the main
layer thickness (10 μm) in the photoanode. Since the cells
based on the 6 and 8 μm TiO2 layer exhibited almost similar
efficiencies, the 6 μm thick TiO2 main layer was considered to
be optimal for the subsequent experiments.
The IPCE was measured for the cells to examine the details
of the enhanced Jsc with increases in the TiO2 layer thickness.
The IPCE spectra for the cells using various TiO2 layer
thicknesses (4 (2 + 2), 6 (2 + 4), and 10 (6 + 4) μm) in the
300−750 nm wavelength region are given in Figure 3b. These
DSSCs showed different absorbance ranges in the IPCE
spectra even though the Y123 dye was used for these DSSCs.
The cell with 4 μm had an IPCE value of 76% at a wavelength
of 500 nm. This value decreased, and the peak was red-shifted
with the increase in the thickness of the TiO2 layer. The
decrease in the IPCE value was not consistent with the
increases in the Jsc of the related DSSC. The cell with a TiO2
layer thickness of 10 μm had a low IPCE value of 73.3%.
However, the Jsc of this cell was higher than those of other cells
using 4 and 6 μm TiO2 layer thicknesses. The cell using a 10
μm thick TiO2 layer caused red-shifts in the peaks by 23 nm.
This value was higher than those obtained for the other cells.
Thus, this cell can absorb more light in a longer wavelength
region and increase the Jsc of the related DSSC. Although the
DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14876
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 42780−42789
ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
Figure 4. J−V curves for the (a) MPN and (b) ACN-based DSSCs using CEs with different Pt layer thicknesses under indoor light conditions. (c)
EIS curves measured for the dummy cells using 0.55−1.21 nm Pt layer thicknesses. (d) Transmittance measured for the 0.55−1.21 nm Pt layers on
the FTO substrate.
Jsc of the cell increased, the Voc reduced with increases in the
TiO2 layer thickness. It is well-known that thick TiO2 layers
have a large number of recombination sites that trigger a
greater recombination reaction and therefore decrease the cell
Voc.
To further understand the role of TiO2 layer thickness on
the photovoltaic characteristics of the cells, cells with different
TiO2 layer thicknesses were subjected to an EIS analysis. The
results of this analysis are given in Figure 3c,d. The chemical
capacitance estimated for the DSSCs with a thick layer (10
μm) was higher than those for the DSSCs with thin layers (4
and 6 μm), implying that the Fermi level of the electrode
downshifted in the presence of the thick layer (Figure 3c).
Table 1 indicates that, at the optimal TiO2 layer thickness (10
μm), where the Jsc value for the cell was higher than those for
the cells using 4 and 6 μm TiO2 layer thicknesses, the high
efficiency was only because of the high Jsc in the cell. The high
Jsc was consistent with the downshift of the Fermi level. The
Voc of the related DSSC decreased slowly, which was also
consistent with what was expected from the downshift of the
Fermi level. For the Rct shown in Figure 3d, the DSSC using a
thick TiO2 layer had a lower value as compared to the DSSCs
using thin layers. The lower Rct value indicated a higher
recombination reaction at the photoanode/electrolyte inter-
face. According to these studies, the lower Voc value of the cell
using the thick layer was due to both the downshift of the
Fermi level and higher electron recombination at the
photoanode/electrolyte interface.
3.1.4. Influence of the Pt Layer Thickness. In the literature,
several studies on Pt-based CEs focused on enhancing the
catalytic activity of the Pt layer in DSSCs.39 In these cells,
mostly thick Pt layers were utilized to achieve high catalytic
activity toward the redox couples. Since two different optimal
conditions are required for the DSSCs operating under AM 1.5
G and room light conditions, the photovoltaic characteristics of
the cells under T5 light illumination can be improved by
optimizing the Pt layer thicknesses. In this study, several CEs
42785
Research Article
were prepared using ultrathin Pt layers with different
thicknesses by regulating the deposition time in the sputtering
technique (Figure S2). The photovoltaic characteristics of the
DSSCs using these CEs were studied under the illumination of
201.8 lx. The relevant parameters extracted from the J−V
curves (Figure 4a) are listed in Table 2. The performance of
these cells was also compared with the results obtained under
AM 1.5 G conditions (Table 2). The Jsc increased from 23.19
to 25.78 μA cm−2; the Voc increased from 0.765 to 0.785 V,
and the PCE increased from 20.19% to 22.66% when the Pt
layer thickness was increased from 0.55 to 1.61 nm. Increases
in the Jsc and Voc in the presence of the 1.61 nm layer were the
reason for the improvement in the PCE of the related cell. The
Jsc, Voc, and PCE decreased with further increases in the layer
thicknesses. The performance of the cells was also measured
under 607.8 and 999.6 lx illuminance (Table 2). The cell with
the 1.61 nm layer achieved PCEs of 23.48% and 24.52%,
respectively, under the 607.8 and 999.6 lx illuminance. These
efficiencies were higher than those of the other cells.
Therefore, the 1.61 nm layer is optimal for high-efficiency
DSSCs under T5 light illumination. This result is different
from the results acquired under AM 1.5 G conditions (Table
2). For the AM 1.5 G illumination, no systematic trend was
obtained for the change in Jsc and Voc with increases in the
layer thickness. However, the FF and PCE of the cell increased
with increases in the thickness of the layer. The cell with the
8.75 nm layer showed the highest FF and PCE values of
0.639% and 2.37%, respectively, compared with the other cells.
These values decreased with further increases in the layer
thickness. It has been reported that organic solvents with
different physical characteristics significantly influence the
photovoltaic properties of DSSCs. In the above optimization
study, an MPN-based electrolyte was employed. For the
comparison, the photovoltaic characteristics of the cells
utilizing the ACN-based electrolyte were studied under 200
lx illumination. As shown in Figure 4b and Table S1, the cell
with the 1.61 nm layer obtained a Jsc value of 26.14 μA cm−2.
DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14876
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 42780−42789
ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces Research Article

Table 3. J−V Parameters of the Bifacial DSSCs Using Various Thicknesses of the Pt Layer and 2 μm Thick TiO2 Main Layer
without a Scattering Layer under 200 lx Illumination (Values in the Parentheses Are Measured from Rear-Side Illumination)
front-illumination (rear-illumination)
sputtering time (s) Pt layer thickness (nm) transmittance (%) Jsc (μA cm−2) Voc (V) FF (%) Pmax (μW cm−2) η (%)
5 0.55 76.02 19.94 (17.48) 0.718 (0.735) 0.789 (0.782) 11.31 (10.05) 17.42 (15.48)
15 1.61 71.64 19.39 (15.75) 0.729 (0.725) 0.772 (0.781) 10.92 (8.92) 16.82 (13.74)
45 5.19 51.13 18.13 (11.11) 0.691 (0.682) 0.777 (0.780) 9.74 (5.92) 15.01 (9.12)
75 8.75 36.00 17.63 (8.27) 0.694 (0.679) 0.769 (0.767) 9.41 (4.31) 14.50 (6.64)
105 12.10 23.61 18.17 (6.93) 0.711 (0.686) 0.765 (0.762) 9.89 (3.62) 15.24 (5.57)

Figure 5. J−V curves of the bifacial cells using different Pt and TiO2 layer thickness under the (a, c) front- and (b, d) back-illumination of 208.1 lx.

This value was significantly higher than those obtained for the
cells with other layer thicknesses. Therefore, this cell achieved
the highest PCE of 19.32%. However, this PCE was lower than
that of the PCE of the cell using the MPN-based electrolyte
(22.66%). This is because the Voc was lower for the DSSC
using the ACN-based electrolyte than it was for the cell using
the MPN-based electrolyte. This cell achieved the highest
efficiencies of 20.56% and 21.81%, respectively, under
illuminance of 607.8 and 999.6 lx. These PCEs were higher
than those obtained for the cells with other layer thicknesses.
The results obtained in this study were consistent with those
obtained for the DSSCs under AM 1.5 G conditions (Table
S1). The DSSC with the 1.61 nm layer demonstrated the
highest PCE (6.83%) compared with the other DSSCs. This
PCE was significantly higher than the PCE of the cell using the
MPN-based LE (see Figure S3). The higher Jsc of the DSSC
utilizing the ACN-based electrolyte was one reason for the
higher PCE of the related cell. These results indicate that
ACN- and MPN-based cobalt LEs, respectively, are suitable for
AM 1.5 G and indoor light conditions.
To understand the catalytic activity of the various Pt layers
toward the Co (III) reduction, an EIS analysis was performed
using symmetric cells assembled with two similar electrodes.
Typical Nyquist plots of the symmetric cells with different Pt
layer thicknesses were obtained by applying an AC voltage
with a 10 mV amplitude at 0.65 V (Figure 4c). As can be seen
in the figure, the spectra have two semicircles that are related
to the RPt and the Nernst diffusion of the redox couples (Rdiff)
in the electrolytes at the high and low-frequency regions,
42786
respectively. The parameters RPt and Rdiff were extracted from
the spectra by adopting an equivalent circuit (inset in Figure
4c). As shown in Table 2, the RPt decreased with increases in
the layer thickness, reached a low value at 1.61 nm, and then
increased with further increases in the layer thickness. The RPt
measured for the 1.61 nm layer was a minimum of 11.00 Ω
cm−2, which was 68% of the value of the 12.3 nm layer. The
lower RPt value obtained for the 1.61 nm Pt layer contributed
to the higher Jsc and the PCE of the related DSSC. The table
shows that the Rdiff value was higher for the 0.55 nm layer. The
Rdiff decreased with increases in the layer thickness. A low Rdiff
value of 30.57 Ω cm−2 was obtained for the 5.19 nm layer.
However, the 1.61 nm Pt layer-based DSSCs had high Jsc and
PCE, which implies the importance of other parameters such
as RPt on their performance. The Rdiff value increased with
further increases in the layer thicknesses.
3.1.5. Effect of Pt Layer Thickness on the Long-Term
Durability of the DSSCs. The effect of the Pt layer thickness
on the long-term durability of DSSCs was evaluated by
comparing the PCEs of the cells fabricated using 1.61 and 12.1
nm layers under continuous illuminance of 200 lx at 35 and 50
°C. Figure S4 shows the normalized PCEs of the cells within
500 h at 35 and 50 °C. For the cell with the thin layer, the PCE
increased slowly with the aging time, and the efficiency
acquired after the 500 h test at 35 °C was higher than 100%
(Figure S4a). For the cell with the thick layer, the PCE was
slightly lower than that of the PCE with the thin layer during
the aging process. However, the PCE of the cell was also higher
than 100% after the 500 h test (Figure S4a). This result
DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14876
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 42780−42789
ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
Table 4. J−V Parameters of the Bifacial DSSCs Using Various TiO2 Main Layer Thicknesses without a Scattering Layer under
200 lx Illumination (Values in the Parentheses Are Measured from Rear-Side Illumination)
light intensity TiO2 main layer thickness Jsc (μA cm−2)
−2
63.84 μW cm (201.8 lx) 2 μm 19.88 (17.33)
4 μm 22.50 (19.04)
6 μm 23.17 (19.64)
8 μm 23.53 (19.45)
revealed high, similar long-term durability of the cells using
thin and thick Pt layers. The long-term durability of these cells
was also tested at 50 °C (Figure S4 b). The PCE of the cells
decreased to 90% of the initial value after 500 h. This result
indicates that the long-term durability of the cells did not
change significantly even at a high temperature with the Pt
layer thicknesses. Therefore, a thin Pt layer is sufficient to
obtain high cell stability under indoor light conditions.
3.1.6. Fabrication of the Bifacial Cell. Since the perform-
ance of the bifacial DSSCs is related to the high transparency
of the CEs, the effect of the Pt layer thickness on the
transmittance of the CEs and the corresponding performance
of the DSSCs were evaluated. For this measurement, 0.55−
12.1 nm Pt layers were prepared on the FTO glasses (Figure
S2). The transmittance of these Pt layers was measured using a
UV−vis spectrophotometer in the wavelength range 400−800
nm. For a comparison, the transmittance of the bare FTO glass
was also measured. The results of these studies are given in
Figure 3d and Table 3. The transmittance of the 0.55 nm layer
was 76.02% at 580 nm. The transmittances of the 1.66 nm
layer and bare FTO glass were 71.64% and 76.97%,
respectively. The data revealed that the transparency of the
0.55 nm layer was close to that of the bare FTO glass and far
better than that of the 1.66 nm layer. The transmittance of
71.64% further decreased significantly with an increase in the
thickness of the Pt layer. These results indicate that the 0.55
nm layer will be optimal for the bifacial DSSC to operate
efficiently under indoor light conditions.
Then, the transmittance effect of CEs on the photovoltaic
characteristics of the DSSCs was evaluated under 200 lx
illumination. For this purpose, the DSSCs were fabricated
using Pt counter CEs with thicknesses between 0.55 and 12.1
nm, and photoanodes with a 2 μm TiO2 main layer without a
scattering layer. The photoanodes without a scattering layer
can decrease the light scattering from the back-side which is
beneficial to the light absorption of rear light illumination.
Furthermore, semitransparent DSSCs can be prepared without
the scattering layer. The J−V curves of these bifacial cells
obtained for both front- and rear-illumination are given in
Figure 5a,b. The related Jsc, Voc, and FF values obtained from
these curves are listed in Table 3. The DSSC using a 0.55 nm
Pt layer had a higher Jsc than those using 1.61−12.1 nm Pt
layers under front-illumination. As a result, the bifacial cell
gained a high PCE of 17.42%. This PCE was 2.18% higher than
the PCE of the cells using the 12.1 nm Pt layer (15.24%).
Table 3 also shows the performance of the back-illuminated
cells under 200 lx illumination. The PCE obtained for the cell
using a Pt layer thickness of 12.10 nm was 5.57%. This PCE
increased with increases in the Pt layer thickness, and a PCE of
15.48% was obtained with the 0.55 nm layer. This PCE was
markedly higher than the PCEs of the cells using other Pt layer
thicknesses. These results revealed a marked improvement in
the DSSC performance in the presence of the 0.55 nm layer.
42787
Research Article
front-illumination (rear-illumination)
Voc (V) FF (%) Pmax (μW cm−2) η (%)
0.737 (0.733) 0.766 (0.781) 11.23 (9.93) 17.19 (15.20)
0.754 (0.750) 0.750 (0.764) 12.74 (10.92) 19.50 (16.32)
0.737 (0.735) 0.769 (0.784) 13.14 (11.32) 20.11 (17.33)
0.750 (0.747) 0.764 (0.778) 13.49 (11.31) 20.65 (17.31)
The Jsc increased with decreases in the Pt layer thickness,
which had a marked effect on the efficiency of the DSSCs. The
increase in the Jsc was attributed to the increase in the light
transmittance with a decrease in the Pt layer thickness. In the
presence of the 0.55 nm layer, the Jsc of the cell was higher than
that of the cells using other Pt layer thicknesses, which led to a
PCE higher than those of the other DSSCs.
In the above experiments, the main layer thickness of 2 μm
was employed to fabricate the photoanodes. To boost the PCE
of the cells, photoanodes with 4, 6, and 8 μm TiO2 main layers
were prepared, and the photovoltaic characteristics of the cells
using these photoanodes were evaluated under both front- and
rear-illumination. The J−V curves of DSSCs using these
electrodes are shown in Figure 5c,d. The derived J−V
parameters are summarized in Table 4. It was observed that,
while illuminated from the front-side, the Jsc of the cell
increased with increases in the TiO2 layer thickness, and the
PCE increased as a consequence of an increase in the Jsc. It has
been reported that an increase in the TiO2 layer thickness can
increase the active surface area of the electrode and thus
improves the dye absorption. Therefore, photoanodes with a
thick TiO2 layer can absorb a huge number of photons, which
contributes to a higher Jsc. However, while illuminated from
the rear-side, the Jsc and efficiency increased with increases in
the TiO2 layer thickness up to 6 μm and then did not vary
much with further increase in the layer thickness. An irregular
trend was obtained for the change in the Voc and FF with
increases in the layer thickness under both front- and rear-
illumination. The DSSC exhibited an optimal PCE of 20.65%
under front-illumination and an efficiency of 17.31% under
rear-illumination when the thickness of the TiO2 layer was 8
μm.
4. CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, bifacial DSSCs were prepared and utilized
efficiently for indoor light applications. It was observed that the
photovoltaic characteristics of the cells were determined by the
ratio of the redox couples, the concentration of the TBP, the
structure of the dyes, the nature of the solvents, and the
thickness of the TiO2 and Pt layers in the photoanode and CE,
respectively. The PCE of the DSSC was related to the Rct, RPt,
and the light transmittance of the DSSCs. The DSSCs using
the Y123 dye, 0.11 M Co(II)/0.025 M Co(III), 1.2 M TBP,
MPN solvent, and TiO2 and Pt layer thicknesses of 10 μm (6
μm main layer + 4 μm scattering layer) and 0.16 nm,
respectively, achieved high PCEs of 22.66%, 23.48%, and
24.52%, under 201.8, 607.8, and 999.6 lx illuminance,
respectively. The bifacial cell exhibited an optimal PCE of
20.65% under front-illumination and an efficiency of 17.31%
under rear-illumination when the thickness of the TiO2 layer
was 8 μm. The cells also featured high long-term durability and
could retain 100% of their initial efficiency after a 1000 h test
at 35 °C.
DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14876
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 42780−42789
ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
■
*
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
S Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the
ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14876.
Electron lifetime of the cells, pictures of the Pt layers on
FTO glasses, efficiencies of the MPN- and ACN-based
DSSCs under AM 1.5 G, stability of the cells using
different Pt layers, and J−V parameters for the ACN-
based DSSCs using various Pt layers under indoor light
conditions (PDF)
■
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail: yllee@mail.ncku.edu.tw. Phone: +886-6-2757575 ext.
62693. Fax: +886-6-2344496.
ORCID
Hsisheng Teng: 0000-0003-2746-0464
Yuh-Lang Lee: 0000-0002-0469-5896
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
■
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The financial aid for this work by the Hierarchical Green-
Energy Materials (Hi-GEM) Research Center, from the
Featured Areas Research Center Program within the frame-
work of the Higher Education Sprout Project by the Ministry
of Education (MOE) is acknowledged. This research was also
aided by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST 106-
2221-E-006-197-MY3 and MOST 107-2119-M-006-001) in
Taiwan.
■
REFERENCES
(1) O’Regan, B.; Grätzel, M. A Low-Cost, High-Efficiency Solar Cell
Based on Dye-Sensitized Colloidal TiO2 films. Nature 1991, 353
(6346), 737−740.
(2) Cheema, H.; Baumann, A.; Loya, E. K.; Brigdon, P.; McNamara,
L. E.; Carpenter, C. A.; Hammer, N. I.; Mathew, S.; Risko, C.;
Delcamp, J. H. Near-Infrared-Absorbing Indolizine-Porphyrin Push-
Pull Dye for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces
2019, 11 (18), 16474−16489.
(3) Kuo, F.-Y.; Lin, F.-S.; Yeh, M.-H.; Fan, M.-S.; Hsiao, L.-Y.; Lin,
J.-J.; Jeng, R.-J; Ho, K.-C. Synthesis of Surfactant-Free and
Morphology-Controllable Vanadium Diselenide for Efficient Counter
Electrodes in DyeSensitized Solar Cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces
2019, 11 (28), 25090−25099.
(4) Chiang, C. C. P.; Hung, C. Y.; Chou, S. W.; Shyue, J. J.; Cheng,
K. Y.; Chang, P. J.; Yang, Y. Y.; Lin, C. Y.; Chang, T. K.; Chi, Y.;
Chou, H. L.; Chou, P. T. PtCoFe Nanowire Cathodes Boost Short-
Circuit Currents of Ru(II)-Based Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells to a
Power Conversion Efficiency of 12.29%. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2018, 28
(3), 1703282.
(5) Mathew, S.; Yella, A.; Gao, P.; Humphry-Baker, R.; Curchod, B.
F. E.; Ashari-Astani, N.; Tavernelli, I.; Rothlisberger, U.; Nazeeruddin,
M. K.; Grätzel, M. Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells with 13% Efficiency
Achieved through the Molecular Engineering of Porphyrin Sensitizers.
Nat. Chem. 2014, 6 (3), 242−247.
(6) Kakiage, K.; Aoyama, Y.; Yano, T.; Oya, K.; Fujisawa, J. I.;
Hanaya, M. Highly-Efficient Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells with
Collaborative Sensitization by Silyl-Anchor and Carboxy-Anchor
Dyes. Chem. Commun. 2015, 51 (88), 15894−15897.
(7) Venkatesan, S.; Lee, Y.-L. Nanofillers in the Electrolytes of Dye-
Sensitized Solar Cell. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2017, 353 (5), 58−112.
42788
Research Article
(8) Wu, J.; Lan, Z.; Lin, J.; Huang, M.; Huang, Y.; Fan, L.; Luo, G.
Electrolytes in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Chem. Rev. 2015, 115 (5),
2136−2173.
(9) Weisspfennig, C. T.; Hollman, D. J.; Menelaou, C.; Stranks, S.
D.; Joyce, H. J.; Johnston, M. B.; Snaith, H. J.; Herz, L. M.
Dependence of Dye Regeneration and Charge Collection on the Pore-
Filling Fraction in Solid-State Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Adv. Funct.
Mater. 2014, 24 (5), 668−677.
(10) Dagar, J.; Castro-Hermosa, S.; Lucarelli, G.; Cacialli, F.; Brown,
T. M. Highly Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells for Light Harvesting
under Indoor Illumination via Solution Processed SnO2/MgO
Composite Electron Transport Layers. Nano Energy 2018, 49, 290−
299.
(11) Wu, T. C.; Long, Y. S.; Hsu, S. T.; Wang, E. Y. Efficiency
Rating of Various PV Technologies under Different Indoor Lighting
Conditions. Energy Procedia 2017, 130, 66−71.
(12) Mathews, I.; King, P. J.; Stafford, F.; Frizzell, R. Performance of
III-V Solar Cells as Indoor Light Energy Harvesters. IEEE J.
Photovoltaics 2016, 6 (1), 230−235.
(13) Chen, C. Y.; Jian, Z. H.; Huang, S. H.; Lee, K. M.; Kao, M. H.;
Shen, C. H.; Shieh, J. M.; Wang, C. L.; Chang, C. W.; Lin, B. Z.; Lin,
C. Y.; Chang, T. K.; Chi, Y.; Chi, C. Y.; Wang, W. T.; Tai, Y.; De Lu,
M.; Tung, Y. L.; Chou, P. Y.; Wu, W. T.; Chow, T. J.; Chen, P.; Luo,
X. H.; Lee, Y. L.; Wu, C. C.; Chen, C. M.; Yeh, C. Y.; Fan, M. S.; De
Peng, J.; Ho, K. C.; Liu, Y. N.; Lee, H. Y.; Chen, C. Y.; Lin, H. W.; Te
Yen, C.; Huang, Y. C.; Tsao, C. S.; Ting, Y. C.; Wei, T. C.; Wu, C. G.
Performance Characterization of Dye-Sensitized Photovoltaics under
Indoor Lighting. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2017, 8 (8), 1824−1830.
(14) Jiang, M. L.; Wen, J.-J.; Chen, Z.-M.; Tsai, W.-H.; Lin, T.-C.;
Chow, T. J.; Chang, Y. J. High Performance Organic Dyes with
Electron-Deficient Quinoxalinoid Heterocycles for Dye-Sensitized
Solar Cells under One Sun and Indoor Light. ChemSusChem 2019, 12,
3654−3665.
(15) Venkatesan, S.; Liu, I. P.; Hung, W. N.; Teng, H.; Lee, Y. L.
Highly Efficient Quasi-Solid-State Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
Prepared by Printable Electrolytes for Room Light Applications.
Chem. Eng. J. 2019, 367, 17−24.
(16) Tsai, M. C.; Wang, C. L.; Chang, C. W.; Hsu, C. W.; Hsiao, Y.
H.; Liu, C. L.; Wang, C. C.; Lin, S. Y.; Lin, C. Y. A Large, Ultra-Black,
Efficient and Cost-Effective Dye-Sensitized Solar Module Approach-
ing 12% Overall Efficiency under 1000 Lux Indoor Light. J. Mater.
Chem. A 2018, 6 (5), 1995−2003.
(17) Reddy, K. S. K.; Chen, Y. C.; Wu, C. C.; Hsu, C. W.; Chang, Y.
C.; Chen, C. M.; Yeh, C. Y. Cosensitization of Structurally Simple
Porphyrin and Anthracene-Based Dye for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018, 10 (3), 2391−2399.
(18) Tingare, Y. S.; Vinh, N. S. n.; Chou, H. H.; Liu, Y. C.; Long, Y.
S.; Wu, T. C.; Wei, T. C.; Yeh, C. Y. New Acetylene-Bridged 9,10-
Conjugated Anthracene Sensitizers: Application in Outdoor and
Indoor Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 2017, 7 (18),
1700032.
(19) Liu, Y. C.; Chou, H. H.; Ho, F. Y.; Wei, H. J.; Wei, T. C.; Yeh,
C. Y. A Feasible Scalable Porphyrin Dye for Dye-Sensitized Solar
Cells under One Sun and Dim Light Environments. J. Mater. Chem. A
2016, 4 (30), 11878−11887.
(20) De Rossi, F.; Pontecorvo, T.; Brown, T. M. Characterization of
Photovoltaic Devices for Indoor Light Harvesting and Customization
of Flexible Dye Solar Cells to Deliver Superior Efficiency under
Artificial Lighting. Appl. Energy 2015, 156, 413−422.
(21) Wang, C. L.; Lin, P. T.; Wang, Y. F.; Chang, C. W.; Lin, B. Z.;
Kuo, H. H.; Hsu, C. W.; Tu, S. H.; Lin, C. Y. Cost-Effective Anthryl
Dyes for Dye-Sensitized Cells under One Sun and Dim Light. J. Phys.
Chem. C 2015, 119 (43), 24282−24289.
(22) Zhai, P.; Lee, H.; Huang, Y. T.; Wei, T. C.; Feng, S. P. Study on
the Blocking Effect of a Quantum-Dot TiO2 compact Layer in Dye-
Sensitized Solar Cells with Ionic Liquid Electrolyte under Low-
Intensity Illumination. J. Power Sources 2016, 329, 502−509.
(23) Venkatesan, S.; Liu, I. P.; Li, C. W.; Tseng-Shan, C. M.; Lee, Y.
L. Quasi-Solid-State Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells for Efficient and
DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14876
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 42780−42789
ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces Research Article

Stable Power Generation under Room Light Conditions. ACS

Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2019, 7 (7), 7403−7411.
(24) Liu, I. P.; Lin, W. H.; Tseng-Shan, C. M.; Lee, Y. L. Importance
of Compact Blocking Layers to the Performance of Dye-Sensitized
Solar Cells under Ambient Light Conditions. ACS Appl. Mater.
Interfaces 2018, 10 (45), 38900−38905.
(25) Feldt, S. M.; Gibson, E. A.; Gabrielsson, E.; Sun, L.; Boschloo,
G.; Hagfeldt, A. Design of Organic Dyes and Cobalt Polypyridine
Redox Mediators for High-Efficiency Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. J.
Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132 (46), 16714−16724.
(26) Freitag, M.; Teuscher, J.; Saygili, Y.; Zhang, X.; Giordano, F.;
Liska, P.; Hua, J.; Zakeeruddin, S. M.; Moser, J. E.; Grätzel, M.;
Hagfeldt, A. Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells for Efficient Power Generation
under Ambient Lighting. Nat. Photonics 2017, 11 (6), 372−378.
(27) Cao, Y.; Liu, Y.; Zakeeruddin, S. M.; Hagfeldt, A.; Grätzel, M.
Direct Contact of Selective Charge Extraction Layers Enables High-
Efficiency Molecular Photovoltaics. Joule 2018, 2 (6), 1108−1117.
(28) Vaghasiya, J. V.; Sonigara, K. K.; Suresh, L.; Panahandeh-Fard,
M.; Soni, S. S.; Tan, S. C. Efficient Power Generating Devices
Utilizing Low Intensity Indoor Lights via Non-Radiative Energy
Transfer Mechanism from Organic Ionic Redox Couples. Nano Energy
2019, 60, 457−466.
(29) Asghari, P.; Rahmani, A. M.; Javadi, H. H. S. Internet of Things
Applications: A Systematic Review. Comput. Networks 2019, 148,
241−261.
(30) Raj, A.; Steingart, D. Review-Power Sources for the Internet of
Things. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2018, 165, B3130−B3136.
(31) Lan, J. L.; Wei, T. C.; Feng, S. P.; Wan, C. C.; Cao, G. Effects
of Iodine Content in the Electrolyte on the Charge Transfer and
Power Conversion Efficiency of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells under Low
Light Intensities. J. Phys. Chem. C 2012, 116 (49), 25727−25733.
(32) Popoola, I. K.; Gondal, M. A.; AlGhamdi, J. M.; Qahtan, T. F.
Photofabrication of Highly Transparent Platinum Counter Electrodes
at Ambient Temperature for Bifacial Dye Sensitized Solar Cells. Sci.
Rep. 2018, 8 (1), 12864.
(33) Huang, Y. T.; Lee, H.; Li, W. Di; Feng, S. P. Engineered
Platinum Nanoparticles via Pulse Electrochemical Deposition for
Bifacially Transparent and Efficient Full-Plastic Dye-Sensitized Solar
Cells. J. Power Sources 2019, 435, 226801.
(34) Huang, C. H.; Chen, Y. W.; Chen, C. M. Chromatic Titanium
Photoanode for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells under Rear Illumination.
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018, 10 (3), 2658−2666.
(35) Ou, J.; Xiang, J.; Liu, J.; Sun, L. Surface-Supported Metal-
Organic Framework Thin-Film-Derived Transparent CoS 1.097 @N-
Doped Carbon Film as an Efficient Counter Electrode for Bifacial
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11 (16),
14862−14870.
(36) Kang, J. S.; Kim, J.; Kim, J. Y.; Lee, M. J.; Kang, J.; Son, Y. J.;
Jeong, J.; Park, S. H.; Ko, M. J.; Sung, Y. E. Highly Efficient Bifacial
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Employing Polymeric Counter Electrodes.
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018, 10 (10), 8611−8620.
(37) Lee, Y. L.; Chen, C. L.; Chong, L. W.; Chen, C. H.; Liu, Y. F.;
Chi, C. F. A Platinum Counter Electrode with High Electrochemical
Activity and High Transparency for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.
Electrochem. Commun. 2010, 12 (11), 1662−1665.
(38) Salim, N. T.; Yang, X.; Zhang, S.; Liu, J.; Islam, A.; Han, L.
Shielding Effects of Additives in a Cobalt(II/III) Redox Electrolyte:
Toward Higher Open-Circuit Photovoltages in Dye-Sensitized Solar
Cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 2014, 2 (27), 10532−10539.
(39) Wu, J.; Lan, Z.; Lin, J.; Huang, M.; Huang, Y.; Fan, L.; Luo, G.;
Lin, Y.; Xie, Y.; Wei, Y. Counter Electrodes in Dye-Sensitized Solar
Cells. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46, 5975−6023.

42789 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b14876

ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 42780−42789