Some Key Chemical Engineering Concepts for Natural Gas Processing

SOME KEY CONCEPTS

CHEMICAL ENGINERING FOR NATURAL GAS PROCESSING

Contents
DEFINITIONS - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES...................................................................................................2
QUALITATIVE PHASE BEHAVIOR / VAPOUR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM BEHAVIOR......................................3
WATER-HYDROCARBON PHASE BEHAVIOR...........................................................................................4
BASIC THERMODYNAMICS AND FLUID FLOW........................................................................................5
PROCESS CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTATION.....................................................................................6
FLARE AND RELIEF SYSTEMS..................................................................................................................7
HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT................................................................................................................8
PUMPS & COMPRESSORS......................................................................................................................9
FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS........................................................................10

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Some Key Chemical Engineering Concepts for Natural Gas Processing

DEFINITIONS - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Standard gas flow is a substitute for molar flow.  Standard conditions are not
universal. With molar flow and composition, mass flow is calculated. Knowledge of mass
flow aids in material balances (mass in = mass out) and calculation of compressor and
pump work (work is proportional to mass flow).

2. Physical properties of mixtures (i.e., gas density at flowing pressure and temperature,
specific enthalpy, compressibility [z]) are a function of Pressure, Temperature and
Composition. Use an equation of state that is based upon a gas composition similar to
the gas composition being evaluated.

3. Gas mixture compressibility (z), is used to calculate gas density (at flowing
temperature and pressure). Accurate z values are required in sales gas measurements
and centrifugal compressor design. Otherwise, precise compressibility factors are not
essential.   

4. Actual flowing gas density is used in sizing, troubleshooting and debottlenecking,

separators, compressors, pipelines, fractionator towers, amine contactors, amine
regenerators, TEG contactors, etc.

5. Physical property predictions become less accurate as the composition becomes

more diverse with respect to hydrocarbon families (Paraffin, Olefins, Naphthenes,
Aromatics) as components become less defined (i.e., C vs. specific isomers) and as the
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non-hydrocarbon (i.e., sulfur compounds, nitrogen, CO ) concentration increases.  As

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such, apply appropriate rigor in stream sampling and analysis.

6. The effect of impurities (especially those unplanned for in design) on process efficiency
and capacity.  Impurities (aromatics, reservoir rock, pipeline scale / corrosion products,
‘sludge’, corrosion inhibitor, etc.) can result in decreased TEG dehydrator absorber
performance (i.e., increased water dew point), decreased amine contactor performance
(foaming and/or not sweetening the gas), decreased amine and TEG unit gas treating
capacity, increased filtration expenses, decreased separator performance / capacity,
etc..

7. Nomenclature: “Gas processing” is removal of C hydrocarbons from a gas stream.

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“Gas conditioning” is removal of non-hydrocarbon impurities (H2O, CO2, H2S, N2, He, Hg,
etc.) from a gas stream.  When describing streams as lean (lacking) or rich (excess), be
specific as to what it is lean or rich with respect to.  For example, is the stream rich with
respect to C2+, C3+, C4+, or water. 

8. Sales gas specifications may include minimum values or amounts, maximum

values or amounts or a range (such as Higher Heating Value).

9. BTEX (Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, Xylenes) are aromatics and have

Environmental, Health and Concerns.  Further, they promote foaming in glycols and
amines which tends to decrease dehydration (glycol) or sweetening (amines)
performance which in turn can result in reduced production.

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Some Key Chemical Engineering Concepts for Natural Gas Processing

QUALITATIVE PHASE BEHAVIOR / VAPOUR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM BEHAVIOR

1. Define phase envelope terms (cricondenbar, cricondentherm, dew point, bubble

point, critical point etc.).

2. To design, operate and troubleshoot gas conditioning and processing systems, we

need to know where on a phase envelope a stream is.  
1. An example / application is that it is common for gas leaving a separator will
form liquids due to retrograde condensation and restrict production.
2. As a stream moves through a system it can change where it is on the
phase envelope (for example a pipeline, a heat exchanger, a valve, a separator, a
compressor).

3. A dense phase fluid has density approaching a liquid and viscosity approaching a
gas.  Hence a pipeline operating in the dense phase will be of smaller diameter than if it
were gas only.  Also, some gas pipelines operate in high pressure regions in order to
avoid two phase flow problems (slugging).

3. Typically, the vapour pressure of a liquid leaving a separator will be at the

separator pressure (exceptions are stabilized condensate from a storage tank and
water)

3. Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) is a typical hydrocarbon specification that is

commonly intended to ensure that vapours (from a crude oil or a hydrocarbon
condensate) will not be generated during the transportation and storage.

4. Stage separation is commonly used to create stable or partially stabilized crude or

condensate so that the crude or condensate can be stored in atmospheric or low-
pressure vessels.

5. When designing or selecting separators, consider the expected range of flow

rates, compositions (including solids), temperature and pressure. Part of this
evaluation is the consistency of liquid and gas flow into the separator.  Questions that
need to be evaluated include water slug frequency, size, velocity and how will it
change over time.  Other questions that need to be asked include how critical is good
separation is to downstream processing efficiency or what is the impact of poor
separation performance?

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Some Key Chemical Engineering Concepts for Natural Gas Processing

WATER-HYDROCARBON PHASE BEHAVIOR

1. The H2O vapour content of natural gas is a function of Pressure, Temperature and
Composition. The H2O content is a strong function of temperature.

2. Hydrate formation temperature is a function of Pressure, Temperature and

Composition. Liquid water needs to be present for a hydrate to form. Also, molecules
like propane and H2S increase the hydrate formation temperature.  

3. Options available to hydrate prevention are; dehydrate the gas (lower the H 2O dew
point of the gas by TEG absorption or molecular sieve adsorption), operate warmer than
the hydrate formation temperature (not always an option) or add an inhibitor.

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Some Key Chemical Engineering Concepts for Natural Gas Processing

BASIC THERMODYNAMICS AND FLUID FLOW

1.  Allsystems are governed by the conservation of mass and the energy. This can
be stated as Mass In = Mass Out and Energy In = Energy Out.. 

2. Choose single phase streams to help define boundary perimeter (for ease and
increased accuracy of specific enthalpy data). 
1. Q crossing boundaries represents energy due to Heat Flow crossing the
boundary that is not directly associated with mass flow of the stream.  
2. W crossing boundaries represents energy due to Work done to or extracted
from a stream.  Examples are compressors, pumps, turbines.

3. The energy contained in a stream is called specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) and is a

function of its pressure, temperature and composition / phase

3. When evaluating energy transfer into or out of a stream, the specific enthalpy data
of that stream (that is going into and out of the system) must come from the same
source.

4. Pressure drop associated with valves and fittings should not be ignored and can
be estimated.

5. Some multiphase flow pipelines problems can be avoided if the pipeline is operated
in the dense phase. 

6. Knowing where a stream is on its phase envelope as it travels through a pipeline

(and knowing that as the pressure and temperature change so does the relative amounts
of liquid and vapor) is useful in identifying how much liquid can form.

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Some Key Chemical Engineering Concepts for Natural Gas Processing

PROCESS CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTATION

1. In general, keep controls as simple as appropriate.  Insufficient controls results in

process instability whilst excessive controls results in additional costs and potentially
unstable operations.  Complexity can be beneficial but typically requires long term,
readily available resources.

2. Flow rate through a Control Valve is proportional to the pressure drop across the
valve and the size of valve opening.  Control Valve capacity can be changed by
changing valve trim without changing the entire valve.

3. Control valves should be sized to operate between 25-75% open.    

4. Cascade control systems are typically installed on common utility systems (i.e., hot
oil) as they speed up the response to a change in operation of the utility system.

5. Feed-Forward Control Systems anticipates a change in the process.

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Some Key Chemical Engineering Concepts for Natural Gas Processing

FLARE AND RELIEF SYSTEMS

1. Relief valve capacity is limited by back pressure. Its most limiting on conventional

relief valves (unless they are routed directly to atmosphere).

2. The back pressure on a balanced bellows relief valve will restrict capacity (depending
upon design and back pressure).

3. A Pilot Operated Relief Valve can tolerate higher back pressure with less reduction in
capacity.

4. Several flare headers may be in one facility. This is a function of relief set pressures,
fluid temperatures during relief, whether water can be in the system, etc.

5. Pressure vessel Maximum Expected Operating Pressure (MEOP) and Maximum

Allowable Accumulated Pressures (MAAP) depend on the vessel Maximum Allowable
Working Pressure (MAWP) (i.e., design pressure).

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Some Key Chemical Engineering Concepts for Natural Gas Processing

HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT

1. In a shell and tube heat exchanger, heat exchanger duty (Q or the amount of heat
transfer) is a strong function of the approach temperature.  As approach temperature
becomes smaller, the surface area (and amount of metal and subsequent capital cost)
tends to increase disproportionately to the heat transferred.  

2. Decreasing the approach temperature of an exchanger increases the surface area

(i.e., the amount of metal and therefore the capital costs) but it also results in higher
thermodynamic efficiencies and potentially lower operating costs.  

3. If increased area is required, adding length is preferred to adding area as length

maintains velocity. Also, it’s difficult to control flow distribution on the shell side due to
eddys associated with baffles.

4. In Shell and tube exchangers, fluid placement consideration can be a function of

pressure, fluid physical properties (condensing or vaporizing, fluid viscosity, film
coefficient), minimizing pressure drop.  However, it’s common that the most toxic fluid
goes in the tubes. 

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Some Key Chemical Engineering Concepts for Natural Gas Processing

PUMPS & COMPRESSORS

1.  To minimize pump cavitation (collapse of vapour bubbles in a pump) and the
associated increased maintenance and / or reduced availability due to cavitation; 
a. Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) should be greater than the Net
Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR) (provided by manufacturer) through the
range of expected flows,
b. Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) must include the pressure drop from
all fittings (including start-up strainers, elbows) through the range of flows,
c.Avoid vapour pockets in pump suction piping,
d. Understand where on a phase envelope the fluid is on the pump suction piping,
e. Excessive vibrations and mechanical seal leakage (plus the pump sounding like
gravel is passing through it) is an indication of cavitation.

3. Pump characteristic curves indicate head raise as a function of inlet flow rate and
are typically based on water (unless explicitly stated otherwise).  The head rise is
independent of fluid (if the fluid viscosity < 100 cP). 

5. When selecting a centrifugal pump, consider what are the expected flow rates (and
head) over time.  For example, if more flow and / or higher head is likely, consider a
pump that permits a larger diameter impeller and the power supply (driving motor) is
adequately sized for the larger flow and / or higher head scenario.

6. Similar to a centrifugal pump, a constant speed centrifugal compressor will

operate on its head vs. actual volumetric flow rate curve. Typically, the compressor
manufacturer generates these curves.

7. The discharge pressure of a centrifugal compressor will be a function of the

molecular weight of the gas being compressed.  Hence centrifugal compressors are
commonly installed in systems where the gas composition is known.

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Some Key Chemical Engineering Concepts for Natural Gas Processing

FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS

1. A distillation tower can be considered a series of equilibrium stages or stacked

separators where a ‘flash’ calculation is done in each ‘separator’ (based on the vapor
feed from the separator below, the liquid from the separator above, the pressure and
most importantly the temperature).

2. The reboiler creates vapour for the stripping section, the condenser provides
liquid reflux for the absorption section. Stripping can be defined as the use of vapour
(generated from the reboiler hence, raising from below) to remove impurities (the light
key component) from the liquid (on a tray below the feed).  Absorption can be defined as
the use of liquid (provided by the condenser hence, coming from above) to remove the
heavy key component from the vapour rising from below 

3. A distillation column operating temperature and pressure can be determined by

drawing a phase envelope of the top product and bottom products (based upon their
specifications and a distillation column mole balance, i.e., feed composition).  

4. In distillation columns with a reflux condenser, as the reflux rate increases, the
product purity, reboiler duty and condenser duty increase. Hence once product
purity is reached (along with an operating margin) additional reflux or reboiler duty
represents excess operating costs.

5. A minimum reflux rate equates to a maximum number of stages (large capital

expense).  An excessive reflux rate equates to excessive reboiler duty (operating
expense). 

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