ROUTING

OUTLINE
Basic Routing
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) and Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

2
 ROUTING AND FORWARDING
Routing
 How to determine the routing table entries
 carried out by routing daemon
Forwarding
 Look up routing table & forward packet from
input to output port
 carried out by IP layer

Routers exchange information using routing protocols to develop

the routing tables
3
ROUTE CONSTRUCTION
Static
 Listed Manually: change route slowly
 not robust: reachability is independent of network condition
 stable
Dynamic
 Learn route via routing protocols
 React to topology, traffic or configuration changes directly
 Might not converge or oscillate
 Might have loop

4
STATIC ROUTING
Used on hosts or on very small networks
Manually tell the machine where to send the packets for each prefix
% netstat -nr

Routing Table:
Destination Gateway Flags Ref Use Interface
------------- ------------ ----- ---- ----- ---------
130.207.7.0 130.207.7.27 U 1 9090 ce0
130.207.6.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 2058
130.207.102.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 101
130.207.97.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 351
130.207.3.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 15961
130.207.99.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 1705
130.207.98.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 201
130.207.29.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 18
130.207.28.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 779
130.207.26.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 524
130.207.117.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 433
130.207.116.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 14667
130.207.23.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 4724
130.207.119.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 4406
130.207.114.0 130.207.7.1 UG 1 5489
224.0.0.0 130.207.7.27 U 1 0 ce0
default 130.207.7.1 UG 1 44950
127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 UH 7 2344869 lo0

U-Route is up H-route is to host (else route is to network)

G-route to gateway (else direct connection)

5
 HIERARCHICAL ROUTING

Our routing study thus far - idealization

 all routers identical

 network “flat”

… not true in practice

administrative autonomy
scale: with 200 million
destinations: internet = network of networks
can’t store all dest’s in routing each network admin may want to
tables! control routing in its own network
routing table exchange would
swamp links!
6
AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS
Global Internet viewed as collection of autonomous
systems.
Autonomous system (AS) is a set of routers or networks
administered by a single organization
Same routing protocol need not be run within the AS
But, to the outside world, an AS should present a consistent
picture of what ASs are reachable through it
AS is controlled by a single entity, typically including ISPs
or very large organizations

7
AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS - MACEDONIA

8
TYPES OF AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS
Stub AS: has only a single connection to the outside world.
Multihomed AS: has multiple connections to the outside world, but
refuses to carry transit traffic
Transit AS: has multiple connections to the outside world, and can
carry transit and local traffic. (If one AS is an ISP for another, then the
former is a transit AS)
Internet Exchange Point autonomous system (IP or IPX) – physical
infrastructure through which ISPs exchange Internet traffic between
their networks (ASs)

9
10
 PEERING AND INTER-AS CONNECTIVITY
Peering Center

Tier 1 ISP (Transit AS) Tier 1 ISP (Transit AS)

AS
Tier 2 (transit AS)
Content or
Tier 2 (transit AS)
Application Service Tier 2 (transit AS)
AS AS Provider (Non-transit)
AS AS AS
AS

• Non-transit AS’s (stub & multihomed) do not carry transit traffic

• Tier 1 ISPs peer with each other, privately & peering centers
• Tier 2 ISPs peer with each other & obtain transit services from Tier 1s; Tier 1’s carry transit traffic between
their Tier 2 customers
• Client AS’s obtain service from Tier 2 ISPs

11
AS NUMBER
For exterior routing, an AS needs a globally unique AS
integer number (initially 16-bit, but now 32-bit).
Currently (mid-2016), there are about 54000 unique
autonomous networks (and growing)
Stub AS, which is the most common type, does not need an
AS number since the prefixes are placed at the provider’s
routing table
Transit AS needs an AS number
Request an AS number from the ARIN, RIPE and APNIC
(IANA assigns AS number blocks to Regional Internet
Registers -RIRs)
12
INTERCONNECTED ASES
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c
AS2
1a
1b
1d AS1
Forwarding table is
configured by both intra-
and inter-AS routing
Intra-AS
Routing
Inter-AS
Routing
algorithm
algorithm algorithm  Intra-AS sets entries for
Forwarding
internal dests
table  Inter-AS & Intra-AS sets entries
for external dests
13
 INTER-AS TASKS AS1 needs:
Suppose router in AS1 1. to learn which dests are
receives datagram for which reachable through AS2
dest is outside of AS1 and which through AS3
 Router should forward packet
towards one of the gateway 2. to propagate this
routers, but which one? reachability info to all
routers in AS1
Job of inter-AS routing!
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c
AS2
1a
1b
1d AS1

14
INTER AND INTRA DOMAIN ROUTING
InteriorGateway Protocol (IGP): routing within AS
• RIP, OSPF
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): routing between AS’s
• BGPv4
Border Gateways perform IGP & EGP routing

IGP
R EGP IGP
R R
R
R
R

AS A
AS C

R
R
IGP
AS B
15
INTRA-AS ROUTING

Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)

Most common Intra-AS routing protocols:
 RIP: Routing Information Protocol
 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
 EIGRP: Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco proprietary)
 IS-IS: Intermediate System to Intermediate System

16
INTER-AS ROUTING PROTOCOLS
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
 BGP-4: de facto standard
 Path Vector Algorithm

17
ADMINISTRATIVE DISTANCES
The administrative distance (AD) is used to rate the trustworthiness of
routing information received on a router from a neighbor router.
An administrative distance is an integer from 0 to 255, where 0 is the
most trusted and 255 means NO traffic will be passed via this route.

18
DEFAULT ADMINISTRATIVE DISTANCES
Route Source Default AD
Connected Interface 0
Static Route 1
EIGRP 90
IGRP 100
OSPF 110
RIP 120
Unknown 255 (no traffic)

19
THE THREE CLASSES OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Distance Vector – finds the best path to a remote

network using hop count. (RIP, IGRP)
Link State – (also called shortest-path-first protocols)
– the routers each create three separate tables. 1)
keeps track of directly attached neighbors, 2)
topology of network, 3) the routing table. (OSPF, IS-
IS)
Hybrid – uses aspects of both distance vector and link
state. (EIGRP)

20
OUTLINE
Basic Routing
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) and Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

21
ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP)

RFC 1058
RIP based on routed, “route d”, distributed in BSD UNIX
Uses the distance-vector algorithm
Runs on top of UDP, port number 520
Metric: number of hops
Max limited to 15
 suitable for small networks (local area environments)
 value of 16 is reserved to represent infinity
 small number limits the count-to-infinity problem
22
RIP OPERATION
Router sends update message to neighbors every 30 sec
A router expects to receive an update message from each
of its neighbors within 180 seconds in the worst case
If router does not receive update message from neighbor
X within this limit, it assumes the link to X has failed and
sets the corresponding minimum cost to 16 (infinity)
Uses split horizon with poisoned reverse
Convergence speeded up by triggered updates
 neighbors notified immediately of changes in distance vector table

23
Figure 14.8 Example of a domain using RIP

24
RIP message format

25
Request messages

26
 Example 1

Figure 14.11 shows the update message sent from router R1 to

router R2 in Figure 14.8. The message is sent out of interface
130.10.0.2.
The message is prepared with the combination of split horizon
and poison reverse strategy in mind. Router R1 has obtained
information about networks 195.2.4.0, 195.2.5.0, and 195.2.6.0
from router R2. When R1 sends an update message to R2, it
replaces the actual value of the hop counts for these three
networks with 16 (infinity) to prevent any confusion for R2. The
figure also shows the table extracted from the message. Router
R2 uses the source address of the IP datagram carrying the RIP
message from R1 (130.10.02) as the next hop address.

See Next Slide

27
Figure 14.11 Solution to Example 1

28
 RIP PROBLEMS
Counting-to-infinity problem:
 Simple configuration A->B->C. If C fails, B needs to update and thinks
there is a route through A. A needs to update and thinks there is a
route thru B.
 No clear solution, except to set “infinity” to be small (eg 16 in RIP)
 Split-horizon: If A’s route to C is thru B, then A advertises C’s route
(only to B) as infinity.
Slow convergence after topology change:
 Due to count to infinity problem
 Also information cannot propagate thru node until it recalculates routing info.

29
 RIP PROBLEMS (CONTD)
Black-holes:
 If one node goes broke and advertises route of zero to several key
networks, all nodes immediately point to it.
Broadcasts consume non-router resources
Does not support subnet masks (VLSMs)
No authentication

30
 BASIC RIP

RIP

eth0 eth0 Serial0 Serial0 eth0 eth0

192.168.2.2 192.168.2.1 192.168.1.1 192.168.1.2 192.168.3.1 192.168.3.2

192.168.2.0/24 192.168.1.0/24 192.168.3.0/24

Host A Host B
Router A Router B

Router B advertises 192.168.3.0 to Router A with a

Metric of 1 Hop.
Router A installs 192.168.3.0 in its table with a Metric
of 1. Advertises with a Metric of 2.
31
 BEFORE RIP – ROUTER A
Router-A#sh ip route

Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP

D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area

N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2

E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP

i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate def

U - per-user static route, o - ODR

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0

C 192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Ethernet0

32
 BEFORE RIP – ROUTER B
Router-B#sh ip route
Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate def
U - per-user static route, o - ODR

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0

C 192.168.3.0/24 is directly connected, Ethernet0

33
 WITH RIP – ROUTER A
Router-A#sh ip route
Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate def
U - per-user static route, o - ODR

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0

C 192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Ethernet0
R 192.168.3.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.1.2, 00:00:15, Serial0

34
WITH RIP – ROUTER B
Router-B#sh ip route
Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B – BGP
[edited for brevity]
Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0

R 192.168.2.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.1.1, 00:00:12, Serial0
C 192.168.3.0/24 is directly connected, Ethernet0

RIP Debug Output:

00:40:48: RIP: sending v1 update to 255.255.255.255 via Ethernet0
(192.168.3.1)
00:40:48: network 192.168.1.0, metric 1
00:40:48: network 192.168.2.0, metric 2
00:40:48: RIP: Update contains 2 routes

35
 RIP NETWORK FAILURE
Router-A#sh ip route
Codes: [edited for brevity]

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0

C 192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Ethernet0
R 192.168.3.0/24 is possibly down, routing via 192.168.1.2, Serial0

RIP Debug output:

00:44:41: RIP: sending v1 update to 255.255.255.255 via Ethernet0
(192.168.2.1)
00:44:41: network 192.168.1.0, metric 1
00:44:41: network 192.168.3.0, metric 16

36
 RIPV2
Why ? Installed base of RIP routers
Provides:
 VLSM support
 Authentication
 Multicasting
 “Wire-sharing” by multiple routing domains,
 Tags to support EGP/BGP routes.

Uses reserved fields in RIPv1 header.

First route entry replaced by authentication info.

37
Figure 14.13 RIP version 2 format

38
Figure 14.14 Authentication

39
OUTLINE
Basic Routing
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) and Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

40
 INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL (IGRP)

Cisco-proprietary distance-vector routing protocol (must use only Cisco routers).

Classful
Default max hop count = 100.
Can be used in large networks.
Uses a different metric than RIP – IGRP uses bandwidth and delay of line by
default. This is called a “composite metric.”
 Reliability, load, and MTU can also be used, although they are not by default.

41
ENHANCED INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING
PROTOCOL (EIGRP)
Cisco proprietary
Classless
Uses autonomous system numbers
 A number assigned to a group of routers under mutual administration.

Referred to as a “hybrid routing protocol” or “advanced distance

vector protocol”
Provides support for IP, IPv6
Best path selection using the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)
Communication via Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP)

42
EIGRP – TYPES OF PACKETS
Reliable-> acknowledged
5 types of packets:
 Hello – Identifies neighbors. Sent as periodic multicast.
 Update – Advertises routes. Updates are sent as multicast only if there is a
change.
 Ack – Acknowledges receipt of an update
 Query – Ask about routes if the paths are lost. Multicast to neighbors. If
there is not a response from some neighbor - > unicast query until it gets a
reply of after 16 attempts
 Reply – Answer a query. Unicast – indicating the path, or that there is no
path.

43
EIGRP - NEIGHBORS
Before EIGRP routers exchange routes with each
other, they must become neighbors.
There are three conditions that must be met for
neighborship establishment:
1) Hello received
2) AS numbers match
3) Identical metrics (K-values)
 Sends periodic hellos
 If hellos are missed over a long period of time (hold
time) the neighbor is removed
 List of neighbors kept in neighbors table

44
“SOPHISTICATED METRIC”

45
EXAMPLE – EIGRP METRIC

46
DUAL
Advertised distance – the cost from the neighbor to the destination
Feasible distance – the cost from the router to the destination
Feasibility requirement – a path where the neighbors advertised
distance < best feasible distance, has no loops
Successor – the neighbor with the best path
Feasible successor – neighbors that meet the feasibility requirement
Example

47
DUAL - EXAMPLE

Advertised Feasible
distance distance
Ohrid 310 310+180=490 Possibility
Veles 95 95+55=150 Feasible successor
Stip 40 40+90=130 Successor 48
EIGRP
Three tables
 Neighbor table
 Topology table
 Routing table

Reliable multicast (class D 224.0.0.10 + unicast)

49
EIGRP FEATURE COMPARISON
Link-state Features Distance-vector Features

Converges quickly Uses autonomous system number

Discovers neighbors via (like IGRP)
“Hello” packets Uses metric based on bandwidth
Builds topology table & delay (also load & reliability)
After learning its neighbor’s Advertises entire routing table to
routes, only changes to the new neighbors.
routing table are
propagated.
50
OUTLINE
Basic Routing
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) and Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

51
LINK STATE ROUTING

Building Routing Tables

1. Creation of the states of the links by each node, called
the link state packet or LSP
2. Dissemination of LSPs to every other router, called
flooding, in an efficient and reliable way
3. Formation of a shortest path tree for each node
4. Calculation of a routing table based on the shortest
path tree

52
LINK STATE ROUTING

53
LINK STATE ROUTING

Flooding of LSPs
 The creating node sends a copy of LSP out of each interface
 A node that receives an LSP compares it with the copy it may
already have
 Sequence number of the copy > sequence number of the arrived LSP = discard the
arrived LSP
 Otherwise
 Discard the old LSP and keeps the new one
 Send a copy of it out of each interface except the one from which the packet
arrived

54
 OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST
RFC 2328 (v2)
Fixes some of the deficiencies in RIP
Enables each router to learn complete network topology
Each router monitors the link state to each neighbor and
floods the link-state information to other routers
Each router builds an identical link-state database
Allows router to build shortest path tree with router as root
OSPF typically converges faster than RIP when there is a
failure in the network
55
OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST
Three tables
 Neighbor
 Topology (no gossiping)
 Routing

56
OSPF LOGIC
1) Each router discovers its neighbors on each interface.
The list of neighbors is kept in a neighbor table.
2) Each router uses a reliable protocol to exchange
topology information with its neighbors.
3) Each router places the learned topology information
in its topology database.

57
OSPF LOGIC (CONT.)
4) Each router runs the SPF algorithm against its own
topology database to calculate the best routes to each
subnet in the database.
5) Each router places the best route to each subnet in the
IP routing table.

58
RID
What is RID (the name of the router)
The highest physical IP address
Virtual IP addresses beat physical IP addresses
Router ID command
Example

59
OSPF TERMINOLOGY
RID – router ID – highest IP (virtual, physical)
DR - designated router (highest priority, highest RID)
No. SPtree = No. areas for all interfaces
Metric = cost
Advertises list of connections
Multicast hellos
AllSPF dest = 224.0.0.5 (from DR to all routers)
AllDRs dest = 224.0.0.6 (from routers to DRs and BDRs)

60
 OSPF FEATURES
Multiple routes to a given destination, one per type of service
Support for variable-length subnetting by including the subnet mask
in the routing message
Distribution of traffic over multiple paths of equal cost
Authentication to ensure routers exchange information with trusted
neighbors
Uses notion of area to partition sites into subsets
Designated router to minimize table maintenance overhead

61
OSPF FEATURES

At steady state:
 All routers have same LS database

 Know how many routers in network

 Interfaces & links between routers

 Cost of each link (1-65.535)( CISCO -> 108/bandwidth)

 Occasional Hello messages (10 sec) & LS updates sent (30 min)

62
OSPF FEATURES

Metric
 OSPF protocol allows the administrator to assign a cost, called the
metric, to each route
 Based on a type of service (minimum delay, maximum throughput,
and so on)

63
 METRIC
The metric is cost
Cost = 108/bandwidth
Flexible link cost which can range from 1 to
65,535
Examples Ethernet – 10
56 kbps – 1785
Fast Ethernet – 1
64 kbps – 1562
Gigabit Ethernet – 1
T1 – 64
10 Gigabit Ethernet - 1
E1 – 48 64
 OSPF NETWORK
To improve scalability, AS may be partitioned into areas
 Area is identified by 32-bit Area ID
 Router in area only knows complete topology inside area & limits the flooding
of link-state information to area
 Area border routers summarize info from other areas
Each area must be connected to backbone area (0.0.0.0)
 Distributes routing info between areas
Internal router has all links to nets within the same area
Area border router has links to more than one area
Backbone router has links connected to the backbone
Autonomous system boundary (ASB) router has links to another autonomous
system.

65
HIERARCHICAL OSPF

66
 OSPF AREAS
To another AS

N1 R1 N5

N2 R3 R6 N4 R7

R2 N6
R4
R5

N3
Area 2
Area 0
Area 1 R8

ASB: 4
ABR: 3, 6, and 8 N7
IR: 1,2,5,7 R = router
N = network
BBR: 3,4,5,6,8
Area 3
67
 NEIGHBOR, ADJACENT & DESIGNATED ROUTERS
Neighbor routers: two routers that have interfaces to a common
network
 Neighbors are discovered dynamically by Hello protocol
Adjacent router: neighbor routers become adjacent when they
synchronize topology databases by exchange of link state
information
 Neighbors on point-to-point links become adjacent
 Routers on multiaccess nets become adjacent only to designated &
backup designated routers
 Reduces size of topological database & routing traffic

68
 BECOMING ADJACENT ROUTERS
Send hello -> down state
Receive hello -> Init state (check criterion)
Receive hello -> 2-way state
 Am I listed as a neighbor?

Master-slave -> Exstar state

 Master sends DBD
 Slave sends DBD

DBD acknowledged and reviewed -> Load state

 Slave sends LSR; master sends LSU
 Master sends LSR; slave sends LSU

Neighbors are synchronized -> Full state

69
Hello packet (profile of the router)

Requirements for becoming adjacent:

• Hello and dead intervals
• Same network mask
• Area ID
• Authentication
70
 LINK STATE ADVERTISEMENTS
Link state info exchanged by adjacent routers to allow
 area topology databases to be maintained
 inter-area & inter-AS routes to be advertised
Router link ad: generated by all OSPF routers
 state of router links within area; flooded within area only
Net link ad: generated by the designated router
 lists routers connected to net: flooded within area only
Summary link ad: generated by area border routers
 1. routes to dest in other areas; 2. routes to ASB routers
AS external link ad: generated by ASB routers
 describes routes to destinations outside the OSPF net
 flooded in all areas in the OSPF net

71
Figure 14.19 Areas in an autonomous system

72
Figure 14.20 Types of links

73
Figure 14.21 Point-to-point link

74
Figure 14.22 Transient link

75
DESIGNATED ROUTER
Receives updates and distributes them to each segment
router
DR and BDR are elected on the basis of highest OSPF
priority, and highest IP address
 Default priority is 1 and a priority of 0 prevents a router from being
elected

DRs are stable

76
Figure 14.23 Stub link

77
Figure 14.25 Types of OSPF packets

78
Figure 14.26 OSPF common header

79
Figure 14.27 Link state update packet

80
Figure 14.28 LSA general header

E flag: 1 – area is stub area

T flag: 1 – multiple types of service

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Router link (type 1 LSA)

82
Figure 14.30 Router link LSA

E – is it ASBR
B – is it ABR
Link state ID (in LSA header): originating router ID
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Table 14.2 Link types, link identification, and link data

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 Example 3

Give the router link LSA sent by router 10.24.7.9 in Figure 14.31.

See Next Slide

Solution
This router has three links: two of type 1 (point-to-point) and one of type 3
(stub network). Figure 14.32 shows the router link LSA.

See Figure 14.32

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Figure 14.31 Example 3

86
Figure 14.32 Solution to Example 3

87
Network link (type 2 LSA)

88
 Figure 14.34 Network link advertisement format

Link-state ID: IP address of the interface of the DR

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 Example 4

Give the network link LSA in Figure 14.35.

See Next Slide

Solution.

See Figure 14.36

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Figure 14.35 Example 4

91
Figure 14.36 Solution to Example 4

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 Example 5

In Figure 14.37, which router(s) sends out router link LSAs?

See Next Slide

Solution
All routers advertise router link LSAs.
a. R1 has two links, N1 and N2.
b. R2 has one link, N1.
c. R3 has two links, N2 and N3.

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Figure 14.37 Example 5 and Example 6

94
 Example 6

In Figure 14.37, which router(s) sends out the network link LSAs?

Solution
All three network must advertise network links:
a. Advertisement for N1 is done by R1 because it is the only attached router and
therefore the designated router.

b. Advertisement for N2 can be done by either R1, R2, or R3, depending on which
one is chosen as the designated router.

c. Advertisement for N3 is done by R3 because it is the only attached router and
therefore the designated router.
95
Summary link to network (type 3 LSA) –
ABR summary route

96
Figure 14.39 Summary link to network LSA

Link-state ID: destination network number

97
Summary link to AS boundary router
(type 4 LSA) – ASBR location

98
 Figure 14.41 Summary link to AS boundary router LSA

Link-state ID: router ID of the ASBR

99
External link (type 5 LSA) – ASBR
summary route

100
 Figure 14.43 External link LSA

Link-state ID: external network number

101
Database description packet

102
Link state request packet

103
Link state acknowledgment packet

104
AREAS & LSA PROPAGATION

105
OSPF --- ISSUES

Processor intensive
Flooding traffic
Complexity
 Five Messages
 Hello, exchange, request, flood update and flood ack
 Three algorithms (Dijkstra, flooding, exchange)
 A lot of code

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