Bernoulli's principle explained

Bernoulli's principle
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This article is about Bernoulli's principle and Bernoulli's equation in fluid dynamics. For Bernoulli's Theorem (probability), see Law of
large numbers. For an unrelated topic in ordinary differential equations, see Bernoulli differential equation.
The motion of the circling masses mapped in a coordinate system that is rotating at a constant
angular velocity
Harmonic oscillation the restoring force is proportional to the distance to the center.
The animation on the right provides a clearer view on the oscillation of the angular velocity.
There is a close analogy with harmonic oscillation.
When a harmonic oscillation is at its midpoint then all the energy of the system is kinetic
energy. When the harmonic oscillation is at the points furthest away from the midpoint all the
energy of the system is potential energy. The energy of the system is oscillating back and
forth between kinetic energy and potential energy.
In the animation with the two circling masses there is a back and forth oscillation of kinetic
energy and potential energy. When the spring is at its maximal extension then the potential
energy is largest, when the angular velocity is at its maximum the kinetic energy is at largest.
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A flow of air into a venturi meter. The kinetic energy increases at the expense of the fluid pressure, as shown by the difference in height of
the two columns of water.
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a
decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.[1][2] Bernoulli's principle is named after the Dutch-Swiss mathematician
Daniel Bernoulli who published his principle in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738.[3]
Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow, resulting in what is loosely denoted as Bernoulli's equation. In fact, there
are different forms of the Bernoulli equation for different types of flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's principle is valid for incompressible
flows (e.g. most liquid flows) and also for compressible flows (e.g. gases) moving at low Mach numbers. More advanced forms may in
some cases be applied to compressible flows at higher Mach numbers (see the derivations of the Bernoulli equation).
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Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states that in a steady flow the sum of all forms of
mechanical energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy and
potential energy remain constant. If the fluid is flowing out of a reservoir the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines
because in a reservoir the energy per unit mass (the sum of pressure and gravitational potential ρ g h) is the same everywhere.[4]
Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight. If a fluid is flowing horizontally and along a section of a streamline, where
the speed increases it can only be because the fluid on that section has moved from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure;
and if its speed decreases, it can only be because it has moved from a region of lower pressure to a region of higher pressure. Consequently,
within a fluid flowing horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure is
highest.
Incompressible flow equation
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In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the mass density of a fluid parcel can be considered to be constant, regardless of
pressure variations in the flow. For this reason the fluid in such flows can be considered to be incompressible and these flows can be
described as incompressible flow. Bernoulli performed his experiments on liquids and his equation in its original form is valid only for
incompressible flow. A common form of Bernoulli's equation, valid at any arbitrary point along a streamline where gravity is constant, is:

(A)

where:
is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,
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is the acceleration due to gravity,
is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction pointing upward — so in the direction
opposite to the gravitational acceleration,
is the pressure at the point, and
is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.
For conservative force fields, Bernoulli's equation can be generalized as:[5]
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where Ψ is the force potential at the point considered on the streamline. E.g. for the Earth's gravity Ψ = gz.
The following two assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply:[5]
 the fluid must be incompressible — even though pressure varies, the density must remain constant along a streamline;
 friction by viscous forces has to be negligible.
By multiplying with the fluid density ρ, equation (A) can be rewritten as:
or:
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where:
is dynamic pressure,
is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the sum of the elevation z and the pressure head)[6][7] and
is the total pressure (the sum of the static pressure p and dynamic pressure q).[8]
The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalised. A common approach is in terms of total head or energy head H:
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The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at which pressure is zero, and at even higher speeds the pressure is negative. Most often,
gases and liquids are not capable of negative absolute pressure, or even zero pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to be valid
before zero pressure is reached. In liquids—when the pressure becomes too low -- cavitation occurs. The above equations use a linear
relationship between flow speed squared and pressure. At higher flow speeds in gases, or for sound waves in liquid, the changes in mass
density become significant so that the assumption of constant density is invalid.
[edit] Simplified form
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In many applications of Bernoulli's equation, the change in the ρ g z term along the streamline is so small compared with the other terms it
can be ignored. For example, in the case of aircraft in flight, the change in height z along a streamline is so small the ρ g z term can be
omitted. This allows the above equation to be presented in the following simplified form:
where p0 is called total pressure, and q is dynamic pressure[9]. Many authors refer to the pressure p as static pressure to distinguish it from
total pressure p0 and dynamic pressure q. In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: "To distinguish it from the total and dynamic pressures, the
actual pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its motion but with its state, is often referred to as the static pressure, but where the
term pressure alone is used it refers to this static pressure."[10]
The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be summarized in the following memorable word equation:
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static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure[10]
Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of the fluid speed at that point, has its own unique static pressure p and dynamic pressure
q. Their sum p + q is defined to be the total pressure p0. The significance of Bernoulli's principle can now be summarized as total pressure is
constant along a streamline.
If the fluid flow is irrotational, the total pressure on every streamline is the same and Bernoulli's principle can be summarized as total
pressure is constant everywhere in the fluid flow.[11] It is reasonable to assume that irrotational flow exists in any situation where a large
body of fluid is flowing past a solid body. Examples are aircraft in flight, and ships moving in open bodies of water. However, it is
important to remember that Bernoulli's principle does not apply in the boundary layer or in fluid flow through long pipes.
If the fluid flow at some point along a stream line is brought to rest, this point is called a stagnation point, and at this point the total pressure
is equal to the stagnation pressure.
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[edit] Applicability of incompressible flow equation to flow of gases
Bernoulli's equation is sometimes valid for the flow of gases: provided that there is no transfer of kinetic or potential energy from the gas
flow to the compression or expansion of the gas. If both the gas pressure and volume change simultaneously, then work will be done on or
by the gas. In this case, Bernoulli's equation—in its incompressible flow form—can not be assumed to be valid. However if the gas process
is entirely isobaric, or isochoric, then no work is done on or by the gas, (so the simple energy balance is not upset). According to the gas
law, an isobaric or isochoric process is ordinarily the only way to ensure constant density in a gas. Also the gas density will be proportional
to the ratio of pressure and absolute temperature, however this ratio will vary upon compression or expansion, no matter what non-zero
quantity of heat is added or removed. The only exception is if the net heat transfer is zero, as in a complete thermodynamic cycle, or in an
individual isentropic (frictionless adiabatic) process, and even then this reversible process must be reversed, to restore the gas to the original
pressure and specific volume, and thus density. Only then is the original, unmodified Bernoulli equation applicable. In this case the equation
can be used if the flow speed of the gas is sufficiently below the speed of sound, such that the variation in density of the gas (due to this
effect) along each streamline can be ignored. Adiabatic flow at less than Mach 0.3 is generally considered to be slow enough.
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[edit] Unsteady potential flow
The Bernoulli equation for unsteady potential flow is used in the theory of ocean surface waves and acoustics.
For an irrotational flow, the flow velocity can be described as the gradient ∇φ of a velocity potential φ. In that case, and for a constant
density ρ, the momentum equations of the Euler equations can be integrated to:[12]
which is a Bernoulli equation valid also for unsteady—or time dependent—flows. Here ∂φ/∂t denotes the partial derivative of the velocity
potential φ with respect to time t, and v = |∇φ| is the flow speed. The function f(t) depends only on time and not on position in the fluid. As a
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result, the Bernoulli equation at some moment t does not only apply along a certain streamline, but in the whole fluid domain. This is also
true for the special case of a steady irrotational flow, in which case f is a constant.[12]
Further f(t) can be made equal to zero by incorporating it into the velocity potential using the transformation
resulting in
Note that the relation of the potential to the flow velocity is unaffected by this transformation: ∇Φ = ∇φ.
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The Bernoulli equation for unsteady potential flow also appears to play a central role in Luke's variational principle, a variational description
of free-surface flows using the Lagrangian (not to be confused with Lagrangian coordinates).
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Lift and Drag curves for a typical airfoil
[edit] Compressible flow equation
Bernoulli developed his principle from his observations on liquids, and his equation is applicable only to incompressible fluids, and
compressible fluids at very low speeds (perhaps up to 1/3 of the sound speed in the fluid). It is possible to use the fundamental principles of
physics to develop similar equations applicable to compressible fluids. There are numerous equations, each tailored for a particular
application, but all are analogous to Bernoulli's equation and all rely on nothing more than the fundamental principles of physics such as
Newton's laws of motion or the first law of thermodynamics.
[edit] Compressible flow in fluid dynamics
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For a compressible fluid, with a barotropic equation of state, and under the action of conservative forces,
[13]
(constant along a streamline)
where:
p is the pressure
ρ is the density
v is the flow speed
Ψ is the potential associated with the conservative force field, often the gravitational potential
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In engineering situations, elevations are generally small compared to the size of the Earth, and the time scales of fluid flow are small enough
to consider the equation of state as adiabatic. In this case, the above equation becomes
[14]
(constant along a streamline)
where, in addition to the terms listed above:
γ is the ratio of the specific heats of the fluid

g is the acceleration due to gravity
z is the elevation of the point above a reference plane
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In many applications of compressible flow, changes in elevation are negligible compared to the other terms, so the term gz can be omitted. A
very useful form of the equation is then:
where:
p0 is the total pressure

ρ0 is the total density
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[edit] Compressible flow in thermodynamics
Another useful form of the equation, suitable for use in thermodynamics, is:
[15]
Here w is the enthalpy per unit mass, which is also often written as h (not to be confused with "head" or "height").
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Note that where ε is the thermodynamic energy per unit mass, also known as the specific internal energy or "sie."
The constant on the right hand side is often called the Bernoulli constant and denoted b. For steady inviscid adiabatic flow with no
additional sources or sinks of energy, b is constant along any given streamline. More generally, when b may vary along streamlines, it still
proves a useful parameter, related to the "head" of the fluid (see below).
When the change in Ψ can be ignored, a very useful form of this equation is:
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where w0 is total enthalpy. For a calorically perfect gas such as an ideal gas, the enthalpy is directly proportional to the temperature, and this
leads to the concept of the total (or stagnation) temperature.
When shock waves are present, in a reference frame in which the shock is stationary and the flow is steady, many of the parameters in the
Bernoulli equation suffer abrupt changes in passing through the shock. The Bernoulli parameter itself, however, remains unaffected. An
exception to this rule is radiative shocks, which violate the assumptions leading to the Bernoulli equation, namely the lack of additional
sinks or sources of energy.
[edit] Derivations of Bernoulli equation
[show]Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluids
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[show]Bernoulli equation for compressible fluids
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[edit] Real world application
In modern everyday life there are many observations that can be successfully explained by application of Bernoulli's principle.
 Bernoulli's Principle can be used to calculate the lift force on an airfoil if you know the behavior of the fluid flow in the vicinity
of the foil. For example, if the air flowing past the top surface of an aircraft wing is moving faster than the air flowing past the
bottom surface then Bernoulli's principle implies that the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be lower above than below.
This pressure difference results in an upwards lift force.[nb 1][19] Whenever the distribution of speed past the top and bottom
surfaces of a wing is known, the lift forces can be calculated (to a good approximation) using Bernoulli's equations [20]—
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established by Bernoulli over a century before the first man-made wings were used for the purpose of flight. Bernoulli's principle
does not explain why the air flows faster past the top of the wing and slower past the underside. To understand why, it is helpful
to understand circulation, the Kutta condition, and the Kutta-Joukowski theorem.
 The carburetor used in many reciprocating engines contains a venturi to create a region of low pressure to draw fuel into the
carburetor and mix it thoroughly with the incoming air. The low pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by
Bernoulli's principle; in the narrow throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and therefore it is at its lowest pressure.
 The Pitot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to determine the airspeed of the aircraft. These two devices are connected to
the airspeed indicator which determines the dynamic pressure of the airflow past the aircraft. Dynamic pressure is the difference
between stagnation pressure and static pressure. Bernoulli's principle is used to calibrate the airspeed indicator so that it displays
the indicated airspeed appropriate to the dynamic pressure.[21]
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 The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device such as a Venturi meter or an orifice plate, which can be placed into a
pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow. For a horizontal device, the continuity equation shows that for an incompressible
fluid, the reduction in diameter will cause an increase in the fluid flow speed. Subsequently Bernoulli's principle then shows that
there must be a decrease in the pressure in the reduced diameter region. This phenomenon is known as the Venturi effect.
 The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole or tap at the base can be calculated directly from Bernoulli's equation,
and is found to be proportional to the square root of the height of the fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law, showing that
Torricelli's law is compatible with Bernoulli's principle. Viscosity lowers this drain rate. This is reflected in the discharge
coefficient which is a function of the Reynold's number and the shape of the orifice.[22]
 In open-channel hydraulics, a detailed analysis of the Bernoulli theorem and its extension were recently developed [23]. It was
proved that the depth-averaged specific energy reaches a minimum in converging accelerating free-surface flow over weirs and
flumes (also [24][25]). Further, in general, a channel control with minimum specific energy in curvilinear flow is not isolated from
water waves, as customary state in open-channel hydraulics.
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 The principle also makes it possible for sail-powered craft to travel faster than the wind that propels them (if friction can be
sufficiently reduced). If the wind passing in front of the sail is fast enough to experience a significant reduction in pressure, the
sail is pulled forward, in addition to being pushed from behind. Although boats in water must contend with the friction of the
water along the hull, ice sailing and land sailing vehicles can travel faster than the wind.[26][27]
[edit] Misunderstandings about the generation of lift
Main article: Lift (force)
Many explanations for the generation of lift (on airfoils, propeller blades, etc.) can be found; but some of these explanations can be
misleading, and some are false. This has been a source of heated discussion over the years. In particular, there has been debate about
whether lift is best explained by Bernoulli's principle or Newton's laws of motion. Modern writings agree that Bernoulli's principle and
Newton's laws are both relevant and correct [28][29][30].
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Several of these explanations use the Bernoulli principle to connect the flow kinematics to the flow-induced pressures. In cases of incorrect
(or partially correct) explanations of lift, also relying at some stage on the Bernoulli principle, the errors generally occur in the assumptions
on the flow kinematics, and how these are produced. It is not the Bernoulli principle itself that is questioned because this principle is well
established.
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Angular momentum
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Jump to: navigation, search
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For an introduction, see Introduction to angular momentum.
It has been suggested that Introduction to angular momentum be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
Classical mechanics
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This gyroscope remains upright while spinning due to its angular momentum.
In physics, angular momentum, moment of momentum, or rotational momentum[1][2] is a conserved vector quantity that can be used to
describe the overall state of a physical system. The angular momentum L of a particle with respect to some point of origin is
where r is the particle's position from the origin, p = mv is its linear momentum, and × denotes the cross product.
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The angular momentum of a system of particles (e.g. a rigid body) is the sum of angular momenta of the individual particles. For a rigid
body rotating around an axis of symmetry (e.g. the fins of a ceiling fan), the angular momentum can be expressed as the product of the
body's moment of inertia I (a measure of an object's resistance to changes in its rotation rate) and its angular velocity ω:
In this way, angular momentum is sometimes described as the rotational analog of linear momentum.
Angular momentum is conserved in a system where there is no net external torque, and its conservation helps explain many diverse
phenomena. For example, the increase in rotational speed of a spinning figure skater as the skater's arms are contracted is a consequence of
conservation of angular momentum. The very high rotational rates of neutron stars can also be explained in terms of angular momentum
conservation. Moreover, angular momentum conservation has numerous applications in physics and engineering (e.g. the gyrocompass).
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Contents
[hide]
 1 Angular momentum in classical mechanics

o 1.1 Definition
o 1.2 Angular momentum of a collection of particles
o 1.3 Angular momentum simplified using the center of mass
o 1.4 Fixed axis of rotation
o 1.5 Conservation of angular momentum
 2 Angular momentum in relativistic mechanics
 3 Angular momentum in quantum mechanics
o 3.1 Basic definition
o 3.2 Addition of quantized angular momenta
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o 3.3 Angular momentum as a generator of rotations
o 3.4 Relation to spherical harmonics
 4 Angular momentum in electrodynamics
 5 See also
 6 Footnotes
 7 References
 8 External links
[edit] Angular momentum in classical mechanics
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Relationship between force (F), torque (τ), momentum (p), and angular momentum (L) vectors in a rotating system
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[edit] Definition
The angular momentum L of a particle about a given origin is defined as:
where r is the position vector of the particle relative to the origin, p is the linear momentum of the particle, and × denotes the cross product.
As seen from the definition, the derived SI units of angular momentum are newton metre seconds (N·m·s or kg·m2s−1) or joule seconds.
Because of the cross product, L is a pseudovector perpendicular to both the radial vector r and the momentum vector p and it is assigned a
sign by the right-hand rule.
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For an object with a fixed mass that is rotating about a fixed symmetry axis, the angular momentum is expressed as the product of the
moment of inertia of the object and its angular velocity vector:
where I is the moment of inertia of the object (in general, a tensor quantity), and ω is the angular velocity.
Angular momentum is also known as moment of momentum.
[edit] Angular momentum of a collection of particles
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If a system consists of several particles, the total angular momentum about an origin can be obtained by adding (or integrating) all the
angular momenta of the constituent particles.
[edit] Angular momentum simplified using the center of mass
It is very often convenient to consider the angular momentum of a collection of particles about their center of mass, since this simplifies the
mathematics considerably. The angular momentum of a collection of particles is the sum of the angular momentum of each particle:
where Ri is the position vector of particle i from the reference point, mi is its mass, and Vi is its velocity. The center of mass is defined by:
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where the total mass of all particles is given by
It follows that the velocity of the center of mass is
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If we define as the displacement of particle i from the center of mass, and as the velocity of particle i with respect to the center of
mass, then we have
and
and also
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and
so that the total angular momentum with respect to the center is
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The first term is just the angular momentum of the center of mass. It is the same angular momentum one would obtain if there were just one
particle of mass M moving at velocity V located at the center of mass. The second term is the angular momentum that is the result of the
particles moving relative to their center of mass. This second term can be even further simplified if the particles form a rigid body, in which
case it is the product of moment of inertia and angular velocity of the spinning motion (as above). The same result is true if the discrete
point charges discussed above are replaced by a continuous distribution of matter.
[edit] Fixed axis of rotation
For many applications where one is only concerned about rotation around one axis, it is sufficient to discard the pseudovector nature of
angular momentum, and treat it like a scalar where it is positive when it corresponds to a counter-clockwise rotation, and negative
clockwise. To do this, just take the definition of the cross product and discard the unit vector, so that angular momentum becomes:
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where θr,p is the angle between r and p measured from r to p; an important distinction because without it, the sign of the cross product would
be meaningless. From the above, it is possible to reformulate the definition to either of the following:
where is called the lever arm distance to p.
The easiest way to conceptualize this is to consider the lever arm distance to be the distance from the origin to the line that p travels along.
With this definition, it is necessary to consider the direction of p (pointed clockwise or counter-clockwise) to figure out the sign of L.
Equivalently:
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where is the component of p that is perpendicular to r. As above, the sign is decided based on the sense of rotation.
For an object with a fixed mass that is rotating about a fixed symmetry axis, the angular momentum is expressed as the product of the
moment of inertia of the object and its angular velocity vector:
where I is the moment of inertia of the object (in general, a tensor quantity) and ω is the angular velocity.
As the kinetic energy K of a massive rotating body is given by
K = Iω2 / 2
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it is proportional to the square of the angular velocity.
[edit] Conservation of angular momentum
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The torque caused by the two opposing forces Fg and -Fg causes a change in the angular momentum L in the direction of that torque (since
torque is the time derivative of angular momentum). This causes the top to precess.
In a closed system angular momentum is constant. This conservation law mathematically follows from continuous directional symmetry of
space (no direction in space is any different from any other direction). See Noether's theorem.[3]
The time derivative of angular momentum is called torque:
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(The cross-product of velocity and momentum is zero, because these vectors are parallel.) So requiring the system to be "closed" here is
mathematically equivalent to zero external torque acting on the system:
where τext is any torque applied to the system of particles. It is assumed that internal interaction forces obey Newton's third law of motion in
its strong form, that is, that the forces between particles are equal and opposite and act along the line between the particles.
In orbits, the angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet itself and the angular momentum of its orbit:
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If a planet is found to rotate slower than expected, then astronomers suspect that the planet is accompanied by a satellite, because the total
angular momentum is shared between the planet and its satellite in order to be conserved.
The conservation of angular momentum is used extensively in analyzing what is called central force motion. If the net force on some body is
directed always toward some fixed point, the center, then there is no torque on the body with respect to the center, and so the angular
momentum of the body about the center is constant. Constant angular momentum is extremely useful when dealing with the orbits of planets
and satellites, and also when analyzing the Bohr model of the atom.
The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as she brings her arms and legs close to the
vertical axis of rotation. By bringing part of mass of her body closer to the axis she decreases her body's moment of inertia. Because angular
momentum is constant in the absence of external torques, the angular velocity (rotational speed) of the skater has to increase.
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The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes) when they are
formed out of much larger and slower rotating stars (indeed, decreasing the size of object 104 times results in increase of its angular velocity
by the factor 108).
The conservation of angular momentum in Earth–Moon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from Earth to Moon (due to
tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth). This in turn results in the slowing down of the rotation rate of Earth (at about 42 nsec/day), and
in gradual increase of the radius of Moon's orbit (at ~4.5 cm/year rate).
[edit] Angular momentum in relativistic mechanics
In modern (late 20th century) theoretical physics, angular momentum is described using a different formalism. Under this formalism,
angular momentum is the 2-form Noether charge associated with rotational invariance (As a result, angular momentum is not conserved for
general curved spacetimes, unless it happens to be asymptotically rotationally invariant). For a system of point particles without any
intrinsic angular momentum, it turns out to be
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(Here, the wedge product is used.).
[edit] Angular momentum in quantum mechanics
In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is quantized – that is, it cannot vary continuously, but only in "quantum leaps" between certain
allowed values. The orbital angular momentum of a subatomic particle, that is due to its motion through space, is always a whole-number
multiple of ("h-bar," known as the reduced Planck's constant), defined as Planck's constant divided by 2π. Furthermore, experiments show
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that most subatomic particles have a permanent, built-in angular momentum, which is not due to their motion through space. This spin
angular momentum comes in units of . For example, an electron standing at rest has an angular momentum of .
[edit] Basic definition
The classical definition of angular momentum as depends on six numbers: rx, ry, rz, px, py, and pz. Translating this into
quantum-mechanical terms, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not possible for all six of these numbers to be measured
simultaneously with arbitrary precision. Therefore, there are limits to what can be known or measured about a particle's angular momentum.
It turns out that the best that one can do is to simultaneously measure both the angular momentum vector's magnitude and its component
along one axis.
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Mathematically, angular momentum in quantum mechanics is defined like momentum - not as a quantity but as an operator on the wave
function:
where r and p are the position and momentum operators respectively. In particular, for a single particle with no electric charge and no spin,
the angular momentum operator can be written in the position basis as
where is the vector differential operator "Del" (also called "Nabla"). This orbital angular momentum operator is the most commonly
encountered form of the angular momentum operator, though not the only one. It satisfies the following canonical commutation relations:
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,
where εlmn is the (antisymmetric) Levi-Civita symbol. From this follows
Since,
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it follows, for example,
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[edit] Addition of quantized angular momenta
For more details on this topic, see Clebsch-Gordan coefficients.
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Given a quantized total angular momentum which is the sum of two individual quantized angular momenta and ,
the quantum number j associated with its magnitude can range from | l1 − l2 | to l1 + l2 in integer steps where l1 and l2 are quantum numbers
corresponding to the magnitudes of the individual angular momenta.
[edit] Angular momentum as a generator of rotations
If φ is the angle around a specific axis, for example the azimuthal angle around the z axis, then the angular momentum along this axis is the
generator of rotations around this axis:
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The eigenfunctions of Lz are therefore , and since φ has a period of 2π, ml must be an integer.
For a particle with a spin S, this takes into account only the angular dependence of the location of the particle, for example its orbit in an
atom. It is therefore known as orbital angular momentum. However, when one rotates the system, one also changes the spin. Therefore the
total angular momentum, which is the full generator of rotations, is Ji = Li + Si Being an angular momentum, J satisfies the same
commutation relations as L, as will be explained below, namely
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from which follows
Acting with J on the wavefunction ψ of a particle generates a rotation: is the wavefunction ψ rotated around the z axis by an
angle φ. For an infinitesmal rotation by an angle dφ, the rotated wavefunction is ψ + idφJzψ. This is similarly true for rotations around any
axis.
In a charged particle the momentum gets a contribution from the electromagnetic field, and the angular momenta L and J change
accordingly.
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If the Hamiltonian is invariant under rotations, as in spherically symmetric problems, then according to Noether's theorem, it commutes with
the total angular momentum. So the total angular momentum is a conserved quantity
Since angular momentum is the generator of rotations, its commutation relations follow the commutation relations of the generators of the
three-dimensional rotation group SO(3). This is why J always satisfies these commutation relations. In d dimensions, the angular
momentum will satisfy the same commutation relations as the generators of the d-dimensional rotation group SO(d).
SO(3) has the same Lie algebra (i.e. the same commutation relations) as SU(2). Generators of SU(2) can have half-integer eigenvalues, and
so can mj. Indeed for fermions the spin S and total angular momentum J are half-integer. In fact this is the most general case: j and mj are
either integers or half-integers.
angular velocity
Technically, this is because the universal cover of SO(3) is isomorphic to SU(2), and the representations of the latter are fully known. Ji
span the Lie algebra and J2 is the Casimir invariant, and it can be shown that if the eigenvalues of Jz and J2 are mj and j(j+1) then mj and j
are both integer multiples of one-half. j is non-negative and mj takes values between -j and j.
[edit] Relation to spherical harmonics
Angular momentum operators usually occur when solving a problem with spherical symmetry in spherical coordinates. Then, the angular
momentum in space representation is:
angular velocity
When solving to find eigenstates of this operator, we obtain the following
where
are the spherical harmonics.
angular velocity
Thus, a particle whose wave function is the spherical harmonic Yl,m has an orbital angular momentum
with a z-component
[edit] Angular momentum in electrodynamics
angular velocity
When describing the motion of a charged particle in the presence of an electromagnetic field, the "kinetic momentum" p is not gauge
invariant. As a consequence, the canonical angular momentum is not gauge invariant either. Instead, the momentum that
is physical, the so-called canonical momentum, is
where e is the electric charge, c the speed of light and A the vector potential. Thus, for example, the Hamiltonian of a charged particle of
mass m in an electromagnetic field is then
angular velocity
where φ is the scalar potential. This is the Hamiltonian that gives the Lorentz force law. The gauge-invariant angular momentum, or "kinetic
angular momentum" is given by
angular velocity
The interplay with quantum mechanics is discussed further in the article on canonical commutation relations.
angular velocity

Bernoulli's principle explained

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Bernoulli's principle

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Incompressible flow equation

is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,

For conservative force fields, Bernoulli's equation can be generalized as:[5]

[edit] Simplified form

[edit] Compressible flow equation

[edit] Compressible flow in fluid dynamics

where, in addition to the terms listed above:

γ is the ratio of the specific heats of the fluid

p0 is the total pressure

[edit] Derivations of Bernoulli equation

[show]Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluids

[edit] Misunderstandings about the generation of lift

Main article: Lift (force)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Newton's Second Law

History of classical mechanics ·

 1 Angular momentum in classical mechanics

[edit] Angular momentum in classical mechanics

The angular momentum L of a particle about a given origin is defined as:

Angular momentum is also known as moment of momentum.

[edit] Angular momentum of a collection of particles

[edit] Angular momentum simplified using the center of mass

It follows that the velocity of the center of mass is

so that the total angular momentum with respect to the center is

[edit] Fixed axis of rotation

where is called the lever arm distance to p.

As the kinetic energy K of a massive rotating body is given by

[edit] Conservation of angular momentum

The time derivative of angular momentum is called torque:

[edit] Angular momentum in relativistic mechanics

[edit] Angular momentum in quantum mechanics

[edit] Basic definition

where εlmn is the (antisymmetric) Levi-Civita symbol. From this follows

For more details on this topic, see Clebsch-Gordan coefficients.

[edit] Angular momentum as a generator of rotations

[edit] Relation to spherical harmonics

are the spherical harmonics.

[edit] Angular momentum in electrodynamics

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