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and functions
Kate Schroder,*,† Paul J. Hertzog,†,‡ Timothy Ravasi,*,† and David A. Hume*,†,1
*Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, Australia; †CRC for Chronic
Inflammatory Diseases, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; and ‡Molecular Genetics Group, Institute of Reproduction
and Development, Monash Medical Centre, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
Abstract: Interferon-␥ (IFN-␥) coordinates a di- Macrophages respond to a range of different cell products
verse array of cellular programs through transcrip- during the innate and acquired immune response. Of these,
tional regulation of immunologically relevant IFN-␥ (originally called macrophage-activating factor) is
genes. This article reviews the current understand- among the most important. Macrophage stimulation with IFN-␥
ing of IFN-␥ ligand, receptor, signal transduction, induces direct antimicrobial and antitumor mechanisms as well
and cellular effects with a focus on macrophage as up-regulating antigen processing and presentation path-
responses and to a lesser extent, responses from ways. IFN-␥ orchestrates leukocyte attraction and directs
other cell types that influence macrophage func- growth, maturation, and differentiation of many cell types
tion during infection. The current model for IFN-␥ [2– 4], in addition to enhancing natural killer (NK) cell activity
signal transduction is discussed, as well as signal [5] and regulating B cell functions such as immunoglobulin (Ig)
regulation and factors conferring signal specificity. production and class switching [4, 6]. This review provides a
Cellular effects of IFN-␥ are described, including brief overview of IFN-␥ biology with respect to the well-
up-regulation of pathogen recognition, antigen characterized responses that alter macrophage function during
processing and presentation, the antiviral state, infectious challenge.
inhibition of cellular proliferation and effects on
apoptosis, activation of microbicidal effector func-
tions, immunomodulation, and leukocyte traffick- THE IFNs
ing. In addition, integration of signaling and re-
sponse with other cytokines and pathogen-associ-
The IFNs were originally discovered as agents that interfere
ated molecular patterns, such as tumor necrosis
with viral replication [7]. Initially, they were classified by the
factor-␣, interleukin-4, type I IFNs, and lipopoly-
secreting cell type but are now classified into type I and type
saccharide are discussed. J. Leukoc. Biol. 75:
II according to receptor specificity and sequence homology.
163–189; 2004.
The type I IFNs are comprised of multiple IFN-␣ subtypes
(14 –20, depending on species), IFN-, IFN-, and IFN-, all
Key Words: macrophage 䡠 cytokine 䡠 lipopolysaccharide 䡠 Toll-like
receptor 䡠 inflammation of which are structurally related and bind to a common het-
erodimeric receptor (IFNAR, comprised of IFNAR1 and
IFNAR2 chains). Although type I IFNs are secreted at low
levels by almost all cell types, hematopoietic cells are the
major producers of IFN-␣ and IFN-, whereas fibroblasts are
INTRODUCTION
a major cellular source of IFN- [8]. IFN- is also produced by
macrophages under appropriate stimulus (discussed later). Vi-
This review focuses on the interplay between interferon-␥ ral infection is the classic stimulus for IFN-␣ and IFN-
(IFN-␥) and macrophages in inflammation and acquired im- expression [8, 9]. Secretion of IFN- has only been reported in
munity during infection. Macrophages are extremely versatile ruminants [10].
cells involved in a number of complex functions in disease and IFN-␥ is the sole type II IFN. It is structurally unrelated to
health. A pathogen encounters macrophages soon after host type I IFNs, binds to a different receptor, and is encoded by a
entry, and the result of these encounters is fundamental to the separate chromosomal locus. Initially, it was believed that
host’s ability to mount an effective immune response. Macro- CD4⫹ T helper cell type 1 (Th1) lymphocytes, CD8⫹ cyto-
phage “activation”, broadly defined as “acquisition of compe- toxic lymphocytes, and NK cells exclusively produced IFN-␥
tence to execute a complex function” [1], is among the first [8, 11]. However, there is now evidence that other cells, such
actions to occur in innate immunity to potential pathogens. In
most situations, macrophages are activated to acquire micro-
bicidal effector functions and secrete proinflammatory cyto- 1
Correspondence: Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queens-
kines, resulting in inflammation and recruitment of immune land, St. Lucia, Brisbane 4072, Australia. E-mail: D.Hume@imb.uq.edu.au
cells and subsequent elimination of the microbe by phagocy- Received June 2, 2003; revised July 25, 2003; accepted July 27, 2003; doi:
tosis or release of toxic metabolites. 10.1189/jlb.0603252.
Cytosol
JAK2
JAK1
JAK1
JAK2
JAK2
JAK1
JAK1
JAK2
P P
1
AT
ST
T1
STA
IRF-1
STAT1
STAT2
STAT1
STAT1
T1
STA
P P P
STA
P P P
IRF-1
T1
IRF-9 IRF-9
Nucleus
eg. ICAM-1
MIG eg. IRF-2
STAT1
STAT1
P iNOS
P IFNβ
IFN-regulated gene IFN-regulated gene
GAS ISRE
IRF-1
1
AT
STAT1
Stat1
STAT1
ST
P
P IRF-E/GAS/IRF-E
IRF-1 IRF-1
GAS
Fig. 1. The current paradigm for IFN-␥ signal transduction. Ligand binding causes a conformational change in the IFN-␥R (IFNGR1, yellow; IFNGR2, green),
such that the inactive Jak2 kinase undergoes autophosphorylation and activation, which in turn allows Jak1 transphosphorylation by Jak2. The activated Jak1
phosphorylates functionally critical tyrosines on residue 440 of each IFNGR1 chain to form two adjacent docking sites for the Src homology (SH)2 domains of latent
Stat1. The receptor-recruited Stat1 pair is phosphorylated near the C terminus at Y701. Phosphorylation induces dissociation of a Stat1 homodimer from the
receptor. To a lesser extent, IFN-␥ signaling also produces Stat1:Stat1:IFN regulatory factor (IRF)-9 and Stat1:Stat2:IRF-9 [IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3)]
complexes. Stat1 homodimers travel to the nucleus and bind to promoter IFN-␥-activation site (GAS) elements to initiate/suppress transcription of IFN-␥-regulated
genes. Many of IFN-␥-regulated genes are in fact transcription factors (e.g., IRF-1), which are activated by IFN-␥ and are able to drive regulation of the next wave
of transcription (e.g., induction of IFN-). Stat1:Stat1:IRF-9 heterodimers, ISGF3, and IRF-1 are able to bind to IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE) promoter
regions in target genes to regulate transcription. IRF-1 is also able to promote transcription of Stat1 through an unusual ISRE site (IRF-E/GAS/IRF-E). Signaling
molecules activated by IFN-␥ are depicted in red text. ICAM-1, Intercellular adhesion molecule-1; MIG, monokine induced by IFN-␥; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide
synthase.
DNA binding. The C-terminal transactivation domain contains Stat2:IRF-9 complex (known as ISGF3) was thought to be the
the Y701 phosphorylation site and also a S727 phosphorylation typical type I IFN transcription factor. It is now evident that
site, both of which are functionally important for efficient type I IFN signals primarily through ISGF3 but also uses Stat1
signaling [110 –113]. All Stat proteins possess a SH2 domain homodimers and conversely, type II IFN signals primarily
that when tyrosine phosphorylated, mediates homodimerization through Stat1 homodimers but also uses ISGF3 to activate
or heterodimerization with other Stat molecules [114, 115]. transcription [116]. This may explain many of the overlapping
Although the simplistic model described above suggests that effects of the two types of IFNs.
IFN-␥ signaling produces active Stat1 homodimers alone, other Phosphorylation of Stat1 at S727 is essential for maximal
active complexes such as Stat1 heterodimers (e.g., Stat1:Stat2) ability to activate transcription of target genes [111–113, 120 –
and heterotrimers (e.g., Stat1:Stat1:IRF-9, Stat1:Stat2:IRF-9) 122]. A number of different stimuli induce Stat1 serine phos-
form during signaling [102, 116 –118]. Stat2 is the only Stat phorylation, including types I and II IFN, lipopolysaccharide
that does not contain a DNA-binding domain [119]. The Stat1: (LPS), IL-2, IL-12, tumor necrosis factor ␣ (TNF-␣), and
IFNγ
Cytosol
JAK2
JAK1
JAK1
JAK2
JAK2
JAK1
JAK1
JAK2
SHP-2
SOCS-3
P P
SOCS-1
PTPs/SOCS limit
receptor and Jak
phosphorylation
1
AT
ST
T1
STA
IRF-1
STAT1
STAT2
STAT1
STAT1
T1
STA
P P P
STA
P P P
IRF-1
T1
T1
STA
STA
IRF-9 IRF-9
T1
Nucleus
PTP
STAT1
STAT1
P
T1
STA
P
STA
GAS ISRE
Nuclear PTPs
eg. IRF-1 IRF-2 Transcriptional
dephosphorylate
repression by IRF-2
Stat1 causing
competition for
inactivation and
ISRE/IRF-E sites
nuclear export
Fig. 2. Negative regulation of IFN-␥ signaling. A number of factors limit the extent and duration of IFN-␥ signal transduction. Receptor IFNGR2 (green)
expression is tightly regulated in some cell types, whereas IFNGR1 (yellow) surface concentration may be regulated by the extent of recycling following
receptor:ligand internalization. Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), such as SH2-containing tyrosine phosphatase-2 (Shp2), dephosphorylate Jak1, Jak2, and
IFNGR1, and suppressors of cytokine signaling-1 (SOCS-1) and SOCS-3 interfere with Jak activity to turn off signaling after ligand binding. Stat1 activation is
down-regulated by Stat1 dephosphorylation in the nucleus. IRF-2 antagonizes transcriptional activation of many (IRF-1-inducible) genes containing ISRE or IRF-E
promoter elements by competing for binding sites without promoting gene expression. Signaling molecules activated by IFN-␥ are depicted in red text.
IFN signaling (Jak1) or IFN-␥ signaling (Jak2) [194, 195]. in erythropoiesis [197, 198]. Other than suppression of IFN-␥
These deficiencies are reflected in the Jak1 and Jak2 KO mice, signaling, the cytokine response deficit of Jak2 KO mice is
suggesting that these Jaks are functionally specific to their largely nonoverlapping compared with Jak1 KO mice [197,
cytokine systems, and other Jaks cannot substitute for them in 198]. This indicates that other Jaks cannot functionally sub-
vivo. Jak1 gene KO mice exhibit a number of abnormalities, all stitute for Jak2 in vivo, although Jak3 can substitute for Jak2
attributable to signaling deficits in three cytokine receptor in vitro to produce Stat1 homodimers and activate transcription
families: type II cytokine receptors (i.e., types I and II IFN and of class I major histomcompatibility complex (MHC) [199].
IL-10 receptors); all cytokines that use the ␥c subunit for Although specific Stats appear to be dedicated to specific
signaling, thereby promoting lymphopoiesis (e.g., IL-2, IL-4, subsets of cytokine signaling, the same Stat or combination of
IL-7 receptors); and gp130 receptor family members (e.g., Stats can be activated in different cytokine systems to give
IL-6, IL-11, leukemia inhibitory factor receptors) [196]. These completely different biological effects (e.g., IFN-␥ and on-
results showed that in vivo, the role of Jak1 is essential and costatin M as described earlier). Possible mechanisms giving
nonredundant in signal transduction and induction of biologi- rise to specificity of response with respect to Stats include:
cal response for a specific range of cytokine receptors. Jak2 different thresholds/timeframes of Stat activation may be re-
gene KO in mice is embryonic lethal as a result of deficiencies quired for specific biological responses, and specific Stat com-
Antiproliferative Effect
Gene/protein up-regulated
by IFN-␥ Function Refs.
PKR PKR is an antiviral enzyme, which functions as a serine/threonine kinase when activated [154, 242–247]
by dsRNA. PKR inhibits cellular proliferation by phosphorylating the ␣ subunit of [251]
eIF-2, thereby halting protein synthesis. May also suppress c-myc function.
p21, p27 p21 and p27 are cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors of the Cip/Kip family. [252]
p21 and p27 inhibit the activity of CDK2 and CDK4, respectively, causing cell [253–256]
cycle arrest at the G1/S checkpoint.
Rb IFN-␥ inhibits the activity of the G1 cyclin:CDK complexes [via up-regulation of [257]
CDK inhibitors (CKIs), up-regulating CDK-activating kinase activity, and
down-regulating CDC25A activity]. Decreased G1 cyclin:CDK activity results
in suppression of retinoblastoma (Rb) phosphorylation, thereby increasing
levels of the active (E2F-repressing) form of Rb and preventing transcription of
E2F-dependent genes required for S phase.
p202 p202 is a strong cell cycle repressor that can bind to E2F and inactivate its [155, 258]
DNA-binding activity, thereby preventing transcription of E2F-dependent
genes required for S phase.
Mad1 Mad1 antagonizes c-myc function, thereby inhibiting proliferation. Mad1 [259–262]
competes with myc for max binding, forming the mad1:max heterodimer, which
has similar DNA sequence specificity to myc:max but suppresses (instead of
activating) transcription of genes required for S-phase progression. High levels
of mad1 are often associated with differentiation.
Gene/protein down-
regulated by IFN-␥ Function Refs.
c-myc c-myc controls G1/S transition by activating cyclin:CDK complexes and inducing [263]
transcription of genes required for S phase. Expression of c-myc is induced by [264]
a number of growth factors and cytokines and is down-regulated by [154]
antiproliferative agents such as IFN-␥. IFN-␥ regulates c-myc expression by [251]
Rb-dependent down-regulation of E2F activity, as well as Rb-independent [265]
pathways that may be a result of PKR action. c-myc is active when associated [259]
with max. c-myc activity is antagonized by mad1.
Apoptotic Effect
Gene/protein up-regulated
by IFN-␥ Function Refs.
IRF-1 IRF-1 is a tumor-suppressor gene required for the induction of apoptosis by [165, 266, 267]
signals such as DNA damage. Many of the proapoptotic effects of IRF-1 are [267–269]
mediated by the IRF-1-induced caspase 1.
Caspase 1 (IL-1-converting Caspase-1 is a cysteine protease involved in the generation of bioactive IL-1 [267–269]
enzyme) and IL-18 and implicated in mediating macrophage apoptosis.
PKR PKR is an antiviral enzyme that appears to mediate TNF-␣-induced apoptosis. [270–272]
Mechanisms by which PKR affects apoptosis are still unclear but may involve
induction of Fas.
DAPs The death-associated proteins (DAP1–5) are mediators of IFN-␥-induced [273–276]
apoptosis by poorly defined mechanisms.
Cathepsin D Mediates IFN-␥, Fas/apolipoprotein, and IFN-␣-induced cell death by poorly [277]
defined mechanisms.
Fas/Fas ligand IFN-␥ may increase cellular sensitivity to apoptosis by up-regulating expression [278, 279]
of Fas and Fas ligand.
TNF-␣ receptor IFN-␥ may promote cellular sensitivity to the proapoptotic effects of TNF-␣ by [280]
promoting surface expression of a TNF-␣ receptor on tumor cells.
Activation of Microbial Effector Functions
Production of NO intermediates
Gene/protein up-regulated
by IFN-␥ Function Refs.
iNOS/NOS2 The NOS enzymes (NOS1, iNOS, NOS3) catalyze the reduced nictonimide [281]
adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-dependent conversion of L-arginine
to L-citrulline, forming NO as a by-product. Of these, iNOS is the only isoform
inducible by cytokine and/or microbial stimulus.
Argininosuccinate synthetase Argininosuccinate synthetase produces the L-arginine substrate required for the [282–284]
NO-liberating reaction catalyzed by iNOS.
GTP-cyclohydroxylase I Guanosine 5⬘-triphosphate (GTP)-cyclohydroxylase I supplies the [285, 286]
tetrahydrobiopterin cofactor required for NO production by iNOS.
sins B, H, and L, lysosomal proteases implicated in production IFN-␥ and development of Th1 response
of antigenic peptides for class II MHC loading [240, 241]; and
DM, a regulator of peptide accessibility to the peptide-binding IFN-␥ is a major product of Th1 cells and further skews the
cleft of class II MHC [235, 237]. immune response toward a Th1 phenotype. IFN-␥ achieves this
The CIITA mediates coordinate transcriptional control over by promoting characteristic Th1 effector mechanisms: innate
these genes. Targeted disruption of CIITA in mice causes cell-mediated immunity (via activation of NK cell effector
complete loss of constitutive or inducible display of class II functions), specific cytotoxic immunity (via T cell:APC inter-
MHC molecules [311]. Likewise, loss of constitutive/inducible actions), and macrophage activation (discussed below) [4].
class II MHC display is found in humans with CIITA mutation IFN-␥-induced, specific cytotoxic immunity is promoted by
(Bare Lymphocyte Syndrome) [312–314]. As CIITA is the direct and indirect mechanisms. IFN-␥ promotes specific cy-
limiting factor in a complex that directs transcriptional regu- totoxic immunity by indirect mechanisms, such as growth
lation, it acts as a switch for rapid up-regulation of class II inhibition of Th2 populations and up-regulation of antigen
MHC-related genes by IFN-␥ [315]. processing, presentation, and APC costimulatory molecules,
1
CD14 TLR4
Cytosol
MyD88
MyD88-dependent
pathway
IRAK 2 TRIF? MyD88-independent
pathway
TRAF6 IRF-3
NIK 3
IKK p38 MAPK
JNK/SAPK
ERK
4 Nucleus
5
NF-κB AP-1 Transcription of IFNα/β
6 6
Fig. 3. The current paradigm for optimal LPS signal transduction through TLR4. The LPS:LPS-binding protein (LBP) complex binds to CD14. The LPS:LBP:CD14
complex probably activates TLR4, and optimal LPS-induced signaling requires the association of the MD-2 accessory component with the TLR4 extracellular
domain. Downstream signaling is dependent on sequential recruitment and activation of signaling molecules. In the MyD88-dependent pathway, the signaling
adaptor MyD88 is recruited to the receptor, and the signal is relayed via sequential recruitment and activation of the serine/threonine kinase IL-1R-associated
kinase (IRAK), TNF receptor-associated factor (TRAF)6, NF-B-inducing kinase (NIK), and IB kinase for the rapid activation of NF-B and AP-1 (IKK). MyD88
adaptor-like/Toll/IL-1 receptor/resistance (TIR) domain-containing adaptor protein also contributes to the MyD88-dependent pathway, through ill-defined
mechanisms. The MyD88-independent pathway is less well characterized but involves activation of IRF-3 and more slowly activates NF-B and AP-1. It has
recently been suggested that TIR domain-containing adaptor-inducing IFN- (TRIF) participates in the MyD88-independent pathway upstream of IRF-3.
Activation of the MyD88-dependent and -independent pathways also activates the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, c-Jun N-terminal kinase
(JNK)/stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK), p38 MAPK, and extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways. The MyD88-dependent pathway ultimately controls
transcription of target genes, including many of the proinflammatory cytokines implicated in the pathophysiology of septic shock. Genes regulated by the
MyD88-independent pathway, however, do not contribute to septic shock to the same extent. Possible mechanisms giving rise to the priming effect apparent when
LPS-stimulated macrophages are pretreated with IFN-␥ include (numbered on the figure): (1) IFN-␥ up-regulates expression of the TLR4 and MD-2 components
of the LPS recognition complex; (2) IFN-␥ upregulates expression of MyD88 and IRAK; (3) LPS activates Stat1, possibly through the MAPK pathway, thus
augmenting the IFN-␥ response; (4) IFN-␥ promotes LPS-induced NF-B activation; (5) LPS induces type I IFN, which may participate in cross-talk with the IFN-␥
signaling pathway to augment the macrophage IFN-␥ response; and (6) LPS/TNF-␣- and IFN-␥-activated/induced signaling molecules can often bind to promoter
regions of target genes to synergistically regulate transcription. GARG, Glucocorticoid attenuated response gene; IRG, immune-responsive gene.
IFN-␥ priming in vivo, as it demonstrates that IFN-␥ is nor- inhibits the LPS-dependent down-regulation of TLR4 surface
mally produced during the response to LPS and acts to amplify expression apparent in unprimed cells [395]. IFN-␥ stimula-
LPS-induced cellular responses. The priming phenomenon re- tion may also promote LPS-dependent signaling by promoting
lies on IFN-␥ and LPS reciprocal cross-regulation of signaling expression of the MD-2 accessory molecule, the MyD88 adap-
molecules of the other pathway. tor, and the IRAK signaling molecule [395, 398].
IFN-␥ influences LPS-dependent signaling capabilities by LPS mediates many of its effects through the NF-B tran-
promoting ligand-receptor interactions as well as downstream scription factor. In the macrophage-like cell line RAW264.7, it
signaling machinery. Efficient LPS:TLR4 interaction requires was found that IFN-␥ pretreatment promoted NF-B activation
the MD-2 and CD14 accessory molecules, and subsequent upon LPS exposure, as well as more rapid DNA-binding ki-
maximal signaling requires MyD88 signaling adaptor. In a netics and faster degradation of the NF-B inhibitor, IB-␣
number of experiments, IFN-␥ was shown to promote transcrip- [399]. In human monocytes also, IFN-␥ pretreatment causes
tion of TLR4, subsequent TLR4 surface expression, and LPS- superinduction of active NF-B upon LPS treatment [400].
binding ability in macrophages [395–397]. Furthermore, IFN-␥ When these cells were unstimulated, they exhibited high levels