Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

Comparison between Euler’s Method

and Heun’s Method in solving the SIR
model of COVID-19

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 3
SIR Model........................................................................................................................... 3
Assumptions....................................................................................................................... 3
Rationale............................................................................................................................ 3
Aim..................................................................................................................................... 3
Equations............................................................................................................................ 3
Equations of S,I,R...........................................................................................................3
Euler’s method of solution......................................................................................................4
Rate of susceptible..........................................................................................................6
Rate of infective.............................................................................................................. 6
Rate of removed..............................................................................................................6
Application of SIR model to COVID-19...................................................................................7
COVID-19 Background information.....................................................................................7
COVID-19 and the SIR model.............................................................................................7
Parameters of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China.....................................................................7
Heun’s method....................................................................................................................... 9
Evaluation............................................................................................................................ 10
SIR Model......................................................................................................................... 10
Essay Evaluation.............................................................................................................. 10
Bibliography......................................................................................................................... 11
Appendix.............................................................................................................................. 11

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

Introduction
SIR Model
Write about the history of SIR model and its uses
Compartmental models, such as the SIR model, is commonly used in epidemiology to
elucidate the modeling process of infectious diseases. Write practical uses of the
compartmental models // SIR model. Among many other types of modeling techniques,
compartmental models differentiate types of people into mainly three categories: the
Susceptible, Infectious, or Recovered. The SIR model was initially introduced by A. G.
McKendrick and W. O. Kerman in 19271.

Figure 1: SIR model compartments, drawn by author

Thus, in order for this structure to function properly, assumptions must be exerted

Assumptions
1. The disease lifetime, or the epidemic, terminates quite shortly which leads to birthrate
and deathrate (or any other external issues factors determining the total population)
being ignored
2. Rate of infection is proportional to the contact between susceptible and infective
people
3. Rate of recovery, that is rate of death and rate of immunity, is constant
4. Differences in “age, sex, social status, and race” [ CITATION Ter09 \l 1033 ] do not
hinder the rate of infection or removal

Rationale
My rationale – looking at Euler’s method. Which led to me think that there are other methods
of solution. Upon further research, I found out about the Runge-Kutta method which allowed
for more sophisticated modeling, using two anchor points

Aim
The aim of this essay is to utilize the Euler’s and Heun’s method to solve the SIR model and
evaluate the two different methods’ accuracy in predicting the spread of COVID-19 in
Wuhan.

Equations
Equations of S,I,R
 S(t) is the number of individuals who are not yet introduced to the disease at time t,
or with assumptions, the total amount of people susceptible to being infected of the
disease at time t.
 I(t) represents the number of individuals who has been infected
 R(t) represents the number of individuals who have been removed, i.e. dead or
recovered from the diseases hence immune to the disease

1
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.1927.0118

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

The following set of equations can be further derived, but is universally accepted as the
Kermack-McKendrick’s set of equations for the SIR model2:
dS
S '(t )= =−β ∙ I ∙ S
dt
dI
I ' (t)= =β ∙ I ∙ S−γ ∙ I
dt
dR
R '(t )= =γ ∙ I
dt
Assuming that the total population is initially susceptible to the disease, the S constant
represents the remaining population which is the entire population at t=0 . The I constant
will represent the infective, and at t=0 , it will be assumed that only one person is infected
with the virus. The R value will therefore represent the removed individuals, which will be
assumed as 0 when t=0 .

For convenience, the following notation is to be used throughout the essay (phrase this
better):

When t=0 ,

S ( 0 )=S 0

I ( 0 )=I 0

R ( 0 )=R 0
Furthermore, for simplicity in graphing, the fraction of the variables will be notated as such
(also phrase this better):
S
Si=
S0
I
I i=
I0

R
Ri=
R0

Euler’s method of solution

Leonhard Euler, the author of Institutionum calculi integralis3, he describes a method which
allows differential equations to be ‘solved’ in numerically approximating the trajectory of a
curve. When the step size is small enough, it can be safely assumed that the differential
equations’ solution using Euler’s method is accurate enough for further estimations and
approximations.
Euler’s method requires an initial starting point, which explains the necessity of the
parameters previously set. In doing so, the differential equation can be used to extrapolate
from the initial starting point of x 0 and y 0. Using the absolute initial pieces of data, x n and y n
can be calculated:
2
https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.05.15.20103077v1.full.pdf
3
find the source

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

The Euler method deconstruction

If x n is the initial value of x, and y n is the initial value of y,

The next value of the ‘x’ variable can be determined using the previous data:
x n+1=x n + ∆ h

where ‘ x n−1’ is the previous value, and the current / next value ( x n) can be calculated by
adding a small step value ∆ h.

The next value of the ‘y’ variable can also be determined using the previous data:

y n+ 1= y n +f ( y n , t n) × ∆ h
, given that the differentiated formula is written in this form (this form is more commonly used
in textbooks, research papers and generally more recognized to be the more convenient
option):
d yn
=f ( x n , y n )
d xn
In fact, the table can be drawn up for these variables: (fix this table up, format nicely)

Iteration xn yn f (x , y) x n+1 y n+ 1
1 xn yn Differential x n +∆ h y n + f ( y n ,t n )× ∆ h
equation with x n
and y n
2 x n+1 value y n+ 1 value Differential x n+1 +∆ h y n+ 1+ f ( y n , t n )× ∆ h
equation with
x n+1 and y n+ 1
3 Next x n+1 Next y n+ 1 Differential Next Next y n+ 1 value
value value equation with x n+1 + f ( y n , t n )× ∆ h
the next x n+1 value
and the next +∆ h
y n+ 1
4 … … … … …
n N x n+1
th
N y n+ 1
th

value value

where ∆ h is the pre-determined step size.

Note that increasing the step value ∆ h can decrease the precision of the modelling and
increase the error when compared to the real value. this is because the smaller the step
size, the frequency of the approximation of the gradient gets bigger. The solution curve that
results from a higher frequency of plottable points often results in less rigid and more curved,
in addition to accuracy.
This can be easily visualized using a graph field4;

4
https://calcworkshop.com/first-order-differential-equations/eulers-method-table/

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

When applied to the existing variables, the x 0 on the graph becomes the x n, and x 1 on the
graph becomes x n+1. Thus, it can be easily deduced that the increasing amounts of
approximation of the gradient between the two points will results in a smoother graph.
The following changes of the variables of the SIR graph can be perceived as differential
equations, which can be ‘solved’ using the Euler method.

Rate of susceptible
where β is the rate of contact or transmission

dS
=− β ∙ I ∙ S
dt
dS=(−β ∙ I ∙ S ) ∙ dt
Assuming that dS is dSinitial+1 - dSinitial,
dS=Sinitial +1−Sinitial

Sinitial +1−Sinitial =(−β ∙ I ∙ S ) ∙ dt

∴ S initial+1= (−β ∙ I ∙ S ) ∙ dt+ S initial

Rate of infective
dI
where γ is the rate of removal (either dead or gained immunity) =β ∙ I ∙ S−γ ∙ I
dt
dI = ( β ∙ I ∙ S−γ ∙ I ) ∙ dt
I initial+1−I initial =dI

I initial+1= ( β ∙ I ∙ S−γ ∙ I ) ∙ dt+ I initial

Rate of removed
dR
=γ ∙ I
dt
dR=( γ ∙ I ) ∙ dt
Rinitial +1−Rinitial =dR

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

Rinitial +1−Rinitial =( γ ∙ I ) ∙ dt

Rinitial +1=( γ ∙ I ) ∙ dt + Rinitial

The variables can be tabled accordingly:

t S(t ) I (t ) R(t ) Sn +1 I n+1 Rn +1

1 Si Ii Ri (¿ 0) Si−(β ∙ I 1 ∙ S i ∙ ∆ h) ( β ∙ I i ∙ S i−γ ∙ I i ∙ ∆ h ) ∙dt + I .i 0

1+∆ h Sn +1 I n+1 Rn +1 Si+ 1−(β ∙ I i ∙ Si ∙ ∆ h) ( β ∙ I i ∙ S i−γ ∙ I i ∙ ∆ h ) ∙dt + I(i+1

γ ∙ I i ∙ ∆ h ) + Ri
1+ Next Next Next … … …
2∆h I n+1 I n+1 Rn +1
valu valu value
e e
… … … … … …
1+ n∆h n∆h n ∆ h’ … … …
n∆h ’s ’s s
itera iterat iterati
tion ion on of
of of Rn +1
Sn +1 I n+1

Application of SIR model to COVID-19

COVID-19 Background information

COVID-19 and the SIR model

Parameters of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China
To apply the SIR model to the COVID-19 pandemic, the following relevant parameters must
be set:
1. Initial population I ≈ 14,000,000 [CITATION Bai20 \l 1033 ]
2. Transmission rate β=0.2225 [ CITATION Yan20 \l 1033 ]
1
3. Recovery rate γ = [CITATION NHC20 \l 1033 ]
10
4. Time step ∆ t=1

When time step ∆ t=1 is being assumed, it is assumed that the COVID-19 virus stays
infects people and stays dormant for the day. By reducing this, further accuracy can be
achieved, as the COVID-19 does not act in intervals of days. (maybe find the appropriate
scientific value?)
Fix up this table:

t S(t ) I (t) R(t ) Sn +1 I n+1 Rn +1

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

0 1 1 0 Si−(0.2225 ∙1 ∙ S ∙ ∆ h)
( β ∙ I ∙ S−γ ∙ I ∙ ∆ h ) ∙dt +dI .i 0

1 Sn +1 I n+1 Rn +1 Si+ 1−( β ∙ I ∙ S ∙ ∆ h) ( β ∙ I ∙ S−γ ∙ I ∙ ∆ h ) + I .i+1 ( γ ∙ I ∙ ∆ h )+ R i

2 Next Next Next … … …
I n+1 I n+1 Rn +1
value value value
… … … … … …
1 n ∆ h ’s n ∆ h’ n ∆ h’ … … …
+ iteration s s
n ∆ hof Sn +1 iterati iterati
on of on of
I n+1 Rn +1

Day (t) Susceptible Infective Removed Total

0 0.9999993 7.1429E-07 0 1
1 0.9999991 8.0179E-07 7.14286E-08 1
2 0.9999989 9E-07 1.51607E-07 1
3 0.9999987 1.0103E-06 2.41608E-07 1
… … … … 1
364 0.1451212 2.3499E-08 0.854878801 1
365 0.1451212 2.1908E-08 0.854878804 1

0.9
Proposed SIR model using Euler's method
0.8

0.7
Number of population

0.6
Susceptible
0.5
Infective
0.4 Removed
Total
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108120132144156168180192204216228240252264276288300312324336348360
Time (in days)

When plotted on Excel, the following model/graph can be observed:

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

The peak of infective – how many people // when in days? With the peak infective at
approximately 0.196458719, around 2750422.059 people are predicted to be infected with COVID-
19 on the 122nd day.

Plateaus around where? – how many days After the peak of infectives, the graph plateaus
around the 190th day mark. Furthermore, other lines seems to follow the trend, including
susceptible and removed.
And when it plateaus, how many people for susceptible? Infective? Removed?

Heun’s method
Similar to the Euler’s method, Heun’s method is all about making approximations, but this
time not only one point that is the initial value, but two (or more for other Runge-Kutta
differential equations solution methods) values, using the weighted average of the gradients
between them to plot the point in the model.
This results in a higher accuracy as it accounts for two different gradients at once. However,
the reason for not teaching this in IB is that it very sophisticated while it is not practical. yet,
when plotted using a computer programme, it can yield data with much less truncation error.
furthermore, it stems from the same principle of Euler’s method of using the slope of certain
points to model the solution curve.
As the Euler’s method is only a first-order convergent, the error of the predicted curve is
O ( h ) where h is the time step value. Heun’s method is slightly different in that it is a second-
order convergent, the error of the predicted curve being O(h 2). An easier visualization of the
differences in their error values can be explained. For example, when 100 times more
accuracy is required, the solutions need a hundred times more steps. On the other hand, the
Heun’s method only requires ten times as many time steps for one hundred times of its
accuracy.

The Heun’s method utilizes an intermediate step y n+ 0.5, or more commonly known as ~
y n+1 in
order to use its value to use as the average.
~y n+1= y i + f (t i , y i)∙ ∆ h

∆h
y n+ 1= y i+ f ( t , y ) +f ( t i+1 , ~y n+1 ) ]
2 [ i i
where t i+1=t i +∆ h.

The method can be more easily visualized using a diagram5:

5
find source: http://folk.ntnu.no/leifh/teaching/tkt4140/._main015.html

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

Evaluation
SIR Model
Although COVID-19 was assumed to be following the SIR model in the essay, in that
everyone can divided into the three compartments, recent research suggests that immunity
is not guaranteed for people for who have recovered from being infected. In fact, the
scientific communities are split on the topic of guaranteed immunity after infection which may
imply that the COVID-19 follows the SIS model more – one where people who were infected
can be susceptible again.
Furthermore, the modeling does not account for different external factors of rates of
population that alter the number of all three compartments which break assumptions. For
example, the number of people entering and leaving the city of Wuhan have not been
accounted for. Scientific research has shown evidence that different ages are affected
differently, and that preventive measures such as social distancing can change the infection
rate itself. In fact, the assumptions asserted at the beginning are the only way the SIR
models are applicable and therefore SIR model is not practical given the real life
circumstances.

Essay Evaluation
1. COVID-19 unpredictability (and diseases in general)
a. Wealth distribution, auto-immunity of some populations, citizens’ perceptions
of hygiene, the quality and access to education
2. The Runge-Kutta 4 methods – using 6 approximation points; further more accurate
than the two explored in this exploration. However, the Euler’s method provides a
limitation in that it is the only method to be utilized when graphing these
unprecedented diseases.

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

Bibliography
Baidu, Incorporated. (n.d.). Baidu migration index. Retrieved September 19, 2020, from
Qianxi Baidu: http://qianxi.baidu.com/
Johnson, T. (2009). Mathematical Modeling of Diseases: Susceptible-Infected-Recovered
(SIR) Model. University of Minnesota.
N.H.C of the P.R.C. (n.d.). National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China.
Retrieved September 19, 2020, from National Health Commission of the People’s
Republic of China: http://www.nhc.gov.cn/xcs/yqtb/list_gzbd.shtml
Yang ZF, Z. Z. (2020). Modified SEIR and AI prediction of the epidemics trend of COVID-19
in China under public health interventions. J Thorac Dis.

Appendix
Appendix A: Raw data for the simulati on of SIR model for a year

Day (t) Susceptible Infective Removed Total

0 0.9999993 7.1429E-07 0 1
1 0.9999991 8.0179E-07 7.14286E-08 1
2 0.9999989 9E-07 1.51607E-07 1
3 0.9999987 1.0103E-06 2.41608E-07 1
4 0.9999985 1.134E-06 3.42633E-07 1
5 0.9999983 1.2729E-06 4.56034E-07 1
6 0.999998 1.4289E-06 5.83327E-07 1
7 0.9999977 1.6039E-06 7.26213E-07 1
8 0.9999973 1.8004E-06 8.86602E-07 1
9 0.9999969 2.0209E-06 1.06664E-06 1
10 0.9999965 2.2685E-06 1.26873E-06 1
11 0.999996 2.5464E-06 1.49558E-06 1
12 0.9999954 2.8583E-06 1.75021E-06 1
13 0.9999948 3.2084E-06 2.03604E-06 1
14 0.999994 3.6015E-06 2.35689E-06 1
15 0.9999932 4.0426E-06 2.71703E-06 1
16 0.9999923 4.5378E-06 3.12129E-06 1
17 0.9999913 5.0937E-06 3.57508E-06 1
18 0.9999902 5.7177E-06 4.08445E-06 1
19 0.9999889 6.4181E-06 4.65622E-06 1
20 0.9999875 7.2043E-06 5.29803E-06 1
21 0.9999859 8.0868E-06 6.01846E-06 1
22 0.9999841 9.0774E-06 6.82714E-06 1
23 0.9999821 1.0189E-05 7.73488E-06 1
24 0.9999798 1.1438E-05 8.75382E-06 1
25 0.9999773 1.2839E-05 9.89757E-06 1
26 0.9999744 1.4411E-05 1.11814E-05 1
27 0.9999712 1.6177E-05 1.26225E-05 1

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

28 0.9999676 1.8158E-05 1.42402E-05 1

29 0.9999636 2.0382E-05 1.6056E-05 1
30 0.999959 2.2879E-05 1.80942E-05 1
31 0.9999539 2.5681E-05 2.03821E-05 1
32 0.9999482 2.8827E-05 2.29503E-05 1
33 0.9999418 3.2358E-05 2.5833E-05 1
34 0.9999346 3.6322E-05 2.90688E-05 1
35 0.9999265 4.077E-05 3.27009E-05 1
36 0.9999175 4.5764E-05 3.6778E-05 1
37 0.9999073 5.1369E-05 4.13544E-05 1
38 0.9998958 5.7661E-05 4.64913E-05 1
39 0.999883 6.4723E-05 5.22574E-05 1
40 0.9998686 7.265E-05 5.87297E-05 1
41 0.9998525 8.1548E-05 6.59947E-05 1
42 0.9998343 9.1535E-05 7.41495E-05 1
43 0.999814 0.00010274 8.3303E-05 1
44 0.9997911 0.00011533 9.35774E-05 1
45 0.9997654 0.00012945 0.00010511 1
46 0.9997366 0.0001453 0.000118055 1
47 0.9997043 0.00016309 0.000132585 1
48 0.999668 0.00018306 0.000148894 1
49 0.9996273 0.00020547 0.000167199 1
50 0.9995816 0.00023062 0.000187746 1
51 0.9995303 0.00025885 0.000210808 1
52 0.9994728 0.00029053 0.000236693 1
53 0.9994082 0.00032609 0.000265746 1
54 0.9993357 0.00036599 0.000298355 1
55 0.9992543 0.00041077 0.000334954 1
56 0.9991629 0.00046102 0.000376032 1
57 0.9990605 0.00051741 0.000422134 1
58 0.9989454 0.00058069 0.000473875 1
59 0.9988164 0.00065168 0.000531944 1
60 0.9986715 0.00073134 0.000597112 1
61 0.998509 0.00082072 0.000670247 1
62 0.9983267 0.00092098 0.000752318 1
63 0.9981221 0.00103346 0.000844417 1
64 0.9978926 0.00115963 0.000947763 1
65 0.9976351 0.00130114 0.001063726 1
66 0.9973463 0.00145984 0.00119384 1
67 0.9970224 0.00163781 0.001339824 1
68 0.996659 0.00183736 0.001503606 1
69 0.9962516 0.00206107 0.001687342 1
70 0.9957947 0.00231183 0.001893449 1
71 0.9952825 0.00259287 0.002124632 1
72 0.9947083 0.00290777 0.002383919 1
73 0.9940647 0.00326055 0.002674697 1
74 0.9933436 0.00365567 0.003000752 1
75 0.9925356 0.00409807 0.003366318 1

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

76 0.9916306 0.00459328 0.003776126 1

77 0.9906171 0.0051474 0.004235453 1
78 0.9894826 0.00576721 0.004750193 1
79 0.9882129 0.0064602 0.005326915 1
80 0.9867924 0.00723463 0.005972934 1
81 0.985204 0.00809961 0.006696397 1
82 0.9834285 0.00906515 0.007506359 1
83 0.9814449 0.01014221 0.008412874 1
84 0.9792302 0.01134275 0.009427094 1
85 0.9767588 0.01267982 0.01056137 1
86 0.9740031 0.01416753 0.011829352 1
87 0.9709328 0.01582111 0.013246105 1
88 0.9675149 0.01765687 0.014828216 1
89 0.9637139 0.01969221 0.016593903 1
90 0.9594914 0.02194552 0.018563124 1
91 0.9548063 0.02443605 0.020757676 1
92 0.949615 0.02718374 0.023201281 1
93 0.9438713 0.03020901 0.025919655 1
94 0.9375271 0.03353234 0.028940556 1
95 0.9305323 0.03717394 0.03229379 1
96 0.9228356 0.04115317 0.036011184 1
97 0.9143856 0.04548787 0.040126501 1
98 0.9051311 0.05019363 0.044675288 1
99 0.8950225 0.05528285 0.049694651 1
100 0.8840133 0.06076372 0.055222936 1
101 0.8720615 0.06663915 0.061299308 1
102 0.8591313 0.07290548 0.067963223 1
103 0.8451949 0.0795513 0.075253771 1
104 0.8302348 0.08655626 0.083208901 1
105 0.8142455 0.09388993 0.091864527 1
106 0.7972355 0.10151094 0.10125352 1
107 0.779229 0.10936636 0.111404614 1
108 0.7602673 0.11739149 0.12234125 1
109 0.7404094 0.12551023 0.134080399 1
110 0.7197327 0.13363589 0.146631422 1
111 0.6983322 0.14167283 0.159995011 1
112 0.6763192 0.14951851 0.174162294 1
113 0.6538195 0.15706636 0.189114145 1
114 0.6309703 0.16420893 0.204820781 1
115 0.6079169 0.17084147 0.221241673 1
116 0.5848086 0.1768656 0.23832582 1
117 0.5617948 0.18219277 0.25601238 1
118 0.5390209 0.18674748 0.274231658 1
119 0.5166238 0.19046975 0.292906405 1
120 0.4947296 0.19331705 0.31195338 1
121 0.4734497 0.19526517 0.331285085 1
122 0.45288 0.19630838 0.350811602 1
123 0.4330988 0.19645872 0.37044244 1

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Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

124 0.4141672 0.19574449 0.390088312 1

125 0.3961289 0.19420833 0.409662761 1
126 0.3790116 0.19190476 0.429083594 1
127 0.3628283 0.18889763 0.44827407 1
128 0.3475787 0.18525744 0.467163833 1
129 0.3332516 0.18105882 0.485689578 1
130 0.3198264 0.17637817 0.503795459 1
131 0.3072751 0.17129167 0.521433276 1
132 0.2955641 0.16587349 0.538562443 1
133 0.2846557 0.16019448 0.555149791 1
134 0.2745097 0.15432109 0.571169239 1
135 0.265084 0.14831467 0.586601348 1
136 0.2563362 0.14223098 0.601432815 1
137 0.2482241 0.13611999 0.615655913 1
138 0.2407062 0.13002588 0.629267912 1
139 0.2337424 0.12398711 0.6422705 1
140 0.2272941 0.11803668 0.654669211 1
141 0.2213246 0.11220247 0.666472879 1
142 0.2157993 0.10650761 0.677693127 1
143 0.2106853 0.10097085 0.688343887 1
144 0.205952 0.09560702 0.698440972 1
145 0.2015709 0.09042744 0.708001674 1
146 0.1975153 0.08544033 0.717044418 1
147 0.1937604 0.08065115 0.725588451 1
148 0.1902834 0.07606304 0.733653566 1
149 0.187063 0.0716771 0.74125987 1
150 0.1840797 0.0674927 0.74842758 1
151 0.1813154 0.06350778 0.755176851 1
152 0.1787533 0.05971907 0.761527629 1
153 0.1763781 0.05612235 0.767499536 1
154 0.1741756 0.05271259 0.773111771 1
155 0.1721328 0.04948416 0.77838303 1
156 0.1702376 0.04643096 0.783331446 1
157 0.1684789 0.04354657 0.787974542 1
158 0.1668465 0.04082433 0.792329199 1
159 0.1653309 0.03825743 0.796411632 1
160 0.1639236 0.03583903 0.800237375 1
161 0.1626164 0.03356228 0.803821278 1
162 0.1614021 0.03142041 0.807177506 1
163 0.1602737 0.02940674 0.810319547 1
164 0.159225 0.02751473 0.813260221 1
165 0.1582503 0.02573804 0.816011694 1
166 0.157344 0.02407049 0.818585498 1
167 0.1565013 0.02250613 0.820992548 1
168 0.1557176 0.02103921 0.82324316 1
169 0.1549887 0.01966424 0.825347082 1
170 0.1543106 0.01837594 0.827313506 1
171 0.1536796 0.01716926 0.829151099 1

14
Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

172 0.1530926 0.01603942 0.830868026 1

173 0.1525462 0.01498183 0.832471968 1
174 0.1520377 0.01399215 0.833970151 1
175 0.1515644 0.01306627 0.835369366 1
176 0.1511237 0.01220028 0.836675993 1
177 0.1507135 0.01139048 0.837896021 1
178 0.1503315 0.0106334 0.839035069 1
179 0.1499759 0.00992574 0.840098409 1
180 0.1496446 0.00926438 0.841090983 1
181 0.1493362 0.00864641 0.842017421 1
182 0.1490489 0.00806906 0.842882062 1
183 0.1487813 0.00752976 0.843688968 1
184 0.148532 0.00702604 0.844441944 1
185 0.1482998 0.00655564 0.845144548 1
186 0.1480835 0.00611639 0.845800112 1
187 0.147882 0.00570628 0.846411751 1
188 0.1476942 0.00532341 0.846982379 1
189 0.1475193 0.004966 0.847514719 1
190 0.1473563 0.0046324 0.84801132 1
191 0.1472044 0.00432104 0.84847456 1
192 0.1470629 0.00403047 0.848906664 1
193 0.146931 0.0037593 0.849309711 1
194 0.1468081 0.00350627 0.849685641 1
195 0.1466936 0.00327018 0.850036268 1
196 0.1465868 0.0030499 0.850363286 1
197 0.1464873 0.00284438 0.850668276 1
198 0.1463946 0.00265265 0.850952714 1
199 0.1463082 0.00247379 0.851217979 1
200 0.1462277 0.00230694 0.851465357 1
201 0.1461526 0.0021513 0.851696052 1
202 0.1460827 0.00200613 0.851911182 1
203 0.1460175 0.00187073 0.852111795 1
204 0.1459567 0.00174443 0.852298868 1
205 0.1459001 0.00162664 0.852473311 1
206 0.1458472 0.00151678 0.852635975 1
207 0.145798 0.00141432 0.852787653 1
208 0.1457521 0.00131877 0.852929085 1
209 0.1457094 0.00122966 0.853060962 1
210 0.1456695 0.00114656 0.853183928 1
211 0.1456323 0.00106907 0.853298584 1
212 0.1455977 0.0009968 0.853405491 1
213 0.1455654 0.00092941 0.853505171 1
214 0.1455353 0.00086657 0.853598113 1
215 0.1455073 0.00080798 0.85368477 1
216 0.1454811 0.00075334 0.853765568 1
217 0.1454567 0.00070239 0.853840902 1
218 0.145434 0.00065488 0.853911141 1
219 0.1454128 0.00061059 0.853976629 1

15
Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

220 0.145393 0.00056928 0.854037688 1

221 0.1453746 0.00053077 0.854094616 1
222 0.1453574 0.00049486 0.854147693 1
223 0.1453414 0.00046138 0.854197179 1
224 0.1453265 0.00043016 0.854243317 1
225 0.1453126 0.00040106 0.854286334 1
226 0.1452996 0.00037392 0.854326439 1
227 0.1452876 0.00034861 0.854363831 1
228 0.1452763 0.00032502 0.854398692 1
229 0.1452658 0.00030303 0.854431195 1
230 0.145256 0.00028252 0.854461497 1
231 0.1452469 0.0002634 0.854489749 1
232 0.1452383 0.00024557 0.854516089 1
233 0.1452304 0.00022895 0.854540646 1
234 0.145223 0.00021345 0.85456354 1
235 0.1452161 0.000199 0.854584885 1
236 0.1452097 0.00018553 0.854604786 1
237 0.1452037 0.00017297 0.854623339 1
238 0.1451981 0.00016127 0.854640637 1
239 0.1451929 0.00015035 0.854656763 1
240 0.145188 0.00014017 0.854671798 1
241 0.1451835 0.00013068 0.854685815 1
242 0.1451793 0.00012184 0.854698883 1
243 0.1451753 0.00011359 0.854711067 1
244 0.1451717 0.0001059 0.854722425 1
245 0.1451683 9.8728E-05 0.854733015 1
246 0.1451651 9.2044E-05 0.854742888 1
247 0.1451621 8.5813E-05 0.854752092 1
248 0.1451593 8.0003E-05 0.854760674 1
249 0.1451567 7.4587E-05 0.854768674 1
250 0.1451543 6.9537E-05 0.854776133 1
251 0.1451521 6.4829E-05 0.854783086 1
252 0.14515 6.044E-05 0.854789569 1
253 0.145148 5.6348E-05 0.854795613 1
254 0.1451462 5.2533E-05 0.854801248 1
255 0.1451445 4.8976E-05 0.854806501 1
256 0.1451429 4.566E-05 0.854811399 1
257 0.1451415 4.2569E-05 0.854815965 1
258 0.1451401 3.9687E-05 0.854820222 1
259 0.1451388 3.7E-05 0.854824191 1
260 0.1451376 3.4495E-05 0.854827891 1
261 0.1451365 3.2159E-05 0.85483134 1
262 0.1451355 2.9982E-05 0.854834556 1
263 0.1451345 2.7952E-05 0.854837554 1
264 0.1451336 2.6059E-05 0.854840349 1
265 0.1451328 2.4295E-05 0.854842955 1
266 0.145132 2.265E-05 0.854845385 1
267 0.1451312 2.1116E-05 0.85484765 1

16
Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

268 0.1451306 1.9686E-05 0.854849761 1

269 0.1451299 1.8353E-05 0.85485173 1
270 0.1451293 1.7111E-05 0.854853565 1
271 0.1451288 1.5952E-05 0.854855276 1
272 0.1451283 1.4872E-05 0.854856871 1
273 0.1451278 1.3865E-05 0.854858359 1
274 0.1451273 1.2926E-05 0.854859745 1
275 0.1451269 1.2051E-05 0.854861038 1
276 0.1451265 1.1235E-05 0.854862243 1
277 0.1451262 1.0474E-05 0.854863366 1
278 0.1451258 9.7652E-06 0.854864414 1
279 0.1451255 9.104E-06 0.85486539 1
280 0.1451252 8.4876E-06 0.854866301 1
281 0.1451249 7.9129E-06 0.85486715 1
282 0.1451247 7.3771E-06 0.854867941 1
283 0.1451244 6.8776E-06 0.854868679 1
284 0.1451242 6.4119E-06 0.854869366 1
285 0.145124 5.9778E-06 0.854870008 1
286 0.1451238 5.573E-06 0.854870605 1
287 0.1451236 5.1957E-06 0.854871163 1
288 0.1451235 4.8439E-06 0.854871682 1
289 0.1451233 4.5159E-06 0.854872167 1
290 0.1451232 4.2101E-06 0.854872618 1
291 0.145123 3.9251E-06 0.854873039 1
292 0.1451229 3.6593E-06 0.854873432 1
293 0.1451228 3.4115E-06 0.854873798 1
294 0.1451227 3.1805E-06 0.854874139 1
295 0.1451226 2.9652E-06 0.854874457 1
296 0.1451225 2.7644E-06 0.854874753 1
297 0.1451224 2.5772E-06 0.85487503 1
298 0.1451223 2.4027E-06 0.854875287 1
299 0.1451222 2.24E-06 0.854875528 1
300 0.1451222 2.0884E-06 0.854875752 1
301 0.1451221 1.947E-06 0.854875961 1
302 0.145122 1.8151E-06 0.854876155 1
303 0.145122 1.6922E-06 0.854876337 1
304 0.1451219 1.5776E-06 0.854876506 1
305 0.1451219 1.4708E-06 0.854876664 1
306 0.1451218 1.3712E-06 0.854876811 1
307 0.1451218 1.2784E-06 0.854876948 1
308 0.1451217 1.1918E-06 0.854877076 1
309 0.1451217 1.1111E-06 0.854877195 1
310 0.1451217 1.0359E-06 0.854877306 1
311 0.1451216 9.6575E-07 0.85487741 1
312 0.1451216 9.0036E-07 0.854877506 1
313 0.1451216 8.3939E-07 0.854877596 1
314 0.1451215 7.8256E-07 0.85487768 1
315 0.1451215 7.2957E-07 0.854877759 1

17
Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

316 0.1451215 6.8017E-07 0.854877831 1

317 0.1451215 6.3412E-07 0.854877899 1
318 0.1451214 5.9118E-07 0.854877963 1
319 0.1451214 5.5115E-07 0.854878022 1
320 0.1451214 5.1383E-07 0.854878077 1
321 0.1451214 4.7904E-07 0.854878129 1
322 0.1451214 4.466E-07 0.854878176 1
323 0.1451214 4.1636E-07 0.854878221 1
324 0.1451213 3.8817E-07 0.854878263 1
325 0.1451213 3.6189E-07 0.854878302 1
326 0.1451213 3.3739E-07 0.854878338 1
327 0.1451213 3.1454E-07 0.854878371 1
328 0.1451213 2.9324E-07 0.854878403 1
329 0.1451213 2.7339E-07 0.854878432 1
330 0.1451213 2.5488E-07 0.85487846 1
331 0.1451213 2.3762E-07 0.854878485 1
332 0.1451213 2.2153E-07 0.854878509 1
333 0.1451213 2.0653E-07 0.854878531 1
334 0.1451213 1.9254E-07 0.854878552 1
335 0.1451212 1.7951E-07 0.854878571 1
336 0.1451212 1.6735E-07 0.854878589 1
337 0.1451212 1.5602E-07 0.854878606 1
338 0.1451212 1.4546E-07 0.854878621 1
339 0.1451212 1.3561E-07 0.854878636 1
340 0.1451212 1.2643E-07 0.854878649 1
341 0.1451212 1.1787E-07 0.854878662 1
342 0.1451212 1.0989E-07 0.854878674 1
343 0.1451212 1.0244E-07 0.854878685 1
344 0.1451212 9.5508E-08 0.854878695 1
345 0.1451212 8.9041E-08 0.854878704 1
346 0.1451212 8.3012E-08 0.854878713 1
347 0.1451212 7.7391E-08 0.854878722 1
348 0.1451212 7.2151E-08 0.854878729 1
349 0.1451212 6.7266E-08 0.854878737 1
350 0.1451212 6.2711E-08 0.854878743 1
351 0.1451212 5.8465E-08 0.85487875 1
352 0.1451212 5.4506E-08 0.854878755 1
353 0.1451212 5.0816E-08 0.854878761 1
354 0.1451212 4.7375E-08 0.854878766 1
355 0.1451212 4.4167E-08 0.854878771 1
356 0.1451212 4.1176E-08 0.854878775 1
357 0.1451212 3.8388E-08 0.854878779 1
358 0.1451212 3.5789E-08 0.854878783 1
359 0.1451212 3.3366E-08 0.854878787 1
360 0.1451212 3.1107E-08 0.85487879 1
361 0.1451212 2.9E-08 0.854878793 1
362 0.1451212 2.7037E-08 0.854878796 1
363 0.1451212 2.5206E-08 0.854878799 1

18
Yuseung Kim Mathematics Applications & Analysis HL IA

364 0.1451212 2.3499E-08 0.854878801 1

365 0.1451212 2.1908E-08 0.854878804 1

19