OS - Computer Instructor Study Materials-1 PDF

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INSTRUCTOR
OPERATING SYSTEMS
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OPERATING SYSTEMS
UNIT-II
Introduction:
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What is an Operating System?
 A program which controls the execution of all other programs (applications).
 Acts as an intermediary between the user(s) and the computer.
 Objectives: – convenience – efficiency – extensibility.
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 Similar to a government.
Operating System Definition:
OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources

 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use.
OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the

Computer
System Software:
 Independent of applications, but common to all
Examples
 C library functions
 A window system
 A database management system
 Resource management functions
 Purpose of an OS (What is Resource Management?)
 Process: An executing program

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 Resource: Anything that is needed for a process to run
Memory
Space on a disk
The CPU
 “An OS creates resource abstractions”

 “An OS manages resource sharing”
OS Strategies:
Batch processing
Timesharing
Personal computer & workstations
Process control & real-time
Network
Distributed
Multiprogramming needed for efficiency:

Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job.

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Multi-Programming Operating System

 Use memory to cache jobs from disk
⇒ more than one job active simultaneously.
Two stage scheduling:
Select jobs to load: job scheduling.
Select resident job to run: CPU scheduling.
Users want more interaction ⇒ time-sharing:
• Example. CTSS, TSO, Unix, VMS, Windows NT. . .

Technique for sharing the CPU among runnable processes
 Process may be blocked on I/O
 Process may be blocked waiting for other resource
While one process is blocked, another should be able to run
Multiprogramming OS accomplishes CPU sharing “automatically”
Reduced time to run all processes
Today and Tomorrow

• Single user systems: cheap and cheerful.

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Personal computers.
No other users ⇒ ignore protection.
E.g. DOS, Windows, Win 95/98, . . .
• RT Systems: power is nothing without control.
Hard-real time: nuclear reactor safety monitor.
Soft-real time: mp3 player.
• Parallel Processing: the need for speed.
SMP: 2–8 processors in a box.
MIMD: super-computing.
• Distributed computing: global processing?

 Java: the network is the computer.
 Clustering: the network is the bus.
 CORBA: the computer is the network.
 .NET: the network is an enabling framework. .
Batch Systems
• Introduction of tape drives allow batching of jobs:
Programmers put jobs on cards as before.

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All cards read onto a tape.
Operator carries input tape to computer.
Results written to output tape.
Output tape taken to printer.
Uses multiprogramming
Job (file of OS commands) prepared offline
Batch of jobs given to OS at one time
OS processes jobs one-after-the-other
No human-computer interaction
OS optimizes resource utilization
Batch processing (as an option) still used today
Timesharing
 Uses multiprogramming
 Support interactive computing model (Illusion of multiple consoles)
 Different scheduling & memory allocation strategies than batch.
 Tends to propagate processes

 Considerable attention to resource isolation (security & protection)

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 Tend to optimize response time

• Computer now has a resident monitor:
 Initially control is in monitor.
 Monitor reads job and transfer control.
 At end of job, control transfers back to monitor.
• Even better: spooling systems.
Use interrupt driven I/O.
Use magnetic disk to cache input tape.
Fire operator.
• Monitor now schedules jobs. . .
Operating System Organization:
Basic Operating System Functions
 Regardless of structure, OS needs to securely multiplex resources:
Protect applications from each other, yet
Share physical resources between them.

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 Also usually want to abstract away from grungy hardware i.e., OS provides a virtual
machine:
Share CPU (in time) and provide each app with a virtual processor
Allocate and protect memory, and provide applications with their own virtual address
space
Present a set of (relatively) hardware independent virtual devices
Divide up storage space by using filing systems and
Do all this within the context of a security framework.
 Remainder of this part of the course will look at each of the above areas in turn. . .
Kernel-Based Operating Systems:
 Applications can’t do I/O due to protection
⇒ Operating system does it on their behalf.
 Need secure way for application to invoke operating system:
⇒ Require a special (unprivileged) instruction to allow transition from user to kernel

mode.
 Generally called a software interrupt since operates similarly to a real (hardware)

interrupt. . .

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 Set of OS services accessible via software interrupt mechanism called system calls.
Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently

that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing.
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory  process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multi programmed System
Operating-System Operations:
Interrupt driven by hardware

Software error or request creates exception or trap
Division by zero, request for operating system service
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each other or
the operating system
Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components
User mode and kernel mode

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Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel Code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
 Set interrupt after specific period
 Operating system decrements counter
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds allotted
Memory Management In a multiprogramming system:
 Many processes in memory simultaneously, and every process needs memory for:
instructions (“code” or “text”),

static data (in program), and
dynamic data (heap and stack).
 In addition, operating system itself needs memory for instructions and data.
⇒ must share memory between OS and k processes.

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The Memory Magagement Subsystem Handles:
Relocation
Allocation
Protection
Sharing
Logical Organisation
Physical Organisation
Protection and Security:
 Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to resources

defined by the OS
 Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of

Service
Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do what
User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated number, one
per user
User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine access
Control
Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls
managed, then also associated with each process, file
Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more rights.

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Computing Environments:
Client-Server Computing
Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs.
Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by clients
Compute-server provides an interface to client to request services (i.e.,

database)
File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve files.
Peer to Peer:
P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
 Instead all nodes are considered peers

 May each act as client, server or both

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 Node must join P2P network
Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or

Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service via.
Discovery Protocol:
Examples include Napster and Gnutella
Web-Based Computing
Web has become ubiquitous.

PCs most prevalent devices.
More devices becoming networked to allow web access.
New category of devices to manage web traffic among similar servers: load balancers
Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-side, have evolved into Linux and
Windows XP, which can be clients and servers.
Open-Source Operating Systems:
Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just binary closed
source
Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM)movement
Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft” GNU Public
License (GPL).
 Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX(including core of Mac OS X), and

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many more.
Operating System Services:
Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs and services to
programs and users

One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the user:
 User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI).
Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface (GUI),

Batch
Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into memory
and to run that program, end execution, either normally or abnormally (indicating
error)
I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve a file
or an I/O device
File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest. Programs

need to read and write files and directories, create and delete them, search them,
list file Information, permission management.
Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same computer

or between computers over a network
Communications may be via shared memory or through message passing

(packets moved by the OS)

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Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user program.
For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to ensure
correct and consistent computing
Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s
abilities to efficiently use the system
Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the system
Itself via resource sharing.
 Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running

concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them.
 Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory, and
file storage) may have special allocation code, others (such as I/O devices)
may have general request and release code.
 Accounting
To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of computer resources.
 Protection and security

The owners of information stored in a multiuser or
networked computer system may want to control use of that information,
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other.

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 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is Controlled.
 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends to defending
external I/O devices from invalid access attempts.
 If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be instituted
throughout it. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.
System Calls:
Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application Program Interface.
(API) rather than direct system call use
Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API for POSIX-based.
systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java
API.
For the Java virtual machine (JVM).
Why use APIs rather than system calls?
Types of System Calls:
Process control:

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End, abort
Load, execute
Create process, terminate process
Get process attributes, set process attributes
Wait for time
Wait event, signal event
Allocate and free memory
File management
create file, delete file

open, close file
read, write, reposition
get and set file attributes
Device management
request device, release device

read, write, reposition
get device attributes, set device attributes
logically attach or detach devices
Information maintenance
 get time or date, set time or date

 get system data, set system data
 get and set process, file, or device attributes
Communications
 create, delete communication connection

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 send, receive messages
 transfer status information
 attach and detach remote devices
System Programs:
System programs provide a convenient environment for program development and

execution. They can be divided into:
 File manipulation
 Status information
 File modification
 Programming language support
 Program loading and execution
 Communications
 Application programs
 Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by system programs, not the
actual system calls.
Provide a convenient environment for program development and execution
 Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls; others are considerably
 more complex
File management
 Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list, and generally

 Manipulate files and directories
Status information
 Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available memory, disk

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space, number of users.
 Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging information

 Typically, these programs format and print the output to the terminal or other
output devices
 Some systems implement a registry - used to store and retrieve configuration
Information.
File modification
 Text editors to create and modify files
 Special commands to search contents of files or perform transformations of the

Text.
Programming-language support
 Compilers, assemblers, debuggers and interpreters sometimes provided.
Program loading and execution
 Absolute loaders, relocatable loaders, linkage editors, and overlay-loaders, debugging

systems for higher
 Level and machine language
Communications
 Provide the mechanism for creating virtual connections among

processes, users, and computer systems.

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 Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens, browse web pages, send
electronic-mail messages, log in remotely, transfer files from one machine to another.
Operating-System Debugging:
 Debuggingis finding and fixing errors, or bugs.

 OSes generate log files containing error information.
 Failure of an application can generate core dump file capturing memory of the process
 Operating system failure can generate crash dump file containing kernel memory
 Beyond crashes, performance tuning can optimize system performance
 Kernighan’s Law: “Debugging is twice as hard as writing the code in the first place.
Therefore, if you write the code as cleverly as possible, you are, by definition, not smart
enough to debug it.”
 DT race tool in Solaris, Free BSD,Mac OS X allows live instrumentation on production

Systems.
 Probes fire when code is executed, capturing state data and sending it to
consumers of those probes
Operating System Generation:
Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of machines; the system must
be configured for each specific computer site.
SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specific configuration of the

hardware system.
Booting – starting a computer by loading the kernel.
Bootstrap program – code stored in ROM that is able to locate the kernel, load it into

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memory, and start its execution.
System Boot
 Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware can start it
Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, locates the kernel, loads it into memory,
and starts it
Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed location loads bootstrap
Loader
When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed memory location.
Firmware used to hold initial boot code
Process Concept:
An operating system executes a variety of programs:
 Batch system – jobs

 Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks
 Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably
Process – a program in execution; process execution must progress in sequential

fashion
A process includes:
 program counter
 stack

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 data section
The Process:
Multiple parts
 The program code, also called text section

 Current activity including program counter, processor registers
 Stack containing temporary data.
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GOVT.POLYTECHNIC TRB MATERIALS:

SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE

 A program which controls the execution of all other programs (applications).

 Acts as an intermediary between the user(s) and the computer.

 Objectives: – convenience – efficiency – extensibility.

SRIMAAN MATERIALS: TET/ ALL PGTRB/ TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTORS/ Page 1

Operating System Definition:

 Manages all resources

 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the

 Purpose of an OS (What is Resource Management?)

 Process: An executing program

SRIMAAN MATERIALS: TET/ ALL PGTRB/ TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTORS/ Page 2

 “An OS creates resource abstractions”

Multiprogramming needed for efficiency:

A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory

One job selected and run via job scheduling

SRIMAAN MATERIALS: TET/ ALL PGTRB/ TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTORS/ Page 3

Multi-Programming Operating System

⇒ more than one job active simultaneously.

Two stage scheduling:

Select jobs to load: job scheduling.

Select resident job to run: CPU scheduling.

Users want more interaction ⇒ time-sharing:

• Example. CTSS, TSO, Unix, VMS, Windows NT. . .

 Process may be blocked on I/O

 Process may be blocked waiting for other resource

While one process is blocked, another should be able to run

Multiprogramming OS accomplishes CPU sharing “automatically”

Reduced time to run all processes

Today and Tomorrow

SRIMAAN MATERIALS: TET/ ALL PGTRB/ TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTORS/ Page 4

No other users ⇒ ignore protection.

E.g. DOS, Windows, Win 95/98, . . .

• RT Systems: power is nothing without control.

Hard-real time: nuclear reactor safety monitor.

Soft-real time: mp3 player.

• Parallel Processing: the need for speed.

SMP: 2–8 processors in a box.

• Distributed computing: global processing?

 Clustering: the network is the bus.

 CORBA: the computer is the network.

 .NET: the network is an enabling framework. .

• Introduction of tape drives allow batching of jobs:

Programmers put jobs on cards as before.

SRIMAAN MATERIALS: TET/ ALL PGTRB/ TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTORS/ Page 5

Operator carries input tape to computer.

Results written to output tape.

Output tape taken to printer.

Job (file of OS commands) prepared offline

Batch of jobs given to OS at one time

OS processes jobs one-after-the-other

OS optimizes resource utilization

Batch processing (as an option) still used today

 Tends to propagate processes

SRIMAAN MATERIALS: TET/ ALL PGTRB/ TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTORS/ Page 6

 Tend to optimize response time