DOVER BOOKS ON ENGINEERING ‘Abbott and Even Down (S88). ‘ec, More oT Bast aur oF Rao Macs, Rtherord ‘Ais 51105) Arica ce Woes sao Booes, Hol Asley and Marten Lands (win) Duos us Poets Mca Bea. (65756) Aes, Raymond L. Bisping, Hol Atle and Robert aman (6835), ‘tw Prone or Fo Mono, Robert. Brody, (46-1) ‘Assur ches or Ges, are Buckingham (97124) aecomooae se trance Sony Chanel (64071X) ‘Ato er Mis Rene Dugan (52) Puosamasne Taso or Srucrns, Sermo EEmoN, tae Et ‘ioe ‘ina yo Ravn oF Nownean Yoconarne Meenas, Wil N. Pode, aan Kast Onaran. C168) Mera ng NE, rst Kr an Pook (4007.9) Wore Morsay ase Scam, Kal Gat (7450) Fu Mix Robert Granger S86, Daa Pass. W Haig (08%) ‘hope vo Sac, on Ear (588-2) aur Drsn Con nests Mon Hrs, (64281) Messe vise 1 P,DeaHartog (678) Th Pere Eon Msi Lean Sane to Drs Py Paras "acute, Thomoe I Highs 1188) sss Was SH Kol, (61088) crs Huson Sos spa Eanes Deen, To, Wa Foss rt aan np Reem, iano A Rov and Tress Mtkorn caters) Cconmig Vaaaus 0 Lara Teo 8 Ean, Whur TePage (e31250) ‘Taxzountacaen Sse Buwno illan .Ldy and Maro K, ‘Son (838%). sors oF VISTOL Fate, Barnes W: MeCornc, e (AD05) ‘Donen ArmDnvAN LM Mle Thomson 19903) ‘Nokia Bam: Downs RW Ogden (6480) ‘Urn Avs Saumns of Het a MSD M.D Mow thd A Nera Ovi (T8768). Arp Hao 90 AanowroUes, Ladi Prandtl and OG. Tess, Gas. ‘Tuer Proceso Cunmrsny Rescrne Row Sora, Daniel E Rosner @tts20) (onan en back Map)ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS LW. Liepmann and A. Roshko California Institute of Technology DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. ‘Mineola, New YorkCopy © 157, 1085 by H.W Leann Ro ‘gece copyright© 1005 by Amen nate of Pyss ‘ifs ees wee Pr Aen strona Copyright Boiogrophcl Nite ‘Thy Dove eho, at pb n 201, a marge xpi som othe wo ogy pale Ja Wey Sone, Nok, iT, wh te mio» ot Append a he cretion es Sar epg ie Pp [fit NE 8 eed ein of “eer att yn Library of Congres Cataloging Publication Dat ‘epann, HW Has Weng) 1014- let of ganic H.W. gpa and A. Rk hy pti: Now Ys: Wy, 107, ne Gai ar Toca agra ferences a ISaN osteo gt 1 Gar dynamin Asani. Rshh, A. (Ata HT, cies 15 201 Sos" ae snovoer00 Manure inthe Usted Saes of Americn Dover Plato ne 3 Fat Stet, Mine 1502 Editors’ Preface ‘The sim ofthe present volume isto modernize and extend the treatment ol compre id serodynamia which appeared in 1947 fn the GALCITY teres under the authorship of Hane W. Lipasn and Allen B, Puckett, ‘The new volume includes a review of many problems of high-speed aero dynamics which have secived incresed attention by engineers and sien= ‘its in the lat decade, The etre blve that nation to such exten- slo in the treatment of aeodyaaiae problems, the reader wl wea the {nlsin of the last chapter, containing a short presentation of the fda mental concepts of the kinetic theory of gases, and also the references in (Chapter 1 to ame problams in serothermochemstzy, auch athe le af ras action and digoclaion, Tt appears that catan fundamentals of ‘physis and chemical Kinetics are gaining more and more importance inthe Fld of seronastical enginerng. "This bok i intended mal for the we of studets in aeronautics, but ts hoped that it wil aso be usfl to practicing enginers and scientists ho work on problems involving the aerodynamics of compresble fs “Taronons vont Kina ‘Cuams B, Masa seein Accnmtia! abrir, Cari eta TealAuthors’ Preface Problems of fow of a compresible fu have been stu for along time, For instance, shock waves were iavestgnted in the last centr, some of the hodograph methods were studied areund 1900, and many featues of moze ow, supersonic ets et, were known at about the sume time, The fandamental formla for the theory of thin supersonic wings ‘ould ave been found in Lord Rayleih's “Theory of Sond" The interest Jn this ld, owever, was zstvcted toa very small group of people. On the one hand the unsolved problems interested ony w few physicists the ‘majority considered the subject closed and uninteresting. ‘On the other Ind, the applications of gaiynamics were almost entirely restricted to ‘lists and steam tarbine design and thus interested only «small number "The Tntadrton to Aerodynamics faComprarie Fld by 8, Puckett snd the seaior author appeared in 1947. "That book, developed from war tealning courses taught bythe author, was intended to fais a ebereat account of the topics from gasdynamics which were of prime interest for ‘eronaticalappllation at that tine, For a numberof year now, it ha ‘ben apparent that a new edition, with revision and extension of that ‘atrial was nse. At the time of pblicatio, the book was practically the nly English textbook onthe sujet, but a numberof exellent books ‘have appened since thea, and some rudients of compresble uid flow ‘am now be found in many elementary did mechanics tet Tea therefore decide to abandon a revision ofthe erga text and Instead to rewrite the book completly” The choice af mate today is ‘uch more dificult thas it wasat the tine the Induction ppered, After some consideration it was decided to spl the mates into evo independent ‘yolumes. One ofthese the present one, includes the Frvamental material ‘of gasiyamies but goes no further into aplleation than what i necesary tollustate the theory. Wehope this willbe flloved eventually by anather ei AUTHORS PREFACE volume in the GALCITY series, more advanced and specaied, with rials emphasis on the aeronautical and eile els. ‘Thus the preent volume is inendel to cover the fundamentals of ene ynanics. Even so the choice of material was not easy. Forte book to ‘be uptodate without being excessively larger and more expensive than the rignal one, it was necessary to anit some topics and methods Which are les interesting now than they were ten yeas ago, ‘Thee ae now mostly of casa and historical intrest, or of special ites in some research problems. Their omisin doesnot aller the sim ofthe Doak, to provide 1 working understanding ofthe eset ofp flow. Compared othe Fniavacton the present vlume sate more vanced, Hoowever, we fel that this completely inline withthe yeneral tread in Dhysiy and enginering education snd thatthe present volume fits into the ‘fuentional program at about the same pont that the Fraction Sted tthe time it appeared. The book is agua intended to form the founda tion fora study of the specalined Ieratre and should yive the necessary ‘background for reading orginal papers onthe ebject. Tt ent Intend to ‘bea handbook in any sense ofthe word. We havent attempted to include All posible approaches and methods; neither have we attempted to inchde ‘complete materi in tables, gaps, and eharte for speci ue in engineering design. Tes often stated thatthe inclusion of such material wil make ‘book “practical” for enghering us. We believe that this isnot so but ‘that an inchon of sach mater would make the book very “Snipesti” and very rapidly dated, ‘The choice of «specie conSgerntion, auch as ‘ptimum wing wind Luana, ora shock te, i governed bya large num ber of stringent constraints, General pracpes wn extents canbe given ina textbonk sch as the present ne but the applinton of thee to 8 specific design must be left to the designer. ‘Thus the omission of specie ‘exign data reflects hgh opinion of engineering design, nat the contrazy “The exercves which re given atthe end of the book ae mainly intended to demonstrate the use of the terial in the text and to otlne sional ‘abject, result and equations Simple umerial problems have been Almost entirely omitted. We fel that thee problems are best mde up by the instructor or even by the student himself Tn the tet they mould have taken up much space with comparatively litle help to either insrctor or student. Tn othr wars the function and competence of the Jstrctr regarded in quite the sume way a that ofthe designe, “The general prerequisites of the ook are sch that it can be wed as & textbol in venir and first graduate courses. At the California Entitte of ‘Technology, part af the subject matter ir ven in an Introductory couse and part in mae advanced, graduate cour, A working knowledge of {Ose Arena! attr, Cali Tit of Teco AvrnoRs resrace ‘ caleulus dnd elementary concepts of physics is assumed, Here and there 1 stare” artice of more advanced scope i inserted, but these do not ‘evoualy let the continuity ofthe tet and can be omitted a fie reading. ‘References in the text are usually made only where @apecic,receat per hasbeen wed, Reference to work that hts Heome “lassie!” ave ot bee yateratcally given, Ali of suggested veding i neladed atthe ‘dof the book. We apoogie forthe unystematic way in which references fe given inthe text and for the obviows ominsons and inconsisteni in ‘rhith this result” Any author who is part of an active and cowely kit ‘esearch group tends toward the oulok a interest ofthe group. Since ‘were o exceptions, there isa certain predomiaance of GALCTT material Jn some parts ofthe book ‘During he work on the manuscript we have Beaeited from contact with many caleagues.Speifeally we Wish to expres our appreciation 1 Z. Blevs, J.D, Cale, E- W. Graham, P. A, Lagestom, and C. B. Milian. ‘Much of the material in Chapter 5 developed frm discussions wits Dr. P ‘Wegener. We ate allo indebted to Dr, W. D. Hayes for hi cxitcal and ‘conrrotive review of an ety manuscript and to Mr, Brdord Starterant for his cael and competent proofreading and checking. Mrs. Beverly Cottingham and Ms. Alrae Tingley have contebuted greatly to the prepare- tion and completion of the manusrpt. HW. Lxenucans A Resta fom,Contents CHAPTER 1, CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS Tumwooreiaae Sees Vanna or Sane {Dee Pe Pons Tae mama are Raver Proce Pree Cue ‘hat Gears or Enwors, Tet Seas Law ‘it Caromeas Egsanon of State Tate Bnew aso Pra Eereanry Renvocry Rasaove oor tn Tnuseom Proce (CLAPPER 2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAMICS ‘ur Commies Eouaon ‘et ewer Eouaron Resa Camunone Busty Egearon et Rowen tor ‘Stem of Soon; Sues Ness ‘Tee Amatuoary Reason Rests Yow ve Exit Eycanon ‘Benoa Equiion; Dee Prout Tow a Consra Atwe ‘Tee Noma Shock Haamons ron 4 Peer Gs CLAPTER . ONEDIMENSIONAL FAYE MOTION ‘ar Poors Snook Wave Ome Dacnonae lennon Eqcanons SEUSUENE SEE econ saenesensese& cowrenrs {Tue Acoure Egsaons rorianon ov Acs Wares ‘Ter Sean on Sone Prose a Pare Yet 4 Sova Wave inueas” Soo Tae lneytone Wares op Pee Aun (Gammy Bxasaon Ware CHAPTER 4 WAVES IN suPERSOMIC FLOR niger Son Wat oe mae bam ¢ Mar Lines aime! Paro Amir ‘Wau Ontgce Sua Sermon Conran ny Tone Suet ao Nome Raton Inetcno oF Shoces orm Suet Faster Derscns Soc Soak anunon Tasony or Ss ‘Te Monee Pass Cine Sema Po ‘CuLAPrER 5. FLOW 1 DUCTS axD Wino TUNNELS Tam or Coane oF Vane Ams Noms Row Nott Sac Racone Barer or Satone Tear {ew Paosseincr ap Wi Tovase. Dero ‘Ware Tomas Cousens CHAPTER 6 atETHODS OF MEASUREMENT gessezess BERS Eesesceeras BESS & ry covrewrs a 462 Sri Presne wm ft Mu Newnes oye Peasns Mason ie 1 Sone Pcie Consomnrons rt 18 Tie Stasow Merron ta SM eaansce Marmon i 15. Mew Zemwne nereonees is ( Iesmanoutrs Teorege 1s ‘i Duc Massiewenr or See Paco Hm 0 Horne Pro i (30 Shock Tear haraoweeanon m CHAPTER 2. THE EQUATIONS OF FRICTIONLESS SLOP 12 Noramow i 13 Tee Baoanon or Oormnere 1 Th Tee Mower Eqeano ae 15 Tet Ermer Eguamon ms 3 Snuryve mn Bercy Hove ro aS Rows oF tte Bqsnows oF Moron m0 CHAPTER 0, SMALLPERTURBATION THEORY 12 Danae or mut Parnarion Bxvinon Ps 35 TreDocnsonar Plow Pasr 4 WaveSuaras Wat me Ne Ware War m Smut Pua a CHAPTER 9. BODIES OF REVOLUTION. SLENDER BODY THEORY 54 Gummi, Coomanans ae 55 Domary Comnmone mLEee - corres covrerrs . 24 Mam core = cuarren va. EFBCES OF VISCOSITY Axo coNoucrIriTy 25 Semone how ed 133 Rea freee a Be Vase Seno He S Rt Hatter penn caer how m 2, Seca S BS rect umf bron Yoo & Bin ie ana Str = star oomurtsm coc = 3H Si as Ce = eS Mv ms ee Far Pe % 32, Steer De’ = ep Cake tat Semana soon 2k Yr Rwermn me Sermon How 2 3S feteacner Sreror sr bom ie Aocane fe Serie ser Eman FA er irene = 2s Gener Scere = vay an tn = Be Git Fig rn San Bo 7 Reon & EM boomer Ltr Peas Ome rvs Rar Fae s Ei Romi Swe Wan = ie 1B To ma = ClAeTeR 1. THE SIMRLANIFY RULES OF McSPE=D FLOR Be Sees eniarlse mene 7 S82 Festuca: Lm Ram, Pane so Gomer IEW Goo ow o 4 Dace ot ES i 5 tay, stom: Taine Paw. vor Kis Ram CHAPTER. coveteTs Row cases cas Soe ow = nen = Pattie 5 Anno we Seam La = 1S ern ecm 5 Ki tic" nouan one Sea Fa {eRe cma = 16) Tits oS or Re = cuarren n. reasome rior 1s, he Movas Saucon = ‘chee mo {ee Te rome at Ge EA tele dae 2 16 nanos a rie Powe Rasaon Tae BA ear Ms Ree = 1 Marva ent Cet = BE Betws ow hr Wom 3 a {eb Sat aw on ats Ro Car = 1S Thame Faw Past Soom TwoDosesonas Saree Tae Qe Ao en ms hs ‘eit Rete Bsc of Damm or mon ae Bee woe cour g 1 flr Sor ar = cuarren x. a usraoo oF cuanscrenstcs am eens Inriovecnion ca = rmente Faaon = {er coms anon = som Cumin Tarmrone 7 Sm 2 lure aus = “ ‘son So Fo a 1 i Tsar ye rn Sone ow = ‘uy Somes Ror = XH Roy Pus cs Soo Row ° Scene or = We Pacer ett Pw os ‘eat Pane = et aa en te Fain Pron to ti 3 cums Sas sro me = | 1 ras Stowe Ge 2 Shermer ans am Were EY E okte St at 3APPENDIX covrenrs or | | | | CHAPTER Y Concepts from ‘Thermodynamics 44 Introduction “The base of any physical theory ita set of experimental results, Fimm those special primary observation, general principles are abtacted, which ‘canbe formulate in words orn mathenaticl equations. These principles fe then applied to corelat and explain a group of physical phenomena and to predict new oes, ‘The experimental bass of thermodynamics is formalized in the so-called principal lava. ‘The law of conservation of enery, which themsodynamce {hues with mechanic, eletrodymamic, ee is oe of these peacpal avs. eintroduces the concept of intemal exergy of system. The other principal lume of thermodynamic intzoduce aud define the properties of entropy and temperate, the two concept which are pactiular and fundamental for ‘enmodynaics. "The principles ini down ia these ondamneatl we apply othe relations between equim states of mater in bulk, For inate, thermody amis yields th relation between the spcisc hats at constant pressure fd at constant volume; i ates the temperature dependence ofthe vapor Dresure to te tet het of evaporation; pves upper bounds for the Uftceney af eytic pretence, Fluid machanie of pores! Side, e, Buda without viscosity and heat conlctivity, is an extension of equlbriam thermodynamics to moving Aids. The Kael energy ofthe fad bas no tobe conabeed in adaton {to te internal energy which the Gud poseates when at est. The ratio of ‘this Kinetic energy per unit mask tothe intoral energy pee unit mass i 8 ‘Sharactrist dimensioalos questi of the flow problem and inthe simplest ‘aes dretly proportional tothe equate ofthe Bach number. Themna- ‘yous reals are taken over to petet fd How almost dec. Fluid machi of rst ids goes beyond clases! thermodynamics. The tcansport proces of momentum and heat are of primary interest hee, And system through which morentum, Beat ater, et, are beng Wass. Dore isnot ina state of thermodynamic equibrinm, except in some rather {evil cae, such as uriform dow of matlerUbough xed system. ‘Bat, even though thermodyaacs not fly and det pliable to2 ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS al phases of veal ld lw, ii often extremely hulp in eating the nti ‘tod inal conditions. This complet of problems is best iustratd with = simple emple- Assume a closed, Mea-insulting container divide into ‘oro compurtsents by a daghmm, ‘The cnpertnens contain the sae gus but at diferent pressures fy sd pa, ad iferenttemperatutes 7 and Ts. Tf the diaphragm is removed suddenly, a complicated system of hock ad expansion wavea ocr, and nally subides due to viscous daping ‘Thermodynamics predicts the prere and temperatute in this fal sate easily. Pid mechanics of «veal Hid shoud tackle the far more difclt lack of computing the pressure, temperate ele a8 fanetion of te and location within the container. |For large tne, presare and temperatre vel approach the thermodynamizally given value, Sometimes we nec! ‘nly thse final, equlxium values and hence can make very good wse af ‘thermodynamic reasoning even fr problem that involve sel id fw. "In fui mechanics of low-speed flow, thamodynanic considerations are ot mended the heat content of the fd ie then so lage compared to the “lnetic energy ofthe ow thatthe temperate remains neal constant even ifthe whole Kinetic energy is transformed into het. In modern high-speed flow problems, the oppoite can be true. The inte energy can be large compare to the heat content of the moving ga, and the varation in temperature ean become very lage indeed.” Cone” ‘quent the importance of thermodynatnie concepts has become stedily ffouter. The chapter therfore incades material that it mere advanced od no needed forthe blk of the later chapters. Ariles that ate starred fan be onited at fist reading without ls of contin. 442 Thermodynamie Systems |A thermodynamic sytem Is & quantity of matter spared from the “surrounding” rte “eronment” by an endnure. ‘The systems studied sth the lp of measurements arid outs ected in the suroundings Ts Uhermometerisrtd into w sytem form part ofthe surovndings Work done by moving piston measured by, ty the extension af peng or the movement of weight nthe suroundings,” Heat transfered to the ‘system is measured allo by changes inthe suroundings, eg. eat may be transfered by an electrical heating ol, ‘The cectic power meatred i the surroundings. The enclosure does not necasully consist af «solid boundary lke the walls of a yeaa. Tt i ony necessary thatthe eclenare forme cet face ad thats proper are defined evenynhere. An exlsire nay ‘ranamit heat or bea beat insulator. Ttmay be deformable and this xpabie of tananiting wark tothe stam. Te may alo be xpabe of tant ‘nase, Every real wal as any one ofthese properties to certain degre. CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS a ‘There donot exis perfecty rg wall for example, and sniley there is no perfect hst inate. However, it is conveaint to ase an Heald ‘enconue, contig of parts which have welleined properties such ‘ompete het insaltin, ete. or our purposes iti sulicent to dea with fds only, ‘The aysteme hat we sal cone hee are (a) A simple, anageneous system composed a a single gas o i (8) A homogenenon mixture of ges. (@) A heterogeneous aystem composed ofthe quid and gscous phase of single substance 19. Vavabes of State ‘Ha pte islet alone fora cnt log tine that neat and no mars andre fo it no work x done on ug hs tng Witveach sect equlium, Allmecronoplealysnanrble quan Wil Lec independent of te. Forex the prewar py the value rand temperature canbe eas edn clit nat pend "Yrs that depen only won the tte ft syst ae called wri sil of ants and V are evidetly sich vse, and hee to are they fami metic, For «compete terodjeale do Shomol caption we neal er arb state fen to mean Ths Mina result ofexperience hat the pant of yt snot ons fnction ode vlume, Ane vale of Ste, the tempera, has to beno- dace Fore sinpesyten, p= are) ay Following R, H. Fowler, on states the “seoth law of thermodynamics": “Thee exatsa vatible of tate the temperature Two sytem that sein thermal contac, Le, separated by en enlosre that transmits heat, ae in eulbrinm nly if @ the same in both Consequently, with the lp of Eq. we can use the presse ad the ‘volume ofan atitary syrtom a « thenatmetr Whe we discus the exchange of work or heat between a system and its surrounding, we find the ned for avaible of sate, the internal eneey, tmhich meesares the energy stored inthe system. The fst lw of tro. ynamicy introdcen , a wl be see ater. Purthermove we sal nt neceazy to introduce n variable of sate S, the entropy, which, for example, is need to decide wheter a state i in fable equilibrium. The svnd Tow of thomodspamics introduces $ and (eines it proper.EEE Err 4 ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS Fora simple system Band S ae functions off, V8. Bu, sac pcan be expressed by V and sing Bq 1 its aulicient to write: B= BY.) 2) s=s0,9) as) Relations tke Bas. 14, 12 and 13 are ale aqatons of at. Specially 1g, I iscalle the “thermal equation of sate"; Bq. 1-2, the “are equa lion of state” A speci mbstance is characterised hy ie equations of state. The for of thee equations cannot be obtained from teem ‘ams but aze obtained from measurements or ele, for ptiaar mole ‘ar model, fom statistical mestanks or Kine theory. “Any variable of states uniquely defined fr any equirium state of the system. For example, a sytem changes from ove state of equilibrium, sy A to another state By then fp ~ Bs lndependent of the process by ‘which the change ceared. ‘Th important consequences of this property of the vaiables of state will become evident Inter ‘One distinguishes between intense and extensive variable of sate. A arable is ale exe if ts vale depends on the mas of the system, ‘The mass fof system aU anextenie quantity, and sare, V, an. or example the internal energy’ H of certain mass of gu doled i the man is doubled the energy of a ystem tht conats of weveral pats equal othe sur of the energies of the pars. Varibles of state that do ot depend upon the total mass ofthe system sre called flouise variables and are type intensive variable, For very extensive viable ike Ewe can intoduce an intensive vars the ‘energy per unit mass or specie energy. Simlsiy we can define a specie volume », specie entropy s, ete. Specie quantities il be denoted by Tower cate Iter, 14 The Pirst Principal Law Consider fui contained in a eat-ingulating encore, which slso ‘contains. parle whel that can beset into motion by falling weight. The ‘reaure ofthe system sept constant, The tesoperatue# and the volume ‘are measured iil (atte), The weigh allowed to drop «known distance, and @ and ¥ are measured again afer the motions in the esters Ihave died down and a new state of equibiam B has bon established, Tn this waya certain arount of wack, equal tothe decreas in potential energy of the weight, ha bon dane onthe sytem, Conservation of enerty ques that this work i stored within the system, Hence there exit & Sanction (0) such that Bee wn concxPTs FRow THERMODYNAMICS 5 1 sala posible to use work to produce an lets current and to apply ‘his work to the system inthe form of beat given of by aheting coll Hoth ‘ofthese experiments were pesformed by Joule in hs casi studies o the ‘echanicl equivalent of heat. A ven mount of work done on the stem ‘yes the same diferenc in internal eneegy regardless ofthe rate at which the work i done and regal of how i is tnsmited. ‘One can furthenmae fax the eopdan of camplete heat insulation and lw alo the pesnge of certain amount of heat Q through the enclrie ‘Qean be define clorialy by the change in temperature of» given mas of ‘rater, or one ean ate Joule’ experiments to deine Q entirely in mechanical terms, Tes important, however, to dain Q and 17 in tems of changes ‘meneued inthe surroundings ‘We can thot formulate the rst aw ‘There exists vane of state, the intemal energy. If 2 system i transformed from a state of equim 4 to another one, B, by a process in which certain amount of work WV ix done bythe strondings and & ‘tan qusalty of heat Q lever the surroundags, the diference fa the “internal energy of the gystem Is equal tothe sum of @ and W, By~Ba=0+W pas) {Ris often convenient to dacs simple delized enlout, the eylnder- plston arrangement of Hig. i. ‘The einer walle ae assumed rigid. We Y 7) 7A. Pin 11 Cyndie agent, can amime them to be hea insulting o capable of eat trnsmisin, ‘depending om the pecs chat we wih to stad. Work ean be done by the suroundings only by the displacement of the plata. W is defined a in rmechancs in terms of force vector anda displacement dr, wa fe 0‘ RLEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS ‘The fore actog os the piston i parallel tothe placement; thus, iato- ducing the pessve pan the piston surface area A, we bave wa frssrn—foar a with the convention tha V i positive the volume ofthe ayn increase This not dificult to sow that Eq, 16 leads to Bq. 17 even in the cae of prenures acing ona deformable encloeare of any shape. (Sher forces an be Intedced alo this is dane later in dnctsng the exations of motion ‘ofa real fi in Chapter 13.) Fora amall change of state, we can write Eq. 15 in difereatl form, ae ag+ aw as) or, wing Ba 17, aE» ag pav (1) Bguation 18s can also be written for unit mas dem dg ~ pan des) Now Bis variable of stat, whereas Q and 7 depend om the proces fel lowed In changing the ste. ‘This smetines nated by weg nd 89 fsa of 7 and dQ. We sal not flow this castom here 15 erverile and Reverible Processes A chang of tat of pte pol only by proces for which ak=0+W ‘The fist lw dae not rete the parle process any farther. ‘Now in the pale whtelexpexinnt of Jol tx evident imposible to reve the det of the proce Ope casot induce the Welt txenct the energy AE from the sam ad ot the weg. "The ren iver Tes vey ean to nd besa sitatins, abd indeed ail nal oy “sponte” proces a7 rei TE one scenes that reverie presi Becrmes evident tht the deviation of the system fom eqn daring the ross is of primary inportance. A ‘tion tke the sng of ld, sudden beating, etna caren in theyatem. ‘The tern rent resto the fs of goatty ie est, mash momentum A creat of eat Bows fhe ext Gat em perature difeence; a cent of mass ovo, if thre exist diferent foocmntation of one componmt; a cent of moment dows, i the ‘it difeences in wey. 4 spi iin ae of quit fi foo erent. & proces eding tom on stat to anothers roel the system renin rng CONCEPTS PROM THERMODYNAMICS 7 the whole proces in equlibriumsi.e ifthe work Wand the beat Q are added In auch a way that no carens are produced, Such an ial reversible Brocesscan actually be cou approximated in an expeiment. For ex- Ample instead of uring the paddle wheal, F could be transfered to aa in- ulate aystem by alow daplacement of piston sn that the preaare and temperature remain unilem within the aystem durag the whole proces (rere 19 gives simple and instructive rample af an reversible proc =) "Th changes of state dca here ea from oe stale condition of the rystam to another. Ttinaften much mare convenient to amide prosaies that proceed at a steady rte. This ia true for many measurements in ‘thermodynamics and is esentil for Auid mechanics. Thus, instead of ‘dig with a padle whet in a closed “calorimeter,” as in Joe's exeri- ‘ment, we may condor hea-inalated dct Jn which Bd Sows at steady rate trough a turbine whee orf ‘The eyster const now of ‘tan mas of ful which passes Cough the fan. Tastead of dealing with a ‘sytem befor and after the motion ofthe pale whet, we now deal withthe Aud upstream and downsteam ofthe fan, Our definitions of te dyna equllbriam canbe extended to this case ely, or tect com ‘ron with thermodynamic process like Joule’ experiment, we have to requite the fd to flow very slowy so that its netic energy is nelle, Th the next chapter we shall drop this restriction and extend the same ‘onsidetion to highaped fui fw. 16 Perfect Gases TEs convenient to introduce at thi stage the concept of a perfect gas. A pefot gas isthe simplest working id in thermodynamics and hence is ‘very uefa in the detaled study of thermodynamic process. For applica- tions to nerodyramics, the concept is even more important since we deal ‘there almost exclusively with gates, and often under conditions where they se nearly pete. Measarements of the themal properties of mses show that for Sow laos the thermal equation of state approaches the same form for all tes, amely, pom RO) a9) or, in terms ofthe density» = 1/ 9 pRO-+ 6) ‘Hace yi a characteristic temperate which tums out to be the some for i gave, and in character constant for spartan. Tis tefl to define an "ea” o "perfec gs which satisfies Ba, 19’ ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS exactly. More precy, a. 19 defines a fomily of perfect ges, one for {ich value of R Any fu at low enough deny approaches & pees gs, ith particular value of ‘Since Gy is found tobe the same fo ll ass, one can define «new, more convent temperature 7, re sh and then replnce Bq. 19 by po oRr dovto) Tis caled the abate mpeatre, Tis possible to show that 7, which is here defined a6 ys temperature, has manning forall thermodynamic systems. ‘The sale andthe zo plat of T are determined from the scale td zero point of the thermometer used to measured. Thus inthe Cnt- irae sale one finds “ nase sod in the Fahreneit cle y= 459.090" ‘Thus the absolute temperature Tcan be writen T= 6427816 degrees Centigrade absolute or Kevin (°K) T= 0+ 459.69 degrees Fabeabeit absolte or Rankine (°8) Ras define in Eq, 110 has the dimensions (velocy)*/tempernure, Tt is rated to the vay of sound in the gas, R32, as willbe en i a ‘fw emit Eq 10 fora given mins A by puting» = 4/7, we ave pv = RT. (108) ‘A stad ofthe beavia of diferent gases Je very early to the concept that ‘uses are composed of molecules aud tha the characteristic parameter of the family of perfect gases defined by Eqs. £10 and 1100 isthe mass of thee molecules, Ths Hay 1106 can be waiten in terms of «dimensionless ‘mass aio A/m = y where m denotes the mas of one asmaecule. Written {in thi reduced or “inary” form, the family of B10 can be reduced to singe one: ” xr (308) smhere lisa anise constant, he so-called Boltzmann constant, Instead ‘fm, the mass of a molecl, one often uses the “molecular weight” min po CONGHPTS PROM THERMODYNAALICS ° ‘elative sits sch that My = 32, Tn terms of m one ba: wy Weer 110) e ae) Am, and Ris called to aniosl ge constant, One casio use ss onit of mass te mle and thus make p= Ln Ey 10e. V then becomes ‘the mae sotome. We shall not use the moe in the following ails but shall continue to refer to unit mas, and alinat aay shall we the pecect. ‘1s low inthe form p= pT (Eq. 110). "The internal energy o' peclect gas Bie «function of temperature oly, En ED) au) ‘Equation 1-1 canbe taken as the rent of experience. We shall se lates, however, that iis abo a diet consequence of Ea, 110. (Often a gas is called “calorcally erect” fa. 1-11 simpies further to (ua) Equation 112 does not follow directly from Bq. 140 by pur theemodyoamic reasoning. For certain ranges of temperature ican be atid by exere ence, and it alo follows from statistical mechanies (Chapter 14) "To jadge the degre to which real gases are approximate by Bas 140 ‘and Hf, we mast sn afew word boat the equations of tate fea! pss, (We shall return once more to this subject in Artie 118.) ‘vey real gas canbe liquid. ‘The highest temperature at which this is posible is alld the erika lemperature Te the corespondig presse and Aleoity are called eritzalpresire abd eric! deny ye These cual ‘aiabes are characters of «gs; they depend upon the intermoleclar fares, ‘An equation of sate for ral gases must therfore involve at Ist two prumeters besides for example T, ad This the casein the fase ‘an der Waals equation of state which can be used to eatimste he appro tion in considering ral gases at moderate densi, tobe perfect. The san der Wea equation is Ee cone -7 cas) 2 Sam Tes plat oH unc n 1sy th nry eond olywp o08 uve omen Fors gl paso age naan ot pron dint ne or min Ey 142. Themen ther eee va RTs ane0 ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS ‘The internal eneray of van der Waals gas is B= Bt) — 20.7) ay sng Ege 1413, 144, and tabulated values of and, the degree of spprorimation of Eqs 10 and 11 for any gas eau be Judged. A more feel approach ie outlined in Article 118 7 Tho First Law Applied to Reversible Processes. Specie Hents “The dierntal form ofthe in law weiten for uit mass (E9181) dam dy pos (1s) 1 we consider reverie proces, then p and T are the premure and temperature ofthe sytem. The Specie Hea, A specie heat eis deind by: 4 oH (416) fe, the heat neaded to raise the temperature of unit mass of the system by degre. The vale of depends onthe proces in which q added. For ‘rnp system the energy ead the pressure p depend only upon and 7: ence any reverable proces can be potted asa curve in aT diagram (Gg. £2). OF couse, we could chose as wale, Tor f, diagram, since P= 9047). “Ths if we know the spec heat fortwo diferent processes, we now forall processes. One usually chooses the speci heat at constant volume sand the specie heat a constant pressure cy. Thea a «-(%), ato o- (4), am ina funtion (6, 7), and hence Ha, 115 can be wrttent 24 dem Mant Sear dy pas {nn cnoayi hrmdann to ndtv wich are ep cnt Inking part dese yo ete (rm that Tap ett ‘Me lee ston lyre sd ay dat hat sh et (ule con | CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNARICS “ ad ence as) 2 (2, (28 or E+)(2 (us) ‘The natural variable of state for «i beasie do appears explicitly in ‘Bq. 118. Keeping » constant leads then to simple expreon like Eq 148, whereas a process a constant lads to th more complicated expres. Pia 2 psa andng dagameat «ove oes Sion Bq 119, Its thus natural task wheter there exit another vaznble of state, related to «for which pis natural choice of independent varie ‘This funtion isthe enthalpy ot hea action dened by deetp a0) nant2 ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS ‘The d= det past odp and the st law ean be writen as dh = dg + edp pivaty nwo tn nd a n ae am a ond 2 Fora pte eae tan be dy ten at) + R= HY Commi, web, fn a 8 a 18, Ls ok tn ty, om Bg 12213, ‘a ond ane-s(it) =0-2 Coney te uv pi at GG eR daa) a= fasts omt va her» fsa + cmt roan ‘Ags i sometimes call cloriclly perfect if ey ane, are constants, Independent of 7. Tn this more specialize ete we have a + const (1280) hm es const (1260) Note that Bq, 124 holds regerdle of whether cand care constants. CONCRPTS PROM THERMODYNAMICS 8 The Adiabatic, Rese Paces. Very important in ater aplication to id ow isthe adiabatic, reverse proces ke, a proces in Which no heat Ss transferred tor from te system and in which the work a done reversby. ‘Wecan then apply (115) o (21), depending ot whether we cham , ‘orp; Tas the varables. The ada, revenble proces i thas given by red ow) Pho 12 fon a8 aps Bere vap oman on ia pee Paar 2. -3(t41) om £--1(8-) an ee 4.28 oso pst tt pn fd -2 ro) -f (4300) phous stg Since R = cp ~ y the right-hand se ofthese relations canbe expres in terms of the ratio = 4, will depend upon except fit ase ‘tha the gsisalscaoriclly perfect. Tnany case the elation fora petiect se nga Ta rene — fp” ALEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS stant, the relations became vey simple indeed = const, HOD Dorr) P= cont D670 a) pm cons? duswy ‘We shall ater se that an adinbat, reversible process ienropi: be, ‘procs for which the entropy S ems eoastant. "These examples donot exhaust of cour, the applications ofthe fst Jaw to reversible processes. But they outline the general procedure 148 The Dist Law Applio to Iroversibe Processes ‘The et typical inverse process that we sbll discs isthe oobi exponsion of gs. Te syste of interest consists of a ves! with beat: Fnelated,egid wala A ciaphragm divides the vessel into two volumes ‘Vyand Vs Fig. 13). Both volumes are ld withthe sme gasat the same Yom pn ZA ie 19, Hasan el wt ving phan, teapesture 7. ‘Theprestres ps and however aedifeent. The theory tf the fw ander such conditions wil occupy ola later capers; here we te Interested only in the thermodyaamia af the setup. Let the disphagin be ruptured ata time = 0, A vslent ow ofthe as ensues; a shack wave propagates into the lon-premure side, an expansion ‘weve into the high pressure side nd by reflection and velrcton a compli ‘ated waveayntem inset up. Thssubaids under the action ofwenity and interoal het conductivity and eventually the gue eat et aga ia 2 new state of thermodynamic equim, We now apply the fast law to the hange from the inal state tothe final one. "No beat ha lef he mrroundings and no woek hasbeen performed by the surounding- Hence from Bq.1'5 we have By~ Be= 0 3) ‘Te intr energy inom expansion proc i conser concReTs FROM TuBRMoDYNastICs a the gas canbe approximated by a perfect gus thn = E(P) and hence ig, 132 yl T=T (0329) Inthe aati ierversibl expansion ols pectect pus, nti an final tate Inve the same lemperature. Historically Gay Lasse performed a mar experiment; he measured the inital sod final temperature and sce be {ound them equal, reasoned that = (0) fora perfect gas ‘Asa second eximple, consider a simfar setup but now asume the gud to be at the same presure pn both compartments butt diferent tem- peratures Ty and Ts, The diaphragm is asume tobe heat insulating. TE ‘now the partition is removed, the temperature tends to egal and again arene are setup, but eventually subse, Forte inland nal tates Bq. 1'32 apis agin. Te terms ofthe specific energy sing Mf and Mf forthe mases ofthe in the compartments Bam Mien) + Maelo) as) Ba = (Ms + Mae(Ta, 20) Specialising to perfect gus, we thas Gnd Myo(Ps) + Moo(Ts) = (i+ MCPs) (U8) 1 the gain alu caloicaly perfect, then lity 6, and Tis obtained ex- MT MTs ee Me (aw) ‘Ava fnal example, we consider the mas important irevesble proces for application to Maid mecianics, namely, the dotding proces or Jal iomson process. Hare we apply the fat law diety to a moving fd under stionary conditions, compare tothe sai conditions inthe previous ‘examples We considera hea insulated pipe which contain a one crn section a verizon eg. Ulli valve, porous plug, or asreen (Fi 14). ‘The tid flows slowly fom the left to the right through tis rset ‘ance ao slowly that its kinetic energy pe anit mas, 2, snegligibe com6 ALEMENTS OF GasbYNaatics pated to the enthalpy per unit mass, That this condition i the proper Enteion to use mill Become cea ater, wea we discuss eases where the inet energy inched "Aso sys we choose the se of fad contlnad between two contra susie on tothe ef, the oer to De ight of the restance. The contol futfaces move with the Bud and, together with the walls of the pipe, form he encanure ‘The rest ofthe fld andthe exter of the pipe and the resistance are the surroundings ‘We now observe the state of the system at two times la and ly which we can choc eonvenientiy so that nthe te Jn a unit mass bus passed throu the eesstance. In is time the Snteral energy has changed owing to the pasnage of ait masa from sie (1) to side (2): B= an a) [No heat hasbeen transfered rom the surroundings bat a certain amount of ‘vock 1 has been done, since the contol surfaces have been displaced by Aliferent amounts sgunet dierent pressures. (Its evidently pouble to replace Une eontel surfaces by plstons without changing the physical pce ture) "The et work dave Wis thus given by women [perf om Since ps ad yar constant, we have W= pn fom (13s) because the change of slame equal to the volume per unit mass on either side The fe lo then yl: an=w act pm a tem hohe (136) “Ths, odabtic ow through a rexisance the enthalpy fer wnt mass wp {iran an dsear of he reine the some. This esl of funds ‘mental importance for many apliatons in fd ow, and is easly gen- alized t high peed low, a wil be en in Chapter 2. Specalizing to 8 eset gas, we have that is, met (360) storia th experiment was performed by Joule and Thomson (Lord ‘Kevin to establish the frm of the energy faction for gases by measuring the terperatres Ty and To CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS ” 19 The Concept of Entropy. ‘The Second Law “The processes cussed in the previous article, 8 wll a others, such 8 Joules pale wheel experiment hve in common the act tha they rocend In ove dvecton. “An adiabaticsystern wil equalize the presure ote em- erature, as inthe expansion of mga or the mixing of gas wit iially Aiereatterperatres a as wil ow though aresstance ony if the pee ‘rei larger upstream than downstream aad $08. General observations Tike thee form the experimental ase forthe second ia of thermody. Ke remains to abstact fom those expences a wall defined law which en ‘beformulated mathemati ‘Consider again the case of an expanding ge Init possible to decide rom measurements performed in two equbelum state, which on wil change spontaneosly nto the other?” Obviouay we ould sy that «pressure di ‘Shntnuty is uatable and that a state In which one exit would span- taneously change to state of uniform pressure. Tn the second example of ‘Aisi 18, we could make « similar statement about the tnperature die ‘continuity’ ‘Such a mearueof irevesbiity i poeble but not very fal ‘Sheet not general enough We ae trying ond a general eiterion sch ‘that ths simple conditions came ont a special ese. Thismny be found ina ew variale of tate whch called , the entropy. ‘Sand Pare both concepts tht are particular to thermadypsmic. That, ‘ne can introduce § formally as follows , the intral energy asthe char. ctr of «patna! enor; for a reoriechonge of ste ofan adiotealy cloned sytem, we nave (oy Bq. 123) # v i the petri equal tothe derivative ofthe internal energy with respect to the slume, othe forces equal to the derivative of with epost tdi Placement." We can ask whether a sine relation can be found for the temperate T, Hence we ty to wete asa futon of two variables such that the partial derivatives ae p and T, respectively; this variable we cal S. ‘Thus Tet us wt tentatively, B= RIS,V) --@), (6), sch that dusr* susuavis oF casprnanics nt ec n= (ars (Sas ~ par eras ‘etn ain th fm (8) dE = ~p4V + dQ ras = a (ste) Hence TS is equal tothe element of host added in a reese proces, Integzating, we have and hence we densify Sn fh dese) hee the integral is tobe evaluated for a reverse process lending from a fated toa state 5 ‘Sw defined as vavibl f state in Bq, 197. ‘Ths to reat it to dO ‘the sytem bas to bein thermodynamic equilibrium, and ence we have to sssume arse proces. We now demonstrate that S as dened by Ea, 137 or Bq. 1-38 has the properties that we expect. For thin pepo, we Shall workout Eq. 138 in det for a simple ereveble procs, the taking of calrically perfect gas of iitally nonuniform temperature (the Second example of Atle 8) Weehall consider the process throug which ‘re etur the system revernbly to the initial condition state B consists of {as with mace (Mf; + Af) ata temperature Tp, We intend to retura the fytem to sate A whore the mas fy bas the temperature andthe mast Mauthe tmperatare Ts. Ror simplicity, chose 0, = Mf = Mf ‘We proceed at flows: we partition the container into two equal prt ence there wil be equal mazes in each portion. We now heat one car partment to Ty; the other we cool oT (staming T; > Ts) reversibly, ie, by slow addition or removal of heat.” We then nd that the tempertares tte correct for state A but thatthe pressures ae diferent, say x and fa. ‘We now move the partition slowiy toward the low pressure side until the ‘preeures ate equal. Thi at step has co be card out keeping the tem- peratures constant, de, with adlinal het transfer tothe system, “recipe he aan f 2 tp ® LPL ELE (1390) conckers wkow THARuoDYNasttes w 0 Saft Lora ve ~f Bann t-vine) om) But Tis related to Ti, Ts by Bq. 1385 Tt Tee snd from the equation of tate nO Hence the entopy diference becomes, wth cp = R-+ é 2 fa GAT? Ag ain i ce 4 Ty Now, ATM > 1, whenever 7s rT and equal to 4 if 1) = Te Hence Sa > Sq except in the Wivial case where the temperatures are nally equal For the first exampl of Article 18, the expansion of «pafet show smiarly that Sa S4= MR ay ‘On the other hand, for the adiabatic, reversible process of Article 17, aE paV = 0, and hence Eq. 137 or Eq, 1 lends immediately to ‘Sp Sy ~ 0. Consequently the function $ dele by gp 137 o 138 fs atleast for the perfect gs, the expected property. Tecan be shown ‘that this is equally tre for al possible thermedyaamic systems. The rool can be given by tang the so-aled Carot eye, or by the more elegant And direct method of Caratheodory. For this prod the readers refered to the tanderd textbooks in themodyeamic, ‘We formulate the second nw then a folios (@) There exits an extensive varlale of ste 5, the entropy, and an Intensive vaable 7, the absolute temperature. The entopy difrene tween two states 4 and is given by ssn 2a” ELEMENTS OF CASDYNAMICS here the intel efers to any reversible proces leading rom A to Band Tiseatcal with the temperature delnd by Che perfect slaw. (@) Forudasnd system, Le, oe that exchanger neither het nar work wits the srroudigs erates in any spontaneous proses.” ‘The sstem has reached eulibrium i bua rached 2 maximum. Tis powsble to show that, for any oataral, Le, lveverble proces, 45> nda ie ove ange ded ten, = 0 Watts > 0 Tha wel an ay pcan an ew 188 pr? a asa ft ‘a sense ft oe) ere St mc ry 4a on xy a function of Vand Tor p and 7. Like Band i, Sis detensined only wp to an additive constant gn f BEL of PEE 4 ese Spat Sare foE4 Rit ct (140 [EM wa in ett, a oe Rap tom a) ‘The above relations aefors thermally pecact us. it sas aorcally perfect (onstant¢, ahd) the equations may be written ln T/T, — Ra p/P posse, pone ela T/Tit Rina dove) snore (fs Ts) at the conditions st some reference state. 440 The Canonical Equation of State. reo Bnorgy and Pre Bathalpy ‘or «small everible change af tate, we have 7 @S = dQ and thus ap= ras pav (tte) a= Tas Vap cvs) Equations Ite and 1-448 involve now only saris of state, ince dQ as been sepaced by 7745. From thee equations it becomes clear that the ata choice of viable for Bare and V, and for HS and g. Thus CONCEPTS FROM THRRWODYNAMICS a @,-" Gi), 4540 (),-8 Gn (146,09 1 £(S, Ys known for a simple sstr, Eg. 145 yields bth the elie ‘and thermal equations of state, The same is tre fx known asa fonction HGS,9). Sand T and Vand pare called conjugate sriaber, The elation B= HSY) H=1G,9) ave sometimes called “canonical equations of stat"; each one sce to ‘crite simple system completely. Te second frm used In the 30. talled Motor dtagrm, where n process ir represeted in «plane with tod Sas coordinates. ‘The Molize diagram ie very convenient for» graph- representation of «flow prooss. For instance, ld How though a heat Insulated duct ikea wind tunne, spartally isentropic (S = const) and Drill senthalpc (27 = cont). As an example fr the canonialeqat- ‘on of state, consider agin the thermally and calvkally perfect gs Hara los ey from Eq. 48 and 12 the enol eqaion ‘rites for wit mas is Fg. 1 pi: he ote 8 om gen 48 ge Ta Bh cmt opin va) us ie oa ence Eq. 1 ylelds the caloric equation of sate h = e+ const, tnd Ea, 1-8) yields the thera equation of sate po = RT. eis not always practical to use S and V, or Sand p, as independent variables 1s matunl to ask whether one ci construct futons rated 0B, 5, and H which have V, T and p, Tas tural vasabes. A sinler onsierstion leds already to introviee In Ba, 120. We introduce F, the so-called free exgy ometimes clled. avaible ‘energy ot work fanction), and G the re enthalpy (ometines called Gibb ‘roe eney, and alo thermodynamic potential) defied by: P=E-TS (190) G~u-15 (1498) —2 [BLEMENTS OP G4SDYNAMICS rom Eg. 4a and 1-44 we ths fn: P= dB-Sér—Tas=—Ser—pav (1800) sG= dH —Sér—Tas=—Sér+Vép (108) Hence the antral variable are V, P'forFand p,TforG. We hve, anal For exatpl, the specifi free entalpy of «perfect gaa (ste) sa feat—rfe Zs xriay—tothe pus sallow imma fom Bp. 4.26 a AS $A11- Reciprocity Relations Often very wieful a rlation between the caloric and thermal equations of snes obtained easily fom the dliferential frm f the second la Tas dh ¥dp ass) 29,7) ie fllows that From: ay, since tence fom Eq, 153 (ests) ase) a» uations 154 are called “reciprocity rations.” From Eqs. 154 we oan mina ¢ by_iferentitng. Bq. 14a with respect to p, Eq. 1S tnith respect to 7, and aabercting; hus we wet: 1 @h 91 (a rigor or TMi CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS a a Barr bess) For instance, using the pefect gas ass test cae, at andes IT Bay ool conseunty sean Relations slr to 15S can also Be wten fro, 2) 112 Ratropy and Transport Processes Irreversible changes of state novel involve carrents in the sytem. “The fnrease in entropy daring on reversible process must us be teed to thee currents, (One may proceed beyond classical thermodynamics and aque whether it is posible to define th rie of exepy incase daring te ireveble process One can say tht, during the proces entropy ie prose ad Tetin the system, Ta this way, on can dete «continu eqation forthe speciceaeopy, in much the same way that one obtains «continuity equ ‘on forthe density. Namely, one can formilae a elation fr the rate of change of specie entropy a's fxed volume owing to to contributions: ‘he net fur of entopy into the volume and the praduction of eatropy ine the volume Special examples af this procedure wilbelef fr later chapters, Here we are mainly Saterested fn the production term. Clsly, the pro- ‘duction of entropy must depend on the “current” sace it vanishes the arent vanish. The curets, onthe otuer hand, depend on the sata rate of variation of variables of state, suchas temperature, mass cnceb- tration, et, and on transport parameters such as heat conductivity, die tivity, ete. ‘The formal relations of entropy production ave to satisy at leas the following requirement: (@) The production mast vanish if the currents vanish, (@) The production must be postive For the simplest cace of small one-dimensional cutens ia an isotopic ‘medum (which inchs allie of cassia fd apochais), this leads to the following raul. It ¢ denotes the rate of entropy change per nit” sunuanrs oF cxsrnasecs nll ng nb et deo a) oo ee, ec tte dn tha ont, The oy pro tion die fo vaitons of otsentam inthe direction of ow, at is sound wave or shack waves gvea by 30) whore denotes a coticet of viscosity 4+43* Bquiibrium Conditions ‘Avgystem bs ruched a state of stable equim if no further spon susan Fosse prc 2°32, Hee ‘the nytem in «stable oglu if for any proce: % ws (156) orig the st aw, Tas @E+ p3¥) <0 (sta) Tis ~ GH Vip) <0 (sm) ‘The notation 30,85, ete refers to a socalled “virtual” variation, Ley & small change ofthe variables compatible with the constraints ofthe system. rom B57 fllw specie condition forthe "themodynaac potential” ‘5,8, H, and G for vavous constraints. 1. Fors closed eystem, eth expanding gas ina fixed, heat sete, BE = 0,67 = 0 and hence asso piss) fe, the entropy reaches a maxim. (Far any virtual process Scan only scene; hence has « maximum.) Trt V and T or p and T ate kept constant, we intoduce P= B— 7S. and G=H— TS. Uefollows fom Bq. 57 at in equbiam a0 aT~0 =0 ditso) ico seo =o dia ted Free enegy F and foo enthalpy G bave a minimum of equilibrium under ‘Me respective constrains, CONCEPTS FROW TuRRWODYNAMICS 2 ‘These two cates are the most important cases fr our purposes, Others sno, of eoutse, posse. “The sty of themodyomic equa was developed by Gibbe, who patter it after the mechanical eqilbriam endtions, 10% Mintaresof Perfect Gases ‘Tho working ud in aerodynamic ip almost aways « mistre of gas, ‘and the range of vacabes of state usually such hat the gues are nearly Preloct Hence miatures of perfect gars represent the tot important ‘hemodynamic syste for aernatial applications, Such @ mixture sa homogenous sytem iin eq all variables of state are uniform throughout the systom. But the mistue i wt a snple ‘uem sce the masts of the component gees nec t be speci in ‘tonto the usual variables of state of spe ystem, ‘Ths we shall hae, fr example, B= BS,V,2) (1610) = HS, 2,3) sw) 1 the component gate ae inert, no reaction wil occ between them ‘and hence fora gven mass of mistre the x wil be constants, independent ‘of temperatare snd prewire, In this eae, the care wil behave ke Single perfect gs. Yor example, al aa mature of Na, Ox and trace of ‘ACOs, ete. Over a fail wide ange of temperatures and pressures, the ‘omponent gave are inert ad ar can be tented asa single perfect gx (n the other hand, any diatomic gus (or, ofcourse, any polyatomic gs) wil dsscate at high temperatures and form a reacting misure Thus alrogen at high temperatures will const of « mixte of Np and N and the masses and ay present wl depend upoa the pretend temper tue. The same s tue fr chemically senting ase and sla far the poe ‘esol foniation, ‘Now Eq, H6le or Bq. tb gives complete thermodynamic dexciption of the mixture provided we know the 2, as functions of, ay, p ant T. ‘This relation is frished by the socalled law of mass action which follows from the eqalibsiam conditions of the previows ail, ae wll be shown presently. "To apply the equilibrium conditions to mixture, we bave fist to see how the variables f sate of the compound system are obtind from these ofthe component ges. ‘A given mas of gas brought into a volume ¥ wil i it completly; the prestre will adjust itself accordingly. ‘This is characteristic for sas. Fora pore ar, thi ling of x volume andthe adjostment of the presore te independent of the presence of anyother perfect gases in V. Hence, in1% sunuasrs oF casprastics 4 mln fpr uo ca ang paral pee ft he th componet gts sly hep pean pen nar SR ae sd th tl pee of th mii al ote su of he pat resus pode Equations 162 and 1.63 are known as Delon low ‘Now the spec energy’ and exthalpy of the ith gas depend oly on the temperature whic the same forall the gases. Consequently B and H ofthe inte a: B= Se = Sseir) Ditto) Ho Yew Yahlr) baew) “The spore entropie depend upon vlume and temperature or presure sand tempeeature, The entropy 5 of the mixture becomes S= Ysa Lewin) (465) $= BS. Sender) div) enc, informing the eatzopy of themiature asthe sum of the component ‘entopi, we have to be alte careful a to which vatiables to chooe ‘and Tare the same for al gases in the mixture; but v= V/svand paare not these. If we want tchooeeprerore and temperature as variables, tre have to take into aozount that each ga has it own pata pessre Pe aquation 1.6 wil be the more convenient fr us to use. Since we do know Hand Sy explicitly from Bas. 1-26 and 1-48, we have a Sa fears tor] as Sa[fout For the derivation ofthe law af mass action we shal ped the fre enthalpy G =H ~ TS, which follows fom Eqs, 167 nod 168 del: G= Sali) + RTP (1) where wy writen short for wen fonar=2f r+ boo (or 9 piss) : nnptca] 0 CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS # S15" The Law of Mase Action Consider now a mixture of eating perfect gases. A reaction is described by symbolic ratios like 2a + 09 S520 ONSEN, ete For example, two molecules of hydrogen plus one molecule of onygen form ‘ovo molecales of water vspor- If yay ace the maoes of Ha, Os and LO, respectively, we te that change des not independent of day and diy, since the reaction relation has to be sats Call mi, ma a the ‘masses ofthe Hy, Op, and HyO melegles aad intruce a variable ch that y= 2d eg = mon dg = — teed ‘Then any change in gives the proper relation between de, dy and dey forthe HyO reaction, In general, we can thus introduce by apm rauds (70) whee stndsfor the tages in the reaction ration, ‘Wie are now rexdy to apply the equlrium conition, We chose as poten the fee eathalpy ( Equbriam ext for x given prewure nd temperature, G basa minimam. Now @= G(p,7, x) but p and T fre fixed, Furthermore the can be expensed ia tam of the known on- fants», and my and the vadable \.Hlene the equitrium condition Decena “ Zuo an Sines Gi gen by Ea 19, G= SrieiT + RIA) wears és 2-5 fH M+ Rating) tsar Sing] 0m) “Teast em hao be ten sine tn doped on he and hes on Neg 63, bot vanities rane Ging RI A wena” ununvrs om casprnautes tt hia ska and p= Bn EEE Hy eHayBao bese p= cont “Ths we ve aly fom Has. H72and 1.11 wth Ba. 17, Slrman(t) + rake kim Zinger — LE amaity ar or since which i the lw of mars action, Changing to the exponential, Ba. 1.73 recone ppt Tp = KP) bam Erol) K(D) ~ exp Se ‘The deviation of Bg. 1748 due to Gibbs. Sometins a so-called “stand ard state” is introduced; Le, reference pressure chosen foreach gas We ean then subtract the expen Fyn fom enc ade of Bq. 173, =e zn(t)'= eT) + RT Ine = a6 9) hich ste fee enthalpy evaluated at T'and fi, the “standard” fee en- Ahalpy. ‘Thus Eg 1 73ais sometimes weten in thelterature ny de (5) =— ice Af sr fr Erg For eal one may com Gal Suara tee Zrainpe - (1730) 1 ESvmtai + Raep] (749 bat bevrss) suhere the fy are measured in atmospheres and 9 rfes to the “standard free enthalpy at 1 atmonpere” CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAALICS » 146" Dissocatlon Asa apecal, very important example conser the ditciation of atomic gas Iie oxygen. At suiccatly high temperature (~ 3000"), ‘he gas Will emit ef bath Oy and O and willhe x resetng gas mix, ‘Let and 2 be the masses of O and O, present athe miztre. Candee tnt mass of misture, ey 1-4 =f and intsuce the “gee of die ate seeiatin” ‘Thue asa mel ‘Theenthalpy ho the mitre thus gven in terms of and, te pec ‘enthalpies of O ands, by b= ah+ (1 alle=habathh~ he) POLS) Bquation 17 b thus Ue aloe equation of state for the mixture. It ed che important result, = A(, 7) bacause «= a, 7) This mitre of peed gases doesnt ble ieee gos, for which depends on Tony. ‘The thermal equation of sate are obtained frm nafare tar a7 he Since the moles mass of Oy i tice the mleclar mass of ©, we have Ry= My and bance fom Bo, 216 ponte ate) par ence the themodynanic bavi of the mixtures deine as soon ssa(?,7) fe known. a given by the lw of mase ation, Eq, -T4 The renction eatin is 20550 hence = 25 and sing Bq. 16 and 17, we ve EO mee ‘Wine eta 78nd i ae 30 dirs)» LRICENTS OF GasDYNAiCs A(T) i given by Ba. 174 and hance is «known fonction of T. For out uspost here ii euicient to note that can be tabulated or potted for {ny reaction ofthe type considered. Knowing K, we have im Eqs 1-5, 177, and 178 s sulilent number of equation to deive any thermody. nami property of the mixture. "Two mare general relations can be easly derive for this speci example: (e) Tho hea of diseecaton lo, Le, the eat necessary to dissociate unit sats of Op at constant pand Tis given by: bah dev ‘This folios mete roth ft aw apna vay Bars (Bsn thee thos ia) ab oO). 8 ad rom Bg 75 oe olana Ba 198. ® eke, beso) RP “To derive Hq, 180, we we Rap. 175, 177, and the reciproity relation eq. 158): We get ist and, sung Bq. 178, we obtain a, 180 diel Both Eqs. 179 and 180 can be obtained in general and are not restricted to this pei problem “The heat of disociation Jp it function of. However its vasiaton with is often small enouph be nell a fast appeasimation. Tn this ease 1g. 180 canbe integrated and yields Ke = cont ctor (180) Figure 15 shows a plot ofa X versus 1/7 for Oz The curve is wry neatly ‘straight line and hence Eq, 1a is good epproximion. To/Re bab Cieatly the dimension of a temperate and hence canbe cll char (cri tomperaar for desolation, Bo cso CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS a ‘a, 4S la ee 1/7 fo sat, (Ds ae em HW. Wooly, “it 1 Dinca oe Termodynane oper Pare Ds Gun!” NACA Tac "rae 30) 2p Pe, 16 Dep dition vee eur empentive fo ning toe fn ain he om ACA Pa Ho 370)2 ELEMENTS OF GaspYNautes 1 the vatiable of state of « dissociating ditonic gas are plated ae functions ofp and 7, the plot fer for diferent gases, If instead of Ta reduced tenperature Op i introduced, « single groph can be ated ap- Puiu a dati pa Hate M6 and 17 show pial ots ty Ty a, 17 Rede ent vrs ce ampere fr inciting tae ge {Dusan fm WACA ac at 380) Applcatlans of the mass lw to dsciaton of polyatomic gases or to oats where neutal component gates are also preset fallow the same lines, Finally the important problem of fnaton can be—t0 a good approxima: tion—handed like a dsm poole, For example, asume that at a temperstare ail higher thn dissociation we deal with atomic oxygen, Le, with the gas. Ifthe temperatures berome fufcently high, the © atom may lse an acron« and the gas becomes 4 mixture of OF, 6 and 0, ie, of fnied O, electrons, and neutral O. At ‘hove hightemperature ll re can be tated as pefet gases, and hence ro | pen CONCEPTS FROM TuERMODYNAnICS 4” swe have retction equation: oF bes0. to which the mass action lam, and the same consideration a used above, ‘rain apply. saT* Condenstion {income eppliatons, sexily inthe design of igh-spord wind tana, inses at comparatively Tow temperatures are alo important. Hence Terogeer sytem composed of gaseous and a igi phate ofa substance js ometines of interest fn usdynamic, "The comesponiing thecmodyaamic rations canbe obtained from the eulbium conditions, Thi conventional derivation set or the exer “lre we look atthe problem in diferent way: In guynamics we usally ‘eal with m condensing gus in hh the ig pase is formed in minute troplets cared alongwith the stetn and Ja which the vapor i meaty Defect gs. In sch cage we cn consider ee dap lik the molec of @ fovy hen gor and again apply the law of mus action to the “reaction” ‘evwean the gas and the droplets; eg. for condensing nitrogen, Na, the "eaction eqation” i nNs=D where D stands for “droplet” and ea very lange number, even for the hall droplet of interest in gusdynamic. “we apy the lw of nase action (Eq. 174 to tis rection, we have ee aay) =Ka) or io loathe fom: nln In fa = In CT) = — ce ous, ~ ae) wr Pm ert Ns Pont te ts. Now ee tare ny a tne at a-ln=— Zea) os) For lange the second term becomes negigiBl, and p= fu af Ths dividing by m, we i: wt inpe “= tk Inge - B= dnp _ dink nos a We aT RP bos)a ELEMENTS OF GASDYWautlCs Here isthe “hea of sagoriation” inteoduced exactly like he heat of iso Giation in Rap. 1-79 and 190. Equation 183 is one frm ofthe Capeyron- CGlausns equation forthe pressure In phase equilibrium. ‘The nent het ‘ow isa measure for the enecgy required to break one of the topes up ito its component molecules. The simiatity withthe dissociation sel Soniton process thus apparent, an thie the reason for the approach ven here. Infect, a8 dened here will include sarface tension eects hich re oualy introduced separately. Eathalpy, entropy, ete, can be obtained exactly an the disolation proces. 4018, Real Gases in Gasdynemics ‘Mot explicit results inthe theory of compatible fd ow are worked ‘out for a parfect gus with constant specie het. hiss done benuse the slop ofthe working Hid makes it pose to bring at the physics of the ow without much cumbersome computational deal. The themally and ealoriallyperect gas i, however, an idetlistion, ad real gases ill Alevinte fom i toa greater o ler degree ‘We shall devote thi lst article of Chapter 1 tox brief résumé of these socalled “real gas effects" “Fortanately the number of gases of intrest in seronatial application is comparatively mall i we exude cmbation. ‘sully one has to deal with ges ike Os, Ne, NO, He, etc, sedan with sO and COs and very arly with more complex gases than the lst two. ‘Usually the main interest is wih comparatively high terperatares an low pressrs. Thus the discussion of "real gas eet” e mich simpli lnc it canbe rstvctd to. ow gases and inte range of pressure and temperature The Thermal Baton of Ste, ‘The equtin of sat of x ra gas can be writen formally inte of the “comprebity factor” Za be B20. (oss) ‘Thus Z = 1 gives the perfect gus relation. Deviations of Z fom unity are ‘mainly due to two effets: At low temperatures and igh presnres, the Intermolecolar fores become important. ‘These are the so-called van der ‘Waals forces which account forthe pabityofliqetyng gi AL high lemperaiwes and ao prstare,dsociation aod fniaton process cect snd Z difers from unity hectse these proves change the namber of ris with this formulation, Risa constant reference vue (lq) ‘The efect ofthe van de Waals forces ca be expresed in ist approx maton in tems ofthe soalled “aecond vial cofilent" and a. 1-8 ee CONCRPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS B ca be writen * t. Bezaisng ‘The conection tern b/s rom gt gus bana i ei ty « charetrtic fenton form peter ax However ft the nied mimber of gues wih which we ae concerned, spon 10 feuoducrdinensonln varie and rote By 65m wiveral frm Tat Ty fy % Genate the cial temperate, pre, and wee volume, "Note ha BT) asthe denon of aime, Equaton 185 Can be wate is dineslonie vases Py 4 bie B TEBE) *REAT w Now pn/ RT, ~ ein constant wth very ney these value «= 0295, forte gues of intrest oe a ae ak the en of the tno). 1/48 teutywuniveral function of 7/7 for hese pen Consequently we can rile 185 the convent for aiyt, Beta ee nA nr oj 02 | o _{ 06 ¢ 00% | ans | 000s | 0057 | Values for fT, are given in the tables at the ed of the bok. ‘The oquation of state of disocatng, diatomic gas was given In Artie 116 (8a. 177} as) (196) sr For numerical eatimates tte (188) Hence Z is here sinply rated to the degre of isaiation which in turn int faneton of both p and 7. ‘The characteristic temperature for Aisociaton was defined in frm ofthe host of reaction lo by 9p = fo/R (The same dentin could have been used for the elects due van der Want? forcos in term of the eat of vapariation fis, however, utomary to we the ell data in tia case ) "Now Ip is related to the force with which the toms ae hd within the molecules to the force Been malede. Consequently >> abd {Tae a or fe akan om 140 FA Gags, Phyo, Nath ‘ed Paling Coy Str 9™ BLEMRNTS OF GasDYNaMtcs hence the temperature sange in which dissociation elects accu usually far removed from the range wher Uh van der Waals forces are important. ‘Thos in a given problem in gasdynamies one bas rarely to worry about pamible smaltancoa ect of both “The sume rensning apples to ionization, where the forces that bind sn eteczon in a atom and the coresponding ionization energy Tare invlved The Calorie Bquation of Slate, Fors perict gas the caloric equation of state is (189) and cy and ere slated by an ank (190) Equations 19 and 190 are direct consequence of fo = RT. The vavis tion af ¢ with T cannot be given by theemodynamica bat has to ome from experiments or statistical mechanics. Clase statstieal machaics lene torn simple expression for yn er of, he “umber of degrees of free dom” ofthe appropiate moleclar model Chapter 14) @ 91) mb? -ttte Fora smooth sphere or 2 mse paint, y= 3. Ths ta good model for ‘monatomic gees such as He, A, ete, and indeed experiments how that fr such gasee aR lover a very wide mange of temperatures, from near condensation up to ‘oaletion. ‘Thus mopstomie ase aze very nearly cloialy perfect. "The simplest rade! fora distonie molecule srg dumbbell, with 5. Dintomic ges (end alo “linea” tatomic gases like COs) near ‘om tempertare alo have specie heats corresponding to Eq, 19% with nye Sie, perry Hlowever at high temperatures cy increases, with 7, above $f because the atoms in a diatomic molecule are not rgdly bound but can vibrate CCasially, this vibration would add 2 degre of Teedom, and we would expect to find oak Ato tempt em dare low tent tna dere edo stun Hove Sy Oy th rca temperate orate the ihr oH dar a he ng net hr Rott le Soman oy fr —_—$—$—— CONCEPTS PROM THERMODYNAMICS 7 “The tempestate at which the speci het change from § 0 $B, as wel ts the faction ¢y(7) inthe tuition repo, beyond cassia statisti mechanics, but can be glven by quantum statistical mechanics. The “pece heat for diatomic ga in the range of temperate between de ‘soction and the eelon of van der Waal eet is closely represented by: ¢-1+ (steal ro) whee #, denotes « characartic temperature forthe vibrational enety. (Values of for diferent diatomic gases ure given in Table Tat the back of the book.) Equation 192 shows that for 8, y/R—+7/2, and for Tot cy/R¥9/2 a8 expected. The staistal origin of Bg. 192i out- Iie in Artie 147 “Trafic gates like HyO show a similar behavior; however they start with 6 degree of freedom, and hence the constant term s§ = 4, and more than one mode of vibeation ae usualy important. Finally, any deviation inthe thermal equation of state fom the perfect 1s tlation afc the calorie equation of alae, ine bot ae relate by the ration Bq, 55, a a(™ BG), tee atte tarot oye a. -E(Z) 93) eisectatanetestae ee-tcieta a #)(2) AG), ae (+18) a (94) ae ‘Thief dacson indicts Use nis of Che api st approsization ‘Summary. (1) At low temperatures and high pressures, x gas becomes thermally and alrcally imperfect de to the intermolecular forces. Then Ze tand k= hi, (2) At high temperatures and low pressures, Z = Land b= ACT), buta“ ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS fy é(T), because the contribution toy fom the vibrational modes Alepende on the temperate (@) Atal higher temperature, Z x1 and b= 4p, 7) because of ds sociation and inition, Le, because of prooses that change the number of particle. (GA gas ls both Wermlly and calovealy peetect if The Tea, and pp. (@) For monatomic gases the eects due to vibrational moles and is sociation ae absent, CHAPTER 2 One-Dimensional Gasdynamics 21 Introduction ‘We shall begin our study of the motion of compresible fui withthe ‘ase of one-dimensional ow. This definition appli oo ina channel or fue, ach as that luteted in Fg. 21, which maybe desley spsity- ing the variation of the cous aetonal area along its aus, A= AG), and in which the ow properties are uni form over each croarscton that i P= PQ), p= ol), ete. Similarly, fhe velocity which fe normale the cosecton, should be ifr 4 over each section, = w(a). These ‘qanites may also be functions of time ff the How is monsatinar & yp 34 yedinemoa ow neste, ons. oe "These conditions are nota rest: tiveas they may appear. Forintancy, if there ae section over which the flow condition are not uslorm is st posible to apy the results be- tween sections whee they are uniform, thats, one-dimensional. Even at sonusifrm sections the rite may often be applied to aultable mean ales ‘Parthermore, the one-dimensional resulta sre apliceble othe nv stream tabes of « general, tree-dimensonal Row, 2 belag the coordinate ‘long the steam te. Weaball ae i Chapter? what ational relations te needed fortis aplication. Yor an incompressible fui, peactialy all the infomation about a one t ite) “This agrees with the intive notion thatthe pressure in the downstream revervolr cannot be greater thin that inthe upstream one. This result teualy true for any gt, since It follows from the definition of entopy Gn -a#<° to thet an increas in entropy, a constant stagnation enthalpy, must result {na decane of stagnation pres a) ‘The last tem i eo sce Ts ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAMICS 6 ‘he reversible increase of entropy indicated in Wa. 214, and the caee- sponding decrest of stagnation pressure, die to the pradaction of exp inthe fow betwean the reservoirs. Only i tere aren dative proce, that ie oly ifthe ow in eqlibram throu, wil thee be no prod tin of entropy. The equality signs, so sp and p's ™ papel only to such an iene ow. "The conditions that we have been calling reservoir or stagnation cond- Ans re alo caled lal condions, eg total peau. These ler ae lk applied in a broader sense, to define conditions at any pat in the fa, ‘ot noc at the reservar. The oa ttl cain at ony Pin! bx {he fiw are he canons that wold Be alained if he ow thre wee brought ore isentropic. For example, in an adiabatic fw of» perfect gas the local stagnation temperature is everyhere Ty, bat the loc stagation preset ele than, or at mot equa o,f the value depend on theamount of dation ‘which the aid es undergone up tothe point in question ‘Since the imaginary local stagnation process is a isentropic one, the eal stagnation entropy is by defaition equal to the oa tate entropy, thai Yo and thus i snot necessary to use the vbscript. For a perfect 8 hen the loa entropy ieee to the total presureby Eq 215, tat, vase -Rinpalto Pees since %9 = To, Thus measurement ofthe local total presure furnishes 2 ‘measure ofthe entropy of the dow Under sultable conditions the measure rent snay be made by mes of sinpleptot probe (ee Chapter 8) orstagnaton conditions tex it ot enough thatthe wlcty be ato; Iisabo necessary that ulbrium conditions exis. For example, romete immersed in afl will not measure the heal tol temperature, even though it brings the flow to rest on its surface, fr the Maid atthe surface Isnt in a state of equilbriam; the Inge viscous stestes and beat ‘nanser which are wualy present coreapond to large “crents” of energy spd momentum. Surface presures and tamperatres, in the presence of viscous shear and heat conduction, wil be discused in Chapter 13. 25 Hule’s Equation 1a this section we shall apply Newtn't law toa lowing uid, Te states that Force = mass X acceleration ‘We take the Buleian viewpoint that, we observe the acceleration ofthe Aid particle a8 it encounters the varying conditions inthe tube though which it os.“ RLRMENTS OF GasDYNasttes ‘The aceeration isthe time rate of change of velocity, and is du to two eis. First, since condtane vaty along the tbe there ia velocity trades do/2z in the diction of ow The rate of change of velocity is ‘proportional to thie gradient and to the speed with which the partie moves Through it Thas the acelertion dae t “convection” through the velocity eaent “ae Second, conditions at gto ston may be changing, ifthe flow is non- steady, or nonstationary. "This wil lve a nonstationary term, iu e “The cleat of th pate the, gee iu, oe wnt lt as ate ou Tis Lioise W] mek owne dt tL fs ® w exe have compute on te puri, Cnr he pare anne Tie Pola aapiraye theless eden bey compute be 2E (ed). Ding the by 45 he vo fe pat, we bn ef per wt oun, ~ 9/0. ly, cing Sy a Sy cee rl ma hott am “This uli valid for a partie of any shape for example the one in Fig 25h, asimay be proved by an application of Gauss aw (Chaptee 7). ‘Thus the fen valid for the patie in Fig. 2S, and thus for diverging or ONR-DIWANSIONAL GASDYNAMICS « converging stream tube, ‘The lst esl is atl proved diet, by taking into acooat the presses on the inclined laces, “This computation ofthe frce dacs nt ince ay Viscous terns the shearing stase on theses or normal vesousstees on the end scion, aod Fa 217 ams only Hf the ate nell hat 5, the Bow ‘The expression fr the fore fs and aceertion ax may now be pat in Newiou's law, which written for unit ose, imply Mae brass) "Thin called Baers equation For steuy fw, the ft term it zero, ‘The others ate then totel derva- tives and may be written warittan rom Saf Lom which i Bernoali’s equation for compesible Bow. ‘The intgra wil be ‘evaluated Iter. For the moment, may be noted that for acompressible ow, » = aud Beroull’s equation hab the wellknown fra Brow + 9 = const 2.6 The Momentum Equation Tis often convenient to observe the ow through «spice defined by ‘arta fixed surfaces and section, a8 we dil when desving the continaty ‘equation (Fg. 22). For this point of view, one neds an equation which 1 the decease in density i rete haa the intense in velocity. “There remain the quetin of what happens at some spad, = 1 Consider a tabe in whlch the velocity Inreases continously, from zero, sad eventually becomes supersnic. The above dscesson shows thatthe the ist converge in the sbeonie and verge in the auperonic pation. Jost at AF = 1 thee most be a oat (Pig. 28). This dea alee from iq. 227, which sbows tha, at Mf = 1, du/acan be Gate only if da/A = 0. ‘The same argument applica to the case where the velcty decreases con- tinuously from supersonic to subsonic, The important conclusion Is that bar ‘Mini mn owt chan 6 Jc pi (hie . ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAMICS 8 A= 1 ca be atcioad only a rato the tbe. (The inverse doe no old that iy AC isnot necesarly 1 ata throat. But, tls not ten Hg. 227 shows that a throstcoreapnds to du = 0; tha the velit fos a maimum oe minimu there, depending on Whether the dow B ‘beni o persone) [Nene AF = 1 the ow is wory sostive to change in the area, since the denominator in Eq, 227 is then smal 240 Results from the Bneray Bguaton ‘Te was shown ia Article 23 that in adiabatic fow the energy eqetion fora pres ash Were ate am ‘With he exprin ot = YAP fr he sped of son his ge $+ deoas) ‘The, mayne ast eto by (9 ~ 1/6 vs wth yyy apatite dow ‘erp tons (4.22) may ten be ed bin be (igte tan) (442549) voan * Siw) 7 bees) In Eg. 228, 229, and 250 the values of 79 and ay are constant throughout the dow, so that they may be ikea as thove in the actual revo. Ege 231 and 232 the valu of po and py are the lal “reaervoir values” ‘Thy are constant troughout only if the fow is eatrope. ‘hee relations between the thermodyaunic variables and the Mack nber ate tabulated in Tables II and TIC at the tack of she book fo it (r= 140), Tnstead of the reservoir, we may use any other point ia the Bow for evalnting the constant in the energy eqvation. A patina wefl one isthe point where AP = 1, that i,» throat. ‘The Sow variable there are ‘alle “soni” and are denoted by the superseript*. "Thus the Dow speed ‘sd sound speed are w” and °,respectialy. But, since the Mach numer thee ncaa pci pata ate Tinta,Fy ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMtICS is, thet ree, tat iw? = a, ‘The energy equation than gives a latte aa ee Ptyea" Pt yiaymt Conpating with fq. 228, the relation etween the sped of sound inthe thro andthe reervol i eee of 741" Ty “Thus fora given the sonic and the reservoir temperatures are ina xed ratio, that 7 is constant throgghout an adiabate flow. For aie the rumecel values are on) T*/To= 0833, 6*/ag = 0918, 35) “The wnle pressure and density ratios may also be obalned, by using the faentope rations with Eq, 24 or by setting AP= 1 in Eqs. 231 and 232. They are ECL coat or 2 EGE)" sem Of course, it is not neces that a thr actully exist inthe ow for the soni values to be used a reference, Tn aome problems, especialy transonc one, the sped ratio w/o is con- ‘ela ‘This will ssmetines be denated by Me = w/a 236) (This not tity in agreement with ou convention for starred quantities, becanse according to ft,” =. However, this Beene it convelent and thould exe no confsion) ‘The relation between 4 and A may be ‘btaned by viding both sides of Eq, 238 by whe vesting expression nay be solved for" or BP, ving (2356) deoare) des) ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAIKICS s rom thew it may bescon hat MY < Hor M < yan > 1 fr A> A 2:11 Bomouli Equation; Dynamie Pressure “The eneray equation (228) may be rewiten by axing he gas lew p= Ret toclimioste 7. This gives oe PTT =i “This equation valid for adiabatic low. For isentropic conditions, the relation 9/p” = fo/as!may beused to eliminate resulting in leesQQy sas om ‘Equation 238 isthe integrated Bernoulli equation (21%). {In compressible fom, the dynamic presrare do? sno lange simpy the Aierence between stagnation and static pressure, a in the ncompresible fase, It depends now on Mach number aa well eon the eae presne, ora pefect gs, the elation 1 y fosur=2,(12) n= typur pas) 2 "The dynamic pressure is weed for normalizing presute and force cueti- cients For example the peemure couficent ban e-n_2 (ey + ans sara!) baw exe Vand ar th elrence vey and the Mach number or np on, 231 may be ed to remit in een of he local Mach numer: 2 Pee = pantry _ ef spelleeGeme]""- | em nay, intodsing MiP = U2/ai%, M= w/o and sng the energy cepaton to eliminate a, the pressure coeficient may be obtained inthe form canta" om% RLEMBNTS OF GASDYNAMICS 212 Flow at Constant Area Consider adiabatic, constantarea Sow (Fig. 294) though 2 nonequl sium region (hows thaded). If sections 1 and 2 are outside this eon, then the equations of contin, momentum, and energy are om = po ate) pt pat = pat pat ean) bn dat = bat bt aatg “The soton of these ives the relations that mast ext Between the or ‘parameters a the two seo; wil be warked out presently TG o 1.29 seating cao oan onion in cost ws on) Un {hem enn on ie neo eno vou tian) tr ‘Sst ware; @) shot wate neal to dow on sieanine = ‘There eno retriton onthe sze or detail of the despation region so long as the reference sections are oad i. Tn partly, it maybe de fae bythe vanishingly thin region, shown in Fig. 25, aco which the lw parameter are ssi to “Jump."”The contol sections I and? may then be brought arbitrarily clove to it. Such a dacontinity i elled shod swore Of cure ral ld camiot have an aetaldiscoainlty, and this is nly an ideation ofthe very high gradients that actualy occur ina shockwave, inthe tunsion fom sate { to 2. Thee revere gradients ‘produce viscous tees and heat tafe, Le, noneglleim conditions, Inside the shook. "The mechani of shock-waye formation os wells some detail of condi- tins inside the dinspation region, wil be dicated Inter For application to most aerodynamic problems ty suiient to calcalate the jp in the ceulbram values and to represent the shock as a discontinuty. Since ‘the reference sections may be brought arbitrarily near to the sboc, the eve of constant area dt ino longa neded, that, the reat alvays {nhs nk a inc ae ways eee by axe a nF 298 ole. Nolmlsatmsioulestecactetenied, Onchonpspte ea, Fe 5) {ER etapa ns i ely i ar pid r OWE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAMICS a apply lay to conditions on ether sie of shock, provided it fs noma to the streamline (Fig. 290), ‘Of course, the shock relations may be applied to equiv sections of real constant-aten det, auch a the ne shown in Fig. 29, but I i eae tary that the fret forces on the walls be nelle, since there are 0 friction ter inthe momentum equation An examples the constant aren ‘upesone difuser, in which an edversepresure gradient reduces the wall {ection to negligible values. ‘The difsion occrs through « complicated, three dimensional proce nvalving interactions between shock waves and ‘boundary ayer. For equim tobe stained the difuser mast be log, fa curious contrast tothe normal shock, for which equilibrium i reached in a ‘very short distance igure 2100 shows an example of compression in a contantarea ducts ig 2108 shows in contas, an example of narmal shock wave. 213 The Normal Shock Relations for Perfect Gas quatlons 241 are the general equations for a normal shock wave. It vel sully be necessary'to salve them numerically (coe Exercise $0) Forever, for «gus that is thermally and early perfec tis posible totutions fn terme of the Mach tuimber Ay abead of ‘Dividing the two sides ofthe momentum equation (2418), respectively, by pat atl paa, which are egal fram the contnuty equation gives fat Hore the pect gas ration ot = p/p bas been used. Then i? and aay be place by wing te cnr esto fr «pce. gs, eae 2 ty 2 ty ‘After some rearrangement thee is obtained the simple relation sn = 0"? poe) ‘This i known asthe Prandl ot Meyer elation, “Tn tert ofthe speed ato MI = w/a, this equation it wey = fae, es) [Now a¢*% 1 comesponds to AC 1, and thus the Prandl elation shows thatthe velocity change actos « normal shock mit he rm supersonic to steoney of vice versa Tt wil be shown later that ony the fomer isse BLEMCENTS OF GASDYNAMICS » 0,210 Compre in comnts fm () Baap etd apron ‘each tetramer apn wiaeh “soe 520 (58). 8) = () Bapleat avery sao comprenasexon. The fe stnne teng spe ral hock nave Shao oman w latina chub (Walt Baka, D- Ke Wee an char Sete, 20080), 9 8) ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAMICS 2 ‘possible as might be anticipated since the eect of dissipation can hardly be much 30 to Increase the vloty. "The corespondence between Af* and Af was obtained in Article 210, tes Gp G=mies3 When sl to replace 2% and. Mf in the Prandtl equation, give the relation between the Mach numbers ate ey) dassyt ant ~ “Thenti of the velo may ao be ten ute Bw ee ow “hin ose with Ea 246, fl inthe dst of ta exon Fr lng he contin etn, he at of he Stine ot iyant o-oite pao? ‘oe the pour elton, we hve, rr th ent gato, Pr tim ne — nat = mle ta) then sep being de othe contin ominin, In dimen form, tile ne (8) nally, with 0 = pu/n and Bq, 247 for on, the peste jum is shed nthe frm PA 8 aps a Stn th Bane oa “The ratio pu/fis ten wed to deine the ok sramgth, One may an too the ao Poy ee Bap a9 pros “The temperature rato sna be btu from Eqs, 2:47 and 248 sig {Te and ter sow ren ae aba a TA TV ah eo he eko RUEMCENTS OF GASDYNAMICS TalT, = (pul) ou)e)-_Atterativey, stating dvelly from the energy equation and using Ha, 246, we find, after some rearrangement, wt DTG) paw SoBe Wao Mt paw) 1h ioally we may compute the change of entropy. From Bq, 14% it ray be rewrite in the form aly] ‘By wing Eqs 247 ad 2480 for pps an pa, ms Then ‘This expresion i atill exact, For yes near Mf, = 1, m is smal, and the expression may be simple, since each ofthe tema In parentheses is Mie I'he wilh e at (ast) = Roatole~ ox) — doub(e + au) = fmdauh ak 9) and owes than 2 tego of aacen, Thea thatthe wave dita ae popes, {he reps of high condensin tending to overtake thet of wer Condeation, at uwn in Fig #6. eins of higher conden he torn ines (Arie 39) tinned mos ns the spe vey ‘opera othe wave ses Tr terms ofthe ompreion ad exon reo defined in Fig 3, the et eect to spn compre reins and 0 Baten expan 7 OWE- DIMENSIONAL WAVE MOTION 7 regions, in which the character nes converge aad divers, respectively {na compression region, the characterise would eventually crow, lading to thesitutin shown f= fy. But this would be pyc impose, {or it implies thre values of dest ata given point Actually, before ‘this happens, or even before the station af = ae reached the velop and temperatre gradients inthe compresion rons become so great that Irion ond heat tronfor eects become important, ‘These have »diusve ction which counteracts the steqpening tendency. ‘The two opposing ‘fects achieve a balance, andthe compression portion of the wave beste “stationary,” in the sense that it propagates without farther distortion, [eis then e shock wave In compression regions, the isentropic relations ae valid only up to the time that friction and heat taafer at become important. On the other Ind, once stationary Balance between difasve and stepening ters has been reached, the contitons acres the wave fata given by the sock rave relations of Arise $2; the conditions ine the shock are dlscsed Jn Article 1512. The inteemeiate, aosttionacy, nonisertopic interval an be treated aly withthe full nonstationary equsion, ncading rena ‘and heat teaafer terms and in this ene, the most complated oe. For finite amplitudes, then, there is'an important diference in the ‘behavior of compression and expansin waves. A compression wave tes to stepen and rach a “stationary” state in which to longs faentope ‘An expansion wave, onthe other hand, away remains istzopic, frit tend to Batten and wo farther reduce the velocity an temperate grades Teneverachavea a “atatonary” condition, conresponding, in shock wave ‘theory othe fact that there ae no “expansion shocks,” The mechanisms at work bere ae basil similar to thon in the two- Aimensonal, steady supersonic Hows tobe discused in Chapter 4, and the resting fects are analogous. For empl, inthe expansion rion of stendy, two-dimensional supersonic fow, the characterises or Mach lines

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