Heat Transfer Subjects HEAT TRANSFER Conduction Convection Radiation FINS 2. Nomondature A ven he enthelpy h—coelficient of hheat transfor thermal conductivity thickness m factor m mass P perimeter Q heat energy Q rate of hheat transfer radius R thermal resistance % time T absolute temperature U_ overall coofficient of heat transfer V volume V flow rate Symbols a absorptivity © emissivity p reflectivity @ — Stefan-Boltzmann constant Subsets > base © cross seetion, or rected fo liquid-to-gas (vaporization) ne Btu/lbm, Beu/ur-t?F Bhu/he-ft°F Btu fbr i f2-be°P/ Bou sve oR Biuhr-f2-F gal gal/min Beu/he-f2RE +. 3d 2 8d + BL2 2. 812 ee) mi? k/kg W/mK W/mk fm kg KI w mPK/W K W/mK L Ls ° owter th thermal ‘work (wall) co bhulk uid HEAT TRANSFER Heat is thermal energy in motion. ‘There are three dis- tinct mechanisms by which thermal energy can move from one location to another. ‘These mechanisms are distinguished by the media through which the energy moves. If no medium (ais, water, solid conerete, ete.) is re quired, the heat transfer occurs by radiation. If en- orgy is transferred through @ solid material by molecular vibration, the heat transfer mechanism is known as con- duction. If energy is transferred from one point to an- other by a moving finid, the mechanism is known as conuection, Natural convection transfers heat by rely- ing on density changes to cause fluid motion, Forced convection requires a pump, fan, or relative motion to move the fluid. (Change of phase--evaporation and condonsation—is categorized as convection.) In almost all problems, the energy transfor rate, q, will initially vary with time. ‘This initial period is known as the transient period. Eventually, the rate of energy transfer becomes constant, and this is known as the steady-state or equilibrium rate. Conduction Tfenergy is transferred through n solid material by mo- Ikevlar vibration, the heat transfor mechanism is known 18s conduction. ‘The steady-state heat transfer by conduction through a flat slab is specified by Fourier’s law. Fourier’s law is ‘written with a minns sign to indicate that the heat flow ig opposite the direction of the thermal gradient. 5 a Q= mae aur 5. kA 1) qe ‘The quantity L/kA is referced to as the thermal re- sistance, Ry, of the material. In a composite slab a2 5 ESS eecsasmerssmanememenemccmn (91 PUY eH be31-2 FEReview Monual material, the thermal resistances are in series. The to- tal thermal resistance of a composite slab is the sum of the individual thermal resistances. For examplo, in Fig. 81.1 the total thermal resistance an by the ‘sum of the two individual resistances. Ia mas a3 by may ct) gue 31.1 Compost Sas He (By e THe fre a @ | ‘The temperature at any point within a single-layer or composite wall ean be found if the heat transfer rate, Q, is known, The thermal resistance is determined to the point or layer where the temperature is of inter est. Then, Eq. 31.2 is solved for AT’ and the unknown temperature, For the composite wall in Fig. 31.1, Ts =Tr~QRy ws To=Th- Ql ais ‘The Fourier equation is based on a uniform path length and a constant cross-sectional area. If the heat flow is through en avea that is not constant, the logarithmic ‘mean area, Am, given by Eq. 31.7, should be used in place of the regular area. ‘The log mesn area should be used with heat transfor through thick pipe and eylin- drical tank walls Am = a Convection Unlike conduction, convective heat transfer doponds on the movement of « hented fluid to transfer heat energy. Forced convection results when a fan, pump, of relative eure 31.2 Ciclo Newton's law of convection, Eq. 31.9, ealeulates the forced convection heat, transfer. If a single film dom- inates the thermal resistance, as is often the case in hheat exchangers and other thin-wall applications, the overall coefficient of heat, transfor is h. Q=hA(Te ~ Too) we Radiation ‘Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation with a ‘wavelength between 700 nm and 10° nm (7x 10-7 and 1x10 m), Ifall of the radiation has the same wave- length, it is monechromatic rodiation. ‘The adjective “spectral” is used to denote a variation in some prop- erty with wavelength. Radiation directed at a body ean bo absorbed, reflected, or transmitted through the body, with the total of the three resultant onorgy streams equaling the incident en- ergy. If a is the fraction of energy being absorbed (1.0., the absorptivity), p is the fraction being reflected (ie., the reflectiity), and 7 is the fraction being transmit~ ted through ({., the ransmissivity), then the radiation conservation law is atptrsl 3110 For opaque solids and some liquids, 7 = 0. Gases reflect very little radiant enorgy, so p ~ 0. A Black body (idea! radiator) is a body that absorbs all of the radiant energy that impinges on it (Ke. absorp tivity, a, is equal to unity). A black body also ents the maximum possible energy when acting as @ souree Black bodies, like ideal gases, are never achieved in practice. Thus, all real bodies are “gray” bodies. ‘The emissivity, ¢, of a gray body is the ratio of the actual radiation emitted to that emitted by a black body. _ os Detsce Notice that emissivity, ¢, does not appear in the radin- tion conservation law, Eq. 31.10. However, for a black Shit Proesionol Pubs,ee Hes! Tonsfer 31-3 body, «=a = 1.0. And, for any body in thermal equilibsium (.0., radiating all energy that is boing ab- sorbed), € =a: In summary, atp=1 [opaque body; r=0) SLI atpset pal [pray bodys + aa en1 [blade bodys r 1 soe. Radiant heat transfer is the name given to heat transfer by way of thermal radiation, ‘The energy radiated by a hot body at absolute temperature 7’ given by the Stefan-Boltzmann lan, also known as the fourth-power law. In Bq, 31.15, 2 is tho Stefan-Bolteman constant, For a body with surface area A, Ovi = eo ATS IS 5.670 x 10-8 W/m? st) 0.1713 x 10-* Bu/br-A2RE [US] ‘When two bodies can “see each other,” each will radiate nergy to and absorb energy from the other. The not radiant heat transfer between the two bodies is given by Ba. 31.16. =oA Rolf) S16 Fi.2 Is the configuration factor, or shape factor, which depends on the shapes, emissivities, and orientations of the two bodies. If body 1 is small and completely enclosed by body 2, then Fig = e1- FINS: Fins (also known as extended surfaces) are objects that receive and move thermal energy by conduction along their length and width, prior to convective and radiative heat removal. Some simple configurations can be con- sidered and evaluated as fins even though heat removal is uot their intended function. gue 31.3 Fat Sih in ‘surrounding environment T. External fins are attached at their baso to a source of thermal energy at temperature Ts. ‘The temperature across the face of the fin rt any point along its length, Js assumed to be constant. ‘The far-field temperature of the surrounding environment is To. For rectangular fina (also known. as straight fins or tongitudinal fins), the cross-sectional area, Aq, is uniform and is equal to the base area. The heat transfer rate from a straight (rectangular) fin is Q = VPA, x (Ts ~ Too) tan h(n) [rectangular fn} 31.17 TP Ek 38 ‘Most equations for heat transfer from a fin distogard the smaller amount of heat transfor from the exposed end For that reason, the fin is assumed to possess an adia~ ‘nati tip oF insulated tp. A simple approximation to the exact solution of a nonadiabatic tip can be obtained by replacing the actuel fin length with a eorrected length. Q= VRPEA, x (Ty Tx) tam h(rabie) 3119 b+ 3120 ‘The radiator efficiency (fin efficiency), n, is the ratio of the actual to ideal heat transfers assuming the entire fin is at the base temperature, 7}. Qretusi ata ‘SAMPLE PROBLEMS: Problern 1 A small distiller evaporates 1 I. of water per half hour. Copper tubing exposed to the air serves as a condenser to recover tho stoam. ‘The outside surface of the tubing is at 99.9°C. ‘The ambient temperature is 20°C. ‘The ide diameter of the tube is 0.75 em, and the outside nal conductivity of copper is 388 W/mK. higy for saturated steam at 100°C is 2257 kJ/kg. How long must the tube be to condense all of ‘the steam? (A) 0.3 m (B) 12m (©) 24m (©) 83m Profession! Publications, Ie, Couns314 FER Solution ‘The heat transfer is w 1000 = 1254 W ‘The difference in temperature is the same in °C and K. From the equation for heat transfer through eurved surfaces, ae) oo12 (1254 W) In (Ganz) L 99.9°C) Am Answer is C. Problem 2 What is the thermal resistance if the composite wall shown has an exposed surface area of 120 m2? 200°C (A) 9.6 10-8 K/W. (B) 71x 10-8 K/W (©) 63x 10-8 K/W (D) 27x 10-° K/W Solution Rah+ hai + “(GC e) -( 1 ) 03m | 05m © (120m? Ww Ww 200 Soo 58 x 10-* K/W (9.6 x 10-* K/W) Answer is A. i Mean ET FE-STYLE EXAM PROBLEMS: 1. Tho thermal resistance for one-dimensional steady conduction heat transfer through a eylind: the radial direetion is which of the following? (A) linear (B) logarithmic (©) exponential (D) polynomial 2, A woll-insulated copper rod (thermal conductivity ‘K) is 50 cm long and has a cross-sectional One enet of the rod is in contact with at 0°C, and the other end is in boiling water at 100°C. Tieat of vaporization for saturated steam at 100°C fs 2257 kJ/kg. ‘The heat of fusion for ice at 0°C is 834 kJ/kg. How much fee is melted in 1 min? (A) 02g (B) 05g (C) lig (D) 1395 3. A woll-insulated solid copper wize 1 m long with a cross-sectional area of 0.0839 cin? connects two reser- voirs, one with boiling water at 100°C and the other with ice at 0°C. How long doos it take for 100 eal of energy to move through the wire? (A) 3.5 niin (B) 21min (©) 86 min (D) 240 min 4. In L hr, how much black-body radiation escapes a 1 em by 2 em rectangular opening in kiln whose internal temperature is 980°C? (A) 20a (B) 100 ki (©) 180 ks () 150 kd 5. Which of the following statements concerning radi- ation heat transfor is false? (A) ‘The radiation emitted by a body is propor- tional to the fourth power ofits absolute tem perature, (B) For a body of a particular size and tempera- ture, the maximum enorgy is emitted by a black body. Profesionl Publica, 1, eae (es Heit ase 31-5 {A) For an opaque body, the sum of absorptivity and reflectivity is always equal to unity. {B) Radiation eneray cannot travel through & For the following problems use the NCEES Hand- book as your only reference. 6. Heat transfer occurs by conduction through a com- posite wall as shown, ‘The temperature on one side of the wall is —5°C; on the other, the temperature is 25°C. (The thermal conductivities and film cooflicfents are shown in the illustration.) What is the heat transfer through the wall? hg = 80 Wim? o> 0.065 Wink y= Wie y= 0.059 Wink (A) 1.0 W/m? (B) 3. W/m? (©) 98 W/m? {D) 17 W/m? 7. A compasite wall constructed of 2.5 cm of steel ( 60.5 W/iw-K) and 5.0 em of aluminum (k = 107 W/mK) separates two liquids, ‘The liquid on the steel side has a film coefficient of 15 W/in?-K and a temperature of 400°C. ‘Phe liquid on the aluminum side has a film cocficient of 30 W/m?-K and a temperature of 100°C. Assuming that steady-state conditions have been reached, what is the approximate temperature at the steel-altiminum interface? (A) 150°C (B) 200°C (©) 250°C (D) B00°¢ 8. ‘The ideal rate of heat transfer through a section of {A) diteetly proportional to the overall coefficient of heat transfer and directly proportional to the thickness of the wall (B) inversely proportional to the overall coefficient of heat transfer and directly proportional to the thickness of the wall. (©) directly proportional to the overall coefficient: of heat transfer and inversely proportional to the thickness of the wall, (D) inversely proportional to the overall coefficient: of heat transfer and to the thickness of the wall 9. IFT is the absolute temperature, the intensity of radiation from an ideal radintor will be proportional to (a) 7 (B) 7 (c) 78 (D) T* 10. A 3 mx 3 m plate at 500°C is suspended vert cally in a very large room. ‘The plate has an emiss f 0.13. ‘The room is at 25°C. Whnt is the net heat transfer from tho plate? (a) 83 KW (B) 4 kW (© 46 kW () a7 kW 11. At 5:00 p.m. in July, a stone wall reaches a maaxic ‘mum temperature of 50°C. ‘The stone has an emissivity 0f 0.95. What is the radiant heat energy transfer from ‘the wall per square meter of this wall at that tempera- ture? (A) 190 W/m? (B) 590 W/m? (©) 1100 W/m? (D) 3800 W/m? 12, Hot air at an average temperature of 100°C flows through a 3 m long tube with an inside diameter of 60 mm, ‘The temperature of the tube is 20°C along its ontire length. The convective film coefficient is 20.1 ‘W/m?.K, Determine the rate of convective heat transfer from the air to the tube. (A) 520 W (B) 850 W (©) 10 Ww (D) 1070 W 18. An engine develops a brake power of 30 kW+40 kW are absorbed by cooling water that is pumped Uhrough the water jacket and a radiator. The water enters the top of the engine's radiator at 95°C. ‘The enthalpy of ‘the water at that temperature is 397.96 kl /kg. ‘The wa- ter Ieaves the bottom of the radiator at 90°C and with ‘an enthalpy of 376.92 ki/kg. What is the water flow rate for steady-state operation? Ls [ofl Publications, Ie.(A) 4.2.x 10~4 m/s (B) 14x 10-8 m/s (C) 19x 10-° m/s (D) 33x 10-8 mi/s ‘SOLUTIONS TO FE-STYLE EXAM PROBLEMS 1, Por heat flow radially though eyiniial pipe wal, the logarithmic mean area is used. A ‘Ac m(%) Since thermal resistance is /RA, the thermal resistance Ar = Answer is B. 2, Because the rod’s Neat loss to the environment is negligible, the heat transfer through the rod must ex: actly equal the heat absorbed by the melting ico, A(T, ~ 73) (2: 3%) uo) x (60 s)(100°C — 0°) (21!) osm (iow 2 = 189% 10" kg (13.9 g) Answer is D. 8. Apply Fourier’s law to determine the rate of heat conduction. (Ti = Ta) Q=G= Qu kA, ~D) (400 cal) (« 184 4) Gm) Ww mk 388, ) (0.0889 5 1 °C 08 x (a=) (100°C - 0°¢) (60 = 1.4 min (21 min) Answer is B. FERCVIOW CTU A A= (Lem)(2em) =2em? Qotacx = eo ATA = 0) (57 10-* Fe) emt) ) (980°C 4-273)* Qa a = (28 W)(1 h) (3600 iD = 100800 J (400 ka) Answer is B. 5. All of the statements are true except (D). Radiation travels through a vacuum very well. Answer is D. 6. The conductive thermal resistance of a substance is given by the quantity L/k. ‘The thermal resistance ‘through convective films is 1/h. ‘The thermal resistance of the films is added to the conduetive resistance, The total thermal resistance per unit avea is 0065 Te aR = 30.16 mK/W ‘Phe conductive heat transfer per unit aren is Q mK 30.16 Ww = 0.995 W/m? (1.0 W/m?) Answer is A. Profesion! POO | | / | { |Ls Heat Totsfer 3-7 "7. First, determine the heat transfer. 1 mina , neat , R= att y A "= Farinas” Rtumtoam — Retect "Rate 1 0.05 m = + ~ 7, Ww mk ak 002m, 1 Mas WW KS nek = 0.1007 m?-K/W os = Notice that the aluminum and steel contribute little to ‘the overall thermal resistance. ‘The conduetive heat transfor per unit area is Q _ Tht ~ Toot An Rey _ 400% ~ 100°C W = 2979 W/m? ‘The thermal resistance from the steel-side fluid to the Interface is Lato Ry = te Aeteot ‘ = 2mm 805 ae nek 106708 m?-K/W. "The heat transfer is known, Solve the conduction equa- tion for tho unknown temperature. W _ 400°C — Tintestace o.09705 ™ 00°C Tintertoce Answer is B. 8, Three formulations for the heat transfer through « plane surface are Q = UA Thor — Teota) = Alia Tat) :A(Thot u) @ [conduction only] ‘The rate of heat transfer, Q, is directly proportional to the overall coefficient of heat transfer, U, and inversely proportional to the thickness of the wall, L. Answer is C. 9. ‘The intensity of an ideal (black-body) radiator at ab- solute temporature T is given by the Stefan-Bolt law, also known as the “fourth power lav.” Quince = eoAT* Answer is D. 10, The plate has two surfaces. Disregnrding the edges, the radiating aren is A= ()(8 m)@-m) = 18 m? ‘The configuration factor for a fully enclosed body is the emissivity of the body. In this ease, Faq 3018 Ora = 0A Fy aT} - TH) 3 W 2 = (5.670 107 Se, } (18 m?)(0.18) x ((500°C + 273)" — (25°C + 273)") = 46325 W (46 KW) Answer is C. 11. ‘The energy radiated by a “gray” body is Q=ear" a Gacor* = (08) (sro ot a) (60"e +278" = 586 W/m? (90 W/m?) Answor is B. 12, The heat transfer area is Ard x length = 260mm) m) 1000 m 565 m? ce [2r0Publicofans, in.31-8 FEReviow Mor! sss ‘Use Newton's law of convection. ‘The temperature dif- forence is the same for temperatures exprossed in °C ork. Q=hA(Taie — Tan) = (m4 aw) (0.565 m2)(100°C — 20°C) = 908.5 W (910 W) Answer is C. 18. Although the rate of combustion energy generated is 40 kW + 30 KW, only the 40 kW contaibutes to water heating. The remaining 30 KW are dissipated as useful work by the mechanisins (tires, ete.) attached to tie output shaft. If this were not true, then the 30 kW would be causing a heating offect in two places. ‘The enthalpy change is calculated from Q = a hin — hou) 1 mon soa = (ran sro) ( kg kg, tin = 1.001 ke/s ‘The density of water is approximately 1000 kg/m®. (A, more accurate value could be found as the reciprocal of ‘the specific volume found from the steam table.) 1.901 ke ye itm HE a = 0.001901 m3/s (1.9 x 107% m*/s) Answer is C. Profesional Publics, sss (