GENERAL HISTOLOGY & EMBRYOLOGY LEC FINALS

SKELETAL SYSTEM o Hyaline Carilage

CHARACTERISTICS OF BONE
 A special type of connective tissue
composed of proteinaceous organic matrix
and consist largely of collage; and inorganic
matrix which is calcium phosphate salt
known as “hydroxyapatite”
FUNCTION OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
 For PROTECTION
- The rib cage protects the heart,lungs,
and other organs of the thorax
 For SUPPORT
- Cartilage provides a firm yet flexible
support within certain structures like
nose, external ear, thoracic cage, &
trachea
 For MOVEMENT
- Contraction of skeletal muscles moves
the bones, producing body movements
 For STORAGE
- Some minerals in the blood are taken
into the bone & stored.
 For BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION
- Many bones contain cavities filled w/
bone marrow that gives rise to blood
cells & platelets (hematopoiesis/
hemopoiesis)
- covers the ends of the bones, stops
them rubbing together and absorbs
shock
- Growth in length of bones & bone repair
often involve the production of hyaline
cartilage followed by its replacement
with bone.
- The most intimately associated with
bones.
- Most of the bones in the body develop
from it.
o Marrow Cavity (Yellow)- Site of fat storage
in the adult
o Periosteum – a protective layer, for
attachment of tendons and ligaments
o Epiphyseal Plate - Site of longitudinal
growth in a child/area where bone grow in
length
Epiphysis Head – site of spongy bone in adult
Diaphysis Shaft - Site of hemopoiesis in the adult
and Scientific name for bone shaft
BONE DEVELOPMENT (BONE FORMATION)
 INTRAMEMBARNOUS OSSIFICATION
- Bones are formed in the connective
tissue membrane and results in the
cranial bones and clavicles.

4 TYPES OF BONE CELLS

1. OSTEOCYTES – maintains body tissue
2. OCTEOBLAST – forms bone matrix
3. OSTEOGENIC CELL – stem cell
4. OSTEOCLAST – resorbs bone

TYPES OF BONE AS TO TEXTURE

1. Compact
- which is found in the shafts of long
bones (in the diaphyses). This makes up
80% of all bone.
- Hard, dense bone, gives strength to the
hollow part of the bone.

2. Spongy (cancellous) bone

- which is found at the ends of long bones
(in the epiphysis). This makes up 20%
of all bone. This type of bone contains
red bone marrow and a network of bony
trabeculae.
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o Wrist- Carpus derived from the Gr.karpos
- Relatively short region betweent the
forearm and hand, composed of 8
carpal bones arranged into two rows
of four each

o Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

- Occurs frequently among people who
use their hands a lot.
- Median nerve passes through the
carpal tunnel to receive sensations from
the thumb, index, and middle fingers of
the hand.
- Band of fibrous tissue that normally
 ENDOCHONDRAL / CARTILAGENOUS functions as a support for the joint
OSSIFICATION - Irritation of the median nerve causing
- Bones are developed from cartilage models
tingling burning & numbness of the
ex: short & long bones.
hand such as of the thumb, index, and
the middle fingers.

FACTORS AFFECTING BONE GROWTH

 NUTRITION
Vitamin D - Necessary for the normal
absorption of calcium from intestines. Body
can either synthesize or ingest vitamin D

RICKETS
- A disorder in children which is due to
insufficient vitamin D resulting from
reduced mineralization of the bone
matrix.
- Children with rickets can have bowed
bones & inflamed joints

OSTEOMALACIA
- Is a disease characterize d by weak,
BONE GROWTH soft or brittle bones in adults
 Appositional Growth - The formation of new Vitamin C - Necessary for collagen synthesis by
bone on the surface of older bone or osteoblasts
cartilage - Wound healing which requires collagen
synthesis is hindered in patients with
Vitamin C deficiency
SCURVY
o Intervertebral Disks
- Vitamin C deficiency in children & adult
- The disk becomes more compressed
- Marked by ulceration & hemorrhage in
with increasing age so that the
almost any area of the body because of the
distance between vertebrae & over-all
lack of collagen synthesis in connective
height of individual decreases
tissue
- The annulus fibrosus also becomes
weaker with age & more susceptible to
 HORMONES
GENERAL HISTOLOGY & EMBRYOLOGY LEC FINALS
Growth Hormone
- From anterior pituitary increases general
tissue growth, including over-all bone
growth, by stimulating interstitial cartilage
growth & appositional growth
- is a protein hormone released from the
anterior pituitary gland under the control of
the hypothalamus
- In children, GH has growth-promoting
effects on the body. It stimulates the
secretion of somatomedins from the liver,
which are a family of insulin-like growth
factor (IGF) hormones.
- These, along with GH and thyroid
hormone, stimulate linear skeletal growth
in children.
- In adults, GH stimulates protein synthesis
in muscle and the
- release of fatty acids from adipose tissue
(anabolic effects).
- It inhibits uptake of glucose by muscle
while stimulating uptake of amino acids.
The amino acids are used in the synthesis
of proteins, and the muscle shifts to using
fatty acids as a source of energy
- GH secretion occurs in a pulsatile (short,
concentrated secretion) and sporadic
manner. Thus, a single test of the GH level
is usually not performed.
DWARFISM
- The condition in which the person is
abnormally short.
PITUITARY DWARFISM
- It results when abnormally low level of
pituitary growth hormone affect the
whole body, thus, producing a small
person.
ACHONDROPLASTIC DWARFISM
- A form of dwarfism which produces a
person with a nearly normal sized trunk
& head but shorter than normal limbs
GIANTISM
- Is a condition of abnormally increased
height that usually results from
excessive cartilage & bone formation
at the epiphyseal plate
ACROMEGALY
- Caused by excess pituitary GH
secretion
- Effects include increased in the
diameter of all bones strikingly apparent
in the face & hands
Thyroid Hormone
- Required for normal growth of all
tissues, including cartilage; therefore a
decrease in this hormone result in
decrease size of the individual
Sex Hormone
- Estrogen and Progesterone
- Initially stimulate bone growth, w/c
accounts for the burst of growth at the
time of puberty, when production of
these hormone increases
BONE REMODELING
- Is the replacement of old bone tissue by
new bone tissue which mainly occurs
in the adult skeleton to maintain bone
mass.
5 PHASES OF BONE REMODELING
1. Bone activation
- pre-osteoclasts are stimulated &
differentiate under the influence of
cytokines & growth factors into mature
active osteoclasts
2. Bone Resorption
- Osteoclasts digest mineral matrix
(old bone
3. Bone reversal end of resorption
4. Bone formation
- osteoblasts synthesize new bone matrix
5. Bone quiescence
- osteoblasts become resting bone lining
cells on the newly formed bone surface
FRACTURE
- The breaking of bone or cartilage
- Two factors determine fractures: the energy of
the event & the strength of the bone
RADIUS FRACTURE
- The radius is the most commonly fractured
bone in people over 50 years old, resulting
from on an outstretched hand.
 GENERAL HISTOLOGY & EMBRYOLOGY LEC FINALS
- The most common site of fracture is 2.5
cm.proximal to the wrist, often comminuted
or impacted fracture
BONE REPAIR
1. Hematoma formation
2. Callus formation
3. Callus ossification
4. Bone Remodeling
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS - To explain the role of
bone in calcium homeostasis
CLEFT PALATE
- Occurs when the palatine processes of the
maxillae don’t fuse with one another. It
produces an opening between nasal & oral
cavities, making it difficult to eat or drink or to
speak distinctly
- It occurs approximately once in every 2500
births, more common in female than male.
- Cleft lip & Cleft palate may also occur in the
same person
OSTEOPOROSIS
- Is a condition characterized by progressive loss
of bone density, thinning of bone tissue and
increased vulnerability to fractures
- Osteoporotic bones are more porous and
therefore more vulnerable to fracture.
- No symptoms in the early stages of the
disease. Symptoms occurring late in the
disease include:
- Joint pain & tenderness, Swelling ,
Warmth over the affected joint
OSTEOARTHRITIS
- A chronic disease of the joint cartilage &
bone, often thought to result from "wear and
tear“ on the joint, thus it is also known as
“degenerative arthritis”.
Other causes are congenital defects, trauma
& metabolic disorders
OSTEOMYELITIS
- Is a bone inflammation, resulting from
bacterial infection like
Staphyloco ccus aureus, often introduced
in body
MICROCEPHALY
- Characterize by head circumference w/c is
less than the 3rd percentile.
- Most often occurs because of failure of the
brain to grow at a normal rate
- Head circumference is measured with a tape
measure extending from the middle of the
forehead to the farthest part in the rear of
the head
URINARY SYSTEM
KIDNEY
- It is covered by a thin connective tissue
capsule and consists of an outer cortex
and medullary pyramid or
papillae.Within these two regions are
found the components of the structural
and functional unit of the kidney, the
nephron.
NEPHRON
RENAL CORPUSCLE
- The blood-filtering component of the nephron
of the kidney.
- It consists of a glomerulus - a tuft of
capillaries composed of endothelial cells, and
a glomerular capsule known as Bowman's
capsule
GENERAL HISTOLOGY & EMBRYOLOGY LEC FINALS
- Bowman's capsule is a part of renal corpuscle
, which is also known as Malpighian
corpuscle.
- Bowman's capsule is initial part of nephron ; it
is a double walled cup that encloses a tuft of
capillaries known as glomerulus.
- The capsule and the capillary tuft together
form the corpuscle.
JUXTAGLOMERULAR APPARATUS
- The juxtaglomerular cells, derived from
smooth muscle cells, of the afferent arteriole
secrete renin when blood pressure in the
arteriole falls.
- Renin increases blood pressure via the renin-
angiotensin-aldosterone system
- A specialized structure formed by the distal
convoluted tubule and the glomerular afferent
arteriole. It is located near the vascular pole
of the glomerulus and its main function is to
regulate blood pressure and the filtration rate
of the glomerulus
URETER
- is composed of a folded mucus membrane, a
muscle coat consists of two layers of smooth
muscle and a fibro-elastic adventitia .The
mucus membrane consists of two layers:
(1) transitional epithelium
(2) lamina propria
- the ureter has a star shaped lumen which is
due to the convolutedmucosa.
- The mucosa is lined by visible transitional
epithelium
- The muscularis consists of an inner
longitudinal layer of smooth muscle and an
outer circular layer of smoothmuscle.
- On the periphery of this histology slide is
adiposetissue
URINARY BLADDER
- The urinary bladder is lined with
transitional epithelium underlined by a
collagenous lamina propria. A
submucosa of elastic fibers and a
muscular layer of three coats of smooth
muscle permit expansion of the
structure
FEMALE URETHRA
- The female urethra is a relatively simple
tubular structure that has the sole purpose
of conducting urine from the bladder to the
outside of the body. It is a short structure
without complex investing structures; thus, it
is less prone to intrinsic pathology than the
male urethra is.
- It is a separate tube consisting of a mucus
membrane (epithelium and lamina propria),
submucosa and muscular coat of two
layers of smooth muscle. The epithelium
varies: transitional by the bladder, changing
to stratified squamous non-keratinizing and
finally stratified squamous at the opening
BLOOD FLOW IN KIDNEYS
The flow of blood in the kidneys begins with
the renal artery. Eventually the blood is filtered
through the glomerulus, where specific substances
flow into the capsule. The afferent (approaching)
arteriole is larger than the efferent (exiting) arteriole
which helps maintain a high pressure in the
glomerulus to increase GFR. Blood flows from
efferent arterioles into either vasa recta
(juxtamedullary nephron) or peritubular capillaries
(cortical nephron). Blood leaves via the renal vein.
Renal blood flow (RBF) and glomerular
filtration are important aspects of sustaining proper
organ functions. It is being accomplished by two
bean-shaped organs (kidneys) that interact with the
cardiovascular system to maintain hemodynamic
stability, as they excrete metabolic waste, regulate
fluid and electrolyte balance, promote bone
integrity, andmore.
EFFECTS OF HORMONES IN KIDNEY
 ADH - Increases reabsorption of water from
the filtrate to the blood.
 PTH – Increases reabsorption of Ca
 ANP – Decreases reabsorption of Na
Fluid Balance in the Body (Regulatory Function
of Kidneys)
- Fluid balance is an aspect of homeostasis in
human body in which the amount of water
needs to be controlled, through
osmoregulation and behavior, such that the
concentrations of electrolytes (salts in
solution) in the various body fluids are kept
within healthy ranges.
GENERAL HISTOLOGY & EMBRYOLOGY LEC FINALS
Steps of Renin Production of Kidney (Secretory
Function of Kidneys)
 The renin-angiotensin system or RAS
regulates blood pressure and fluid balance
in the body. When blood volume or sodium
levels in the body are low, or blood
potassium is high, cells in the kidney
release the enzyme, renin.
 Renin converts angiotensinogen, which is
produced in the liver, to the hormone
angiotensin I. An enzyme known as ACE or
angiotensinconverting enzyme found in the
lungs metabolizes angiotensin I into
angiotensin II. Angiotensin II causes blood
vessels to constrict and blood pressure to
increase.
 Angiotensin II stimulates the release of the
hormone aldosterone in the adrenal glands,
which causes the renal tubules to retain
sodium and water and excretepotassium.
ERYTHROPOIETIN
- A hormone produced by the kidney to
promote the formation of red blood cells by
the bone marrow
CONSTITUENT OF NORMAL URINE
 AMOUNT: 1-2 liters/ 24 hrs
 COLOR: Straw or amber; Darker means
concentrated; Should be clear not cloudy
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.0 10 to 1.025 ; It is
a a measure of the dissolved material in
urine; the lower the value, the more dilute
theurine
 pH: pH Average =6 Range 4.6-8; Diet has
the greatest effect on urine pH.
 NITROGENOUS WASTE
Urea – from amino acid metabolism
Uric Acid – from nucleic acid metab.
Creatinine – from muscle metaboli..

 Together, angiotensin II and aldosterone

work to raise blood volume, blood pressure
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
and sodium levels in the blood to restore the
balance of sodium, potassium, and fluids. If Male Reproductive Organs and Glands
the renin-angiotensin system becomes
overactive, consistently high blood pressure Organ Function
results Testis Produces sperm,
testosterone and inhibin
Scrotum Keeps the testes at proper
Role of Kidneys in Acid-Base Balance
temp.
(Regulatory Function of Kidneys)
- The kidneys help maintain the acid–base Epididymis Site of sperm maturation and
balance by excreting hydrogen ions into the storage
urine and reabsorbing bicarbonate from the Ductus Deferens Duct for sperm maturation,
urine storage and transport
Step 1: Sodium ions are reabsorbed from the
filtrate in exchange for H+ by an antiport Ejaculatory Duct Duct for transporting sperm
mechanism in the apical membranes of cells lining and glandular secretion
the renal tubule.
Step 2: The cellsproduce bicarbonate ions HCO –, Penis Erectile organ of sexual
that 3 can be shunted to peritubular capillaries. intercourse
Step 3: When CO2 is available, the reaction is
driven to the formation of carbonic acid,which
Accessory Gland Function
dissociates to form a bicarbonate ion and a
Seminal Vesicle Secretes fructose and
hydrogen ion.
most of the seminal fluid
Step 4: The bicarbonate ion passes into the
peritubular capillaries and returns to the blood. Prostate Gland Secretes watery alkaline
The hydrogen ion is secreted into the filtrate, fluid to raise vaginal pH
where it can become part of new water molecules Bulbourethral Gland Secretes lubricating
and be reabsorbedas such, or removed in theurine mucus
 GENERAL HISTOLOGY & EMBRYOLOGY LEC FINALS

COMPONENT OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM

Component Function
Ovary Site of storage and development
of oocytes
Oviduct Duct for transporting oocyte to
ovary to uterus; also site of
fertilization if it occurs

Uterus Hollow chamber in which embryo

develops
Cervix Lower part of uterus that opens
into the vagina
Vagina Organ of sexual Intercourse;
produces lubricating fluids; also
the birth canal

Clitoris Organ od sexual arousal

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
CONDUCTING PASSAGES:
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
- Nasal Cavity
- Pharynx
- Larynx

LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT

- Trachea
- Pirmary Bronchi
- Lungs

 The trachea branches to give rise to two primary

(main) bronchii. PLASMA PROTEINS
- Make up about 7% of plasma and fall into
 These then branch successively to give rise in turn three major classes:
to secondary and tertiary bronchii.

 These then branch to give rise to several orders of
progressively smaller airways called bronchioles,
the smallest of which are called terminal
bronchioles. These are the last components of the
conducting portion of the respiratory system.
 Terminal bronchioles give rise to respiratory
bronchioles, which ultimately lead to the alveoli.
A. Albumins
- Albumins make up roughly 60% of all
plasma proteins and are a major
contributor to osmotic pressure. Albumins
are the smallest of the three and serve as
carriers for hormones, metabolites and
drugs.
B. Globulins
GENERAL HISTOLOGY & EMBRYOLOGY LEC FINALS
- These proteins make up about 35%.
Immunoglobulins are produced by
lymphocytes and other globulins are
produced by the liver. The nonimmune
globulins serve as transport globulins for
ions, hormones and other compounds.
C. Fibrinogen
- This is the largest protein but only
comprises about 4% of plasma proteins. It
participates in the clot formation when it is
transformed into fibrin.
- Blood plasma minus the fibrinogen and
other clotting proteins is called serum.
- Albumin and globulin form complexes with
lipids that are called lipoproteins that
enable insoluble lipids to be transported
throughout the body
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
MUSCLE
- It originate from Latin musculus literally
means "little mouse”.
- It is the soft tissue of the human body
which primarily function for movement.
- The branch of science which is the study of
muscle is Myology
FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLE
• For body movement
• For communication
• For respiration
• For heart beat
• For maintenance of posture
• For production of body heat
• For constriction of organs and vessels
ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLE
 EXCITABILITY - It is the ability of muscle to
respond to a stimulus
 CONTRACTILITY - It is the ability of muscle
cells to shorten forcefully.
 EXTENSIBILITY - It is the ability of a
muscle to be stretched
 ELASTICITY - It is the ability of muscle to
recoil or bounce back to the muscle's
original length after being stretched.
TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
• Skeletal muscle also known as striated
voluntary muscle, multinucleated, attached to
skeleton
• Cardiac muscle which is also known as
striated involuntary muscle, nuclei are centrally
located, with intercalated discs
• Smooth muscle or unstriated/non-striated
involuntary muscle, cells are short, spindle-
shaped and have a single nucleus.
 EPIMUSIUM – around muscle
 PERIMYSIUM – around fascicle
 ENDOMYSIUM – around fibers or cells
MUSCLE PROTEIN FILAMENTS
Actin
- An actin myofilament is made up of actin
molecule, tropomyosin and troponin
complex. Troponin is composed of three
sub- units (troponin I, T and C).Tropomyosin
form two helical strand which are wrapped
around actin molecule longitudinally in thin
twisted stranded form.
Myosin
- A myosin filament consists of a long rod-
shaped tail called myosin rod and two
globular intertwined myosin head.
- The globular head appear at interval along
the myosin myofilament.
SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY
- This is a proposed mechanism of
muscle contraction in which the actin
and myosin filaments of striated muscle
slide over each other to shorten the
length of the muscle fibers which allows
bridges to form between actin and
myosin, that requires ATP as an energy
source.
TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBERS
 Slow-Twitch Oxidative Muscle Fiber
- Has large amount of red myoglobin,
numerous mitochondria and extensive
capillary blood supply
- Has smaller diameter, darker color due
to myoglobin, fatigue resistant
 Fast-Twitch Glycolytic Muscle Fiber
- Large diameter, pale color, easily
fatigue
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS:
1. MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
GENERAL HISTOLOGY & EMBRYOLOGY LEC FINALS
- A chronic autoimmune neuromuscular
disease that causes weakness in the
skeletal muscles. It came from the Latin
and Greek words meaning "grave, or
serious, muscle weakness."
- Risk factors include: age especially
2. FIBROMAYGIA
- This is also called as fibromyalgia
syndrome (FMS) . A disorder
characterized by widespread
musculoskeletal pain accompanied by
fatigue, widespread pain and cognitive
difficulties. Causes
may include Genetics in origin,
infections. physical or emotional trauma.
period can cause a muscle cramp.
Other factors can be inadequate blood
supply, nerve compression and mineral
depletion
older people who lose muscle mass;
dehydration; pregnancy and those with
certain medical conditions such as
individuals with diabetes, or nerve, liver
or thyroid disorders. Prevention include:
Drinking plenty of liquids; and
stretching the muscles.

3. MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
- Muscular dystrophy is a group of
diseases that cause progressive
weakness and loss of muscle mass.
This condition is due to abnormal
genes (mutations) that interfere with
the production of proteins needed to
form healthy muscle

4. BELL’S PALSY
- This is a condition in which the muscles
on one side of a person’s face become
weak or paralyzed. It affects only one
side of the face at a time, causing it to
droop or become stiff on that side. It's
caused by some kind of trauma to the
seventh cranial nerve being called
the “facial nerve

5. PULLED HAMSTRING
- A pulled hamstring, also called a
hamstring strain, is a tear of the
hamstring muscle fibers. This group of
muscles are important in extend the hip
joint and bending the knee joint.

6. MUSCLE CRAMP
- It is a strong, painful contraction or
tightening of a muscle that comes on
suddenly and lasts from a few seconds
to several minutes. It often occurs in the
legs. This condition is also being called
Charley horse. Leg cramps that occur
during nighttime are usually sudden
spasms, or tightening, of muscles in the
calf.

- Causes maybe due to overuse of a

muscle, dehydration, muscle strain or
simply holding a position for a prolonged