Hamza Mohamed

Ryan Welch
Skylar Pieper
Kelly Doro
Madison Grotto
Gut Microbiota: Its Role in Digestion

Introduction
Microbiota​ ​is a vast organization of cells that play a major role in digestion,
immunological protection, homeostasis, ​intestinal health, and bioactivation of nutrients
and vitamins​. The human microbiota consists of more than ten trillion different types of
microorganisms. In the human body, gut microbiota stems from at least one thousand
different types of bacteria with millions of different types of genes per each bacteria
(Thursby, E., & Juge, N.). There are many similar types of gut microbiota, and a copious
amount of different microbiota in the human intestine per person. In addition, gut
microbiota can weigh up to two kilograms. Some common types of gut microbiota
include ​Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria ​(Thursby, E., &
Juge, N.)​.​ The development of microbiota has symbiotically evolved with their relative
host, forming beneficial and essential bacteria needed for biochemical reactions.
Microbiota plays vital roles within digestion including, strengthening of gut integrity,
formation of intestinal epithelium barriers, protection against pathogens, and the
regulation host immunity - maintaining homeostasis. The relationship between
microbiota and the host is continuously changing to coexist with each other through age
advancement, environmental changes, and health developments. It is essential to
actively support one's own gut health to increase digestion efficiency and overall health
(​Rinninella, E., et al.).

Functions in body/digestion
One of the main roles of the gut microbiome in living things is that it guides the
maturation and functioning of a host immune system (Cresci, G., & Izzo, K.). Of the
other functions, the gut microbiota serves as a host in the metabolism of nutrients and

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drugs. For drugs, the gut microbiota performs reactions such as acetylation,
deacylation, and dehydroxylation to break down and digest drugs. For nutrients,
thiamine, folate, biotin, riboflavin, and pantothenic acid are synthesized by gut
microbiota (Thursby, E., & Juge, N.).
The body is filled with trillions of different viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Together,
they are all known as microbiomes. The way microbiota functions and breaks down
nutrients and drugs directly affects the functions inside the body. At birth, the human
body comes into contact with many different microbiomes. Over time, the human body
continues to bring in many different types of microbiota. Studies show that the more
diverse the body’s microbiome level is, the healthier it is for the body (Belizário, J. E., &
Faintuch, J.). For example, microbiota can improve how your immune system functions
by the way it responds to infections in the body. This works by the body microbiota
communicating with immune cells to respond to infections. Gut microbiota are found to
be tied to brain function. In recent studies, gut microbiota is shown to influence normal
physiology and contributes to physiology and contributes to diseases such as obesity
and may also cause inflammation. This happens because gut microbiota communicates
to the central nervous system through immune and endocrine pathways, changing brain
function (Belizário, J. E., & Faintuch, J.).
Digestion of microbiota also varies greatly on what the body is digesting due to
the diversity of microbiota. In other words, the digestion of microbiota varies with the
specific type of microbiota. For example, bifidobacteria is a type of bacteria that grows
inside babies’ intestines after birth. What this bacteria is responsible for is for the
digestion and break down of healthy sugars in breast milk. Gut ​bifidobacteria has been
associated with the production of a number of potentially health-promoting metabolites
including short-chain fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acid, and bacteriocins ​(Thursby, E.,
& Juge, N.​). ​Short-chain fatty acids are also products of other bacteria in the gut. For
the digestion of fiber in the body, short-chain fatty acids are produced which is healthy
for the body. Given this information, the diversification and abundance of microbiota in
the gut is a big factor in speeding up metabolism in the body.

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Development of Gut microbiota:
The composition and function of the gut microbiota are well understood in both
infants and adults. Early reports suggested that the infant microbiota would develop into
an adult-like structure at age 3, but recent studies have suggested that microbiota
development may take longer (Derrien, M., Alvarez). The beginning of human gut
microbiota begins during birth with ​colonization by microbes from the environment.
During the first few months infants are usually on a milk diet bacteria such as
Bifidobacteria, can be abundant (​Koenig, J. E.). Gut microbiota co-evolves with the host
and host metabolic and neurological programming; this is what makes the development
of the gut microbiota important for health later in life. This development is regulated by a
complex interplay between the host and environmental factors, such as diet and
lifestyle. Diet, in particular, has shown to best adapt the gut microbes to the dynamic
conditions in the intestine. Studies have shown that maternal milk helps protect infants
against infections, due to the presence of immunoglobulin A. Also, the natural mode of
feeding contributes to the maturation of the infant’s immune system and helps with the
development of gut microbiota. There seems to be an established difference between
infants who were formula fed and breastfed. The gut microbiota of breastfed infants is
less diverse, but includes higher levels of Bifidobacterium species. These species of
Bifidobacterium are most abundant and are able to thrive in human milk
oligosaccharides (HMOs). The introduction of solid food is associated with higher
bacterial load and diversity. Additionally,​ ​metabolic pathways relating to vitamin
biosynthesis and xenobiotic metabolism occur following the introduction of solid food
(Derrien, M., Alvarez).
Several studies have been reported that gut microbiota achieves an adult-like
configuration within the first 3 years of life. One major study completed an analysis of
gut microbiota development of 903 infants from 4 different countries. It was determined
from the study that the gut microbiota evolves in 3 distinct phases: a developmental
phase, a transitional phase, and a stable phase. During the developmental phase,

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Bifidobacterium spp. is dominant, whereas the stable phase is identified by greater
bacterial diversity. These findings suggest that the overall development of gut
microbiota function and composition takes 3 years​ ​(Derrien, M., Alvarez).

Health impacts→ diseases:

Gut microbiota has been the topic of extensive research in recent years. The
human digestive system harbors 100 trillion microbial cells, which influences
metabolism, nutrition, and immune function. Disruption in the gut microbiota has been
linked with gastrointestinal diseases. It has been studied that if the composition and
functional potential of the gut microbiota increases, the number of diseases linked with
an altercation in gut microbiota increases (Guinane, C. M., & Cotter, P. D.).
Dysbiotic microbiota is associated with weight gain and digestive concerns, such
as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Most research
on gut bacteria has been done in mice and shows that despite diet, obesity is higher risk
in those with impaired microbiota. The lack of necessary gut bacteria is the most
common cause of these health conditions (Robertson, R.). The key to good gut health,
large diversity, stability and resilience, and the symbiotic interaction with the host.
Without bacteria along the gastrointestinal tract, there would be a vast malabsorption of
nutrients, lipids, amino acids, and bile acids. Additionally, gut microbiota prevents
bacteria invasion and colonization by maintaining the intestinal epithelium integrity
through proper nutrient metabolism, pH modification, antimicrobial peptide secretions,
and effects on cell signaling pathways (​Rinninella, E., et al.).
In addition to digestive and gut health, a strong gut microbiota has been
associated with promoting good heart health. Gut microbiomes play a vital role in “good”
HDL cholesterol and triglycerides.​ ​Unhealthy gut microbiomes may produce risk factors
of heart disease, such as trimethylamine N-oxide. The risk comes from the increased
tendency for plaque to rupture and the artery’s inability to widen, increasing blood clot
tendencies. TMAO contributes to clogged arteries, which may lead to heart attacks and
strokes (Robertson, R.). Furthermore, ​researchers have found that bacteria in patients

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subject to heart disease possessing hardened arteries have more genes that caused
inflammation. Contrarily, bacteria seen in healthy patients possessed genes that
prevented inflammation in arteries by soaking up dangerous chemicals (Lehman, A.).​ A
good gut microbiome also reduces blood sugar, which can reduce the risk for type 2
diabetes and the genetic onset of type 1 diabetes (Robertson, R.).
Research states that serotonin is produced mainly in the gut, which supports the
relationship between good gut health and brain health. A connection has been found
between the enteric nervous system and the brain. The enteric nervous system acts as
a second brain that is located in the gut. It does not have advanced thoughts and
functions as the brain does, however it controls digestion from swallowing, to enzymatic
release, to waste elimination (​The Brain-Gut Connection)​ . The ENS communicates with
the brain, and may control emotional shifts triggered by digestive issues, such as
irritable bowel syndrome, constipation, inflammation, and more. Studies suggest that
instead of depression and anxiety causing digestive issues, it is the other way around.
The digestive issues may be causing mental health illnesses (​The Brain-Gut
Connection)​ . Further research on the connection between the ENS and the CNS is
needed to compare the impacts gut health has on other psychological disorders.

Digestive Health benefits/ Problems

Microbiota has many positive and negative effects on our body. Our bodies are
constantly evolving to live with different microbes and our microbe diversity depends on
many different factors such as, age, height, weight, and diet. Our microbiota can be
related to different major health issues including bowel disease, obesity, and weight
gain/weight loss (Guanine & Cotter). Carcinogens are another thing we overlook that
can negatively affect our gut health, as they can be responsible for colorectal cancer.
On the other hand, they can have many benefits. Our gut microbiota can help control
our brain health and digest our foods and fiber properly. There are many ways to
improve your gut health and probiotics are one of those things. They can be found in

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dairy products or supplement form, and are live organisms that help improve gut
microflora (Guinane, C. M., & Cotter, P. D.).
On the other hand, microbiota can be very beneficial to the human body. Gut
microbiota is shown to produce many beneficial vitamins for the human body such as
vitamin B-12 and K. These certain vitamins aid the blood in coagulation. Blood
coagulation is important for the body because this is what stops the bleeding in major
cuts to prevent a significant loss of blood.
Many researchers and scientists believe that healthy gut microbiota is a major
factor in contributing to a person's overall health. For example, when the gut microbiota
in someone is healthy and diverse, this means that the food in someone is broken down
properly and absorbed properly. When this is not achieved, illnesses such as diabetes,
high cholesterol, and obesity.

Diet, medication, environment (things that may impact microbiota)

A diet that supports good gut health consists of large varieties, fermented foods,
whole grains, and high plant-based content (Robertson, R.,). Additionally, probiotics aid
in restoring and improving gut microbiota. Probiotics can be found in many dairy
products like yogurt...etc and kombucha. The probiotics found in yogurt help seal gaps
in the intestinal lining, preventing leaky gut syndrome and the development of
disease-causing bacteria to stick to the intestinal wall. Additionally, reducing sugar
intake also promotes digestion and gut health by reducing stress and inflammation in
the intestines. The overall impact of probiotics is beneficial, and has several positive
effects on the intestinal mucosa. The proposed mechanism includes: suppression of the
growth and binding of pathogenic bacteria, ​improvement of the barrier function of the
epithelium, and alteration of the immune activity of the host. This is due to the probiotics
secreting short-chain fatty acids, which results in decreased luminal pH and production
of bactericidal proteins (​Aragon, G., Graham, D. B.).
Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli are known probiotics that combat the symptoms of
irritable bowel syndrome. Lactobacilli have been reported as one of the most prominent

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probiotics from lactic acid bacteria groups.​ Probiotic​ Lactobacillus ​strains have been
found to increase gastrointestinal barrier function by the proliferation of harmful bacteria
in nonalcoholic fatty acid liver diseases and IBD. Bifidobacterium​ ​is important and has
long been used as a probiotic to treat various diseases by changing the gut microbiota
composition. Like Lactobacillus,​ ​Bifidobacterium​ c​ an also inhibit harmful bacteria,
improve gastrointestinal barrier function, and suppress proinflammatory cytokines. It
also has been studied that Bifidobacterium alters the function of dendritic cells to
regulate the intestinal immune homeostasis to harmless antigens and bacteria, or
initiate protective measures against pathogens (​Azad, M. A. K., Sarker, M.).

Ethnicities and Gut Microbiota

The influence of ethnicities on gut microbiota is an unexplored topic that
scientists are still studying currently. A study in the United States examined 1,673
individuals and the diversity of microbiota inside of their gut. It was found that ​the most
heritable bacterial family, Christensenellaceae, overlap with genetically associated taxa
and form co-occurring clusters linked by similar fermentative and methanogenic
metabolic processes (​Valdes, A. M., Walter, J., Segal, E.). These results suggest a
strong correlation between ethnicities and microbiota. Unique cultures and life-styles
associated with an ethnicity contribute to shaping the growth of gut microbiota. When
comparing the prevalence of gut microbes across continents, Africa demonstrates a
significant difference as it is much more diverse than the others (Gupta, V. K., Paul, S.,
& Dutta, C.). This is because the diet in Africa is significantly different compared to
many other continents. For example, the diet in Africa is a high dietary intake of animal
protein, fat, and low fiber by amino acid, compared to Europe where the diet has high
amounts of fat, sugar, and starch. This backs up the claim of the diverse microbiota
within ethnicities since the type of food is different among certain continents causing
different microbiota to be present in different ethnicities.

Conclusion

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 The more diverse an individual's gut microbiota is, tends to portray better gut
health. This promotes good digestion, increased metabolism, and beneficial immune
function (Guanine & Cotter). This supports the claim that nutrition plays a critical role in
the maintenance of gut microbiota. There are many ways to benefit your gut health
including, introducing probiotics into the diet to help gut microbiota restore and improve,
reducing sugar, stress and unnecessary antibiotic consumption levels, and the
consumption of fermented foods also have a beneficial effect by introducing healthy
bacteria that aid digestion and the breaking down foods in the gut. In addition to one’s
diet, sleeping, exercising, and keeping an overall health forward lifestyle supports
beneficial gut health. Maintaining gut health promotes easier digestion and reduces the
risk of many diseases related to digestion strain as well as improving the gut’s
connection to other bodily and cognitive functions.

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