Life-forms scattered across what is now known as the Philippines appeared during a geological period known

as the lower Eocene, some 60 million years ago. Evidence of the earliest human presence in the archipelago,
however, was dated only after a series of geological and climate changes that brought forth an epoch referred
as the Pleistocene, the ice ages that began some 1.8 million years ago and ended around 11,700 years ago. The
Pleistocene is geologic period characterized by receding of seas that, in turn, resulted in the conjoining of what
used to be islands into continuous land masses. Cultural remains such as stone tools collected from several
parts of the Philippines showed that a group of people produced crudely made choppers and implements using
flint, quartz, and chalcedony. Archeological work in the Tabon Cave of Palawan also found an industry of
flake tools that were dated to 21,000 to 22,000 years ago. Subsequent Philippine archeological works as well as
analysis of
prehistoric artefacts deposited in the National Museum also indicated the appearance of several other types of
tools dating between 7,000 and 250 years ago. Notwithstanding the array of material remains gathered up
across a range of archeological sites, available records and analysis of prehistoric human migration to the
Philippines offer no conclusive proof of their migration origins. So far, a few theories have been suggested on
the peopling pattern of the Philippines. On the basis of the remarkable features of the early stone implements,
one theory suggested a migration pattern coming from mainland Asia that made its way to Luzon by way of
Indo-China and then through the China Sea. Another theory suggested a migration route starting from
Manchuria to later move eastward towards Japan and then southwards into Formosa and Luzon. Yet a third
proposed a movement that began from central China and then carried on into Indo-China and Luzon and
northward into Korea, Japan and Manchuria. While these suggested routes have remained a theory, geological
evidence and human material remains indicate that there was indeed a series of prehistoric migration initiated
by many groups of people with varying cultural and physical characteristics that reached the Philippines across
time.
Guide Questions
1. When and how did the Philippine islands emerge?
2. Who were the first peoples of the islands? Where were they from? How had they made their way into the
islands?
3. What was the effect of the Pleistocene climate on the Philippines?
4. What is man’s classification in nature?
5. What are the major fossil groups described in the readings?
6. According to the text, who was considered the first Filipino?
7. What are the important biological and cultural developments during the Pleistocene period?
8. What notable developments took place in the Philippines during the Pleistocene period?

I. INTRODUCTION
As we learned in the previous chapter, culture is key to human adaptation, and as such every society has its
own culture. In this chapter, we look at how individuals learn culture and become competent members of
society through the process of enculturation or socialization, or the process of preparing individuals for
membership
in a given society. It explores four theories that explain the development of the self as a product of this process.
The process of socialization entails learning the various elements of a society’s culture as well as its social
structure. The discussion focuses on values, norms, status, and roles, as well as gender role socialization.
The Reader for this course includes an article by Hiromu Shimizu which examines the process of socialization
in the Philippines. Shimizu shows how the social environment in which Filipino children grow up orients the
child toward getting along and being cooperative with others. Another article, by Michael Herzfeld, dissects
how
individuals become socialized to become indifferent persons, with social indifference being conditioned by the
state, and the political and ideological interests that underpin bureaucratic structures. Since it is important that
members follow cultural norms, every society has a system of social control to encourage conformity and
discourage deviance or norm breaking. Nevertheless, deviance to a certain extent is tolerated by society. To
understand why, this chapter explores Emile Durkheim’s argument that deviance has at least four social
functions. Robert Merton argued that the extent and type of deviance people engage in depend on whether a
society provides the means (such as schooling and job opportunities) to achieve cultural goals (such as
financial success). Conformity lies in pursuing cultural goals through approved means. Four types of deviance
may,
however, arise from the inability to achieve a cultural goal using socially approved means.
The discussion of socialization and deviance emphasizes that members of any society have to work toward the
continued existence of that society. Carol Hanish, Richard Bellamy, and Arjun Appadurai and Katerina Stenou
explore the wider context, content, processes, and consequences of socialization, conformity, and deviance.
Hanish discusses the rise of social movements, in particular the feminist movement in the United States, and in
a broader sense, how important collective action is for a collective solution. Bellamy explores citizenship, why
it matters, and the challenges confronting it today. Appadurai and Stenou utilize the idea of cultural pluralism
as a lens for understanding and addressing the situation of migrants, refugees, minorities, and many others.
Socialization is the lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture.
Unlike other living species, whose behavior is mostly or entirely set by biology, humans need social experience
to learn their culture and to survive. Social experience is also the foundation of personality, a person’s fairly
consistent patterns of acting, thinking and feeling (Macionis 2012: 102). Another term for socialization is
enculturation. There are many theories on how the self, as a product of socialization, is formed. We will
examine the work of four researchers: Sigmund Freud, Charles Cooley, George Herbert Mead, and Jean Piaget
(Macionis 2012: 104–108).

Freud’s model of personality. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) combined basic needs and the influence of
society into a model of personality with three parts: id, ego, and superego. The id represents the human being’s
basic drives, or biological and physical needs which are unconscious and demand immediate satisfaction. In
the
human personality, the superego refers to the cultural values and norms internalized by an individual. Society,
through its values and norms, opposes the self-centered id. The ego is, thus, a person’s conscious efforts to
balance innate pleasure-seeking drives (id) with the demands of society (superego).

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. From his studies of human cognition, or how people think and
understand. Jean Piaget (1896–1980) identified four stages of cognitive development. Stage one is the
sensorimotor stage (first two years of life), the level of human development at which individuals know the
world only through the five senses. Stage two is the preoperational stage (about age two to seven) at which
individuals first use language and other symbols. Stage three is concrete operational stage (between the ages
of seven and eleven) at which individuals first see causal connections in their surroundings. The last stage is
the formal operational stage (about age twelve) at which individuals think abstractly and critically.

Mead’s theory of the social self. George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) For Mead, the self is a part of our
personality and includes self-awareness and self-image. It is the product of social experience, and is not guided
by biological drives (see Freud) or biological maturation (see Piaget). According to Mead, the key to
developing the self is learning to take the role of the other. Infants can do this only through imitation and,
without understanding underlying intentions, have no self. As children learn to use language and other
symbols, the self emerges in the form of play. Play involves assuming roles modeled on significant others, or
people, such as parents, who have
special importance for socialization. Then, children learn to take the roles of several others at once, and move
from simple play with one other to complex games involving many others. The final stage in the development
of the self is when children are able to not only take the role of specific people in just one situation, but that of
many others in different situations. Mead used the term generalized other to refer to widespread cultural
norms and values we use as references in evaluating ourselves.

Cooley’s Looking-glass Self. Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) used the phrase looking-glass self to mean
a self-image based on how we think others see us. As we interact with others, the people around us become a
mirror (an object that people used to call a “looking glass”) in which we can see ourselves. What we think of
ourselves,
then, depends on how we think others see us. For example, if we think others see us as clever, we will think of
ourselves in the same way. But if we feel they think of us as clumsy, then that is how we will see ourselves.

Agents of socialization
Several settings have special importance in the socialization process. These include the family, school, peer
group, and the mass media. The family, usually the first setting of socialization, has the greatest impact on
attitudes and behavior. Schools teach knowledge and skills needed for later life, and expose children to greater
social diversity. The peer group takes on great importance during adolescence. The mass media have a huge
impact on socialization in modern societies.

Values, norms, status, and roles

Socialization is also defined as the process of preparing members for membership in a given group in society.
Through socialization, individuals learn the norms and values of their society.

Values are culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful and that
serve as broad guidelines for social living.

Norms are the rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members.

Socialization prepares individuals to occupy statuses and roles (Macionis 2012: 127– 128). Status refers a
social position that a person holds. An ascribed status is a social position a person receives at birth or takes on
involuntarily later in life. Examples of ascribed statuses include being a daughter, a Filipino, a teenager, or a
widower. Achieved status refers to a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability
and effort. Achieved statuses include honors student, athlete, nurse, software writer, and thief. Role refers to
behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status.

Gender role socialization

Sex refers to the biological characteristics distinguishing male and female (Macionis 2012: 169). Sex is based
on chromosomes, anatomy, hormones, reproductive systems, and other physiological components.

Gender refers to those social, cultural, and psychological traits linked to males and females through particular
social contexts. Sex makes us male or female; gender makes us masculine or feminine. All the major agents of
socialization—family, peer groups, schools, and the mass media—reinforce cultural definitions of what is
feminine and masculine. (Dionisio 1992: 1-2; Macionis 2012: 170).