9 Welding, Soldering and Brazing 9.1. Introduction ~_, The term welding is used to cover a wide range of bonding techniques. Broadly, welding process could be classified as fusion welding and solid-phase welding. Fusion Welding. is the process of joining two pieces of metal by application of heat. The two parts to be joined are placed together, heated, often with the addition of filler metal, until they melt, and solidify on cooling. The heat may be developed in several ways viz. combustion of fuel gas with oxygen (oxygen—acetylene gas welding), electric are, electric resistance heating, plasma arc, electron beams, laser beam etc. Along with the application of heat, in some cases pressure is also applied in order have better action of joining. For additional strength sometimes filler material is also used. It isa very old art and this started with joining of metals by heating thera to very high temperature (which is sufficient to cause cohesion) and then hammering. The various ways of applying pressure in order to effect welding are hammering and rolling. In welding without the application of pressure, the metals are brought to fluid state and joined by some filler material. Solid-phase welds are produced by bringing the clean faces of components into intimate contact to produce a metallic bond with or without application of heat, but application of pressure is essential to induce plastic flow. Now-a-days many processes of welding have been developed and probably there is no industry which is not using welding process in the fabrication of its products in some form or the other. This is the most rapid and easiest way of fabrication and assembly of metal parts. ‘The research carried out in this field has given various ways and methods to weld practically all metals. Means have also been found out to weld dissimilar metals. One beauty of welding in comparison to other processes of joining metals is that by this process we can have more than 100% strength of joint and it is very easy process. We shall be dealing with all the various processes of welding in use these days, the equipment used for each process and the ways of preparation of joint and the various operations necessary. Welding is now-a-days extensively used in the following fields : automobile industry, aircraft machine frames, structural work, tanks, machine repair work, ship-building, pipe-line fabrication in therinal power plants and refineries, fabrication of metal structures. There is a big competition between welding and casting process now-a-days. Many of the cast products are now-a-days being fabricated by welding various parts together. Such construction has the advantage that the products are lighter and stronger. Gas cutting is another field of application of welding process which is playing a very important role in industry. 9.2. Advantages of Welding over other Joints — Buildings, bridges and structures can be built lighter and thus higher due to reduction in weight. 427 Scanned with CamScanner‘Welded joints are fluid tight for tanks and vessels. ‘ , ‘Welded structures can be altered easily and economically. Many different types of joints are possible in welded joints. 9.3. Welding Radiation ©" sho -. Weldin; can be emi | Produces rays of longer wavelength compared to X-rays or gamma TAY These x ible light rays broken into visible light rays, infrared rays and ultraviolet rays eee can itted can cause eye strain and general discomfort. Ultraviolet rays are ind these produce cause burns on unprotected skin. Infrared rays have a longer wavelength a1 heat when they skin : strike and are absorbed into a surface. Prolonged exposure can cause urns. 9.4, Protection of Welders Welders have to protect themselves against eparks, hot metal, ultraviolet, infrared, and visible light rays, welding fumes, and other hazards. A welder should wear welding jacket or sleeves made of leather or denim, leather leggings, leather welding gloves fitting tightly upto the jacket sleeves, and high-top boots. Clothes should fit tight enough so that no bare skin is exposed to sparks or ultraviolet rays. Safety glasses or glasses with safety lenses fitted with side shields must be worn. 9.5. General Conditions for Welding For obtaining good resultst is desirable that the surfaces should be clean and free from foreign materials, The cleaning canbe dons by wire brushing, machining or sand Mlastion Impurities if present tend to make the joint weakar asthe welded portion in filed with won 8s slag inclusions and metal becomes brittle and the ahesion between the metals io lesen poor. Ed, reparation is important aspect for obtaini: a side by side end welded then the joint wil ot be strong one because the rie eee united throughout the depth. The various possible edge preparation’ er metals cannot be ©) single-V (@) double-V (d) single-U (©) double-U ) flange: In all there nett 27° (2) square ing sound welds. Ii faces from dust, sand, grit, oil and grease is very important. the cleaning of the aa 5) LC Square Single V Double V Single U Double U —=—.L_ Fig 911 Butt weld joint preparat oss Figs. 9.2 and 9.3 show various types of rae y lap join ann construction where one tube telescopes into the otha tt Lap joint ig Preferred for tub “cons ? oe Scanned with CamScannerWELDING, SOLDERING AND BRAZING. ae Single welded Lap Double welded Laj i Fig. 9.2. Lap Joints Pig. 93, Offset Lap or Jogsled Lap Joint Fig. 9.4 shows the various fillet or T.joints. In order to ensure uniform penetration fusion, the plates on surfaces should have good fit-up. be BL, de, Plain I Single Bevel Double Bevel Single J Double J Fig. 9.4. Fillet joints. Fig. 9.5 shows the corner joints with welding on one or both sides, depending on position of corner joint. VA Fig. 9.5. Corner joints, Fig. 9.6 shows two edge joints (on groove for smalll thickness and a beveled groove for thicker plates). Fig. 9.7 shows the terminology used for butt weld joints. In square butt weld, the distance between two faces is kept about 3 mm and it is used | forsheet about 1 to 5 mm thick. Single-V and single-U butt welds are frequently used for sheet ,- about § mm to 16 mm thickness. The angle between edges is kept about 70° to 90° depending upon the welding technique employed. The double-V and double-U butt welds are used for Welding plates over 16 mm thickness. Double-U preparation is preferred for very thick sheets a Scanned with CamScannerdue to requirement of lessor i sp costlier. For materials upto . : fille tion of U is etal. about 3mm the soe filler mata but proportion Sout mood of eoparate eT 7 Throat thickness: Fig. 9.7. Butt weld terminology. ____The gap between plates should be kept at an optimum value since penetration will = insufficient with small gap, and with wide gap, the molten weld pool will fall through an‘ welding will be difficult to contral. ‘Another important point in welding is to overcome oxidation at high temperatures. The oxides of metals formed at high temperatures encountered in welding have serious weakening effects. This influence is counteracted by using a flux which removes the oxides and permits perfect cohesion of the metals. In gas welding the fluxis used from outside in the form of powder whereas in are welding the flux is coated on the electrodes. The flux forms a protective coating of slag over the weld metal and creates a non-oxidising atmosphere. 9.6. Welded Joints ‘The type of joint is determined by the relative position of the two pieces being joined. There are about five principal types of joints mostly used in welding processes. They include butt joints, lap joints, T-joints, corner joints and edge joints. C ‘Single Double ner Leg Penetration a or Throat Fig. 98 thickness ‘The latter four types are alto called Filet welds, No 2 jred and as such these are cheaper to produce than butt welda, Fig ato” iS Rol of Bila joints an OE. Tema bo noted that eyte for fillet welds Fane : y # welds. Fille require any edge Prout tho plate thickness, * fillet weld ia quite stro rmally ows various Welds do not ng since fusion, Scanned with CamScannerWELDING, SULDERING AND Blazin 431 9.6.1. Weld Parts, fj a 9.10 and 9.11 show all parts of the weld and the terminology used. EFFECTIVE acre / | ocetH OF | anoove | L7 noorrace oor OPENING Fig. 9.10 Fig. 9.11 9.7. Weldability of Metals The term weldability has been defined by the American Welding Society as “the capacity of metal to be welded under the fabrication conditions imposed into a specific, suitably designed structure and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service”. This means that if a particular metal has good weldability it must be welded readily so as to perform satisfactorily in the fabricated structure, and also it must not require expensive or compiivated and exacting procedures in order to produce sound joints. There are certain similarities and differences among the various welding processes depending upon the'weldability of metals. The weldability of any metal can be changed by physical, chemical, thermal and metallurgical properties, ie., by using a proper welding procedure, shielding atmosphere, fluxing material, filler material and in some eases by proper, heat treatment of metal before and after deposition. The following metals have good weldability in the descending order : Iron, carbon steel, cast steel, cast stee! cost iron, low alloy steels and stainless steels. 9.8. Steps in Executing Welding — Identification of welds, type of joint, calculation of weld area by stress analysis, preparation of drawing specifying.all important features, — Selection of appropriate welding process depending on availability of equipment, skill of personnel, metallurgical and quality requirements, time available and overall economy. — Welding procedure, viz. welding (cutting, cleaning the plates, edge preparation, ete.) sequence, use of jigs and fixtures, fit up assembly, process planning, testing methods, ete. — Execution of welding with proper supervision and inspection at all the stages. — Slag removal, weld dressing. — Stress relieving by proper treatment. . Testing, preferably by nondestructive methods for dimensional, metallurgical, crack detection, ete. — Improvements for future based on feedback from existing systems to avoid defects, Q-8.1. (2) Why the welded joint is in tension ? Scanned with CamScanner432) : S 5 4 ied @: BPE gt ©) Why the weld should'bé peoned with « hammer? traction during cooling. Parent metal : of the weld material, putting weld in tension... __ ©) Peening of the wold introduces relieved. Surface oxides sind uniform cleaning and stress: 9.9. Metallurgy in Welding 4 7 e The fabrication of welded-structure and their use in service ieeoives ce oeee Principal phases included in the metallurgy of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys. sid forming, Thich are common in the welding are as follows: (1) fusion, (2)casting, (3)hot and col 5. (@ heat-treatment, (5) metallurgical structure.. 7 ani Regardless of the process employed, a thermal cycle is introduced during heating in 3 welding process. In it, the metal is heated over a range of temperature (up to fusion) an¢ followed by cooling to ambient temperatures. In other words a differential heating will take place, thereby the metal remote from the weld. will be simply warmed out, but as the weld area. is approached, progressively io higher temperatures are ok. ioe? 4 ee tained, resulting in a correspond- ing complex mixture of microstructure particularly in steel. The heating and cooling also results in setting up internal e stresses and plastic strain in the { vicinity of the weld. Aled at higher temperatures, certain emnics changes are liable to take Place. 5, ,0RIGINAL . Thus, whatever the process it "gxse METAL may be, ina thermal cycle, physi- cal, chemical and metallurgical SUPERHEATED LIQUID je WELD METAL peens POINT OF BASE METAL REGION OF TEMPERATURECE) HANEUSED, METAL IN MICRO STRUCTURE) REGION OF Low uw, properties are liable to change. Fig. 9.12, Graph yf NGL ang ETAL ZeuperaTone Fig. 9.12 shows the ther- eae hae showing the change ofthermal conditions mal gradient during a welding process. Depending wy ng provess. Depending upon the weldi metal being welded, there exist wide variations in the maximum igi the slope of temperature gradient curve for the unfused metal, a depends upon the way in which heat in being ou olumerarct ermal gradient and the thermal conductivity of base metal parts. The heat affected gout! per unit time ding than are welding because heat is concentrated for longer geet 22° 18 Wide with ane eeicevss a rile, the flow of heat in tho weld zone in highly dimetiongn SRS Welding. producing what iscalled columnar gon “ectional towers cold meta aro ip a characteristic of the meta ringlopaett helesto the ras line aa isting of ferrite and pearlite in steels is ch, “Pass welds, amt we eect inant ara position of iquid bo 1 yin order tovaiaty inate stale rear ee thei" that of the initial liquid alloy ¢ condition equilibrium. ™POsition to used and the perature and in The plied per unit ver, Slope of th. Scanned with CamScannerSOLDERING AND BRAZING 433 ‘The weld metal, wen it is in the molten state has a capacity of dissolving gases abich come into contact with it, such as oxygen, nitrogen ely ‘As the metal starts cooling, capacity of dissolving gases goes on decreasing, thus causing additional volume of Tignes to be evolved at the time when the metal is becoming miehy and, therefore, incapable ef permitting the gases to ececape freely. The entrapment of gisés cauises gas pockets and spprsity inthe final weld. isting Ea * _ Fig. 9.18 shows the mechanism of fusion or liquid state welding process. The material -aound the joint is melted in both the parts to be joined and if necessary, a filler material is added. Three distinct zones, viz. fusion zone, heat affected unmelted zone, and unaffected original base metal can be observed. Heat for fusion welding is produced at a high temperature ‘and at a high rate in a sharply defined, isolated zone. ; Hor anetiab er T AFFECTED FUSION ZONE [ UNMELTED ZONE (ed (HAUZ) Comsat laase METAL ORIGINAL, Grain growth in heat affected \ zone Chilled outer 4 C crystals COARSE" SRans | \srenor# DUCTILITY Large regular Long elongated shaped crystals! (columnar) crystals nauz Fig. 9.13 . Fig. 9.14. Structure of weld metal. Fig. 9.14 shows the structure of a weld section. It may be noted that columnar (long longated) crystals are formed near fusion faces due to directional cooling of weld towards the centre, Since the inner part of weld cools more uniformly it results in an enlarged but regular erystal stricture. Surface of weld being in contact with air cools very fast and small and slightly Ahilled crystal structure can be noted there. The parent metal in heat affected zone experiences Bain growth. Th case of thick plate, several passes of weld would be required and the structure of ious weld would bevefined by the heat in the subsequent welding. For single pass welding, Post weld heat treatment is desirable to refine the weld metal structure. "The most of ferrous and non ferrous commercial metals can be welded, provided “Ppropriate welding conditions are employed. The following common metals and non-metals ‘®t used during heating in order to improve the weldability of metal : carbon, manganese, aztorus, sulphur, silicon, nickel, copper, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, aluminium taniuva, The above mentioned elements exert their influence on the micro-structures and ‘yP*¥ical properties across the welded joint : < Scanned with CamScannerin sOLOGY pnopucTion TECHEO Bd jd solution. (1) By strengthoning of ferrite in the solid 601 (2) By formation of carbides, 4 . (8) By formation of inter-metallic compounds. e (4) By oxidation and deoxidation in the weld. ait ofthe heat-affected zone. (5) By increasing or decreasing the hardenability of oe, (6) By controlling the grain size. perature al tem a ture (.e., the (7) By raising and lowering the transition temperat a the material ceases to display ductile properties and becomes a ofmetal « One of them or all of them play a vital role in changing the ¢ 5 and the thermal effect during welding operation. 9-10. Characteristies of Welding Process . ime (hour). Deposition rate. Weight of metal deposited (Kg) in a given leas TE ees Deposition efficiency. (Also called electrode efficiency in are welding). of deposited weight to melted weight. It is of order of 60-75% for wioTH shielded metal are welding, 85-90% for flux cored are welding, $07 9% for gas metal are welding, 90—-100% for gas tungsten are welding, and around 95% for submerged are welding, Operation factor. Itis the ratio of total actual welding time to time the operator spends in executing welding If is of the order ar 20 20% for shielded metal are welding'and gas tungsten are welding, 50% for gas metal are welding (manual), and 100% for automeris gas metal are welding and submerged are welding, ot deposition takes Place, Heat input. It is expressed as { Vx Voltage 2 Current Volt x s Welding speed . ASMP. X sec. joule/mm or as MJ/m. ae or It is of the order of 0.10.6 for electron beam weldi eee 1.5 for gas tungsten are welding, 0.5 to 3 for gas metal a woaser beam in welding, 1—10 for submerged are welding and 5—50 for electroslag a sielded Welding. Power density. It is the heat intensity expressed j proportional to power dehsity. in Wattsjmn2 Pe It is of the order of 5 x 10° to 5 x 108 W/m? ; for shield ii . are welding, 5 x 10'—5 10!" Win for plasma are waived Metal ag ela B10 f ng and laser beam welding processes, IN a an ta 9.10.1. aca mepy epeaaiarae in Welding The . lectron beat .C; temperature to the tem| re just below the = AZof a stea)« setting. matrial clooa to the weld, experi aa ete Melting pete is 1 large the, my 2 Pepi, er *8e ther, Tature, 5 eM heated i i HAZ do occur. These may be majo “ermal p, ature. pee ‘ gical changes in the or me et at ' Me m, Bes o, hetallur. Scanned with CamScannerWELDING, SOLDERING AND BRAZING 435 . Even in materials showing no phase change or precipitation during welding, recrys- {allisation and grain growth may occur. Peete b,... The HAZ has an important role to determine the weld cold cracking, notch toughness, hydrogen embrittlement, stress corrosion cracking etc. in severe environmental conditions of | gpfvice. Therefor a detailed study of HAZ is desirable. The width of the HAZ can be estimated \ By the peak temperatures obtained at discrete poirits from the weld contre line by experiment. e variation of the micro-structure at different zones of welding can be examined from photo macro-and micro-graphs. ee ee As already pointed ‘earlier, the thermal cycles associated with ‘are welding and sub- merged are welding generate the heat affected zone (HAZ). Some cases of reheat cracking in oe have been observed. These are thus considered to the detrimental to the component integrity. However with improved ‘base metals and welding procedures (low heat input of 20 kJ/cm, low angle of attack, high overlap, and use of temper bead technique at the weld shoe), it is possible to ensure a predominant fine-grain microstructure in the butt weld HAZ. This fine | structure under the severe quenching of the weld thermal cycle and the tempering of the post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) reaches a high level of notch toughness. Q,9.2. (a) How the heat flow variables, viz, welding speed, cooling rate, thermal cycle (heating and cooling rate) influence the heat affected zone in fusion welding process ? Discuss how the temperature varies with time at different distance from welding source. Y (©) Discuss the effect of absorption of gas in the weld pool. () Explain how the quality of a weld is controlled by the three effests associated with the cooling of a fusion weld ? Ans. (2) As welding speed increases, cooling rate also increases, For constant welding speed, cooling rate increases as the weld pool size decreases. ‘Thus for welding process operating at high speed with a small wel cooling rate is fast. It weld pool is large and welding speed is slow (as in electroslag weld- | ing), the cooling rate is low. The thermal cycle . | at any point on workpiece is proportional to its |. distance from the heat source. Fig. 9.16 shows | such a relationship. () At high temperatures, gas may either dissolve in weld pool or react with liquid metal to form a stable compound. If reaction product is soluble, weld pool is unaffected. IFit is insoluble then it may result in an embrittle- Tee ‘ment of the welded joint. It produces surfe7e (Szdistence trom heat scurce) seale or sty and interfores with the formation eae of weld pool. A flux can be sided to dissolve ig. 94 li i product. { ee See the disolved gas may come out and form bubbles and make the joint ee Wadithon of suitable deoxidant in the filler metal helps overcome this problem. et eoerived as from molten pool can also diffuse in the heat affected size and cause an ‘embrittlement of the welded joint. Id pool (as in TIG), the Temperature = £ Scanned with CamScannerproves > 436 1a that affect the quality . sion We! . | ©) The three effects associated with the cool ae transformation. oe | of weld are contraction, residual stress, and metallurgi «, volume decreases due to As in casting, when liquid metal in weld Po?) ae | : | tion. Theos eee tuscutfer defectsiike pIBINE Se: sting up tensile stress © ee ‘Authe weld pool eontractson cooling the platesTesio\ 'T7 | ais residual stress mao weld which is balanced by the compressive stress 1 the pare! nate result in cracking of a brittle material. A the weld and hea! Metallurgical changes cecur due to heating and subeoquent oof changes depend affected zone of the parent materials, affecting the quality of the i ct treatment, and nature . on natureof material (single phase or double-phase), nature of prior he of prior cold working, In the case of single phase material, random grai boundary and thus strength is reduced. In heat affected heat input, and partial recrystallisation occurs. n growth takes perce within the melt nono, the grains become coarse due fo 9.11. Classification of Welding ‘The welding processes are divided into three main sub-classes : 9.11.1. Plastic Welding. Init, the pieces of metal to be joined are heated to the plastic state and these forced together by external pressure without the addition of filler material. Forge welding, resistance welding and the thermit welding with pressure are the examples of this class. 9.11.2. Fusion Welding. In this case, the metal atthe joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify. In this case filter material is used during welding process. This i gas welding, are-welding and the thermit welding. de eae Various fusion welding processes are: Oxy-fuel gas. It is a versatile process used for weldin, ae 3 g sheet met: ; Shield metal arc. It is used in all fields of engineering for al al and small pipes. copper and low melting materials. 6 for all metals/alloys except Submerged arc. It is used for boilers, pressure . industry. vessels, ship building, automobile Gas tungeten arc. It is used for welding all engineeri gineeri Gas metal arc. It is used for general engineering in a mae except zine. alloy steels, stainless steel, aluminium, nickel alloys, ields for welding carbon steels Resistance welding. Used for welding to s steels, o-, 4-0) i» automobile and aircraft industries, peelcney ofallengineeri Tlectrosiag wowace Te Se woud for gegen wea tubing production emetals (except shafts of carbon, low and high alloy steels. ick sections ion. ‘Thermit welding- It is used for welding parts Plasma are. It is used mainly or reactive w: zine. als and all ples ©opper/steel joints. eri Ng metals except Electron beam. It is usedin nuclear ang aero, reactive metals, Ni, Ti, Zirconium, ond stainless ghee P*°8Industry Taser beam, Tes used fo doep hol dries = ny for , Pepa allmetals, applications. , Particularly Scanned with CamScannergant ODER AND BRAZING 437 oats Sait Welding, As already indicated these welds are made by the 1300 OF ME ch close to an the iwo surfaces being joined. The surfaces to be joined are so the See eniatts that atoms are separated by less than the relaxation distance” et jontly large a c forces act, thus creating a bond. However it is very difficult t yin 2 hms Sed fo ra into intimate contact due to surface aaperities on the metals and ie ode a Eenpnirition om the murfalia which Act 6 4 barrier between the metals. sufieent Prost hto intimate applied to cause plastic flow of the two stirfaces and to make large sis fo com tid phase contact, Since such intimate contacts under cold conditions are bret, most slid Phase welding processes are performed ‘hot. Heating also lowers field | rength and < lower pressures to be used, melts or evaporates the surface contaminants, fis growth and coalescence of grai r emits oss the interface. of grains across the interface, causes surface and volume Fe 9.17 ed how the force between atoms varies with change in distance between them. Under equilibrium condition, distance isd. and force is nil. When external tensile force isapplied, distance increases d, and on compression it decreases. It is interesting to note that inter atomic force increases considerably below d, and ~ “fends to be zero after a few multiples of d.. Thus if two _pelallic surfaces are brought so much close together that “thir grain boundaries contact each other then the surfaces iladheretoeach other with a very large force (solid phase Folding). It is therefore, essential that the contaminated | Iyers of oxides and adsorbed gases present on the surface ofmetal under normal atmosphere (usually a few hundred angxtrom thick) are removed by scratch brushing, The two ial surfaces are then brought into contact, the real contact taking place through a small area of asperities, The nnetalli bridging (having property of true grain boundary) tccurs even in the presence of adsorbed surface layers. Fig. 9.17 Following variables play important role in solid phase welding. ( Surface deformation. Itis expressed as ratio of change in thickness or diameter and original thickness/diameter. Strength rif welded joint is proportional to surface deformation. Ittemperature of metal is increased, the amount of surface deformation for welding can be less (around 10% near melting temperature). Desired surface deformation is also dependent on the inllvot the oxide hardness and the parent metal hardness. (ii) Surface oxide layers ‘and oil films. These pose big hurdle in solid phase welding and need to be cleaned/wiped properly. ee | ies rition and grain growth at the interface. Solid phase welding carried out at roll Reerveteis tion an Erjow recrystalisation and thus ductility is somewhat less. Increase in working temperature increases ductility and eliminates some other defects. (iv) Diffusion. Amount of ‘diffusion modifies the shape and the fize of the voids at the interface of solid phase welding laine vt veld welding is a pressure welding process in which ductile a 9.114. Cold wean ac the application of hent or electric current, Weld is effected by crials can be welt joined to flow at room temperature ‘by subjecting them to sulficient : t 2 joined eis applied to overlapping surfaces with tool dies designed eenare Required we rmation ure pablo extent. Cold welds are characterised by deep cause control INTERATOMIC DISTANCE NET INTERATOMIC FORCE Scanned with CamScannerindentatio and comm, be used to For to be weld, PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY n on the outer surfaces of the workpicees. This process is best suited to high purity ercially pure aluminium, but can be used for many nonferrous metals. This can also Join metals of different hardness like copper to aluminium. factory results there should be direct and intimate contact between the surfaces dies must be of proper design to provide the degree of compression led, and the tool {_auited for the weld. The two surfaces should be free of grease and oxides. Even fineremarles in some e; rotary-bru Symmetri ‘ases may render defective joints. Usually surface is cleaned by a motor-driven ssh to cut through the film of oxide and to expose the clean metal underneath. aI tool dies must apply pressure over a comparatively narrow strip and in such a prodaer that the metal ean flow away from the weld on both sides. Satisfactory welds may be Produced thickness materials With either an impact blow or a slow squeeze. For successful weld, the original must be squeezed or reduced by a certain minimum percentage determined by the to be joined. For joining metals of different hardness, the width of the dies must be {plusted according to thoir respective hardness ratio, in order to share the final thigknees ot= the indentation equally between the two metale, Some of the cold-welding techniques are : either sid Trap welding. It is designed to permit welding of inserts into similar or dissimilar non-ferrous metals, by following metal around the insert somewhat like plastic moulding. Wave welds. Tool dies for wave welds consist of an element having a wave-form Projection and a flat plate. Stoeger weld, It is used to join thin sheets to heavy bar stock. It places dots, or short-line welds, along two or more parallel lines. lc of the joint. 9.12. Forge Welding of heatin, overheated, the metal becomes burned, brittle s Wrought iron and low carbon steel arethe matorin welding. They oxidise very rapidly when exposed te the temperature. Therefore, very little oxygen should be heated. The most commonly used forgevweldig g. If the ends to be joined are not heatéad eecush, they will not stick together ; if nd has spongy appearance, most commonly joined by the forge ‘mosphere after being heated to high Permitted to contact the metal being ae, 4. FO. and roll-welding. The principal difference between there ere Hammer welding, die welding press! re is applied. In ease of hammer welding te : thene Processes is the manner in which Pressure is applied at high velocity in the — Scanned with CamScanner- ayy SouDnRING AND IRAZING avtral ; yy moana of bell Fm which corto althar b utwoun platarralle, Indio-welding, the pronnure is eal longitudinally ie ‘blows fe rola In rol-weling the work te fo quired pressure. ‘the physical propertion of force wolda are fnfh ihepereanal skill of the individunte making tho w el vod forge ho absnomphrle contin the ame jon. The application of forge welding in iited intryenide blackarith abepe on {iron, carbon ates! and certuin low alloy ntwabn, His not widely wnedl am a pre otlon ar turing process an it in very contly nnd alow procens, ‘he forge welding Is of four typen ()Lap wold, (2) Butt-wold, (2) Poo-wald, (4) Vow-wald, J This classification of forge welding is haned upon the faa, which way jolnta sre muda ule 9.1 arw shown nome of tho jolts norevally unt in the forye-wall ln The int aurfacon, in most of the enwon are rnnded ar crowned alythy mo th together, they will unite tn the contro feat wn (hu fares out any foul on rithat may have stuck upon them, jactara, Among thane Ith wakdabitily af he metal, the L/P nt of Mune une anil the time of on anwail hy poveral f whow sly jo 0.1 (WoldineProcennen) Main Welding Procenpon Uned in Ger 1 Hinginonring, show - ra in voquirest, the asldition uf atrial | ¢ nl inal | [Are Wort | Ppyinit wa ill —— PLASTIC | Unulor prowmare, witht axkdition of filler vwithip = Wehtinn Ir wal 7 valent yrammite (WH Oay Avelylonn] [UL) Metal Ave Walling (2) Casta Av (21 Ais Avetybonw §} CH Tanietat Welding | (2) Progort war tt || An Welding Ming _ Mime ar tat Wohlone risaaniva ||(4) Arion Ave Syrah want |} UD) Hubarsryed Wels — 4 wy avrr wel ree WELD Scanned with CamScanner440 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOG' 9-13, Pressure W, ling ih ote daa . his procoss is used for making butt wolds on small tubes wit “5 mm. It makes be 1 fective atmospheres i tt welds without filler motal by not forging, under Laren Each tube i Ends to be Welded are raised to tho required temperature by induction lied, One jaw is fixed between tro hale jaws on whichis hydraulic clamping pressure Toipreent in two parts fixed. The other One Moves along the axis of the tube. An induction ia tamilates into the eeniits to heat onds of Lubes.under gns protection, Air is purged by gas in Protective ged by fing is cauusec srreunding walls, Whondeney metal temperature is attained, upsetting by means of axial Press, a3 9.14. Flash Welding 2 s Te 75 mmr his Process is also used to make butt welds on small tubes with outside Saaeae 75 mm. The ends to be Welded are raised to the required temperature by flasl Te effect and inside the tubes is Purged by circulating formigas. Preheating is obtained by joule When the temperature necessary to start the flashing is obtained, the ed and a series of electric ares nes discontinuous flashing. Voltage is increas ion bei by bringing them phate overa given length, the formigascirculation being kept on. When the expected flashing di ion i welding head, 9.15. Resistance Welding In resistance welding a heavy electric current is passed through the metals to be joined over a limi » causing them to be locally heated t, Plastic state and the weld is completed being welded. Therefore, in order to provide ‘possible variation of the seconda: current, the transformer is equipped with a regulator on the primary side which varies'the number of turee imary coil. °n ee welding, the time for which t flows is very important. Usually automatic te ts are devised which switch off the supply i afters bredeter mined time from applying of pressure tang wah ay pd manually by ale prenmar, by apne iy hye a : é 5 § Scanned with CamScannereLDING, SOLDERING AND BRAZING 441 maintained on the electrodes until the weld cools. Referring to Fig. 9.18 it will be seen that there are four stages controlled in some machines automatically. The electrodes are cooled by circulating water through hollow electrodes. ~ Resistance welding is employed mainly for mass production. It is easily adapted to those components which can be moved to the machine and are light. The operation is extremely rapid and simple. This is the only process where heat can be controlled and which permits a pressure action at the weld. This process is suited to nearly all metals except tin, lead, zine ete. which exhibit many problems. The resistance welding can be further classified as follows. (1) Spot Welding, (2) Projection Welding, (3) Beam Welding, (4) Butt Welding : @) upset, 4 (i) flash. (5) Percussion Welding. > 9.15.1. Spot Welding. This is probably the simplest form of resistance welding and best ‘| suited for ordinary sheet steel. For obtaining good welds having strength, and to avoid the | excessive heating effects due to foreign filmson sheet surfaces, it is desirable to clean the sheets thoroughly before welding. In spot welding there are five zones of heat generation, viz., one at interface between the two sheets, two at the contact surfaces of the sheets with electrodes and other two in the metal of the sheets. It is very much desirable for obtaining good weld that proper heat balance should be there. It is used for welding both ferrous and non-ferrous metals upto 8 mm thickness. The surfaces to be welded should be thoroughly cleaned by pickling or shot blasting to obtain strong welds. ‘The two pieces to be joined by spot welding are placed between the two electrodes and then electrodes are pressed against each other (by pressing a foot lever) so as to cause desired . CIRCULATING WATER, outlet PRESS LEVER TO BRING. y " RETAINING ELECTRODES IN CONTACT . ? ‘SPRING HEAT REGULATOR © a <__le Fig. 9.19. Spot welding Machine. Scanned with CamScanner_i PRODUC HOR TECHNOLO hay " rin turned on, The eyole tha Rye 701000 tyvomt on the area aeetalactent AMperage (0-00 wiper Kllows urthoninnsbolee, A euvrent otto vltngv aaa tw pnt Lb Ing edu Per aun’) is passed botwoon the oleetraded ential ne w In mxqueozodl nul wollen “Te cane wt thu tet to nti In known wold Vine, Alar thin the geet euerent is tor about 0 to agcmts nd hte len is unos a Tae seemed ott while tn payouts eal elle, era thw prom Te svote and rognitne wulliglent strength. hin porlod wm known ww hole i reat thon rotonsod and work te Fonvoved from the machine and the next job in brought anor the cannes Chis period in enlted uflstine promsure Is applied again, and this period Mill Surreat is passed iscatlod aquooxe timo, KiMlalont wolda depend on the correet combination alt Preset, curvont and qyele line Matoriats of high ndluotivity, lies wluminiuin, Pauire higher curronta for ake boriods thin matorials of lower onductivity, Many ductile Materials and dis ‘similar motals ean bo mpot wolded if there ix not too Areata differs n thes conductivitios and molting pointe of the two mal rials, Correct electrode dinmotor nowds to be shoson depondingon the matorial thiclnoss to he joined, The structure of tho wold in Jvolded zon (callad wold nugget.) (Rotor hatched Aron in + 9.20) consists of hi mi-sphoricul regions on both th shootm, For lap joints the nugigot diametor D should bo, Do 26-4 2.6: mm (¢ thicknoms of nheot in mm) Lap distaneo £ © 2D 44mm Spacing betwoon spot wolda « Lae, Penetration of wold nuggat into the bene motu varion bolwoon Oud to 0.7 ¢, For 0.8 mm thiele mild steal sheut, the welrode tip diameter is 3 mm, electrode foree 540 Nowtona, woldings tet current 6000 amperes, and wolding time wee Byove. with 50 Hz supply ). Thee vsponding values for {mum and 6 mm thick mild ‘steel sheots a: 7 mm, 2780 N, 21000 A, 20 cycles ; and 12 mm, 8500 N, 21006 A and 60 ho cycles respectively, The cloctrodes for resistance wolding are made of Precipitation hardened 1% chromium oper alloy or 2% diameter of electrode is around Vé_ Fig 9.20, high otrongth, high cond ivity % beryllium coppar alloy. ‘Tho tip The various spot welding machinos (1) Stationary single-spot machine: (2) Portable single-spot maching, (8) Multiplo spot machine, The one most commonly used spot welder ig Siatlonary simple spot tek, is shown schematically in Fig, 9, 9. This is very 9 nple and cheap type rand ia ES aaa on re most of the small sizo works requiring teas hein Pronaure betweon the slog no applied by pressing tho foot lever which reeks the seo nee For works which J placed oe rouehtto the machine, erable Sot Welders ane ade, The transformer is generally placed at one place and Pot weldeb is moved to work using hi d flexible enbles, Presauro f9 generally wpted mans a ing long an , : P Fectttction work itin desire iene use mulliple spot welding machines which have ‘woorthree electrodes arranges serene may bo classified as : (@) Rockor Arm ‘ype, (6) Direct p, Fessure typo, places. Scanned with CamScannerwa ;aDING, SOLDERING AND BRAZING 443 ‘The process of spot welding is very suitable for mass production and can be used for ost of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys by changing the current required to complete the weld. fps is limited to thin parts and cannot be used for those parts which are more than 10 mm pick as heavy force is Tequired for welding them. Ttis noted that expansion of electrodes occurs which directly affects the quality of weld. rcurrent density is too low, then expansion rate is slow and weld is insufficiently fused. If /iyrent density is high, then weld splashes and the pressure on the electrodes causes the weld tocollapse at an early stage, thus resulting in a poor weld. 9.15.2, Projection Welding. This is slight modification of spot welding. In this rocess, current and pressure are localised Ft the weld section by the use of embossed or coined projections of diameter equal to thickness of sheet on one or both pieces of | work. The depth of projection is about 60% Sarens ¢ ofsheet thickness. The work isheld between two copper platens and pressure is applied by the movable arm, the fixed arm support- ingthe work. The currentisthen passed and good welds at all points of contact are made ee due to flattening out ofthe projectionsundéer heat and pressure. ‘The advantage of this process is that a large number of welds can be carried out simultaneously by having large number of projections ; of course limitation being due to ability of press to furnish and equally distribute the pressure to the work. Another advantage is that electrode life is long as only flat surfaces are required and little less current is required and little maintenance is needed. Spacing of | welds can be reduced. Tf welds are made close together then a proportion of the welding current tends to hunt through the previous weld and causes a weak joint. The sequence of operation ie came as for spot welding, The initial cost is high as press type machines are required for this type of welding. This process is also suited to nearly all types of | metals. Tt permits a greater variety of | metals and sheet thickness tobe joined J | than the spot welding. It order to SUPPLY Fig. 921. Projection Welding. enable equalise the heat losses, the Piecraoves. | projections are formed on the thicker piel, | components or on the component — having the higher thermal conduc- tivity. canes 9.15.3. Seam Welding. Seam weldingis used for making continuous welds between two overlapping pieces of sheet metals. In this process the current is not passed continuously but is regulated by a timer. The work to be welded is placed between the two Fig. 9.22, Seam Welding, Scanned with CamScannerPRODUCTION TECHNOL sy surtout prs iarecaee eee ofthe cure theecnt for producing continuous welds. The hea r n hrough, the resistanes in the welding circuit. The heat generated can be controlled by sither Varying the yurrent, or pressure between the sheets which varies the contact resistance. if the heat rate is high then the speed of rollers is increased thereby reducing the weld time and vice rs Slectrodes are made of copper alloys and are refrigerant circulated jin order to hem. Seam welding is generally used where water or gas-tight joint is ea reanel so by pulsing the current at regular intereaia ding). The major applicaticn ofseam weldingis in manufacture of sense welded pipes Pipes). Problem9.3. Calculat Sol. Welds per minute =Sapieuemyx6o 50x 60 "eles for wold + interval eyelas = “S~ 2 = 600 welds/min one ; . Welds/min = -800__ : Work speed (mm/min) welds required por iam ~ 4716 = 1500 mm/min RPM of electrode = Work speed (mm/min) 1500 x slectrode diameter (mi) = S422 220 2-17 rpm. For 1.6mm thick M.S, plate, current rex ‘wirement is around 10,009 AMP, Energy requirement — PR = 20,000)" x 100 x 10-* & : if It is desirable that bat heating at the jar to must be less and then in ly to avatars avo effect weld. In this procese there is no tte’ neteased steadily ton ing oF arci steadily process is best sited to rods, pipes nag on EOP acing at theses ay Butt welding can be fub-divided into ling. In the first type, the parte i Sed ed i of the machine an, Entaghe together with eke one vrhile current flowstohest the seine. ~ The pressure applied upsets the = joint. Upset butt walding is-used principally for nonferree me come, In the flash butt wel ding, the te parts are brought together in avery Scanned with CamScannerWELDING, SOLDERING AND BRAZING 445 jight contact. A high voltage starts a flashing action. The parts keep on moving against each Miner till forging temperature is reached and then sufficient pressure is applied to effect the Geld. The pressure squeezes out from the joint faces any unwanted slag, oxides and overheated “faetal. Due to upsetting action, slight bulging occurs around the weld. In this process it is very iportant to have proper timing and current for the size and section of parts used. Usually farge areas are welded by flash welding process. This process requires less current and is quite 'd. Most of the non-ferrous metals except those containing high percentages of lead, zine, tin and copper can be welded satisfactorily. It is used for welding bars, tubes, and extruded sections. , 9.15.5. Percussion Welding. Thisis.a recent development in the field of welding which depends on the are effect for heating and not on the resistance. One of the two pieces to be welded is held in a stationary holder and the other in a clamp mounted in a slide and backed up by a heavy spring pressure. For welding, the movable clamp is released. When pieces are very close to each other a sudden discharge of electric energy takes place causing an intense arcing over the surfaces and heating them. As piece come in contact with each other under heavy pressure the arc is extinguished due to the percussion blow of the two parts and the force between them effects the weld. The action of the process is so rapid that there is little heating effect in the material adjacent to the weld. It is used for welding satellite tips to tools, copper to aluminium or stainless steel, silver contact tips to copper. The equipment used for this process is quite expensive as it must be extremely rugged and provided with accurate holding fixtures and sensitive timing devices ete. 9.15.6. Use of Computer in Spot Welding. The objective of use of computer in any production process is to produce a more consistent product of higher quality at lower cost. In shot welding, when the weld solidifies, strain energy develops and it has characteristics that change with discontinuities like porosity and residual strain. This ergy can be sensed by traneducer as an acoustic event (acoustic emission). Emission characteristics generated by a id are stored and profiled ina computer memory. The emissions characteristics ‘e compared with those of ideal as a test of weld integrity. This method can be used for inspection (acceptance/rejection of weld) and also for modilying weld parameters to produce welds closer to ideal welds. It is due to fast response of computer that comparison between profiles and acoustic emission of ideal and actual welds ean be made and corrective suitable spot well of other welds ar timely action taken. 9.16. Gas Welding , Gas welding is a process in which the required heat to melt the surfaces is supplied by ahigh temperature flame obtained by a mixture of two gases. The gases are mixed in proper proportions in a welding blowpipe (torch). For controlling the welding flame, there are twe regulators on the torch by which the quantity of either gas can be regulated. Usually the mixture of oxygen and acetylene is used for welding purposes. It produces temperature in the Tange of 2200¢-3300°C. However the mixture of hydrogen and other combustible gases can also be employed to some extent. Other gases used are MAPP (methyl acetate propediene) (2600°—2900°C), propylene (2500°—2850°C), propane (2450°—2775°C), natural gas/methane (2350°2750°C). In gas welding the two surfaces to be welded are properly prepared and } placed near each other. The metal in the joint is brought to melting temperature by heat from Chena oten weld is completed by supplying additional metal asthe filler metal obtained by a filler rod. ~* Scanned with CamScannerPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY 446 i ing, the two gases used for ding. In oxyacetylene welding, the two £ 5; tglene. Oxygen is used to supportand intensify combustion, It is generally prepared in factories by liquefying air and then separating it into,its component parts by rectification. From factories, itcan be obtained under high pressure in cylinders which are fitted with pressure regulators to get oxygen atdesired pressure for welding. Each cylinder is connected to the blow pipe by flexible hoses. The exact pressure used depends on the blowpipe -d. Oxygen cylinders are painted black and nozzle size and thickness of the plate to be welded. cian ‘mnilarly acetylene is also available commercially in Iding place for many applications. 9.16.1. Oxyacetylene wel producing flame are oxygen and ace acetylene cylinders are painted maroon. Sit cylinders. However, still it is being produced at the wel Acetylene can be easily produced by the chemical reaction between water and calcium carbide (CaC,). It has to be produced and used at only low pressures as at high pressures explosion might be there. Generally it is prepared in two ways i.e. either by dropping CaCz on water or by dropping water on CaCy, The pressure is kept same by placing constant weight on the cover of the container in which itis being produced and stored. The reaction between water and CaC; is given as below: CaC, + 2H,0—> CyH, + Ca(OH)z Calcium Water Acetylene Hydrated carbide lime Flame. Thisisthe phenomenon produced at thé surface of the nozzle tip where two gases meet and undergo combustion with the evolution ofheat and some light. The chemical reaction for complete combustion of oxygen and acetylene is as follows : 2CjH, + 50, —> 4CO, +2H,0 Acetylene Oxygen Carbon Water : dioxide vapour ‘Thus for complete combustion, ratio of oxygen to acetylene is 2} to 1. The temperature of flame is dependent upon the relative proportion of the two gases. But tem) complete combustion are not the only factors for welding because for different pure ce Gifferent ratios of gases have given best results e.g. for normal welding most suitable mrcture fs generally obtained by having equal proportions of oxygen and acetylene. This mixture produces a neutral flame which is neither oxidising nor carburising and i » This mixture Prolding. under this condition the following chemical actions take place? suitable for CoH, + O02 —» 2CO + Hy : Acetylene Oxygen Carbon- Hydrogen monoxide 2CO + O, —+ 2CO, Carbon Oxygen Carbon- monoxide monoxi 2H, + O,°—+ 21,0 Hydrogen Oxygen Water ‘vapour From the above equations itis obvious that com that complete i phases. From the onygen and acetylene as obtained from torch mention takes place in two Place producing carbon morons, This reaction taken plac atthe test cree tae Sinere the high erature is developed and it can be teary ener cone oF the flame _ Further reactions take place in outer co, ‘arly seen as well-defined white The above form of flame with tempera Scanned with CamScannerDING, SOLDERING AND BRAZING a7 Neutral flame obtained by mixing equal i IME antities of acetylene and oxygen is used for eUmUNOUS WELL DEFINED E felding of all metals like ferrous materials, TEMPERATURE 5800-6300'F —_enyeLoPE OF Spper and aluminium alloys except brass. OTE SOF) Deviating from this ratio, carburising and sidising flames can be obtained. In carburising flame (obtained by more quantity of acetylene) the inner zone is surrounded by a secondary juminous zone and extends into the outer Fig. 9.24. Neutral Flame. envelope. In oxidising flame, the inner cone is very much shortened and pointed and also the aminosity is reduced. It is used mainly for welding brass. Carburising flame is very suitable forwelding steel as rate of welding is faster by this Name than with neutral flame. It is also used for depositing stellite. Cxidising flame is very suitable for cutting operations due +o very figh temperatures and also for welding non-ferrous metals (brasses and bronzes) due to formation of a tenuous oxide film over the molten metal which prevents vaporisation of zine. | Thus oxy-acetylene welding enables accurate control of both the size and type of flame which is very important for joining non-ferrous materials and metals of small section Correct flame adjustment is essential for the production of sound welded joints by the oxy-acetylene process. The two important considerations are : ( flame size, (ii) type of flame. Oxy-acetylene welding blowpipes are supplied with a set -f interchangeable nozzles, each of which has a different bore size. The bore determines the flame size, and nozzle selection is based on the thickness of the metal to be welded. To bring the blowpipe (torch) into operation, the acetylene is first turned on and ignited. ‘The oxygen valve is then gradually opened and regulated to produce the required flame, The initial cost of gas welding equipment is less compared to are welding, but running cost is high. 9.16.2. Principles of Operation and Welding Technique. For forming the welded joint a filler metal is added in the form of welding rod when the surfaces to be welded are just near melting stage. For obtaining satisfactory bond and for floating out impurities, generally wear than aise used, In some instances the joints are formed simply be fusing the parts to be joined, without the application of filler metal or flux. There are two general methods of onjecetylene welding known as forehand welding and backhand welding, (also known as rightwerd and leftward welding).In the first (ype, the rod follows the nozzle tipin the direction inubtuh che weld is being made. The torch in moved in straight line from left to right and filler tod is moved in a series of loops along the weld preparation. In the latter type, the nozzle tip follows the sod in the direction of travel. The filler rod is moved instraight line and the blowpipe ismocel backwards and forwards in a series of loops as the weld proceeds. Backhand type Welding is very suitable for pipe and plate welding because of combined economy and weld Quality obtained by its application. Backhand welding is normally used for welding metals of thickness upto 5 mm, but for heavier sections, the forehand method is used. The inclination of Welding rod in either ease is about 30°—40", and that of torch is 40°50" in case of forehand ‘ype welding and 60°—70" in ease of backhand type welding. Rightward (Forehand) method has the following advantages over other method : (i) As the flame is always directed towards the solidified weld, it results in annealing fleet and better mechanical properties are obtained. TORCH TIP Scanned with CamScanner: PRODUCTION TECHNOL I Special hose 's to the torch and Pressure regulators its? nd connections are provided for attachment: VALVES poe TP ENLARGED Fig. 928 Cylinders. The gases are generally stored at hig ead 7 oxygen which is obtained commercially, cylinders are weadr cheek eel cylinders. For carefully heat treated as as to develop great strength and toughness ta rout seams and equipped with a high pressure valve and valve-protector cap. Iki cheney Co Under is also about 150 kg/em® and temperature about 20°C. A safety fuse plus; ae at a pressure of release oxygen in case, temperature inside increases, 6 is also provided so as to ‘Acetylene cylinders are closely packed with absorbent filler, which + acetone. The compressed acetylene is dissolved in the ae ‘Rich is saturated with acetyl .- when stored under pressure may become unstable at levees geoo RF this is that _ > about 26 times its own volume of acetylene per atmosphere of pens tuTe: Acetone mass, thus acetylene is prevented from being esparea ere and forms \d avoiding any explosion. These are also fitted with high sown? t® chemical fusible plugs. For safety reasons, to avoid accidental ner eee Valve, valve : i mini fittings are threaded with opposite hand threads, (Rene ot B88eS, screwed reads. (Right hand for Oren Ozand left canal: porous spongy constituents an protector cap and hose and cylinder .d for acetylene). 7 pen Gosgles. These are very essential to protect eves. These are that prevent harmful heat and the ultraviolet and infrared fitted with coloured lenses rays, Scanned with CamScannerSpark Lighter. It provides a convenient and instant means for lighting the welding torch. Itconsists of a pointed stone and a rough surface which produce a spark when rubbed together. i Apron. This protects the clothes of operator from dirt and danger and keeps him alert. ~: Gloves. These are essential to protect hands. Ventilation equ ment. It is essential particularly when welding in confined spaces. . Fumes given by welding are harmful for lungs. Welding Rods. Theoretically the composition and properties of the welding rod should match with the base metal very closely. Therefore proper welding rods should be chosen for j welding various non-ferrous and ferrous metals. The materials of welding red should flow smoothly and freely and unite readily with the base metal to produce sound and clean weld. | The welding rod coated with flux should always be stored in air conditioned rooms, otherwise _ the property of the flux will be deteriorated due to moisture leakage in them. Fluxes. In welding of certain metals, the fusion of the weld does not take place very _teadily particularly when the oxides of the base metal have a higher melting point than the metal itself. Thus these oxides remair’on the surface and become entrapped in the solidifying _ metal instead of flowing from the welding zone. This oxide can be removed from the weld location by use of certain fluxes which react chemically with the oxides of most metals and form fusible slags at welding température. These float at the top of molten puddle and do not interfere with the deposition of filler metal. Besides, flux also protects the molten puddle from atmospheric oxygen and thus avoids formation of oxide on the metal surface. It may be noted that the absorption of oxygen into the molten weld-pool will result in a poor weld These also help to clean and protect the surfaces of the base metal. These are available inseveral forms, such as dry powder, paste or thick sclution of in form of coating on the welding rod. Use of flux is very essential for welding cast iron, brass, bronze, stainless steel, aluminium | ete. but not for carbon steel. In the case of carbon steel, the oxide formed is lighter than the | parent metal and therefore removes itself by floating to the surface of the weld in the form of, ascale. . 9.16.7. Oxyhydrogen Welding. In this process, hydrogen is used in place of acetylene | and the temperature of flame is very low (1980°C), It is therefore, best suited for welding thin | sheets, low melting alloys and for brazing work. An advantage of this process is that no oxides are formed on the surface of the weld if a reducing atmosphere is used. The flame adjustment isvery difficult in this welding as there is no distinguishing colour to judge the gas proportions 9.16.8. Air-acetylene Welding. This is generally used for lead welding, low-tempera- ture brazing and soldering operations. The torch used for this process is similar in construction toa Bunsen burner. In this case probably lowest temperature is produced in compar isun to all other types of gas welding processes. The acetylene is applied to the torch from a cylinder and air is drawn into the torch from atmosphere and its quantity can he adjusted for proper combustion by varying the opening of air inlet to torch. 9.16.9. Pressure Gas Welding. In this process, coalescence is produced simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surface by heating with multiple oxy-acetylene flames and | then applying pressure. In it, no filler metal is required. The process is of two types depending | “Pon the way of applying pressure to. effect weld. The first type is known as closed-joint Pressure welding or closed-butt welding. In this method, the weld faces are in contact during Scanned with CamScannerPRUBUCTION TECHNOLOGY 452 : MULTIFLAME the complete Welding eycle, Before bringing the faces 7 Cee clean With onch other, they are earsfully mnachined - cleaned. After” butting they are heated by multiple xyacetylene flames to a high temperature below melting por Plastic state). Pressure isthen applied inthedirection normal to the weld faces resulting in an up-setting of the OW an vACETYLENE metal in the weld zone. ‘The bond is formed by the action of nye LAME: idtusion and reerystallisation aces wre interface. The i Taultantweld has asmooth surfaced bulge at the weld zone. 7 Low initial Pressure is also applied in order to assure ae intimate contact: or it maybe manimam orn beginning till Fig 920 Gove ata “psetting occurs, Press ‘ond method of pressure ing. In this process the p apart during the heatin; gas welding is open joint pressure welding or fusion arts to be welded have square faces and are spaced a cycle. When the melting temperature is reached, the The sec Pressure weldi short distance ‘This is the most commonly and convenient sted Enciple on which itis based is that oxygen d temperatures (760—-870°C) the action being Seysen forms iron oxide (rust) with iron which sratures it melts out and the metal is eat, Thus be'cut by this process. The nozzle is kept abo errr—~—r— Ori‘ cutting speed of. employed with acetylene consumption of 0.42 m/hr and O2 consumption of Li As thickness increases all ctting sped ntease and corresponding values of 150 are 2.0 mm size nozzle, cutting speed-3.6-5.4 mii acetylene 0.95 im) 19.5 m‘/hr. * The torch for flame cutting has several small hole is in cel hole in the torch which ea, There is a main cehtral - just like the welding flame. Th. heating flame is just like ti ling ao 9.28, However, this process is not suited te cast-iron, non fern trpores is shown manganese steels. With correct cutting speed, shary sous plese 8 alllo “‘Phis process has become so versatile now due to its sin, macames have been developed based on this Principle which i movement of the torch to cut any desired shape! pel Machines util 'Y control the drawing of the shape to be cut in steel ang © Sensing deviee edetermined path. : = Flame Machining. tn this process metal ig Temoved w} way as any other ayy eet The torch is held at 3 a as it progresses, The ss i, " : and cuts out & Goya" patsisfhce Gntsiiie Very poe eS TAPIA, equine + Work surface | up necd not be rigid. Poor, therefore, 1; te NO power and work se hining operation. tefore, itis best suited f ork set machininj Sr initial rough 30-45 m/hr, is 8 to 2.7 myhr. mm thick sheet rand oxygen, 15.3 to Ss for reheating th ‘steel to le e ared colour, Tries pure Oxygen for itt i : Torch used for cutting puree action. The ith acutting blown; © small al te pie in the same —<— Scanned with CamScannerWELDING, SOLDERING ANU BRAZING Gouging. This technique is used to remove bulk material and to form groove. It is also used for preparing the edges of thick plate prior to welding, For preheating, torch is held at 3f4..80"-40" and for gouging, torch is held at-10°-15°. It utilises specially shaped nozzles. i: 9-16.11. CNC Flame Cutting System. The traditional method of flame cutting uses optical 1: 1 machine in which a full scale paper template is e-traced by an optical line follower, and the cutting torch thus reproduces the profile drawn on the template. This method is slow “2 es the line if attempts are made to cut at speed more than a meter per i minute. Further the imperfections in template are reflected on sheet being cut. Also the ___ cartridge paper being sensitive to humidity any change in humidity results in variations in component size. The the template life is also limited, For faster operation with high repeatability and reliability of component shape and size, and minimum rejects, computer numerically eontrolled (CNC) flame cutting system is | employed. Such a system comprises of flame cutting hardware (comprising of NC flame cutter equipped with plasma torches, oxy-fuel torches, chamfering head driven by a controller, rectifiers, water tables and water softening unit) and computer hardware [comprising of central processing unit, disk drives, floppy disk, VDU (visual display unit), graphics terminal, printer, tape punch, tape reader, plotter]. | The cutting torch is used for thickness greater than 25 mm and upto 110 mm and is _ quipped with the necessary ducts, miking chamber and control valves to supply no oxy-furel gas mixture and a pure oxygen steam to the cutting tip. Plasma torch is used for thickness upto 25 mm at a speed to upto 6 m/min, It is usually carried out under water to reduce atmospheric pollution and reduce noise. The user interface with the system consists of a multi-level menu sub-system, The system is configured around adequate number of primary input files and system generated files. All orders for flame cutting are fed into the system. The system keeps a full record of data missing for any particular order. Those parts for which geometry is defined and no restrict has been flagged are made available for welding. Detailed information about the material, its length and width, density type of cutting Process etc. are fed. Computer itself creates material record, new requirements, record of |. usable offeuts from plate, Information in respect of plain cut or chamfered cut, geometry of shapes by co-ordinate information are made available and stored in a file, ‘The system generates reports on VDU and printer, like asking for the geometry of parts for which it does not exist, material requirements, plate cutting schedule, material usage Simmary, chamfered tag reports, etc. 9.16.12. Advantages and limitations of gas welding : “Advantages. The oxyacetylene flame can be easily controlled becatise it is not as Picreing as arc welding. Itis generally more suitable for thin sheets. The equipment is portable and thus gas welding can be easily done outdoor and for repair works. By changing the nozzle, torch can be used for heating, welding, brazing, and cutting purposes. Limitations. It is slower process than are welding. Heat affected zone and distortion are more compared to are welding. Gases are expensive and there may be some safety problems _ instoring and handling the gases. ee Scanned with CamScannerPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY 454 9.17. Are Welding’ }\ ee In this case, heat is liberated to be welded at thi ‘Thus, different A tremendous: heat causes a : oe als tthe metals ' | this heat is used to mel the artersinals and thisheat is used anintegral mace tite ote 7 they will flow togethe surface of the metal ie points of contact, so thal terial is also added to the £3600°C. This Parts may be joined. A filler mat ture of the are is of the Ketpaih feered baa heat is liberated and the leeepetaare eee eal cate required for ‘small poo! of metal to melt in bythe hat ofthe ae and depeited into this welding, a welding red is used “phich is meted bythe he poli agitated by the ation ofthe small pool in the molten state. The niclten ly mized and refined ire ‘ I are thoroughly mixe Jectric-are welding are, and thus the parent anid added meta ee ee ding cooling, a sound joint is formed Fig. 9.30 shows - i supply, Flux coated bee at Which on mehicraated by low voltage, iodo eat sree te oie weld whh is which on melting form a protective a eee On cooling, the reduce of this flux solidifies ee subsequently chipped away. d are maintenance voltage is o Are initiation voltage is of the order of 60—100 V ani See enor be a.e. or d.c. supply. I fabout Se remer Source many ith de. source, polarity is important. A gap of whether work or electrode is positive ou with is maintained for producing sound weld. : Aces 8 mm is maintained for p ; ding. The current a 9.17.1. Source of Electric Supply ee ae iting. welding, short cireuite keep requirements during are Serie sent whenever the operator touches the electrode to Gece eee created. Similarly when the molten globules the work in order to strike an arc, short ciruils (around 20 non per sec.) are caused. Under ot weld tees crease ancre nt drawn is excessively high because resistance falls to very low Short clreuif condition, current Shigeo surges results in excessive spatter and sticking value. Excessive heat eg Senerator isdesigned to limit these instantaneous surges ode. A good arc-we of the electrode. of current. ircuit is there, voltage falls almost t Se aecliee wiseuiied Ee otnece alive. Similar onset eee instantaneously is called for. eon ly source of are welding should a ne ee ree voltage for striking and on size of clectrode, « sul stability for the arc. The volta, Cl / 46 volts ant es of electric supply for are welding process are : -_ cocrater with variable voltage characteristics, Oe ee voltage characteristics, (ii) dc. gener wer line in conjunction with resistors to reduce the voltage and current, (ii) de. val a.e. ganerator or transformer, (iv) Special a. ding applications, a.c. source For most: ve ©. eupply is preferred for weld ac. transla oul gh it requires transformer-recti| - steel stainless oe order 0 zero, but whe n it is cleared, ly if'arc length is quickly changed, Provided sufficient e maintaining the ar ie across the are m; ‘urrent depending ©, and of suitable ay very from 20 to is Tormally used becauss ng sheet meta}, fier, (costly ¢ achine, two. I If. © of use of cheap » non-ferrous metals and ‘quipment), leads, an electrode holder, an Scanned with CamScannerWILDING, SOLELRING AND WRAZING | qurront of 60 A and starts iner {current This rlationship dotor power supply usually hsa droop | Thodrop may be cithor » GENERATOR WELDING ROD ELECTRODE HOLDER: “DEPOSITED METAL WORK Fig. 9.30, Arc-welding circuit, for semi-automatic are weldin, is determined where two curves intersect, hand side because any disturbance is aut. the original value. Fig. 9.31 (6) shows how potential difference across are is distributed. Anode spot is the areaon the anode surface where the electrons are absorbed. Anode space is the gaseous region (around 10\um thick) adjacent to the anode surface where a sharp drop in voltage takes place. Are column is the visible portion of the are consisting of plasma where the voltage drop is not sharp. Cathode space is the gaseous region adjacent to the cathode (around 10 um thick). Sharp voltage drop in this region is necessary as the electrons have to be pulled up from this region. Relative voltage drops in various zones re dependent on the spac- ing, current, and electrode materials. welding and why ? (= length of are in m). welding. + Strikin, Voltage. Si, changing, sharply d; Unsteady ow of sh different () The d.c. are has yoltage-length characteristics as V ‘The characteristics of power source is V = (60 ~ 0.07 1) volts. °Ptimum arc length and the corresponding arc power. Ans. (a) Fig. 9.32 shows the characteristics curves o ‘The important points are open-circuit voltage and 1g of arc, open circuit voltage of power supply source should be high above the operating we the arc length in welding process (particularly in manual } and this should not cause a large change in welding current. This is achieves bya lrooping characteristic. The supply source shou nature of welding process. Further the power so ‘ort cireuit current for appreciable length of ti for different settings of short circuit currents, ‘i 455 easing gradually and very slowly with further increase in ‘mines the charneteristies of the power source. The electric ing churactoristic, xe, with increase in current, voltage drops. sharply drooping (suited for manual are welding) or nearly flat (suited ELECTRIC POWER . SUPPLY 3 es CURRENT (AMP) Fig. 9.31 (a) 1g) depending on type of power supply source. The operating point The stable operating point is obtained on the right matically opposed and operating point returns to ‘CATHODE (LMOOE space m psrace 1 a ANODE le—are coLuMN—e! 1 SPOT POTENTIAL CATHODE 1 ' 1 1 ' if spor ARC SPACE Fig. 9.31 (6) Q. 9.4. a) Explain what should be the characteristics of power source for arc = (10 +30) volts. Determine the f a power source required for arc short-circuit current. For efficient process) keeps on Id have quick response because of uurce should not get damaged due to ime. The characteristic curves will be Scanned with CamScanner: ‘TECHNOLOGY ‘ase . PRODUCTION _In tho caso of semi-automatic wolding the 7 are length doos not vary much and accordingly * Fi the characteristics of supply source should be flat + 7 ee that current docs not change much with pen, change in are longth and melting takes place at ¢"f.0" really constant rato, - ® Mowe (6) Are charnctoristics is V 4 10 + 801 sem-gutometic Fre welding \ } For manual and supply charactoriatics is V = 60 —0.07I 3 Kare welding Stable operation occurs where these 3 Short-cireust curves meet, | a ‘current 10 +801 = 60-0071 ee current — al ae 00T Fig. 9.32 Power P=VI=(10+301) For maximum power, or 30 (50 — 301) — 30 (10 + 301) = 0 or : 1500 — 9001 — 800 - 9001 = 0 or 1800 / = 1200 and / = = = 0.67 cm . Optimum are length = 0.67 em Max. power = (10 +301) 2 50-30x2 30x 0.07 30 x 30 = yy 12860 vA. 9.17.2. Shielded-are Welding. It is well kmown fact that molten steel wh: to air, forms oxides and nitrides in the steel duo to.chemical combination with ten exposed Nitrogen in air. These impurities weaken and embrittle the sleel and reduce ite renee Corrosion, Further the ideal welded joint is one which has same properties as of thane, seatal, To achieve this, the molten {filler metal inthe arestream andthe weld metaliee@ennent roe ted from the oxidising and nitriding effects of the air du effectively Tiquefaction and solidification. aes bee shielded by completely enveloping it with an inert oe sr tal from coming into contsct with the surrounding air. ©" “hich Prevents the amen shielding can be in following four forms ; o Coated or covered electrode welding ee 1. Pape-shielded welding — peace welding 9.17.3, Shielded Metal Are Welding(SMAW), 15 2 wean. B73 ety oltre melts nd ine the weld po weldin, electr ‘ding method. The coating on the electrode lessees are welding, met emoke which covers oF shields the weld poo) trv etal of ee oof nil the metal! The eleclrode L ‘absorption of nitrogen byt Seta de after melt 0 ot ros in very yoraatle sha Déxily petting forms a sl molten poo! : : ing the entire range of Scanned with CamScannerWELDING, SOLDERING AND BRAZING 457 SMAW can be performed ELECTRODE beth on AC and DC source with drooping characteristic, highest cugrent rating being about 600 am- ' pares, Selection of proper electrode Arties *S isessential for best results. A rough | guide is given in Fig. 9.33 (b) about the size of electrode and current for gating different thicknesses of plates to be \ |" welded. However it is advisable to » Wn Ta SLAG | consult recommendations of eer | electrode supplier. METAL Tt In DC welding, arestartingis easy and the are is steady and erneaaa CRATER smooth. Straight polarity (electrode ; -ve) is used for welding thin sheets Fig. 9.33 (a) and for plates with wide gaps. Reverse polarity (electrode + ve) produces maximum penetration and is used for root passes and out-of-position welding. Due to high voltage drop in cables, cable length should be short. 600 Eo 500 = <5 & 400 ce | g 7 a 300 & 5 = 5 3 w & | 84 leo0 & $s m3 3 - uel 100 4 uy i o 1 2 3 @ 5 6 7 8 9 | PLATE THICKNESS (mm)—> ~ Fig. 9.33 (6) AC are welding requires more skill on the part of operator. drop in cable, less arc blow are suited for thicker plates. is difficult to start. Less 9.17.4. Precautions of be Observed in Are Welding. Arc welder should be clear of the hazards likely to occur from arc welding and should take all precautions to avoid them. These hazards are : radiation (ultraviolet and infrared rays) from the are, flying sparks, globules of molten metal, electric shock, fumes, burns, ete. One should never look at are till eyes are protected with welders helmet or face shields with approved lenses. Face, hands, arms and other skin surfaces must be covered by wearing gloves and clothing of sufficient weight to Scanned with CamScanner458° . PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY shut off the rays from the jals like taatches, celluloid combe, fountain Pensete. should be removed hon pockets Fleerahould be dry and electrode holders ine ince x equipment should be used. Fuses of right capacity eee eos tial ‘ampere adjustment should be sot to minimum. Correct size electrod : Before starting arc, the machities should be carefully inspected, cleaned and oiled. All thd oleae athould be tight. Electrode holder and ground electrode cables should be inspected Sheng rode holder hungon a wood or fibre hanger away from the work to be welded. Brushes should not are heavily in case of motor generator unit. The machine should never bé sta With the electrode holder on a table or base metal, since this closes the are welding circuit and causes the are welder to start under a full load, which is hard on most machines. The machine should be adjusted for proper current setting depending on base metal and electrode size, by switching off main power supply. After running a few beads, it may be necessary to make fine adjustment to obtain more perfect weld. Are Energy. Are energy is expressed in-kilo joules per millimeter length of weld (k.J/mm) and is equal to are voltage x welding current ‘relding speed (mm/s) » 100" ‘The greater the voltage drop across the arc the greater the energy liberated in heat for a given current. The voltage drop can be varied by altering the gas shield produced by the electrode covering. For instance hydrogen gives a higher volts drop than CO, Long ares are difficult to control and maintain. They also lower the shield. For sound welds, it is desirable that arc length be as short as Possibl 9.17.5. Starting an Arc. Starting an are, ie. Producing an arc between the electrode and base metal initially is an important aspect for beginners and requires some practice. The best way is to touch the electrode with metal and then lit it up to the desived are leat Usually what happens is that the electrode tends to sick to metal and well teelt won the metal Or else, the eleetrode may be vithravm bya distance greater than the seehog the voltage avaiable then zon maintain the are and are breaks, Thess roche seeh and overcome only by experience. The arc _— always be started by drawing a rather long a maomentarily which hels in probeatngtie meta belore deposition of Gor mater eae inarng og hort are rapidly back and forward over a Isic eco al be accomplished Ta limited area whil, ba es le st: However are should always be initiated above the exact spat where the welds tose oe "Another method of starting the arc is by producing glancing ae the end of the electrode, moving the electrode in arc by 10—15 me S°" thing motion with The gully seid iat Seaman ae an arent oss wansither in a straight forwar an oscillatory mation ag may erp tbe Forman td nein on Pending ns of the jon of the electrode metal wil metal. Nice ri ‘© pattern, Sper fusion 0 -forth) motion along the line sp io? TiPPles are the Pel oseillating osc ag, aller motions roe Ne of the weld Depending sa gine f seam and position © ralf-circle across the weld ap a 1 cifular motions, heen the Pe snotion along with the bet : M8 45° to it, Figureeight nt torth co ‘motion, otc: Han st Itlecaster tostart Dg i ‘ht (8) motion, P be mentio the change DC are than Ac, ee roa th are 9” the ego tne oye AO Time eae ofthe tondeney of the aPPor = Per see. in a 50-cyclo ee efficiency of gas triat Scanned with CamScannerwa ay {HEING, SOLDERING AND IeAZnE qireuit). In AC are wolding, diameter, thieknons of me ig ab da ne a ype of joint, ete, Too-low current ‘ing of are. iatinual breaking of are, High c nt djuntmont would and Lo continual branking, of arc Hfgh current sotting results in hh AVY eloetrode mpatter and ovarhonting. 1 Fon pestarting the well iffiraLoloctaoia in vonnimned, the lant portion should bs cleaned with brush to remove slag and veinitinted at the point where Ib war loft. Similarly in multi pass welding, first portion of wold should he elanned before welding for nacond part, 17.6. Ave Stability, For obtaining nound wolda It in naceannry to maintain stable (ubiform and stondy) are during wolding procons, Unatable are may renull in intermittent fusion, trapping of slag, production of blow holes, Arentability in influenced by factors like the characteristics of power supply roures, nature of the alectrode, proper manipulation by the operator, ote, The electric powor supply source should be much that when are has tender extinguish duo to longthoning of nre, tho voltage should automatically rine instantly. Ifelectrode covering is mado of proper componition and has uniform consintency, it aids inpromoting are stability. Tho covering not only protects the are but alno nenists is maintaining stability. The chemical composition of the filler motal nlso plays an important role in are stability. The are is oxtremely sensitive to tho condition of the electrode surface. Materials like iron oxide, enlcium oxide, enleium earbonito, manganese oxide, and ferrous sulphide have tendency to stabilize the are while aluminium, aluminium oxide, silicon, silicon oxide and ferrous sulphate tend to decrense the are stability. Thus their presence on the: or surface affects are stability, cy to electrode wire Steam or vapour formed during welding can cause the arc to become unstable or even extinguish. While welding with base electrodes on direct current, are may have a tendency to waver from its intended path (are blow). It is caused by a magnetie disturbance in the neighbourhood of the are. It causes lack of fusion, porosity, spattoring and uneven welded joints. It can be minimised by using a.c. welding, or using covered electrodes, Q. 9.5. Explain the modes of metal transfer in arc welding. Ans. Transfer of metal into weld pool is governed by forces like gravity, surface tension, electromagnetic interaction ; and hydrodynamic action of plasma, The mode of transfer of metal from electrode affects the depth of penetration, stability of weld pool, and amount of spatter loss. If electrode in welding is pointing upward, gravity a Provides detaching foree and vice versa. Surface tension ; force is. dependent. upon radius of electrode, capillarity constant, and density of liquid metal, and it always tends to ratain the liquid drop at tho tip of the electrode, The €'**\fonagrtic electromagnetic force is set up due to the interaction of the clectric current with its own magnetic field. This force acts in the direction opposite to that of the current if the eross- Section of the conductor is reducing in the direction of the serrent, and vice versa. This force accelerates the process of separation of a droplet which has started to separate out. Electroge Scanned with CamScanner460 . PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY Magnetic forces also remult in hydroatatie force which elongates the liquid drop. Plasma of arc Temults in drop being pulled townnde workploee, transfer All those forces net in a complex way. Aq a rosult, broadly two types of metal transfer ko place, viz, ' ; ee () Pree Night tranafor | Gi Short circuit transfor. In the free Might tranafor, the liquid aoe pee completoly dotached from act . aes ® freely in are apace and contaeta the workpiece. The molten drop may fall Ta vertically from slectrode into the weld. pool whon the predominant force is due to gravity. This {ype of transfor in not very reliable. In cnoe oloctromagnatic force, gas jet, and hydrostatic Pressure are predominant, then the molten drop is pushed with an acceleration. If the resulting drop directs the drop away from the weld pool, then the repelled transfer ‘occurs. This type of transfor is undosirable since it results in lot of spatter lose. It occurs when CO? is used as the shiolding gas and low to moderate currents aro used. The desirable mode of transfer is projected one which occurs with oxide conted carbon stool oloctrode where a strong get jet is set up. In short circuit transfor the gap and other wolding variables are so adjusted that there is no gap between detached drop from electrode and the weld pool, thereby causing arc to be momentarily shorted. The surface tension and electromagnetic force pull the drop into the weld pool and the contact with the electrode is thus broken and the are is re-established. The spatter loss is minimum and this process is also suited for overhead welding. 9.17.7. Puddle control for fusion welding. The torch adjustment (distance of torch from puddle and torcl angle w.r.t. vertical plane) is the single factor responsible for controlling puddle and hence neceptable weld. If torch distance is more, puddle will be cooler and smaller whereas it will be hotter and wider when torch distance is close. Metal will oxidise if flame is too close to puddle. Steep torch angle (5—10° of torch tip w.r.t. vertical plane) will produce deep penetration and hot puddle in thick sections, whereas shallow angle (45°) will produce mild penetration and less heat input because higher angle allows much of the flame heat te reflect off the plate into the air. With oxidising flame, puddle will boil and become full of sla; With carburi: it brittle. . 9.17.8. Weldingadjustmentsto correct the bead. The right bead can be obtained by adjusting following five variables : (i) Electrode size. While too big electrode may stick and be hard to start, too small electrode will spatter and even can catch fire. (di) Amperage. If amperage or heat is too much, spatter, and/or undercut will take place. Ifheat is too Taos, are will be difficult of strike and the bead will be d. oer Bleatrode angle. Too groat travel anglo into a bead with poor penetration. Angle of results Jrould be about half the joint angle otherwise atta Jength will bo uncven, fasion poor and under. cut on the top leg. a Fig. 9.35 travel; ig due to oxidation of metal. ‘arbon into the weld making TRAVEL ANGLE = @ (515°) @) “ANGLE OF, ATTACK (45') (b) Scanned with CamScanner> {ELDING, SOLDERING AND BRAZING 461 (iv) Travel speed. Too slow speed results in overlap and piling up of head. If too fast, bead | gl be sparse and have poor fusion, () Are length. Too long arc length results into erratic are and spatter. If electrode is too lose, rod will not are properly and result into improper shielding and sticking. Q. 9.6. (a) What do you understand by point and line sources of heat ? @) Write down formula for minimum rate of heat input for three dimensional sd two dimensional sources of heat for a given width of weld. , ‘(Determine welding speed possible for arc welding 2.5 mm thick steel plates with 2kVA source. It may be assumed that arc welding iakes place with short circuit metal transfer and fraction of arc during which the arc is on may be taken as 0.85. For steel, take a = 1.2 x 10~ m/sec, k = 43,6 Wim°C and melting point = 1530°C. Ans. (@) In fusion welding process, heat source moves. On attaining steady state, the temperature distribution relative to source can be treated as stationary. Thus heat source ean be assumed as stationary and work moving with same speed in opposite direction (welding speed). If heat is liberated in a small zone, it can be treated as point source and heat flow is then three-dimensional. In other cases like butt welding of thin plates, heat is liberated along a line. In such a case, heat source is treated as line source and heat flow is two-dimensional. (©) Minimum heat input for two and three dimensional heat sources is given as. Q=C, w'k9{ C, ovr where o' = width of weld (m)'for three dimensional heat source and plate thickness for two dimensional heat souree : k= thermal conductivity of work material (W/m°C) melting point of work matertal above ambient welding speed (m/sec) thermal diffusivity of work material (m/sec) w = width of weld C= constant = 8 7 for two-dimensional. Cy = constant = 1 Values of C; and C; for three dimensional heat source are ©.x,, and 2 respectively. (c) Capacity of heat source = VxI=2KVA Rate of heat input capacity x fraction for which are ison 2x 0.85 = L.TKVA=1.7x 10° VA=i.7x10°W “2 «Plate thickness w’ is.2.5 mm, Width of weld = 2 x 2.5 x tan 30° 5 _ BVS 5 w= 2x 28 = 8 mam = 55 x 10m, 0 = 1530 — 36 = 1500°C (assuming ambient as 30°C) 11 Since 2.5 mm thick plate is thin, source of heat can be taken as line source and two dimensional. a Fig. 9.36 Scanned with CamScannerx 2f 2, ow . i . 4 @-ehou' (5+ 92) : ow f = 8% 49.6% 1500%2.5%10%9( 02+ Ge] ‘which is ‘also equal to:1.7 x 10° a Tradte © 9.24 2 LTx10° | B06 Ot eh “4a “T3087 28 and Goat a eh vb : 1.05 x 4 x 1.2 x 10x 3 205 x4 x 1.2 x 1073 0.0174 m/see. ST 9.179. Goo. oes ‘Jong are is unstable and causes 17.9. d arc by.proper length adjustment. A long are is uns\ . Small explosions cccuriie ee piace scatter larger globules of metal. It makes hissing sound. Short arcie turrounded by the protecting arc flame and ejects a steady shower of fine sparks. Short are also makes a sharp rapid crackling sound resembling the sound of Brease flying in a pan. & & With a long are the electrode is fused quite © { 3 rapidly but the directional control of the molten © | metal is poor, and some of the metal isnot deposited where it is needed. = | By experience operator can maintain proper are length so that arc is stable. He is guided by both the appearance and the sound of the arc. Arc power is dependent on the length of arc. From Fig. 9.37, it arc LENGTH will be seen that there is an optimum length of are Fig. 9.37 for which the are power is maximum. 9.17.10. Undercutting. It is defined as a groove melted into to the edge of a weld and left unfilled by weld metal. Weld failure occ since the base metal is thinner there. Undercuttin, machine or due to wrong electrode motion. 9.17.11. Are Welding Equipment. The most common} process are listed below : the base metal adjacent urs at the area of undercut 1g occurs due to incorrect adjustment of ly used tools for an are welding (1) AC. or D.C. machines (2)Electrode (bare or coated) : (3) Blectrode-holder (4) Cables and its connectors (6) Chipping hammer (6) Barthing clamps (7) Wire-brush (8) Helmet - (@) Safety goggles (10) Hand gloves (11) Aprons, sleeves ete. : 9.17.12. A.C. or D.C. Machines. Depending upon the a hninoe are used in are welding, but in some cases eithe machitiiy obtained from generators driven by electrie mots isusual ain tan be used. The generators have a = i val ns atically to the varying voltage demanded by wx iteol a tor heavy work and at sites where electricity is not one ore rhe mostly use’ are available oltage fror ceo. ‘are welding Wa! plication, A.C. or D.C., of them can be used. D.C. supply or ifno electricity is available then’ ‘as A.C. source, transformers are used. The function tera aay Suede raarh former is to stepdi 1m 440 volts to the normal open circuit welding voltage (80—100 volts), Formerly 1g limited to small thickness jobs, but now-a-days its applications are 5 —_— Scanned with CamScanner>. -flux coating assists both in eliminating undesirable oxides No SOLDPRING AND Sz UN 463 ganingimportance, because there are sxcellent A.C. welding stets available that can be success(ully used on all types of fabrication jobs. A.C. welding has also the advantages of speed, low power cost, silent operation, easier to operate and maintain. However A.C. welding requires the use of covered electrodes and is not suitable for welding non-ferrous metals. A.C. Welding slso has the advantage that ‘are blow’ phenomenon which occurs in D.C. welding is absent here. Are blow is caused in D.C. welding of magnetic materials due to setting up of magnetic field between the welding rod and the joint. Under such a situation, the welder loses cantrol ofthe molten metal coming from the electrode and the weld is deflected away from the joint area. 9.17.13. Electrodes. Bare, fluxed and heavy coated electrodes are types of metal elestredes most commonly used. Bare electrodes have limited applications as during the velding operation, they are exposed to oxygen or nitrogen of the surrounding air which forms non-metallicconstituents and they are trapped in the rapid- ly solidifying weld metal thereby decreasing the strength {©} and ductility of the weld-metal. Generally this type of electrodes are used for welding wrought iron and mild steel, Improved welds may be obtained by applying a light coating offiux on the rods with a dusting or washing process. The and preventing their formation, however, the heavy coated 948 electrodes are by far the most important ones and are used Fig. 98. Electrodes. in 99% of the commercial manual-welding. The type of flux coating depends on the weld metal composition. The slag produced by fax should be light than base metal so that it loat on the weld surface to avoid any. possibility ot trapped slag inclusions. Electrode coating facilitates striking the are and enables it to be. stable. The electrode coating provides a gaseous shield, preventing oxidation of molten weld Pool slag retards cooling of the weld, thereby refining its structure, stabilizes are particularly with ac. supply ; flux coating also compensates for elements like carbon, manganese, nickel ete. likely to be lost partially due to combustion. It may be mentioned that some slags, Parlicularly produced by aluminium fluxes, chemically react with the underlying weld end imust therefore be removed by washing and brushing using hot water. Coating on electrode reduces slag fluidity which is the requirement for over-head welding. Commercially metal electrodes are available in 1.5 to 9.5 mm diameter and 35 to 45 [itlimeters of length, whereas carbon electrodes are available in 4.5 to 12.5 mm diameter and lengtt about 25 cm. Diameter of electrode is selected depending mainly on the thickness of the at metal and the welding current to be used. Diameter of electrode controls the penetra- ion, In general, the electrodes can be divided into three categories depending upon other “pects as well as their technological properties. (1) Bare electrodes are most commonly used in automatic and semi-automatic welding. (2) The electrodes with thin or stabilizing flux coating. This coating usually consists of ‘nixed with soluble gals which servesas.a binder. The thickness of such coating liee within 12.25 mm. These electrodes are used for welding of less important structures since the Welded seams possess low mechanical properties. et (3) The electrodes which thick flux coating ensure both high mechanical properties of Med seam, as well as the required chemical composition of the welding metal. The materials lime: Scanned with CamScanner ai404 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY “used for 11 A Cie esa Following ls gatins #70 termed ap components, Tho components may be sul videdinte te © Gas forming 12) Ga) Slag forming. : hy (id) Reducing - i Gv) Alloys: ao ; () Stabilizing (v) Binding * tie © Gas forming. The gas forming components are organic matters such as, starch, wood | Pulp ete. which form gas layer, thus isolating the welding zone from the ambient air. as 2) Slag forming. The slag forming components are : chinaclay, felspar, manganese and fc anitum ores etc. Those components produce alag which by covering the molten metal prevents from coming into contact with the ambient air, and also ensures gradual cooling of molten metal. The merging of welding metal with basic metal in this case, is considerably smooth. (id) Reducing. The reducing components such as ferro-silicon, ferro-titanium, ferro manganese reduce the oxides which are likely to be formed in the liquid bath of molten metal. Gv) Alloying. The alloying components such as ferro-silicon, ferro-manganese, ferro- chromium, ferro molybdenum, chromium oxide are used for rendering this metal heat-proof. () Stabilizing. The stabilizing components, also form slag. In the presence of arc, these eoeeie ionise ane between the electrode and the part to be welded and thus ensuring: je burning of the are. (vi Binding. The binding components, such as liquid glass or destrine serve for binding other components of the flux coating, in order to render the coating to be more durable. The electrode with tex coating may be made either mechanically or by pressing or by immersing taining liquid flux, snared iit Ingredients of Electrodes. The coating on electrodes comprises of following ingredients : @ Cellulose. It provides a reducing gas shield and increases are voltage. 2 Gi) Potassium aluminium silicate. Itstabilizes the arc and gives strength to the coating. otele Ce Metal carbonates. These produce a reducing atmosphere and adjust the basic nature (fv) Mineral silicates. These provide slag forming materials and strengthen the coating. (v) Ferromanganese and ferrosilicon. These are used to deoxidise the weld metal. an a Rutile. It forms a highly fluid and quick freezing slag and adjusts the basic nature o (vid) Clays and gums. These are used to produce a; during manufacture of el les. (viii) Iron powder. It increases the amount of metal d and increases productivity. Deposition efficiency may by .ctrodes. a 9.17.15. Classification of Coatings. Generally coati i 17-15. eT ings on electrodes are classified a5 ( Cellulose coatings. Provide gas shield, deeply (i Rutile coatings. (a) fairly viscous (mineral) zontal position. for flat and horizonta! po ide coatings. (2) Inflated type used F (i Iron oxide coatings. Cn eee Tar deeP groove in Mat position. Weld profile is smooth and concave. covering and is used for single run fillet pasty material for extruding the coating leposited and draws larger current more than 100% with high yielding Penetrating arc and rapid burning rate- for butt and fillet welds or (6) fluid type 4 a g 4 1 B t 5 — . _saal Scanned with CamScanner> yyenine 465 BERING AND BR. (iv) Lime fluor spar. Low Hy or basie electrodes. Slag is fluid and wold deposits convex toflat, Used for heavy sections, restrained joints, a Q. 9.7, (@) What binder is used on electrodes for dc. and a.c. are welding and ? ‘ (&) How the speed of welding expressed ? (©) How crater is formed in welding? + Ans. (a) The eiectrodes for d.c. are welding aro coated with sodium silicate and for n.c. are welding are coated with potassium silicate binder. In case of a.c. welding, a.c. are must reignite itself after every crossing of the zero current every 0.01 sec. The process of reignition ofarcis facilitated by the presence of ions having a low ionisation potential and this condition is fulfilled by potassium having lower ionisation potential compared to sodium. () The speed of welding is expressed in kg of weld metal deposited per hour. (¢) In case of welding, a crater (depressed area) is formed on solidifying of molten pool when the welding electrode is simply withdrawn at the end of a weld. The crater is caused due to liquid and solidification shrinkage, pressure from the are which tends to force the liquid metal from the centre of molten metal pool, and surface tension which causes some metal to move out from the centre of the pool. . 9.17.16. Disadvantages of bare electrodes. (1) These form oxides and nitrides from atmospheric air. (2) The striking of the are is difficult with this type of electrode specially with A.C. supply. . (3) Rapid melting of electrode than parent metal takes place and therefore reasonable depth of penetration of weld is not obtained. . The choice of a correct electrode among hundreds available, to suit a particular job is a” Vital part of producing a sound weld. The selection of an electrode must be suitable for a Particular purpose or requirement ; and its proper application thereon results in a low cost fabrication and efficient performance. The British classification of electrodes is disussed in BS-1719, American classification by American Welding Society, and Indian classification is discussed in IS—815, In these standards, the electrode is codified by a number consisting of a prefix letter, a Rumber of digits and is some cases, a suffix letter. These code numbers will indicate the ‘ollowing characteristics of electrodes. (1) Method of manufacture. (2) Type of flux covering. (3) The welding position for which the electrode is suitable. (4) Welding current condition required. = . _. ,,_ (5) Characteristics of deposited metal, i.c., ultimate tensile strength, percentage elon- "on, tensile test values of deposited metal and also impact test values of deposited metal. (©) Suffix letter is used to indicate that deep penetration is possible. ing 17-17. Blecti {ficiency. Itrefersto the metal recovery and deposition coefficient. lis detine as ie ub ef tne weight of metal actually deposited compared with the weight ratt#! of the electrode consumed. It vasies from 75 to 95%. With iron powder electrodes, ““ehey can as high as 200%. Scanned with CamScannerPRODUCTION TECHNOLogy 466 ; ered electrode in which the cover; Itis the cov 9.17.18. Dee} otrating electrode. : P pen al fusion in the root of © Production of a penetrating are to givo a deepor than norm : a nk : MP asvernagle met: et : isture can seep j, ~ 9.47.19. Stornge. Electrodes chould be stored in dry place ae moie P inte i ity and cracking problem. Seating and hydrogon may diffuse into parent motal loading to porosity 9-17.20. Shielded Metal Are Weldirig (SMAW) Blestrodes ea Goan cloctrodos are “lnssified a5 () fat freero, Gi fat Fil, i) fill freeze, and i) low cen Fast frooze electrodes are celluléee costing clectrodés. oe Then ealatene er ~ Puddle solidifies rapidly after being deposited from the electro ees ones isrich in hydrogen and thue they produce intense heat and deep bil Ba taal Thee eee for maintenance work because these burn through rust, grease, or el a apd ba Well suited for cut-of-position welding due to their excellent puddle control a1 ica. tion. These el ectrodes call for whipping motion (whip-and-pause technique) for good recut, Fast-fill electrodes contain iron powder in the flux coating which helps create the high deposition rate, Be ‘cause of their highly fluid puddle, these are used for flat and horizontal Positions only. Fill-freeze electrodes have the characteristics of bth fast-fill and fast-freeze electrodes, They solidify faster than faste fill class and they have higher deposition rates than fast-freeze class. should be used to protect th from the glaring effect of the are-rays. Also the Space for the electric are welding should b Safeguard other workment from the glare of are, 9.17.22. Are Blow. In shielded metal are weldin, by a magnetic field that deflects the are force can be overcome by using a.e. su; ich case effects of ars blow continuously reversing flow of ae, { i Fi helps offset the magnetic forces of angling the electrode to tra pre are farce ond flow of puddle, welding away from ath i.e. the centre , the bottom of the are crater, is a vi ae Te of the a in deposition of spatters on the - To avoid deposit “ess: Longer are length results metal should have the least opportuni Position of th, ity of coming i, 2¢ globules of mol; absorb as little oxygen as possible since 0x, i Properties ofthe weld metal tis obvious 7 With aon adverse because of shorter time of contact. Iw Practice the short any ot the Possibility is minimised the following reasons : An electric arc is formed when iwo con, brought together to make electric contact a then othe resistance to the flow of the current ang the 4. Parate eee — °S are raised to a h Scanned with CamScanner——“ wwelDinss S 467 {OLDERING AND BRZING ' The space around the are and in the adjacent metal is always threaded by magnetic felds which tend to deflect the are, (are blow). Such are blow may considerably hamper welding specially when large currents are used, because the magnetic field intensity is directly ‘jportional to the square of the current. Spatters as well as arc blow are less pronounced with Ply coated electrodes and in submerged are welding. But the coatir.s over electrode has also some limitation and hence it requires some external operations to take care of the above problem. In conventional practice spatters are generally removed by chipping and grinding. Yeluable time is lost to remove the spatters by chipping and grinding. This is hazardous, costly and unproductive process to get smooth surface. Original smoothness is lost and because of chipping and grinding, many a times, the mechanical properties are hampered. This conven- tional practice had direct impact on the quality as well as productivity of the welded product. Non pollutant, non-toxic, water based inorganic coating is available commercially to get ridof the problem of spatters. 9.18, Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) It is an automatic process developed primarily for the production of high quality butt welds in thicker steel plates. SAW differs from other arc-welding processes in a way, that a blanket of fusible, granular material (flux) is used for shielding the arc and the molten metal. ‘The deposition rate in this process is high and penetration is deeper. In this welding process, machine units are supplied which control the feed of wire as it is consumed during the process. In operation, a bare wire is fed through the welding heat into the granular material. This material is placed along the seam to be welded and the entire action of welding takes place beneath the granular material and hence this process is named as submerged arc welding. The are is started either by striking beneath the flux on the work or initially by placing some conductive medium like steel-wool. The intense heat of the arc produces a pool of molten metal inthe joint and at the same time it also melts a portion of granular material. Since the arc is fully covered by the flux, it is not visible and the weld is run without the flesh spatter and sparks that characterise the open-are process. The nature of the flux is such that very little smoke or visible fumes are developed. ‘The flux floats on the top of molten metal, forming a blanket which eliminates spatter lksses and protects the welded joint from oxidation. Upon cooling, the fused slag solidifies and iseasily removed. The granular material not fused can be used again. The flux is applied through a feed tube, just ahead of the electrode and takes its supply from a feed hopper. Submerged-arc welding may be done with either DC or AC power. DC gives better ‘sntrol of head shape, penetration, and welding speed, and are starting is easier with it. Bead thape is usually best with DC reverse polarity (electrode positive), which also provides p2imum penetration, Higher deposition rates and minimum penetration are obtained with te iraight polarity, AC minimises arc blow and gives penetration between that of DCRP and | cing, tis « favoured process for rebuilding and hard surfacing. Any degree of mechanisation | Phe ‘Used—from the hand-held semiautomatic gun to boom or track-carried and fixture-held inte Welding heads. fees The characteristics like high quality of welds obtained by submerged are process, high ‘position raten ‘deep se teen adaptakility of the process to full mechanisation, and no 9 Parks, no spatter, no smoke and no extra heat radiation make it a preferred process Scanned with CamScanner468 The high dopositi te Flux Wire feeding Ae Attained with thie proceen are chiefly PPRE roller motor Unused flux. / Tesponsible ‘for the somenics recovery tube: achieved. * Te is observed that welds! obtained by this process are stronger ‘an the base plate (the carefully con- trolled: ingredients in submerged are fluxes and electrodes, combined with the protecting and cleaning action in the weld puddle, produce refined weld metal with virtually no porosity or ine 89Ck-uP. clusions). The welds are low in Plate hydrogen and thus excellent crack Worl resistance. Human error is minimised due to machine control of welding Les parameters and arc placement, and it is po: le to produce welds of the same size and quality Tepeatedly, and there is maximum operator comfort and minimum fatigue. ‘This process is limited to flat welding, although welds can be made on a slight slope or on circumferential joints also. It is also advisable to use backing strip of steel, copper or some refractory material on the joint to avoid the loss of molten metal. Very high direct current of the order of 300 to 4000 amperes is usetl in this process as it permits rates of metal transfer and welding speeds. 12 mm thick steel plate can be welded at 10 mm/sec. The submerged arc welding is mostly adopted for low carbon and alloy steels but sometimes non-ferrous metals are also welded. It is used for manufacture of large boilers, heavy marine components, ship and barge buildings railroad to building, pipe manufacture in fabricating structural beams, girders ete. Advantages of SAW. Arc can be initially generated by using a high voltage and high frequency current. Joints can be prepared with a shallow V groove resulting in lesser electrode consumption. Weld spatter is eliminated and nesrly 100% deposition efficiency achieved. High welding speeds are possible. Wire electrodes are inexpensive. Enti beneath a bath of molten flux, without sparks, smoke or flash. Limitations of SAW. Itcan't be used for plates less than 5 mm thick. Itean’t weld cast iron because of high heat input: Slag has to be removed continuously after it has melted in order to avoid entrapment between passes. Flux is subjected to contamination and adsorption of moisture. ; 9.19. Atomic Hydrogen Welding It is an arc welding process in which a single phase A.C. are is maintained between two tungsten electrodes and @ seven hydrogen gas introduced into the are at the presaiee of 0.5 kg/em*. As the hydrogen oe rs the are, the molecules are broken into atoms which roeombine into molecules of hydrogen outside the are. This reaction is uecompanied by the fiberation of intense heat, attaining a temperature of about 4200°C. Weld metal may be added in the joint in the form of welding rod, the operation being very similar to the oxyacetylene process. This intense Bases making fusion welds. The principal difference between’ other are welding Pascoe ipe sloctiote nad a a elding process is that in the former 0} thew eco whereas in the latter case arc is case’ gd between the two electrodes as shown in Fig, 9.40, This makes the elostrode holder ® ire welding takes place Scanned with CamScannerwucbise. SUDTAING AND BAAZING 469 EMAROED SECTION kes | FA Ea tne , RE, \, J igang Ea | i CONDUCTOR ELECTRODE TRIGGER Fig. 9.40. Atomic Hydrogen Welding. ‘The importance of this process over other process lies in the availability of high heat concentrations. In addition, it also acts as shield and protects the electrodes and molten metal from oxidation, so that smooth, uniform, strong and ductile welds can be obtained. This process” had a wide use in die repairs, welding of heat-resistant alloys particularly stainless-steel. It finds its use as an excellent means of applying carbides and many other hard-surfacing alloys, and in production work where special ferrous and nonferrous alloys are used. 9.20. CO, Shielded Welding ‘The CO» shielded-welding piocess may be used with advantage for joining plain low-carbon alloy steels, and is very suitable for continuous automatic operation. A bare metal wire electrode is fed to the work with a special gun. An areis struck and is immediately surrounded by constant supply of carbon dioxide gas which protects the weld area from the harmful effects of nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. The use of a continuous wire electrode is economical, eliminates the necessity for frequent electrode changes, and enables a high welding rate to be achieved. The completed welds are very dense and free from slag. The carbon dioxide gas, supplied in cylinder, is relatively inexpensive. . The main limitations are that the process is unsuitable for use on some steels, and that the operator must be safeguarded against the inhalation of excessive carbon dioxide fumes when working in confined spaces. = In the case of CO, welding, spattering is influenced by are voltage, the spatter losses being low at low voltage short-circuit transfer at 24 volts. Weld spattering occurs either by droplet explosions in dip/short-circuit metal transfer or by expulsion of thé formed molten droplets away from the are in the free-flight transfer. Weld spattering is lowest with dip _ transfer. Weld spatter is also observed to reduce by replacing CO; with mixture of 25% CO, and 75% Argon. 3: 0°" - ~ - > aS 9.21. Gas Tungsten Are Welding (GTAW) ‘Air during welding, (viz. oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and water vapour) tends to reduce the quality of weld. Inert gases are used to keep contaminants away from contacting the metal, and also to remove the contaminants from the metal ‘surfaces as the contaminants like air, dust and metal oxides also reduce the weld quality considerably. Inert arc gas welding is faster, Produces cleaner weld and can weld metals considered to be difficult or impossible to weld. Scanned with CamScanner4709 Earlier GTAW was called as: TIG welding. (Tungsten i separate filler metal with an inert shielding 6% ‘A GTAW process welding sot utilises suitable power jeldit supply, and. welding torch Raving connections of eable for current, UE nelding Gm racap atthe Co ee eee ne se the tarch. The shape of torch is hare in'breakage- back end to protect the rather long tungsten electrode against accidents 7 vel) have to Tn an are welding process, three elements (current, voltage and sper be controlled to obtain watisfactory welding operation- __ In automatic welding, all these variables ere prese equipment. . ‘The important statements about arc welding principle: in study of welding machines are reviewed here. () A welding are has two electrodes, one being the welding rod, and th work-piece to be welded. If direct current is used for are Wwelding, there are two possib (or polarities, as they are called). One is direct current straight polarity (DCSP) in which the Worle piece is connected to the positive terminal of the welding Fnachine. The other is DCRP (reverse polarity) in which the work-piece is made negative. (Gi) Are-voltage is the voltage drop across the arc between the hwo electrodes. It increases with ave leneth: If the electrode is shorted to the work-piece, the voltage drop across the are is zero. ii) Penetration is deepest for DCSP (because the electron stream flows to the work, thus concentrating the heat at the work), less for A.C. and least for DORP- In the cass of DCRP good cIeaning action.is obtained. Due to less penetration in case of DCRP process, it is best suited cane actions of aluminium, magnesium and other hard-to-weld materials using tungsten electrodes. iv) In an are welding process using direct current, about two-thirds of useful are heat appears at the anode, and about one-third at the eathode. In A.C. welding the welding heat aor ene distributed equally between the welding rod and the work-piece. (v) Deposition rate of filler metal increases with current. Gas Tungsten Are Welding (GTAW) process uses a non-consumable chich ie mounted in a special electrode holder. This holder is also coer eee wich t gas around the electrode and around the are, Welding operation is done by striki a of inert eon the work-piece and tungsten electrode in an atmosphere of ieeeateentas helium, argon, carbon dioxide. gas such as Gas Tungesten Are Welding (GTAW) or TIG (tungsten i F ree ae Tone oe eg GON een nt wang aed» corey puddle is shielded from the atmosphere with an inert ges supply feeding aaa oS hl .s which require due consideration other being the ‘two possibilities cup. 9.21.1. Advantages of GTAW Process, (a) It weld i alloys (carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel steels, aluminium, different types of metals and bronze, titanium. , Magnesium, brass, copper, {(@) Unlike metals can be welded to each other like mil om a er like mild steel stainless cteel, brass to i) Heat-affected zorie (weak area for faihite of sound weld) is very l is very low. Scanned with CamScannerait pid, SOLDERING ANiy ¢ a a) Filler metal need not pass through the superheated electric arc. (¢) Requires no clean up because of absence of slag or spatter. The GTAW outfit is shown in Fig. 9.41. Generally the water hose, inert gas hose, and yelding leads are all in one jacket and form one head. Common practice is to flow the outlet xateralong the electrode lead. This water cooling permits using a smaller diameter lead, which provides & lighter eu torch d greater flexibility, The are oe machine may be either a Shae motor-generator unit, or a rece tifier unit. Most of the welding machines use a high frequency superimposed current in the cir- cuits to aid in starting the are. The use of GTAW is confined mainly to the welding of relatively thin materials upto about 7 mm. Itisespecially suited for welding sluminium and magnesium. based alloys, stainless steel, i titanium, ete. Fig. 9.41. GTAW Outfit. 9.21.2. Polarities. GTAW uses all the three polarities : DCSP. (Direct current straight polarity) i.e. tungsten electrode — ve and work + ve, is used for applications requiring deep penetration (because 2/3rd heat is at the work) and a narrow bead.as in mild steel, stainless steel, copper, and titanium. DCRP. (Direct current reverse polarity) z.e. tungesten electrode + ve and work — ve, is limited to preparing the tungsten. Rounded to balled tip is used which gives it more heat carrying capacity). It is used for welding aluminium and heavily oxidised aluminium castings. ACHF, (Alternating current high frequency) is used for welding aluminium and mag- nesium which have oxide coatings that contaminate the molten Al and Mg while welding and ACHF helps to remove these oxides. It may be noted that 50 Hz ac. is not used alone but a high frequency (15,000—22,000 Hz signal) is super-imposed. Thus when 50 Hz a.c. goes through its zero point, the HF goes through many cycles and prevents the are from stopping. HF pulses also help in oxide cleaning action. a 9.21.3. GTAW Tungsten Electrodes. Five types of electrodes are given below and the colour by which the case identified is also indicated in bracket : (@ Pure tungsten (W) (green) (ii) 1 % Thoriated W (yellow) (iti) 2% Thoriated W (red) (iv) Striped W (blue) () Zirconia W (brown). gsten electrode is used only on ACHF and designed for alu ninium and Mg oreion vauve OR GAS CABLE AI OSE, Pure tun; welding only : : e feds > 1% thoriated tungsten electrode is used for copper and copper alloys. 2% thoriated tungeten electrode can be used for almost any metal. a i electrode combines pure tungsten and a stripe of 2% thorial tuoguen, Prorat Roles to keep a stabilized arc ahd increase melting temperature. Zirconium tungsten reduces the contamination effects of dipping the tungsten into the molten puddle while welding Al and Mg. Scanned with CamScanneran PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY + The shape of th Lungaten electroden should be as shown in Fi, 9.42 in order to obtain the beat renulte, For starting the unit it should be ensured that mifficiont water (ns that tho temperature rise is about 5°C) and inert gas are flowing (gas flow may be con- trolled by relays and solenoid valves automatically aleo). . Fig. 942, Shapes of tungnten electrodes. The extension of electrode out of the cup should, be approximately equal to the inside diameter of the cup of slightly more in case of fillet welds, otherwise the shielding effect will be reduced. Fig. 9.43 shows various ends of tungsten electrodes and its applications. iS Bey iy ee ee as Po 7 Fig. 9.43 9.21.4. Preventing tungsten contamination. For tion, it should be shielded from the atmosphere and 6} achieve this : — Inert gas flow must be sufficient. — Laminar flow of shielding gas must be achieved, — Post-purge should be long enough to allow tungsten to cool For striking the arc the torch is . ; held horizontally over the metal start- ing block or work (or best on the used tungeten electrode) and very quickly tilted and swung to the upright posi- tion with the slestrode renshing i it 3mm above the : a ‘itjamp this gap. With A.C. the preventing tungsten contamina hould not touch the weld puddle. To toa non-reactive state. rarer are wi § igh fro- i eds superimposed high ait The tungsten electrode a \ Sumwetoeo sears : | y ractising Fig. 9.44. Positi yhould then be warmed by P ositions of tn sl ‘ae, mga slectrode and Scanned with CamScanner— 4 SOLDERING AND BRAZING 47s piece of metal, before starting the weld in order ts got good starting results on the ot tF Fect positions of the tungsten electrode and the filler wire in manual gas tungsten Pring are shown in Fig. 9.44. . t Ps after the arc has been struck and the welding process started, used the smallest circular | gon poss nd make & small puddle in the spot where the weld is to begin. The electrode NS ‘yrs beld at an angle of 60 to 80 degrees with the work in order to protect the weld puddle ~Methe inert gas. The arc can be stopped by lifting the electric arc holder quickly or by reducing ‘arrent flow by the foot control. The gas should be continued on till the tungsten is cool; Spertze the tungsten will become corroded and will also be consumed too rapidly. ‘9.21.5. Shielding gases for GTAW. Various gases and gas mixtures used are: i ‘argon. This being heavier than air préduces a superior shield. Its low resistance to ectricity Gonisation at 17 V) promotes extremely smooth, quiet arc. Helium. It is extremely light gas and produces good shield for molten metal. Due to jgher ionisation voltages (24.2 V) it produces a higher volume of heat in the are stream and hus wide, deeper penetration puddle. Argon—Helium. It combines the characteristics of excellent shielding of argon and the vider are stream and wider/deeper puddle of helium. Argon—H,. The addition of H; increase the wetting action (fluidity) and makes low thermal conductivity metals to be welded faster and easier. Argon—CO,, It is used for carbon steels only. Usually argon isused asthe shielding gas. Sometimes helium is used for welding thicker sections since light arc voltages are possible with this gas Helium is, of course, a costly gas. GTAW can be used to produced welds in the flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead positions. Progress in normally downward when welding ina vertical position. In several uses of GTAW a higher degree of operator skill is required. The important points requiring due attention for obtaining best results in the GTAW are: ‘Tungsten electrodes should be kept clean and straight and their ends in the proper ‘undition. Correct size electrodes should be used. If it is too small the end of the tungsten will form into a molten ball larger than the electrode, and this ball may fall into the weld. If it is toolarge, the are will wander from one side of the electrode to the other. A discoloured tungsten tectrode usually means that it has been exposed to the air while still very hot. Gas connections Rust be tight or else leaks may result. Electrode should not extend beyond the cup by less than. bare minimum amount even through it may interfere to some extent with the vision of the "Weld puddle, Steel welding rods should not be copper coated, as the copper coating will cause "Patter and may contaminate the tungsten electrode. Q.9.8. What do you understand by heliarc welding ? | yo, Ants In heliare welding the electrons from the electric are interact with hnelium ions to Wet ‘metastable excited state within the gas. On returning to more.stable unexcited state, | e gata releases heat. The mixing of gas can thus provide heat input to the components to Welded. 7 Bs, Sometimes argon is used in place of helium and in that case, less heat is produced | “sue argon in exsited state has lower energy difference with reference to stable state. Scanned with CamScannerpROBUCTION + alow current with high’ 9.22. Pulsed G: ‘ gster di il ed Gas Tungsten Are Welding cose but it Use This process is similar to simple GTAW Pr pulsation. It produces same weld as the standard GTAW but with much PULSE FREQUENCY ese Line input into the metal Jue to PULSE Bp he pulsating action. Fig. 9.45 shows oury crcl the natureatsquare wave pulse Tewill ho be seen that as the pulse peak level is reached, penetration and heat arevery quickly put into the place but before the plate is saturated with excessheat, the pulsed GTAW drops to the back- ground current where are is main- tained but heat input is much less. This results into smaller heat-affected zones (HAZ) and a less brittle and more ductile weld. Distortion is reduced due to lesser heat. Fig. oa a ‘Phick-to-thin sections are joined easily. It requires less foot ps cont It also offers excellent puddle control for out-of position welding: The size and shape of pulses can be controlled by varying t dingon the type ofmetal and its prope current, pulse frequency, and pulseduty cycle depen and the thickness of metal. For instance for thicker material it is desirable-use high pulse duty cycle, ie. heat with occasional drops to background, For welding of thick-to-thin sections, it is advisable to used high pulse peak-low pulse duty cycle so that high heat is produced but for shorter duration For producing rapid welds, fast pulsing to obtain puddle stimulation and uniform bead, it is advisable to used fast high i..quency control. For welding extremely thinor low melting temperature metals, itis better to use slow pulse PEAK CURRENT BACKGROUND CURRENT | manipulation. pulse current, background rties, pulse frequency and low pulse duty cycle. 9.23. Gas Metal Are Welding (GMAW) Gas metal are welding (GMAW) is performed by using dire it ie t 7 asit gives both good eleaning actionand fast filler metal deposition, eee oie ry aa rent is desirable as this extra current bredks up the globules of s.A rather high welding ‘increases the rateoftransferand givesbettercontrolefare eqn ee weld joint. This process can also be used with (enna thatitean be directed ee a x current flows thin metal spray. Thi accurately into the welds and poor fit joint: : It uses consumable electrode which is fed throu, atthe same epeed the electrode ismelted and deposita is to remove wire (usually wound on special Into the are. Complete gas metalarc welding outfit is shoing j in tures are often used as6nielding gases for welding varies iB: 9-46. CO; and organ/CO2 . Rapes 1 cauncrna. vouy Bowe P= skill is required to obtain ent Sefcarbon sheets compared ‘actory welds, Scanned with CamScanner0, SOLDERING AN! 1D WRAZING. - 475 © [ts faitially the process developed mainly for i ; active iatala much injum and titanium, It data versatile procera bes igo of high deposition rate, Gisof welding in all positions, rement of less operator tull and adaptability to weld tinost all metals to produce welds of high quality without S the problems of flux, moisture Fig. 946, GMAW outfit. andslag entrapment, The description of the major components used in GMAW is given below. Welding gun. It resombles n pistol with a trigger to start the process. It carries a eramic nozzle through which wiro electrode and shielding gas exit, The nozzle is air cooled forlow power guns (upto about 200 amps.) and water cooled for higher power ratings. Acontact tube inside tho gun is used for connecting the power source to the wire and the other power lead is connected to the workpieco. Wire drive. The welding wire, drawn from a spool, is fed through drive rolls, the wire feed rate being controlled to maintain a constant are voltage. Gas supply. The gas is supplied from cylinder through a flow meter, regulator and tutomatically operated solenoid valve. Welding machines. A power source with constant arc voltage characteristic is con- nected to the contact tube in the welding gun and to the workpiece. Water supply system. The gun may be water cooled in which case a supply of water ¥ith suitable flow control is provided. Control unit. It,coordinates the functioning of power supply, wire drive and movement ofthe gun, and regulates the gas supply and flow of water. If the water flow or gas supply is inadequate, the unit will be switched off automatically, Power sources. Generally 1 DORP is used because it results in surface cleaning (removes oxide of metal) of metals such as aluminium. DCSP is used for aluminium or Magnesium with a ‘buried-are’ or short circuiting metal transfer, AC supply is not eénvenient dueto erratic are behaviour. . Shielding Gases are used to protect the molton metal from contamination from the atmosphere. The choice of the shielding gas is determined by are and metal transfer charac- "istics, well deposition characteristics, i.e., penetration, width of fusion, shape of reinforce- nt, specd of welding, and undercutting tendency. : hej, Helium requires higher are voltage than argon and thus heat input is higher. ‘Thus “lium is used for highly conducting metals like copper. Argon is preferred for thin metals. argon, being heavier than helium, forms a shielding blanket easily. Therefore a small want of flow of argon is sufficient compared to helium. Often a mixture of argon and helium Scanned with CamScanner“ PRODUCTION TECHNULOGY abilizes the are, promotes “juced or eliminated and ed for welding mild Iding steel st jercut is edu d. CO2 alone is us fi The addition of carbon dioxide to argon for wel favourable metal transfer and minimizes spatter. Unde Porosity isalso reduced and high impact strength obtaine ; it. However It results in high welding speed, better joint penetration, and sound deposit. spatter is observed to be high. This type of equipment is uséd for various kinds o 1. Gas metal-are welding [Refer Fig. 9.47 (@)]- (@ Spray are welding (ii) Short circuiting method or dip transfer are welding. 2. Gas metal-are welding with magnetised flux (Refer Fig: 9.47 ol. 8, Metal-are welding with flux-cored welding wire [Refer Fig. 9.47 ©). (a) With inert gas (©) Without inert gas. f welding. 198 | HOw L\/ _— @ © C) Gas metal-arewelding Gasmetal-arewelding Gas metal-arc welding : with magnetised flux with flux cored welding arc. Fig. 9.47. Three basic types of gas metal-are welding processes, : ‘Almost any metal (mild steel, stainless steel, alumunitim, bronze et. one oF ane arthese processes. Hard surfacing can also be performed using this na md $23.1, Modes of materials Transfer.Metal transfer across the are may tale , by one of the following methods. sliiasatilitetmls ta Shortcircuiting transfer. Inthis mode the bottom of el which are transferred to weld pool at a steady rate of 20—200 fs ee ee ‘This type of transfer occurs for low currents (less than 200 amps) diameters Freezing weld pool is small and is generally suited for pre pean electrode diameter welding an for large rot gape Deposition sea ene ti section, for Globular Transfer. Globular transfer ischaracterised by'~ ound 0.9 to 2.7 kg/hr. a drop size of diameter greater than thatof the electrode. > Globular transfer takes place with DCRP, wh density is relatively low, for all shielding gases, en current When CO; is used as shielding gas even at high ou} globular, non-axial transfer takes pla ‘igh cutrent a dort density, only . iti cate is around 1.8 to 3.2 ke/hr. *- Deposition Fig. 9.48. Short circuit transfer. Scanned with CamScannera SOLDERING AND BRAZING a7 one spray Transfer. In the spray transfer welding, thé metal is transferred across the arc ne spray of several hundred minute droplets per second. This process is used mainly on 8° | metal joints and/or good fit up joints, and for faster welding. It consists simply of using u moifidently heavy current flow for a certain size electrode wire, so that the electrode wire {Si aivide into very small droplets of welding wire metal, and will travel forcibly across the fre. Usually argon gas with 5% oxygen is used as inert gas which reduces spatter (obtained tiib C02) and enables a reduction in current, and produces a neater appearance of the weld. ‘best suited for welding thick parts (minimum 3 mm thickness for aluminium). Deposition “iain of the order of 2.7—5.4 kg/hr. . Pulsed Spray Transfer. It is variation of spray trunsfer are welding in which controlled droplet transfer is obtained at current levels commonly associated with short circuiting transfer. A pulsating power supply is used with a low back ground level to maintain snare and a high level in excess of the transition current for the particular electrode. The combination of the two current levels produces a stable spray arc with droplet transfer each time the current exceeds the transition point. Pulsed spray transfer is used for the out-of-posi- tion welding of thicker steel section when short circuiting transfer is difficult to use. Itused argon-based shielding gases to achieve a true spray transfer. Argon-oxygen and argon-COz mixtures are also used to obtain a stable are and good droplet transfer charac- teristics. Deposition rate is of the order of 0.9—2.7 kg/hr. - Rotating spray transfer. When current, voltage and electrode extension are more then used for conventional spray transfer, the lower portion of electrode melts over a consid- erable length and rotates in a helical pattern under the influence of the magnetic field surrounding the are. As the arc rotates, a controlled stream of droplets is transferred from the electrode tip to the weld pool over a relatively wide area. The arc energy is thus spread out, causing the penetration pattern to broaden. Argon atmosphere with a 2-5% oxygen or less than 10% CO; addition is used. The current necessary. to induce rotational mode of transfer increases rapidly with electrode diameter and decreases with increase in electrode extension. Generally electrode wires (0.9—11 mm diameter) with 19-32 mm extension are used to keep current at 320-380 A With deposition rates 9-11 kg/hr in flat position. Dip Transfer. In this method, the metal transfers across the arc in larger drops at the tale of 100 drops/see or less. The drops are large enough to short circuit the electrical flow across the are. This process is used for welding thin metal joints and for poor fit-up joints. In this method the current values are much lower. For this process special are current power supplies ave needed to overcome the short circuit moment that occurs across the are. The speed oftravel is greater compared to the spray-are method. ‘ GMAW Practices. This type of welding can be successfully done on most of the commercial metals if the proper welding wire and proper gases are chosen and the proper Settings are made. It can be done in all the positions, i.e, in flat position or vertical position or aninelined or overhead position. CO» is generally used as the inert gas. To obtain high quality Steel welds, weld should be made on “killed” steel (Fully deoxidised steel). Most of the electrode Wires for mild steel welding have deoxidising elements in the weldifg wire metal such as Mn, i, Al, titanium, and zirconium. For the same size wires if it is desirable to use more current, the wire feed speed should also be increased. When changing to a larger diameter wire, either the current crust be inereased or the wire feed speed must be reduced, or both. These Telationships are very important and the manufacturer's recommendations should be followed. Scanned with CamScanner78 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY GMAW welding using fluxed wir a eg Its is used in GMAW welding as an aid to improve and Ways : (a) As a suspension find powder mix in the inert. on the metal electrode as it lenves the torch nozzle. Magnetism (7, The flux contains iron particles which dre attracted to the magne (©) As a flux inside a tubular metal electrode. 1 Its use eliminates the need for the gas shield equipment and also the cost of the kas Safety in GMAW. In the inert gas are welding as the ares more exposed and therefore more intense, the operator should use a dark lens and must be very careful to protect a a from the are rays. The machine must be kept in good condition for best results. Water leaks should be repaired immediately as we equipment or wet floor increases the chance of electric shock. Good ventilation in welding station is essential as the influence of the ultraviolet rays from the arc tends to change oxygen into ozone and nitrogen into nitrogen oxides. Leather ands ot wool clothing is recommended. All other welding precautions should be strictly adhered to. The following factors which affect GMAW process need to be controlled properly : Welding current, are voltage, electrode size, extension and inclination travel speed, and weld joint position. 9.23.2. Characteristics of GMAW. Slag inclusions are eliminated because of absence of flux. There is no possibility of cracking in the weld or HAZ due to hydrogen because process provides protection against Hz. Cost can be lowered for plain carbon steels with COp shielding. gai 5: Weld defects may occur if welding procedures are not correct. Advantages: GMAW does not require the high degree of operator skill. Continuous welding at higher speeds and in all positions with deeper penetration is i be used the quality of weld. It may be use. t gas, 6) As a flux powder coating is used to hold the flux to the tised metal electrode, possible. Limitations. The welding equipment is more complex, costly and less portable, and used indoors. It is difficult to weld in small corners or difficult-to-reach places. The metallurgical and mechanical properties of the joint may be affected due to high cooling rate. 9.24. Recent Advances in Welding Technology Welding technology and fabrication techniques are undergoing major ch, achieving higher productivity and improved quality. These objective are being met by footy nological innovations breaking through the barriers of design, material selection fateetin, processes and also equipment and power sources, The largest tres are being ene en of automation, controls and use of industrial robots. oe ding equipment have, undergone. maior j GMAW welding eq rgone- major improvements of exploit.:the “capabilities of the process fully. Conventional pulsed GMAW systems and ayneree eis introduced. systems have been int , ; GMAW welding and mi . Industrial Robots for GMA\ microprocessors in GMAW weldi ; snont for seam tracking and adaptive controls are being used The fusca og on ea Tad without gaa ielding) if replaing the soli wire GA, Litt -built submerged are welding equipment with 7 Clusters built sa er are are ding ait controls and multi-wire inked ; systems linked wit W welding syste tion of GTAW wel system and use of pulsed GTAW is also being tried. Mechanisal _—__—— Scanned with CamScannerae soLDERING AND BRAZING :a79 ne use of welding robots have made spectacular advances particularly in hazardous oo Ajons and productivity-cum-quality requirements. pes sf yore has been rapid change-over to the automatic and semi-automatic welding proces- anual metal are welding (MMAW) process, though flexible and apparently cheap, enconsiderablo wolder skill and fatigue, frequent interruption, tub-end losses and low ieity 4 Beret | pte tice Pluk anen et ables ee of advances have been possible due to a significant develépment in the field of ang POET sources, the use of solid staté control devices like thyristors and development istorised power sources. This has resulted in faster ‘response and better characteristics (Gointting fluctuation in voltage and current leading to Lutter are stability. This also ances tolerance to input supply fluctuations and gives capabilities for pulsing etc. Other agrelopment are the invertor power sources, and square-wave power sources which have great sala for saving material and energy cost. : 9.24.1. Synergic welding system. The word ‘synergic’ means ‘working together’. In thecontext of COz welding the synergic system means the wirefeed speed works together with pice parameter. This is to say, there is a combined relationship between the wire feed speed ndallrelevant pulse parameters (pulse repeat frequency, duration and background current jes). The optimum pulse parameters are microprocessed. 495. Automated Welding Systems With the engineering industry undergoing a radical transformation involving a steep sepup in production technology as well as production quantitie:,, the need has arisen for welding systems designed for automation with consistent weld quality anddealing in materials auch more complex than simple mild steel. Thyristorised universal welding rectifiers. These electronically regulated power sures which can take full care of voltage fluctuations are desiened as versatile, highly tdaptable units which can serve as the heart of a multi-purpose welding system. Providing ‘oth constant current (CC) and constant potential (CP) type of output characteristics, these “'iifers offer stable output, stepless control of welding parameters, easy change over from (Cto CP mode and vice-versa, low spatter loss and protection against thermal overloads or fenfailure. The rectifiers are available in a choice of five job rated models'ranging from 400 to 1,500 tuperes. While models upto 600 amps are mobile on rubber tired wheels, the higher espacity ‘titsare foot mounted and can be transported using the lifting eye-bolts provided. Depending ‘the model and characteristics selected, these rectifiers can be used for manual metal are, n air-are gouging, gas metal are or submerged are welding applications. . Transistorised pulsed GTAW welders. Pulsed GTAW (gas tungsten arc welding) is to overcome the problems of improper fit-up, excessive distortion, uneven penetration twtificulties encountered in joining thick to thin sections. It is used for joining of pipes and Ry in heat exchangers as well as fabrication of chemical vessels covering aerospace, ‘ree t@entation, thermal power and nuclear applications. It is ideal for joining ferrous and us metals except light metals like aluminium, magnesium and their alloys. Alem e88ence, pulsed GTAW is a modification of the GTAW process in which the current mites between a “low” or background level and a high or peak level, The duration and nlitude of both peak and background currents can be varied independently to suit the job. ting takes place during the peak currént period and welded poal ‘solidifies between : ‘8 the heat is dissipated in the job during the background current phase. This current Scanned with CamScanner| | } as PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY Puising leads to intermittent melting along the joint seam giving a series of discrete melt spots which overlap each other. . , oo The most signifie: vi of this process is the apparent tolerance to external variables such as eink geometay corssing up, dissimilar thicknesses or other factors La uins variation in thermal heat-sink. In conventional GTAW welding delicaté manipulation by the welder is needed to maintain the balanee between heat input from the arc and heat-sink due to the job in mechanised welding, this is difficult to achieve resulting in significant we tigns in joint quality. This problem is avoided in pulsed GTAW since the weld pool is allowed to solidify during background time s0 that the effect of heat built-up is largely overcome, Some of the salient features of pulsed GTAW welding outfits are : — Completely solid state circuitry. — Independent control and presetting of parameters like gas pre-flow time, current up-slope and down-slope, peak and back-ground current amplitudes and gas post~ flow time. — Automatic welding sequence initiation through 4-stroke torch switch. — Easy arcignition through HF (high frequency) coupled with booster voltage circuits. This ensures welds free from tungsten contamination and also prolongs life of the tungsten electrode. — While HF is automatically cut-off after are initiation a special circuit switches off the complete system if welding does not commence within 10 seconds after pressing the torch switch, thus avoiding wastage of expensive argon gas. — Special over-current limiting circuitry shuts off power source when welding current exceeds rated values. The welding cycle will not start and the machine will acts matically be switched off if these is fan failure causing inadequate ventilation Safeguards are also provided against inadequate cooling water of failure of cn culatory system. Micro plasma are welding outfit, Plasma are welding is closely related to GATW welding, Plasma is present in all ares but in the plasma are process a constriction caging te an orifice i placed around the are s0 that the amount of ionisation or ‘plasma’ ie ene increased. The result is that the arc becomes more concentrated and the high velocity and temperature ionised gas stream takes the form of a very stable, unidirediirnal pane intensity jet which is used for welding. 1B In the micro plasma are process, a DC power source capable of and precise welding currents (0.20 to 20A) and a specially designed suitable for welding thin sections (0.100 1.25 mm).'The preciseanat through “pulsed mode” operation. The micro plasma are weldi Alloy steels, $fairiless Steels, heat: Plasma are festtine co Taw, and manual are pose machine can cut atainlese ataeleandearbonstecloupto Zone Mane eT d alumi its alloys upto 30 mm using the plasma are process, The nd aluminium DOIGTAW welding of all raiding ween Sime metals wicept aluminions iaiesee or i also ideal for DC manual welding using all types of electroaee, oe ; 3-phase full-wave, dual aoe ati consists ofa » dual OCV. transducto; fier power source with built-in controls for fine stepless adjustment ct output. eacee nd watee ce _— delivering extremely low torch are used to make it tol ofheatinputisachieved elding outfit. This multi-pur- Scanned with CamScannersoWDERING ‘AND BRAZING. Ke 481 one m. The output current i ilable? aa oe GTAW welding ond. ayuilablein the ranges of 30 to 250 A for plasma cutting, V g 350 A for manual welding. By adding a travel carriage 10? je cutting unit the equipment can be further automat ate ted. : oP plasma are cutting is basically an extension of GTAW welding and in both processes the TB pice forms a part of the electrical circuit, Retraction of the electrode inside the GTAW fy, constricts the are into virtually a parallel 5; ting speeds with plasma ‘re are several times greater than those obtained with conven- jansloxy-fuel gas cutting. Plasma are cuttin, eae produces high quality straight and bevelled cuts | Meatly reduced costs. Wire mesh welder : Automatic wire mesh welder is capable of making wire mesh of | sathupto 2.5 metres from wire ranging in dia from 2 to § mm, The fully mechanical system | aged for the movement of wires and across wire feeding maintaina slesluc accuracy of | pletes. The machine is capable of making wire machine of pitch ranging from 25 to 150 mm tageed of 75 strokes per minute. Bhelectrical system consists of nine transformers, each rated 80 kVA in order tu give bed loading to the machine. An electronic control system ensures consistent weld quality. Automatic container side seam welder. The various stages of manufacturing like satker feeder, flexer, roll forming, overlapping the edges for welding, tranafer for welding, veling and ejection of welded shells etc. are all automatically sequenced. The machine has a fully solid state electronic control system along with two counters to on batch and cumulative production data. A special feature of the machine ie redieced treat at the beginning and end of welding in order to avoid cracking at the edges while reaming, Energy saver. An electronic energy device has been devel tallfabrication shops using manual welding rectifiers. Itis a common experience in such fabrication shops that in an eight-hour working shift sctual arcing time in a manual welding unit is only two hours. The rest of the time the achine is working on No Léad. Even on No Load, the power consumption remains high. The energy saver is a voltage sensing device which on being connected to the rectifier, qailithe supply from the mains some 15 to 20 seconds (adjustable) after arcing has stopped. tier to resume welding, the operator need not come to the machine ferroommectanr tee "All that he has to do is strike the are and the unit is ready for welding. _ Not only isthis device an energy saver, it also improves the power factor of the workshop { sohnecting the welding rectifier during No Load operation. loped which can prove a boon "28 sotia State Power Sources for Welding \ : saorea i i ison to conventional power sources are considere ai on sectors ye fast reeponse characteristicn and are must for some special jcbs, ly the applications performed with the aid of robots. In pulged are welding, a high “Pray of small droplets is produced and these can be directed in any’ direction The ratio current and the maintenance arc currept has to be adjusted fo meet varying Sone of material thickness und attitude, which is possible only with ‘olid-state power Scanned with CamScanner- —, $2 PROSNCTION TECHNOLOGy 1 By using square wave AC power source it is possible to weld a narrow groove (with included angle of 2-4°) in thick matorials, for which V-groove (with included angle of 30°—go: is required with conventional DC sources) thus resulting in considerable saving of filler meta, 9.27. Recent Trends in Welding A model of the gas metal are welding process is being developed that will relate welg Pool geometry to current, voltage, wire speed and weld speed. A laser enhanced electro-optiea} camera is being developed to provide an image of the weld pool and electrode wire with almost complete supression of arc light, An ultrasonic transducer is being developed which will be Placed adjacent to the welding torch to provide direct measurements of side-wall fusion and weld pool penetration. It will also detect porosity, lack of fusion, and cracks in welds on Pass-by-pass basis. . 9.28. Electroslag and Electrogas Welding The electroslag process has been developed to weld seams of thick section or joints ina single pass, thus eliminating the need for multiple passes and |prepara- Y | ELECTRODE tion of bevel, V, U,ar J groves and edge we Preparation. In this process, two plates, (1 and 2) to be joined together are arranged vertically as shown in Fig. 9.49, One to three electrodes with copper shoes (moulds) on each phase of the plates are PLATE=1 GAS SWIELOING (ONLY 15 case OF used as shown in Fig. 9.49. Powdered souoeyna FLECTROGAS granular flux is poured from ahopper.As “@2 ME"At-——f WELDING) i ve "WATER the weld is made the moulds move up swoaeo_—_ HT ay with the welding head. There is no are as resistance to electrical flow through the flux creates the heat necessary to melt the metal. The interior temperature of the slag bath for steel is about 1925°C and the surface temperature is ap- CONNECTIONS, proximately 1650°C. The electrodes used may be either solid wire or fluxcored. The extreme heat produced by the moltenslag and metal in the weld arc causes the base metal to melt away from the original joint, gap and high deposition rates allow weld- ing of very thick sections in one pass. Several electrodes are used for long welds so that the heat is more uniformity . ; spread. Water cooled shoe or dam-plate Fig. 9.49. Electroslag welding. fastened to the sides of the workpiece prevents the pool of melted metal from escaping. These plates also assist the solidification process by removing heat, and are moved up as the weld progresses. Combinations of oxides of silicon, manganese, titanium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium calcium fluoride (fluor spar) are used as flux in this process, Scanned with CamScannera SOLDERING AND BRAZING | one 40 - 200 . : Inthe el tee welding (which isimilar tothe eloctrosiag weling), uninert is uae eiecontinuously marten oe maatically fed to the molten weld pocket and ote pout 1.6 m/hr are poate between the electrode and the weld puddle. Welding never, tho con ible. Process is usually performed in a substantially upward Free ee eton Patan eo Poller drum can be welded by rotating the drum with egsitable on vosition rate is Aa range of 13 to 200 mm thickness can be welded by this ge ancy is almost 100%, kg/hr/electrode. Diameter of electrode is 3 mm and metal | tale voltage transfe - Flux consumption is around 1 kg/100 kg of deposited metal. Gustant voltage transformer rectifier rated at 1000 ampe at 10 viyele i used. For Sipest more than 70 mmm, oscillation of electrode ie deceable ny Moe Meee For ‘yo Stud Welding | is a special weldi . Be devices to cise essa eee quickly and efficiently welds studs and other | Kiature. In this process the fluxed end of the stud apace soocd last wth he eck ead the a ond ie held by the epectet cee ena jaced in contact with the work and the Betapace aga swe Ges cP re eee me seit t rk, r Fig. 9.50). ruck between the stu 2 J bes ; a Eaeaeee eats ae the operating trigger which energises a sim and retracts the stud. At the end of SO meen cu meoRroRaTing . uaautomatically timed interval, the na oy Snenics salznna cee, isplunged into pool of molten metal— oun thus welding the stud to the plate..A a a cmmic ferrule or collar is arranged x amund the stud so that it holds the mol- had te metal in place and helps to form a Fod{illet. The flux on the end of the stud vg 4s the are control, and enables the Sruo Srator to make stud welds in any posi- peeeiee fim For accurate positioning of studs, . itable jigs and fixtures may be used. Fig. 9.50. Stud welding. power for welding is supplied from a welding transformer. £20. Are Spot Welding This process is also known Mees is employed ; the arc is struc! as button welding. In this process, metallic are welding it and held in one place until the top sheet of metal melts though and fusce with melten portion of the sheet or structural member underneath. Te start, ger moves the tungsten electrode upto the sheet metal, when it is withdrawn, the arc is dand tines contrele the duration. This process is extensively used for automobile body bly. Sy . '\Self-Shielded Flux Cored Arc Welding the pl this process the electrode incorporates a fepg ttt of the electrode consists of powdered met sere, and +s, These materials pr : This process, thue results in production of a properly deox' si Poretty, ssrrosion, eracking and hot shortness suscePt te are aided in order to produced the desired mechanical propert flux core inside a tubular fillet metal sheath. tals, vapour forming materials, slagformers, tect the metal as itis transferred across the dised are stream which controls ‘bility. In adition, alloying ele- ies such as strength, Scanned with CamScannerin PRODUCTION 7 CHNOLGGY alongation, notch toughness and crack propagation resistance. pela ee eal at the end of each electrode, operator efficiency increases and start-stop, \d cable assembly. The ‘The system consists of a wire feeder, power source and the gun = ane a real y . s becomes simple and more flexible as no external shield gas or flux ee . The weld deposit by this process is low in hydrogen. The surface of vatually Mat. This results in deep pernetration into the root bead and excellent fusion into the side walls, Proces: 9:32. Underwater Shielded Metal Are Welding PGE ne This type of welding is done under water using well insulated electrodes suitably Protected from damage by the water Usually a close are and DCSP is used and current setting is kept 10% higher. Generally a telephone communication system is used and the are welding senuent turned on remotely outside the water only after receiving the diver's orders when he is actually welding. 9.33. Hyperbaric Welding For underwater welding, following welding processes are normally used. 1. Shielded metal are welding (GMAW) 2. Gas tungsten are welding (GTAW) 3. Gas metal are welding (GMAW). At depths of 400 metres, the physical capabilities of divers are significantly reduced, Under such conditions, orbital welding systems controlled from the surface are used. Dany are used only for rigging and servicing of the system, ‘ure gas, This technique avoids the high quench rates inherent in the wet welding process and the mechanical complications of the onc atmosphere habitat systems, The increase in depth and environment pressure have progressive etket et characteristics of the selected welding process. 9.33.1. Characteristics of Hyperbaric Welding Processes Shielded Metal Are Welding (SMAW). Thisi and can be used in both wet and dry environments. Wet welige Etressed welds only: Hyperbaric SMAW process is most commonly veces eee Bee equipment and the deposition rate is high, The major factor influenciog the co of SMAW is hydrogen. A combination of susceptible microstructure, applied stress and hydrogencan result : king. aT simportant tounderstand the chemistry of hypetbarie § behaviour with changes in-pressure, For instance, the electrode increase if pressure (using positive polarity butiteatbecontrolled tn using negative polarity. The environmental pressure has adirectffecton the equilibries, Point of the chemi reactions occurring i a eee €0 and Coe eats contain carbonates ete. which are broken a Formed, increasing carbon neck tndmmakinec See eee Gaertn silicon and manganese, increasing «|, wit ea reasing slag and reduci Tements in the weld pool: For this reason, special low carbon elecrswaen are used. el 's most widely used underwater welding MAW and study the process burn off rate increases with Scanned with CamScanner+ .1.\G, SOLDERING AND BRAZING 485 > Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). It finds considerable use in hyperbaric environ- Ss ts The only significant difference between surface and hyperbaric GTAW is the technique Mire initiation. Under hyperbaric conditions, higher voltages are required to ionise a path efqeen the tungsten electrode ‘and the workpiece. Since high voltage is hazardous to the sgeider ia humid chamber, the ed contact start technique is, used. The tungsten jeazoae 38 lightly touched to the workpiece and a low current passed. Ax the torch is lifted smay; the current is increased to the required welding level. . ; ‘The capability of | this technique to deposit metal is found to increase at depths beyond 150 metres. Since it is more controllable at depths beyond 250 m, it is attractive process at igher depths. Since divers are found to be physically and mentally less capable at depths beyond 200 metres, GTAW can be designed to be controlled from surface particularly for pipe selding whose geometry of butt weld is exremely simple. A track is clamped around the pipe, anwhich a crawler vehicle is installed carrying the welding torch and associated manipulator m which is capable of controlling torch workpiece distance and lateral weaving system of the welding head. A tractor carries one or two consumable feed systems, each capable of delivering wire to a feed nozzle attached to the welding torch. Two consumable feed systems one on each side of the torch, permit welding by the preferred vertical up technique on both sides of the pipe without dismounting the crawler from the track. (Refer Fig. 9.51 which shows the simplified representation of typical orbital GTAW (system). betwee. Tc c ‘T—Track clamped around pipe W, and W. Wy—Wire feed unita i (Craver body ‘TC—Television camera and associated fibre optic bundles wil ‘TM—Torch mount and manipulator system. T Fig. 9.51. Simplified representation of orbital GTAW. . A television camera system, usually in combination with a coherent fibre optic bundle ‘0 allow the camera to be mounted away from the welding heat are used for remote viewing. ltis customary to use cameras employing a solid state détector as an imaging element as there ‘ystems have the maximum available resistance to damage by the high levels of light from the are, It is normal practice to use two cameras or a split bundle, to enable viewing of the front and rear of the weld pool. The hyperbaric equipment should use corrosion resistant materials and be appropriately waterproofed. | __ The welding station is at the surface, and is connected to underwater equipment by an “mbilical which may be as much as 600 m long. y The welding power source and manipulator servo amplifiers are located close to the Welding system to seduced cable losses. A great deal of effort is required to develop an effective :"elding procedure as the welding position changes continuously and also due to effects of the Te. At the limit of the weave, close to the side wall, the arc current is increased and the le feed rate reduced to maximise fusion. As the arc traverses the centre of weld, Welding current is reduced and consumable feed rate increased in order to cool the weld pool “*deontrol the deposited bead shape. : Scanned with CamScannerPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY 486 Gas Metal Are Welding (GMAW) : itions. On surface, dip transfer welding GMAW haa also been used for hyperbaric Se the arcso that it is not influenced orshort are welding techniquo isusod to tranafor metal cross" Ot ota pools short i nehniquo, the wire is allowed to e fect wive, te by gravity. In dip transfer technique, d eventually ruptures the » the circuiting the are. A rapid inerense in current heats and evensusly TP NO he process, pool ntabilises iteolt by surface tension foreas and the wire is fe DIT Ne conditions However this technique, being low heat input process, isnot s duo to fusion problem for welding of thick section. Spray transfer technique which uses electr across tho are, has also not beon found suitable for on the welder skill. Presently flux cored wire are with controlled transfer pulse (CTP) GMA also called ‘Synergic’ welding is used. With advances in electronic technique, it i ioae static and dynamic characteristics of the power supply to suit welding parame! ae ‘ora defined consumable with a specific shielding gas, metal transfer is principally contro! led by the magnitude and duration of pulse of current applied to the are. As the electric field strength of the are is dependent on the pressure, increased arc voltages and adjustment to the power supply characteristics are demanded for hyperbaric welding to ensure stable operation. The complex relationship between power supply characteristics, wire feed speed control strategy, and variation in welding torch/workpiece distance need to be analysed to make this system success. Diverless Welding System. Due to limitations of divers to work at depths beyond 200 metres, diverless welding systems are being developed. Unmanned or remotely operated vehicles (ROV’s) are used, Three welding techniques appear to be suitable for diverless welding viz. high energy bonding (explosive welding), friction welding, and mechanical joining. 9.34, Atomic Hydrogen Welding This process combines gas welding with electric arc welding. The electrode holder incorporates two tungsten electrodes arranged in inclined position and hydrogen is ejected from the hydrogen nozzle in between the tips of these electrodes. The electric are between th. electrodes breaks down the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen. This atomic h; i i. when touches the relatively cold metal, recombines into molecular hytrogen, thu He Hydrogen, considerable heat which melts the metals to be welded and creates molten puddle pecan a consumable welding rod to supply the material for welding may be added. The mega hh provides a reducing gas atmorphere under which the fusion takes place Unie sey current supply is used and temperature of the order of 4200°C is achieved. This tne suited for tool and die parts where alloy control and heat input are important Freee eet tie forces to project molten droplets seaare ditions as it much depended hyperbaric con 9.35. Plasma Arc Welding Plasma is dofined as a gas heated to at least practically ionized condition, conduct an electric current. eabling it to ‘The plasma arc welding is similar to GTAW with the excepti i arestartingeireut andconarstingorifie. Thearcincllimarsfer ion oa i employe a pilot nozzle made of copper block wi ortanearute® duct and is less sonsitive te someting torch-to-work distance. The two important dimensions in the construction are, orifieednnn of ¢ diameter and throat length. I Scanned with CamScanner it is possible to vary theFr c so.0ERING AND BRAZING 487 on + jdrantagos:’ Plasma WATER COOLING » ‘irectional stability. . $s ae Z] SHIELDING GAS.” parte ete wae i - MIXTURE OF * meat toh stand woe ee torch distance 4 segeaccd : Weil and are length ELECTRODE aod cal mooie SET BACK om er Fi Na Weld FICE DIAMETER | n takes place. efrmity is possible due to one goplete penetration. ‘Due to greater penetra- angreater depth/width ratio . outwith less distortion. Fig. 9.52, Plasma are welding gun. Itinvolves lower heat input and requires less filler metal. ‘There is less time for embrittlement of stainless steel due to formation of carbides. No edge preparation is needed (a square groove is sufficient) and it requires few . Possibility of human error is minimised. Limitations. Welding torch and equipment are complicated and expensive. Wachanised process is restricted to flat and horizontal positions. Maximum metal thickness can be 25 mm for butt welds. Excessive high noise is produced and large amount of ultraviolet and infra-red rays are nied. The operator must be well protected from exposure of skin apart from eye and ear Potection, Applications. Plasma are welding is widely used for welding stainless steels, nickel Ally, refractory, metals in aero-space industries. It is very well suited for refractory metal eae coatingof refractory (high temperature) materials like aluminaon graphite nozzles Tockets, Plasma are technique is also used for cutting. Two techniques in common use are (1) ferred are (the work is part of the electrical circuit and an arc is created between the ‘and the work in addition to the are between the electrode and the nozzle) and (2) transferred arc (the arc is struck between the electrode and the torch nozzle ; the work is Part of the electric circuit). ,; Ttansferred are technique is best suited for cutting stainless steel plates (of 6 mm a at 2-5 m/min). : ised i -drogen) are forced through the are and nozzle (at a flow rate ats Btrecper Caaneith th oreult that these getionised and become plasma. The plasma sting ionised particles thus produced fromthe nozzle may be used for both welding and ‘apy Plamna jot is surrounded with shielding gas forced around nozzle at 10—30 litre/min. pigs are welding voltage is between 27 and 81 volts and direct current pulses (6 to 60 ‘eting ", "lower pulses having better control in the puddle) are used. The torch is held almost to the base metal surface and filler metal wire-fed at an angle. Because the ion i nt has the ability to remove oxide films from the base metal surface, plasma arc Scanned with CamScannerASS ws ECHNOLOGy | Nelding of aluminium and other spaceage metals is very important. a ae are is not affected by magnetic field and an temperature is around 10,000—14,000"K. In his process ear snuffs are néeded to reduce the discomfort. It is generally operated automatically. 9.36, Self-generating Oxyh rogen Gas Welding | In this Process eens is fed into electrolytic reactor where it is changed inty hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis. The two gases are then fed to a torch via a booster containing methyl alcohol. As the gas mixture bubbles through the booster, it carries aleoho| Yapour along with it and the mixture burns in the torch flame. The alcohol vapour provides a slightly reducing flame for soldering, brazing or welding. 9.37. Cola Welding this process the cleaned metal is forced together under considerable pressure, and In er < true fusion condition. This is process best suited for sluminium and its alloys, creben alloys of cadmium, nickel, lead, zine, ete, The pressure : applied is so much that the orieirel at place. The kinetic energy of the electrons is con- verted into intense heat energy when the electron, are absorbed by the metal piece over a small area ofthe weld, producing deep penetration weld with a depth/width ratio as high as 15. This results in & narrow, almost parallel weld with very litte distortion and a small width-of the heut affected zone. There is no possibility of contamination by atmospheric gases because process is carried out in vacuum. Almost any metal (even reactive ones like titanium) can be welded. Refractory metals such as molybdenum or tungsten can be Teadily welded because of high power density. No flux oy. Fig. shielding gas is required. / Ua ELECTRO! —— Scanned with CamScannersoLDtRING AND DRAZING . 489. process employs an oloctron gun in which electrons are emitted by a hot filament jon or tantalum usually connectod to a 12 volts supply (Fig, 9.53)... electrons omitted from filament by thermionic emission are accelerated to a high iyto the anode (metal ring) fod with a D.C, high voltage supply at,10 KV to 160 KV. Mhofast electrons then move through a diaphragm whose opening determines the beam qe electron beam is then focused by x magnetic lens system (consisting of powerful a whose magnotising current chn be adjusted) on the workpisces to be welded. ‘This process is best cuited for reactive metals (nuclear reactor components), titanium, mestainless steel, otc. for automotive and nero-epace indilstries. © Problem. Calculate the kinetic energy of electrons, beam current, power. sty of beam (0.5 mm diameter) of electron beam welding unit operating at 100 rated at 1 kW. ‘Solution. Kinetic energy of an electron accelerated by 1 volt is called 1 electron volt and 1 eV = 1.602 x 107" Joules, : ‘The kinetic energy of each electron accelerated by 100 kV KLE. = 100 x 1000 x 1.602 x 10°! = 1.602 x 10" Joules _ IfVis the velocity of electrons, then KE. = = 0.187 x 10° metre/second 9.1 x 10™ _ (The mass of an electron at rest = 9.1 x 10° kg) _ An ampere of current is equivalent to a flow rate of 6.28x 10'® electrons/second. Let The number of electrons in the beam = 6.28 x 10'* x C Total power of the beam P = KE. x No. of electrons in beam/sec 1 KW = 1000 Jisec. = 1.602 x 10° x 6.28 x 10" x C 1000 C= Te0rx 107 x 6.28 x 10 F Power ___1000 ower density = Foam area ~ (x/4) (0.51 =0.01A 5 x 10° Watts/m® = 5 x 10° kW/m? M0. Pp: Friction Welding ., this process the metals to be joined are mounted in a device with one surface sty and other joint surfaces revolved under pressure. Due to the heat of friction the Y tutfaces are raised to a fusion temperature and at that point a higher pressure is applied ration is stopped, and thus efficient joint is produced. The resultant joint is always rised by an upset annulus around the weld which may be subpequently removed. No hy BPP station is required for most non-ferrous metalssince the rotating action is self-cleans- X ee certain non ferréus metals, preparatory cleansing of the joint faces is important. At m.® Part should be of circular section. The process is best suited to pipe, tubing, or solid made of carbon steel, stainless steel, tool steel, copper, aluminium, alloy steel, mete, Bars of dissimilar metals and varying ‘cross-section can be joined by this process, Scanned with CamScanner194 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY 40 swith in approximate}, Howover, it is essontial that the ratio of thermal conductivities aes Ries a i inverse propoition to the mute of the melting points. Various requir varying the initial Pressure, heating time and final upsetting pressure. 8-41, Explosive Welding er. The en: Jn this process, the metals to be joined are Placed at an angle to each ee ripples”, taived from an explosion forces the plone together at high velocity causing the metal. As the force is din. in specially: designed charsbore or water-filled chambers. This Process has been successfully used to wold steel to steel, aluminium to aluminium, copper to steel, and many other metals, 9.43. Diffusion Welding ‘This process is time-consuming and is hardly used, The two parts to be joined are finished to a high standard of flatness and wrung together under pressure in inert ‘atmosphere, In order to promote diffusion, temperature is raise 9.44. High Frequency Welding In this process, temperature is raised by high frequency eddy currents and then a deformation force is applied. It is possible to heat the components locally by high fe current. This process is commonly used for manufacture ct axially or helically wel 9.45. Laser Welding intense light into the ruby by using Parabolic mirrors. The electron in the ruby stimulated by this light course and in returning to thee normal energy love], nese of a constant wavelength. The laser method can Weld at a 200 to 1 ratio, re the weld can be 200 times deeper than wide. In other words, the width of the weld for 25 mm ¢ hi be only 0.125 mm wide. ick metals can 9.46. Thermit Welding - it welding i Iding process employi : Thermit welding is the only wel mploy’ RG 8n exothermal ch, s for the purpose of developing a high temperature, It is a fusion process in ‘which weldeeee by pouring super-heated pert ee cee! ea see aa Done {0 be united. The hece of it” roaction is utilised to bring ‘aces of metal to be weldet; f wechenicaly voressiie ia thon appliod to complone nie wold. eised into plastic stato and mec! Scanned with CamScanneryexING AND BRAZING at ji thé chemical reaction between finally divided aluminium and iron oxide. steed er roximately three perio iren oxo or magnetic iron sale oF one part ifs The reaction that takon place is represented by the following chemical equations BAI + 3Fes0,——> 9Fe + 41,03 me ‘. « i ihe reaction, oxygen from the iron oxide separates from it and combines with pus yich has a otrong affinity for it) to form aluminium oxide, or slag oT superheated steel ‘During the reaction avery high temperature of the order of 2700°C is developed. ature is nearly twice the temperature of the melting point of steel. The reaction is Pe and requires 30 seconds to complete. Handling and storing of mixture is since an initial temperature of 1100°C is needed for ignition. The thermit mixture iy because fit becomes wet or damp, it cannot be restored to original state. Md ‘paking the pressure welds by thermit process, a wax pattern is made around the tye welded. Around this pattern a sheet box is placed as shown in Fig. 9.68 and the jaween the pattern and box is filled with sand which is rammed. Pouring, heating and jpissarecut in the sand, A gas lame is used which preheats the parts to be welded and ne wax pattern. This preheating is done before the liquid metal is poured into the mould, foavoid the chilling fine steel. Then the ‘s removed ond the énggate is plugged. The (ated teal from the ry fined crucible is pared into the mould sur- ing the surfaces to be lp¥ed When the welding fenperature 18 reached lbinical pressure . is lejied to complete the Fig. 9.55. Thermit Welding. jel. Thermit welding is applicable in the repair of heavy parts such as tracks, spokes of livin wheels, broken motor castings, connecting rods and especially in the welding of pipes. The advantage of using this process in welding large sections is that broken parts can leweled in their place but its application is limited as it requires the use of moulds etc. Thethermit welded joints have an average tensile strength of 5000 kg/em? with the yield leg of about 2500 kg/cm? and elongation from 35 per cent to zero, thus approaching the Freties of forged steel. MMI Burtacing Itmay be defined as the process of applying, by arc or gas welding, an integral layer of one composition onto a surface, edge, or point ofa base metal of another composition, tblsin desired properties or dimensions. i Many types of metals and alloys are available commercially for surfacing applications ‘an be deposited by conventional welding method. : i light as 0.75 mm ar: as thick as required. It is possible to ips by proper selection of stirfacing metals, Hard surfacing be used to resist abrasive wear. Bronze or other suitable corrosion-resisting alloys Scanned with CamScanner