GENTRAL LibKaRY LL, GUWAHATI 72 Liquid Flat-Plate Collectors [A brief description of the liquid flat-plate collector has been given in Sec, 2.1, and its varied applications have been described in Sec. 2.2. These include water heating, space heating and cooling, and low- temperature cycles for power generation. 4.1 GENERAL The basic parts that make up a conventional liquid flat-plate collector are (i) the absorber plate, (ii) the tubes fixed to the absorber plate through which the liquid to be heated flows, (iii) the transparent covers, and (iv) the insulated container. The main advantage of a flat-plate collector is that it utilizes both the beam and diffuse components of the solar radiation. In addition, because of its simple stationary design, it requires little maintenance. Its principal disad- vantage is that because of the absence of optical concentration, the area from which heat is lost is large. As a result, the collection efficiency is generally low. The liquid heated is generally water. However, sometimes mixtures | of water and ethylene glycol are used if ambient temperatures below 0°C are likely to be encountered. The absorber plate is usually made from a metal sheet ranging in thickness from 0.2 to 1 mm, while ther petal, range in diameter fro re also of Pv elded or pressure bonded yh: 4 itch ranging from 5 to 12 ¢ bea, ned tothe fp OF ATE inline anj ON Pre metal most commonly Used, bp, tubes, Leste ete in India, be other absorber plate-tube combi ee roe ‘These include aluminium cheat Tepper or gala steel tubes with a pressure bond, mild fag avaized steal sheets with izalvanized steel tubes, and stains ieee with builtin channels, The header pipes, which lead the abe ot ofthe ealletor and distribute it to the tubes, are me ian tal as theeubes and are of lighlly Tanger diameten gf 25cm. sr or toughened glass of or Smm thickness i the most fa mate fr the transparent covers. The usual Practice is to have ‘or two covers with spacings ranging from 1.5 to 3 em. > The bom and sides are usually insulated by mineral woo) ry sour dts oo with covering of aluminium fol and as a thick ‘Than 250 Sem, Thewhole assembly is contained within by ‘Chibi elted ata suitable ange. The collector box may be made irae ‘steel sheet, or fibre glass. Te ace areas of met commercially available collectors are ao ‘2m°, with the length (along the sh lirectic sll 2s sth (along the sloping direction) being usually larger ‘More details of the component alee a ponents used in collectors are given in IS Ta the lac few years, the use of plat sua te est fom sears, the we of late materials forthe absorb gi seas ar vel hovers increased Thi particly titan dacs eee crea iees temperatures up to 60 oF 70°C. Jey ltt wee not used bc they degraded on exposure # sale Te ave lw ema enfutves a high cel in pomertechoology Pa metals, However, recent advance! pute tray Wich ose att evelopment of suitable ‘exposures to sunlight pind weight and easy '0 gua Fat plate Cotecrrs 11 jaoto COO input and raw material origin wil be ery importa ely i at praluton tai Matte lets nthe inef0 present Bin India, is low. However, it i ‘phe Pall i eon is increasing rapidly. sent 49 000 25 yave been installed in India nthe 1980, The typist ol Alot 2 BO a ity calestor is about Rs 2500 per square me ost conte of atatems aro usually about 1 times the abowe cst, fostalle 8 oe cast of eretion ping nd sess they i sin? ya. PERFORM aa, yw take UP for wil ted flat-plat situation sede side f the abs of flat-plate collectors willbe tubo oth ol will be conside! ‘balance 02 steady state a2 AS- 0 a eon |ANCE ANALYSIS ‘detailed consideration the performance 1 collector. The analysis will first be done sin which the liguid is flowing through orber plate. Later on, the given and transient the absorber plate yields the following ees rate of heat transfer to the working cuseful heat gain, ar du absorbed inthe ab crits on rection and re-radiation from st by con coe th bata ad ie. the ca sorber plate, the collector is rum Sec. 37, the fx incident om the 1? cover of given by Eq. (3- 33) Ipzluretlarat ot Wr ltiplied by te ach ofthe terms in the above equation adr to dete called the transmissivity-absorptiy product ( 0 mine the flux $ absorbed in the ‘absorber Pl - sc orteay + Uara + G8 #1 ety} sow Foor r tetas ag ss sa, iw whieh, uomissiviTY OF THE COvER = trnannivy oF ts lane cover even He eatin op yy 5 AN Matar Uno fer ett ion at thy yey AP gy oral borin EM 64 Uh ating vs toy cum fo ov lve gas cow AYA, emt wc i ny Ac uboaptvity of he abn bor pate, ‘ret. eet Au, = transl bor ptilty pros for be wi tur) tyr the collector (fino in ens 1), {o0g = teananiivity aboot prendct for dt radiation fy of Hie C0708 nate OW calor a Hectic betaine an an ay a us oo ‘ ivy wbtined iy considering ony abrption, we "nh oor teem have bee dt i Chapter wl Gotha "Tr, one to ovat ge it Faq (ALD, IC noeemsary to isl lotraction aca ec an A it fie fespressions for eadeulating the wales of (0. (HY and gy The avn a nerf a calculi wil therein be taken up the section hich ie th tei paral ‘aaa 3) Twthe dition given in By. (4, he are ofthe absorber pate, ss i the denominator Oe the sletr aperture are) i calestr gros rea (i slo wae The elector aperture th ‘et opening in the topenst corer thr which ela udiaten ‘iste into the elector, the cleo rosa is the va fhe topo cover Linctuding the fame). i uuely about 10018 | eM rot more than 4, while is abut 151020 percent more nd, FE the liuid flow rate through the collector is stopped, there is fo | ssf heat gain and the ffseny is ser. this oe the aber Fisteatuins a temperstore such that Sy Thi tempers the Righest thatthe absorber plate cah atin and romelinee ‘fered oa the sagnation temperate, Konmledge af the steno coperatare is wefl as an indctor fr comparing difer eoce fe ident on the illest "Al sin i low, ‘i aflected! anid refracted (i. 1 reflected bea TNC this stage, Hil be worthwhile to doting G0 termi gg | ll cn role : monet inant etn ny a maton Century | elfen al in cht th a inatontanots eto fice bin Wy | aon in en 1 th cla ocnh sles _Usefil heat g iestions Py which states that | co) ere oy zangle of incidence, her mangle of refraction, iso refractive indices ofthe two media _ gs bee iene S269) hate earn Seg es ee fay Ls go eat ld m gpa reat i cin cin he et he nine cof two Media v £ 9.41 Rotleton and Reaction at the Inerace104 Soler Energy at Pate Cory og eect OP ODP oh ot ea piOrstefs.y ‘the vefltivity (=D) 8 rebated Wo Ue an refration by the equations p= hors pn) sin 95) sin? Wy 94) tan? 6) . elt tan? by $6) " goo” ad py bing the reletivities of te tora components of yy om pu War the special ease of normal incidence (y=), i a be ready eee Wx eh if WW, ica het ent ot that : ax which beat is lost from the tp, 1 le heat trom he ton, 7 eat which eat i lst rom the side ot losses is also expressed in terms of ese Ios 8 of coefcients calls och of cient he bottom loss cefient and the se rad ge 7 defined by the equations FAT pm ~ Te) 48) Ad pm Ta) 419) UAsT mT) (420) “pe noted that the definition ofeach ofthe onficients is based Il ad he tmperture deren Ta Ty Ts ne ig. 4S. Abworpion and Rallecton atthe Absorber Plato ietciente and hon in ving te simple auiitive equation U=U,+U,+U, 421) ‘Thus, the met fraction abworbed (114) tui += epg + 1 af 9+ Pape Py reprenenta the diffuse reflectivity of the cover system: id hy determining the value 14(1 — rs aio "(lt forthe cover nytem sytem Similarly fr aon an that pa = 024 for three gle cover a can be sown tbe O16 and 0.2 eapoeteely ne ne alae of ! (4.16) The nymbol Tecan be foun for an From sen ean alo be pictured in terms of thermal resins 2 od II loss coefficient is an important in Fig. 46. The overall aemee it ix a measure of all the losses. Typical values range 2 to 10 Wim?-K. ‘Top Loss Coefficient Tos coefficient U; is evaluated by considering cometion end ion losses from the absorber plate in the upward dietion of calculation, it is assumed that the transparent covers10. Solar Ene" Ligue atte Colac 11 fa 1 h 1 re (WA) (yy i (WA) Euivalent to 1 Tm in % Jo (rAd) “ee Bee cece Te ig.'4.7_ Celeulation of the Top Loss Coefficient fq, 46 Thermal Resistance Network Showing Collector Lose, | (TT) | hes Pen ~Ta and the absorber plate constitute a system of infinite parallel suf, haa ta Tat ao 208 elke fl of heat is one-dimensional and stead:* Its farthe ecere saad thatthe temperature drop across the thickness ofthe corey ehg(Tea~ Tad + ATE ~ Th) 42) SSegiable and that the interaction bétween the incoming solg Fidaton absorbed by the covers and the outgoing loss may be ‘The outgoing re radiation sof arge wavelengths. For thes ‘Fevelongths, the transparent cover will be assumed tobe opaque. This a very good assumption ifthe material i glass ‘Stebematic diagram fora two-coer system is shown in Fig 7. ln fa sendy state, the heat transferred hy oomvection and radiation tenreen (the absorber plate and the frst cover, i) the first cover and the second cover, and (i) the seco cover and the surroundings rust be equal. Hence, tT mT) a2) a eoby- an -T 116. Hae and 8. Went, Pertrmanc of Peale - eee San erent nara veetive heat transfer coefcient between the absor- com sphere hye Per ate and the first cover, ber piv eat transfer afc! tween te stand aa Second covers Sen ond toe heat transfor coefiient betwen the 1 geet Ghia the end) and he sure te wes attained by the two covert ‘ta, Ta temperatures ata ae 7 fete ogee ans nS radi ce “orber plate for long wavseneth egcemissivity of the abe fadiation, : une covers for Tong wavelength rai cecum cn emg ani 4.2 onsen ee rich ave abe jlved for the unknowns. Taste ‘which have to be sol which rg can be done i wl be =e ‘equations et However, bne so Eom the sanvestive how convene fo cab I ant ace th hy tomperature 18% len net Nanate Coote! Between Meth Parangy a“ Pacman convection Dat tae oof fr thy ree arte nate and he int over of hg SSSR Bana fhe grea oS, retin are based yy ta, lata an all previous corrtauon ay / Nin Ray owe 3 108 . 1708). an Sot 1446 [1 gE OSG) 1708 eco 8 Sy Nac + 022 (Ra 0B 5000 Rago 89.25 te Nu 0015 ago BY 9.21% 10< Ra cob e1og xd fa ar the Nast and Rayleigh numbers repecng charaterst dimension isthe spacing betwee b dems see rl ee nn ak ‘Heat Transter Coefficient at the Top Cover The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) at the tp cover has ben rzcrally calculated co far fom the following empirical corrlace, A, 7+38v. (425 = — 4, is in Wim K and V. is the wind speed in m/s. This gzreatn is band m the experiments perfored fo urge for ferw of ir at room ed ver nse oom inatatione jMore recently, Spectow and hie co-workerst have suggested the Sherwin. Pimensimeae corr dation ae Se aihett flan 8 YK. tdntte, “Maenl Coreen ia a fee i fe Yani, Nand 0 Ht wn Haat anaton Bone ante va (ete ha Yocry tito wh YM Tetvenionn Heh why Metnven HAN, Ho Wor 9 A Abe. ge AK Nn, Peed arstaen Hort Tranter at nda ood ees Sentero" aed with tae gn a, vec ec ust inet perforated tora wala x ne atk an eee a nel Yor the dette aa Beer rca, San ate ete nie ty = scm aes the convective los fom te tp Shae Pa ate unsafe ae obtaing? appears desirable tou Rin pees er ions, imtne from which it elfen e Waar we ay Maton. Aa such, i 6 Wkly te underestimate tenet mere, ono velosses when theatre ceveton mpm, ost ie re, | Fe important ‘apes? =. perature of the sky 1s sual eaesite from the | green ha ce | pemetin Retin Tag=Ta-6 am atom Lose Cooticint 1 oeecent Us eae ying nti, mo stom the aor ite 9 ie reel toma ‘bottom of the collector. Pan —— Aetion throu inal nd aay (i 48). Soo Baton oto ion proved in he ems es - /ith conduction ‘dominates. Thus, neglecting —s ‘tthe ‘bottom surface of the: collector easing, le i mcr, AW Aen ad B.A Maa Ale eT Pid Pu lot wine aca MaLosses from a Flat-plate Colleoy Fig, 48 Botlom and Sic 453. Side Loss Coefficient sin the case ofthe bottom les enefcent, it will be assumed the conduction resistance dominates and that the flow of heat one-dimensional and steady. The one-dimensional approximation gg be justified onthe grounds thatthe side oss coefficient is always mas oo ‘than the top loss coefficie rer lata are ZL andthe ect ler ening Es tee te es aS ne Sse is sLale The emperors ovens chon een for rs ars fom ye~T.) a the bore lt evel fase ‘ch ate pad tte. Asuning hr a the ee cate parte etn ee ickness of this insulation is §,, we have bea ati ym ~T.) ently ih, TD Thus, ftom Ea, 4.20), (430 (430 wr Lui tpl Coleco: yp 42 07 all oss coticient for a Nat-pate alla with twp fe gate 2 fan the following date: ce per plate $0.90 mx1.90 absorb Pate and fist las cover” = em eon Fist and second lass covers em 92 ity rn issiity perature emperature Ty = 2972-6 = 291.2 K zg value and the given values of Tym, Ty fp and fe in hy (gi8.2= Ta) 46380. 10138796 10") (4.32) a7 sors 10s -7 Seta atta-T* a (as ea eelTen ~ Tea) + 4455 wn- TH (433) * 4,291.2 Wo hy( Tea ~ 297.2) + BT X 10° x 0.88(2¢3 = 291.2) Behe + gh 2972)+490010TE=TASNGT IO 8 yuations (452) to (4.34) have to be seed the unkown or this, the values of pcre te tq) and Tex For te upon Tad Taare needed. Since these values depen' Assume16 Soler E707 reations (425) to ealeulate Iy-et and oo ea cit he . correlation Cabeuation oot ture of air between Pi 18249) 29941 K ten i late and first cover this temperature, i. 0.0291 Wim-K r= 19.06 x 10% ms 1 = 0.696 943.2 - 995) x0.08 mace Be981% 47 ag nGtn 10) ~ for aes on ‘Therefore, oe EGF yea Calculation of hs ‘Mean temperature of air between first and second cover Nu, =0. 229(61544)°" = 3.6873 2587091 553 Wi 525008 6K Proceeding in a similar manner, we obtain ey -ea= 2.808 Wi? K Caleulation of hy ‘Mean temperature of air between second cover and ambient At this temperature, 173 kg/m? 005 kg K = 15.80 «10°? mis Preo.701 ee nmr “Properties cf air and water ae give in Append r a SP -aensin yori Ae _ 4% (1.90 pot Ae 440.80 +0,08)0.80 4.0.99) i ee oo 42m on "= 0,86 x (0.2074 x 108! Zeon see aBE at pot = 0.0 51178 % 1,005 «2.5 x 102 om eg (oon 2 27.06 Wim? a syringe ass B55 42) 4430 song ch sai he ie a er cin stn 3 2 Ta®) a 2 Be be 9) — Be nL 2 ms "ma Bm ST tate oe Cog oa ld) inthelast in of he abe aro renal The vaiee herefore the average valu of 1609 Wm acepite values of Tei = 326.5 K and T.2= 307.6 K are close to the the vimptions of 025 K and 305 Kit wl ot be necessary to ns for hy -c1, her ce and fy, with these new values. ___1609 i U= Gaga DTD” BO WK Eq, (4.29), bottom loss coefficient Using = 2-05 _ 0,63 Wim? K From Eq, (4.31), side loss coefficient __ ell (0.90 + 1.90) 6.16% 0.05 Ue=" 090% =0.33 Wim? K8 Soar Ere coefficient 1, 2950+ 0.63 + 0.88 24.46 Wim? K sterefre, oval oss a Empien Banton fr Top Lose Coecent is clear that a tedious ite 1 Banple 42, itis lear dl ce From Bx ptaning the value ofthe top loss Tac, ei Feira large numberof eases covering the ey, cali ally expected for Maple colectars, gy canons loving convenient empirical equation for ga” it " ef ote x u Oley fa E yp fe M+f [athe 22a) 5 OM+F-D y| arming 1-004, + 0.000582 (1+ 0.091 34) = 3651 ~ 0.0088 B + 0.000 1298 pi) M= numberof glass covers While sing Eq, (4.85), Toy and 7, . 1 | Tam and Ty are expressed in Ky Walk cin Wm x and lin degrees. The value of Ui mee se Wak The rng of conditions over which Eq (4.5) has he + 220s Ta5420K + 28057, s310K + Ol se 5095 10 <¥, wil, ‘The term Fp is called the collector heat-removal facto, smpotant design parameter since it is a measure of si cs Sr mi Coletor fid. From Eq, (448), it can be seen that Fy reprost 8 tatio ofthe actual usefl heat gain rate to the gain which yong ifthe clactor absorber plato was a the tomperature Ty, even As such its value ranges betwoen 0 and 1 = Equation (448) is avery convenient expression for calculating y wel energy gain because the inlet id temperature a ue | nown quantity. Iti offen referred to as the Hote! Whillons | equation ie Me 4.8 A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE evs ow iustrate the usaf the equations derived inthe prec sets trough a detailed numerical example, he Freeing Example 4.3, A flatpatecolesors made up of «GI ab on the underside and tn glass covers. sie and to glas cove - Fenath of eallector + Width of cteeter + Lenath of ateorer plate + Width of absorber te Plate to cover spec + Spacing between cone + Thermal om + Plate thick orber plate, GI tubes fixed ‘The following data is given: ductivity of plate material ‘ait Fat late Conectos a5 switylemisnvity 995 ecae ts See inte “yjamneter Up tube =14m 1 Pier Sietyeter of HME =Mom onte giometCncontre distance = 12em 5 3006 contre Criasvityabeorptvity = 0.88 er = Biss 0.0524 per plate ox of glass relative air 1.525 1 Active ctor ne 08 Wray . jector 198 * ots of col May 15 B «pote 1 ie gop ik + Siedtor BY oth angle + Sostace oY = 665 Win? 1 ee acd ti 14 0% osistance 1 nabesiie nbe heat ‘transfer coefficient id Mow ate 1 ate ee temperature :. oa en : + Wind 2028 oo thickness + Back insula einal conductivity = 0.04 Wim 1 Iomlation Sod less coefficient is 10 por eat ofthe baton e pater Galea: op jmcidence of beam radiation on the cllestor, 1 the soy Safi incident on the coleta, 2 the d (Oe 3, (co)s and (Fux absorbed by the absorber plate, ae aor jheat-removal factor and overall loss coefficient, 5. the cee temperate and $ the instantaneous efficiency 4, Angle of Incidence of Beam Radiation gn ay 15,2 #395. From Bq, 2), 360 in| 382 ona +158) soos S.a4+ a8 18.79 From Eq. (3.12), : ae EAP 2h 4(62.50 ~ 73.85) minutes + (+26 inate) 1h = 32.0 min : = 10h 28.0 min.Be (tens 1859") (1nees 18.59"| 5 cose 7202/9 ‘Therefore, from Eq, (3-35), ‘ "press 02a4 + 20 0574) +(685%0.005 = 850.7 Wim? 3 (ttle anid (tthe Angle of incidence = 29.37" ee ‘Therefore, angle of refraction = sin" (sin 29.37°1.526) : 218.12" rom Eqs (4.6), (4.7), (4.10), (4.11) and (4.9), pratt (29.31 — 18.72 sin® 29.37 18.127 = 00818 usta 037-187 tan* (29,37° + 18.72%) 2200615 _ T+@x 0.0615) 9-799 tae 500088 +(x 0.0285) = 0-896 10283 us 1 700785 +0806) = 0.8445 ya +0998) 07 iene 24.58") 668 absorbed by Absorber Plate fix absorbed by the absorber plate is siren "5 = (685 » 0.9884 % 0.727) + (220 "0 TAL x 0.642) “+ (895 % 0.0052 % 0.642) = 600.4 Wim? tor Heat removal Factor and Overal Loss t il in i 1d U; cannot rative procedure will be required since both Fz and Ur aiermi .d and the value of one is dependent on! oe Ey ce Assume Ui= 40 Win °C. TMS, reasonable 2° jase covers and nenec® for a collector with two surface.4 587x 10% genset? ee 35x1.3x 107 m(W-D,) _ 9.38(0.12 - 0.018 2 2 o(eitany im, FF = 0.4769 = Teg) + 4.455 «10°75 _afa eha-d : ssn) Be it~ 298294 56710" 0888 aon bp = 298.2) + 4.990% 107 ~ 72.6 aa S-TR80B I) Ay ont cand Ta=310K any Ta? 1987 gn of Bre ‘i ati" 48.6 991 iG oe! $186 +59) ss08 K 6550 Ay 715% 3600 9418 Win*=¢ (0295 Wim-K Therefor, fom Bq, (4.49) the collector heat-removalfaetg (= 19.68 «10 ms Fa Sao ee] Pr=0.695 i: ; 1, (818.6-331)x0025' oss poner ba page etenase and from Bq, (4.48), the useful heat gain | F 90" Fr&glS~ UlCy;~ T=) | a 866 x 1.51600.4 4.0(60 ~ 25)) oy = 0.909% 195957 22517 pc one 2517 0.02850.025 yea ; 22971 Win? ptetation of at E 3814910 _ 999.5 K= 473°C ature = 3205 K= ean tempera! * k= 0.0281 Wim-K 7.68 x 10° mis From Eq. (4.17), = 4.0% 15x (Tn ~ 25) Thus, Ty = 50.42 + 25 = 75.42°C = 348.6 K Wo wil calculate the val of Tye = 34 value ofthe top loss coefficient using the value 102 986 Palloving the same procedure as in Exaile ne Pr=0.698 : Tay = 2982-6 = 1_,, 210.0257 0.696 ens 1888 292.2 Rey, cos B= 9.81% 39955" 17,688 x 10 = 21264 Nu = 0.229 x (21264) = 2821 2,821 x 0.0281 _ 3 171 Wim K ha-a? 0005 % Hy ho -e1 848.6 ~ 7, 4 587 10 (848.6 - 74) 095 * 088 248.6 — (648.6- Tu) + 4.7687 x 10%047.676x10"-T4) (4.50) eiFis 304 m + _ 31% 1.304 : = peat 02812 10 j= 0.86% (02512 109" =0.001 716 hg = 0.001 716 x 1.162 x 1.005 x 3.1 « 10? =7.889 Win? K Atrial and error method involving small adjustments in ef Tz and Tq will now be required such that the values calculated from Eqs (4.50), (451) and (4.52) agree with each o 4s shown in the following table: *(O.70y5, the ra, ian ther Te ai S287 131.81 =18410 5348-19457 155.05 asia 408-0 = 18992 0.16 9151-9585 = 15740 wes was (Git bey = 187.74 Wien? i : = Bag = agi p= 9-725 Wim" K Now, from Eq. (4.23), p28 08 Wim? U,=0.08 Wim?K )=9:75+08+ 0.06 = 4.605 Wim*K r gin poco! io ad i ation 4.605 «0.88 1-e| As tl 208801 .s501 x 15160) 0.4 = 4.605160 - arse axl = 600 251050 24605 x 15(T p= 274290 = S47 5 K 0.1 -25) Ten it therefore be necessary 2 ps vale Ta oe om il ot here be afer he Bt ory and he vars cused fF FS perm, 20 ain eration a be ae beg o 4. Water out Terperate re water outlet temperate i cist ‘equation. ‘Substituting, 70x4.18(T 5-60) from the heat balance Hence T= 65.59"a 132 Solar Energy 7. Instantaneous Efficiency {cote $34 a, 43), the instantaneous effcieney Using Ba. 48) th | plate area is given by In long o 560.1 27x 15 ‘ol 7 0:38, 10. 49.8 por gy Considering theft that the wate inlet tempera theefceny ofthe given collector irate ow. Tha class covers used are of poor quality and have a Ig ‘As the thermal conductivity of the absorber plate similar collector having a coer oF aluminium absorb fitted with better glass covers having a lower extingge” Ps sould, under comparable conditions, yield a highes cin me ent, iy Ea mies, § votes, § rt materia 1 2 @ 4 S68 n Sand per eat eve prbln 7) However itaould pete gk g_10 Ist) such a collestor would cost mare than the GH clleion "ty of instantaneous Eisieey ola Clear vera Performance Over a Day ait ee ‘Based on Absorber Plate Area) Ics of interet to study the perfarmance ofa callctar ogy 4 FAO be approximately calculated if tis assumed say. This dane fr the same GI colector by using rag lc ee dar radsinereal aaa ee eer ake of simpli te wags | qe of sta ar te ang rate, water inet temperature, ambient temperature and windy tat on hour on ciency averaged over 10 hours from 0730 to are all assumed to be constant atthe values given eater fhll 0 the of be 37-4 percent. Theraiaton data sed andthe results obtained ae pve in aig, appr orks out to Ics sen that the values of the useful heat gain and the eee’ ERS {Fg £1)ineease sharply fom 060 to 1000, tach a pea OF VARIOUS PARAMET! : c eon and then drop sharply after 1500 h. The variation obtnmee e ANCE ‘ypical fora atplate collector and indicates the stro te | 4g (ON PERFORM! 43 that ng dependence sections and from Example 43 tt Sareea tradi indent he colt tm aneey | YOO gg he cing eis an ine Tem oe ‘hat the value ofthe top loss coefficient does not vary much, tis oe iaber of ae rameters could be anil eee lange fe collector. These Pare eteorological parameten We TEA Pefomarce of «Fate CotectorOrera whol Day | nine coset, Th avers etn, he eects sme Dest O08 Wor iano Tin (i20) 100 10 T6or raw ew | MENT arametetramelers discussed are th eevee te 1G) 2339067668 Ts Gis ae aT Tes wb consi number FAS CE a Wm’) 49 192 210 230 290 233 239 221 18541 ‘absorber surface, ‘the fluid inlet ofthe collector, Trim!) 3192 535.5 Ee dust setlement flux, an top glass covet 24 8527 914.7 9082 6148 6582 482.8 2909 eee Frit | S41 ING 945.1 475 349.1 948.9 3466 9429 aga 5587 Win K) 355 362 366 3:22 279/372 4.70 nes 360 498 1 Selective Surfaces wit the characteris 8 ME gi) 811 2825 4273 6604 e10d 6135 6240 s782 2099 298 prbor plate surfaces which exhibit Om and al alee Tet) 3506 3063 34 240.1 yios a40.7 306 SITAR 4967 aot MT cbsorptivity for incom ng called selective swt RG) 17 314 400 408 age 450 429 33 290 aa rong raion en ee o they desirable because they The aver zat we efficiency over the whole peri, during whieh upofilals BOHM gs 5a BO yA wine “ gun eoliecir Fis Bie ssi a0 a8 The ya ity ehh Rory adler 4 fe — sa plte lec Wes 8 7 vi tty fh caf eget DV User alt Mh sition fexraterestrie] ear raigg nny pprenimatly to the temperature 0 rer sperm 12a) and its immediately obvious tt then eS a tee the wo, Unlike solar radiation, which jag wavelength region up 0 4 um, the radiation ke eae abenrber plate is ofange wavelengths With a may, se wanission 1 the radi i cies than sre has a high it follows therefore that ifa surface that has a high a Fata eng Jes than 4 um and a low emissivity for yaya, treater that 4m can be prepared, it would have the charac ‘sirable for un absorber plate surface to act in a selective Characteristics desired for an ideal selective surface ( : for i> 4 um) are shown in Fig, 4.12 fone of the earliest sung? jeu and = comparison, the variation obtained fo synthesised by Tabor is also shown. ‘The development of selective surfaces u has been the subject of intensive work for many umber of forfiees having eracerstics app ideal surface_have_beeh synthesised and a fe been comme’ so enfacer the deletivity ‘achieved by having cialised_In most of these surfaces the sel 4a polished and cleaned metal base and depositing on it a thin surface layer which is transparent to large wavelengths, but highly absorbing for small wavelength solar radiation. The surface layer is less thay ‘1m in thickness and is dlaposived by a varity of methods. ‘These inelude electroplating, chemical vapour deposition, chemical conver. sion, anodic oxidation and rfinagetron sputtering. Some of the sus cessful developments in this field will now be described. ‘Surface layers of copper oxide and “nickel black” were the first selective surfaces found tobe suitable from a practical standpoint. The copper oxide layer was formed by chemical conversion, by treating 2 cleaned and polished copper plate in a hot solution of sodium hydroxide and ‘Sodium chlorite for a specified time. Values of absorptivity (a) and emissivity () obtained for this surface were 0.89 and 0.17 respectively, Lh, “ci aati’ alin, ack, td Bi Dann "Sc Spal Concer 8 ria th Eien of Slr Cae ee ace Paha tno, Pan Caton he Uf Str re ° eee! sete cute aor nce ste [ tcnrieawestretton ao | eae ais Otsu c EE aie um) w spectral Distribution of Extraterestial Solar Raia pg 12) Sree ebody Radiation from a Source at 250 K and Elepenromatic. Emissivity/Absorpivty Varian Desie p Motgeal ‘Selective Surface and Vafaton Obtained fr Selective Surtace by Tabor the sal sng the average value of 03, Over ee eing the average value of for larke Wier range and 77, surface was commercialised in Austria ike solar water heatin raiprable for low temperature applications ke lar water ee rion and Testing sr Absorbers The Prat be ate Sol he Pr ee pe ‘sbeorber ‘Plates’, Report ED. 7, CSLRO» en lar radiation waveleng for large waveleng let aoe