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Psychological Predictors of Problematic
Psychological Predictors of Problematic
a
Cognitive Psychopathology and Neuropsychology Unit, and b Swiss Centre for Affective Sciences, and
c
Methodology and Data Analyses, Psychology Department, University of Geneva, and d Division of Substance
Abuse, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland; e Cognitive Psychopathology Unit, Psychology
Key Words high urgency (b = 0.45), and (2) a motivation to play for im-
MMORPG ⴢ Internet ⴢ Addiction ⴢ Video games ⴢ mersion (b = 0.35). Conclusion: This study showed that, for
Self-regulation ⴢ Impulsivity ⴢ UPPS ⴢ Motivation ⴢ certain individuals (who are characterized by a proneness to
World of Warcraft act rashly in emotional contexts and motivated to play to be
immersed in a virtual world), involvement in MMORPGs can
become problematic and engender tangible negative con-
Abstract sequences in daily life. Copyright © 2011 S. Karger AG, Basel
Background: Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing
Games (MMORPGs) are video games in which a large number
of players interact with one another in a persistent virtual
world. MMORPGs can become problematic and result in Introduction
negative outcomes in daily living (e.g. loss of control on gam-
ing behaviors, compromised social and individual quality of The popularity of Massively Multiplayer Online Role-
life). The aim of the present study is to investigate psycho- Playing Games (MMORPGs) has grown exponentially in
logical predictors of problematic involvement in MMORPGs. recent years. Examples of such games are the well-known
Sampling and Methods: Fifty-four males who played World of Warcraft, and titles such as Age of Conan, Star
MMORPGs regularly were recruited in cybercafés and Wars Galaxies and Travian. An MMORPG is a kind of
screened using the UPPS Impulsive Behavior Scale (which as- computer role-playing game in which a large number of
sesses 4 facets of impulsivity) and the Motivation to Play On- players interact with one another in a persistent virtual
line Questionnaire (which assesses personal motives to play world. A persistent virtual world is a ‘world’ that exists
online). Negative consequences due to excessive time spent independently of the players. Thus, in an MMORPG, the
on the Internet were assessed with the Internet Addiction world continues to exist when the user is not logged in,
Test. Results: Multiple regression analysis showed that prob- and both events and interactions between other players
lematic use of MMORPGs is significantly predicted by: (1) occur while the user is absent from the persistent world.
Zullino /Van der Linden
as being related to probable problematic engagement in participants were excluded from the study as the games they re-
MMORPGs (as reflected by adverse consequences of on- ported playing could not be considered as MMORPGs (e.g. Coun-
ter Strike, Medieval Total War). The participants were screened
line activities in daily living) are escapism (a subcompo- with a French adaptation of the Motivation to Play in Online
nent of the immersion facet that corresponds to the ten- Games Questionnaire [17], the French version of the UPPS Impul-
dency to play MMORPGs to avoid thinking about real- sive Behavior Scale [20], and the French version of the IAT [21].
life problems) and advancement (a subcomponent of the The participants also filled in a general questionnaire in which
achievement facet related to the desire to become power- they had to indicate (1) if they had a computer at home; (2) for how
many years they had been playing MMORPGs, and (3) how many
ful and progress rapidly in the game). In accordance with hours per day they played MMORPGs.
the potential role of escapism motives in problematic en-
gagement in MMORPGs, Wan and Chiou [18] empha- Measures
sized in their research findings that individuals whose UPPS Impulsive Behaviour Scale
use of MMORPGs is problematic frequently play to re- The French version of the UPPS [20], translated from White-
side and Lynam [9], consists of 45 items that evaluate the 4 differ-
lieve dissatisfaction. Thus, it could be supposed that an ent facets of impulsivity, labeled urgency (12 items, e.g. ‘When I
individual’s motivations to play an MMORPG may have feel bad, I will often do things I later regret in order to make my-
a role in the development of problematic involvement in self feel better now’, Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.87); (lack of) premeditation
the game. (11 items, e.g. ‘I am a cautious person’, Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.79); (lack
The aim of the present study is to further investigate of) perseverance (10 items, e.g. ‘I concentrate easily’, Cronbach’s
␣ = 0.70), and sensation seeking (12 items, e.g. ‘I will try anything
the role of both (1) impulsivity facets and (2) personal once’, Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.78). Items on the scale are scored from 1 =
motivations to play online in problematic MMORPG use. ‘I agree strongly’ to 4 = ‘I disagree strongly’.
Indeed, although a growing number of studies have in-
vestigated the prevalence and sociodemographical cor- Motivation to Play in Online Games Questionnaire
relates of video game addictions in various populations A French version of the Motivation to Play in Online Games
Questionnaire (MPOGQ) was developed for the purpose of this
[5, 19], the psychological factors associated with their study. The MPOGQ comprises 39 items that evaluate the various
problematic use remains largely unexplored. Better com- possible motivations for playing MMORPGs. The items of the
prehension of the psychological factors leading to an MPOGQ were translated into French from the original version
overuse of MMORPGs would, however, allow one to im- [17]. The French items were then translated back into English by
prove both clinical interventions and prevention policies. a French-English translator. Problematic translations were dis-
cussed and agreement was reached. As this questionnaire has not
For the purpose of the current study, and in accordance been validated in French, an exploratory factor analysis was con-
with the recent conceptualization of online game addic- ducted on our data. A Velicer’s Minimum Average Partial test [22]
tions [4, 5], problematic engagement in MMORPGs was performed on the correlation matrix recommended extracting 5
defined as a pattern of use causing negative outcomes in factors. A factor analysis was then computed with 5 factors. All
daily living (e.g. loss of control on gaming behaviors, factors have an eigenvalue 11. Taken together, the total percentage
of variance explained is equal to 44.86%. The factor structure of
compromised social and individual quality of life). our version of the MPOGQ is not identical to the original English
scale [17], which could tentatively be attributed to the fact that
participants included in our study are a specific subtype of
Method MMORPG players, namely, persons playing in cybercafés. Never-
theless, the 5 factors correspond to 5 different motivations to play
Participants and Procedure online that had already been identified in MMORPG players [23].
The study was conducted with the collaboration of 2 cyberca- The first scale is labeled Achievement (10 items, Cronbach’s ␣ =
fés in Geneva. The owners of the cybercafés were briefed about the 0.83) and corresponds to motives related to the desire to gain pow-
goals of the study and agreed that participants could be recruited er, progress rapidly, and accumulate in-game symbols of wealth
via advertisements in their establishments. Volunteer customers or status, as well as having an interest in analyzing the underlying
of the cybercafés were individually screened. The participants rules and system in order to optimize character performance. The
filled in the questionnaires in a quiet area of the cybercafé, so they second scale is labeled Competition (4 items, Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.74)
would not be disturbed by the other customers. The inclusion cri- and refers to the desire to challenge and compete with others. The
teria were (1) being a regular player of MMORPGs and (2) being third scale is Social (7 items, Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.79) and refers to an
a fluent French speaker. All participants gave their informed con- interest in helping and chatting with other players, or to the desire
sent and received an information form about the duration and to form meaningful long-term relationships with others. The
content of the study prior to their participation. The anonymity fourth scale is Teamwork (4 items, Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.59) and re-
of the participants was guaranteed as informed consent forms flects the satisfaction of being part of a group effort. The fifth
were kept separate from the completed questionnaires. No com- scale, Immersion (14 items, Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.85), comprises a va-
pensation for participation was given. A total of 59 volunteer par- riety of different aspects such as the desire to find out and know
ticipants (57 males and 2 females) took part in the study. Three things that most players do not know about, the tendency to cre-
Zullino /Van der Linden
the residuals suggested that they were normally distrib- Table 1. Standardized regression coefficients for the IAT re-
uted. The regression emphasized that urgency and moti- gressed on urgency, lack of perseverance, lack of premeditation
and immersion
vation to play online for immersion are the only signifi-
cant predictors (see table 1). Scales  SE t Sig.
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