HISTOLOGY

   Histology came from the Greek words "histo-" meaning tissue and "logos", treatise.  It is also
known as  Microscopic Anatomy or Microanatomy,  the microscopic counterpart  of Gross
Anatomy,  because it  involves  structures that are seen only with the aid of the microscope. 
         Histology deals with  how tissues are organized at all structural levels, from cells and
intercellular substances to organs. It also  emphasizes the necessity of  examining  the correlation
between tissues /organ structures and their  functions.
        Histology is a vital part of medicine as it connects biochemistry, physiology and molecular
biology to the investigation of ailment. It is used to diagnose various diseases and understand
pathogenesis. 

SCOPE OF HISTOLOGY

HISTOLOGY

- It is the study of the microanatomy of cells, tissues, and organs as seen through a
microscope;
- It also examines the correlation between its structure and function.
- Satellite glial cells are glial cells that cover the surface of nerve cell bodies in sensory,
sympathetic, and parasympathetic ganglia

BODY TISSUES

- 4 major types: Connective, Epithelial, Muscle, Nervous

- An organ is a group of tissues with similar functions. Functionally related organs often
cooperate to form whole organ systems.

CONTRIBUTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HISTOLOGY

 Robert Hooke - One of the first major milestones in histology came in 1665 with the
publication of a small book called ‘Micrographia’ by Robert Hooke (which is recognized as the
first published record of the word ‘cell’.
 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek - He has been attributed as the first person to use a histological stain to
color specimens observed under the microscope using saffron.
 Sir William Henry Perkin - A British chemist and entrepreneur best known for his
serendipitous discovery of the first synthetic organic dye, mauveine, made from aniline.
 August Franz Josef Karl Mayer - A British chemist and entrepreneur best known for his
serendipitous discovery of the first synthetic organic dye, mauveine, made from aniline.
 Marie Francois Xavier Bichat – the father of modern histology and pathology

SELECTED BRANCHES OF SCIENCE RELATED TO THE STUDY OF HISTOLOGY

 SURGICAL PATHOLOGY - is the study of tissues removed from living patients during
surgery to help diagnose a disease and determine a treatment plan
  IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY (IHC) - It involves the process of selectively identifying
antigens (proteins) in cells of a tissue section by exploiting the principle of antibodies binding
specifically to antigens in biological tissues.
 STEM CELL BIOLOGY - is the study of specific type of stem cells capable of evolving into
many different types of specialized cells within the body.
 CANCER PATHO-PHYSIOLOGY - It refer to disease processes characterized by
uncontrolled growth and spread of cells.
 HISTOPATHOLOGY - refers to the microscopic examination of tissue in order to study the
manifestations of disease.
 AUTOPSY - is a medical procedure involving the examination of a dead body.
 ORAL HISTOLOGY - describes in detail the tissues of the teeth, periodontium, and the
surrounding oral mucosa
 CYTOPATHOLOGY - describes in detail the tissues of the teeth, periodontium, and the
surrounding oral mucosa

USES OF HISTOLOGY

In Education

- It helps students to understand and recognize different types of tissues and bridges the gap
between anatomy and physiology by showing what happens to tissues at the cellular level.
Histology slides are often used in teaching laboratories to help students learn about the
microstructures of human  biological tissues.

Diagnosis for Treatment

- Biological tissue samples taken from a patient enable medical experts to learn and understand
more the patient's condition and make recommendations for its treatment or management.

In Forensic Examination

- Forensic histology, immunohistochemistry and cytology involving microscopic study of

biological tissues using various stains can help clarify the cause of sudden unexpected deaths
and other issues in forensic science.
- Example in Autopsy, biological tissues from a deceased person can be studied using
histological techniques enabling experts (e.g. pathologists re. unexplained death of a person)
to learn about the circumstances and possible cause of death.

In Archaeology
- Study of biological cells and tissues recovered from archaeological sites can provide
information about history, even ancient history.
- The state of preservation of the biological material is critical and sometimes sufficient e.g. for
bone histology and dental histology
 CELL STRUCTURE
         Cell, is the basic membrane-bound unit that contains the fundamental molecules of life and of
which all living things are composed. Each cell in the body has its own unique shape, sizes and
functions. Despite their specialization all cells possess common structures and characteristics. 
A generalized cells is consist of a plasma membrane and inside of which are organelles suspended
within the fluid-filled interior known as cytoplasm.  Organelles are small structures with highly
specialized functions. It can be classified as membranous (organelles with membrane) and non-
membranous (organelles without a membrane). Cell is the functional unit of life, in which all the
chemical reactions necessary for the maintenance and reproduction of life takes place
CYTOLOGY

- is a branch of biology that deal with the structure, function, multiplication, pathology, and life
history of cells.

ROBERT HOOKE

- Published a book entitled Micrographia, the 1st book describing observations made through a
microscope and coined the term cell, from the monks cell “cellula”, w/c means small rooms.
However what Hooke actually saw was the dead cell walls of plant cells (cork) as it appeared
under the microscope.

RUDOLF VIRCHOW

- He is credited with several very important discoveries. His most widely known scientific
contribution is his cell theory.

CELL THEORY

- All energy flow of life occurs within cells (metabolism & biochemistry)
- Cell contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division.
- All cells come from pre-existing cells
- ll cells are basically the same in chemical composition

3 BASIC PARTS OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

Plasma Membrane – the outer boundary of the cell

Cytoplasm – (Gr.kytos-hollow vessel and plasm fluid) It has cytosol and organelles

Nucleus – (plural nuclei) control center of the cell. It has nuclear membrane, chromosome and
nucleoplasm
 CELL CYCLE
LIFE CYCLE OF A CELL

This include all the changes a cell undergoes from the time of its formation until it divides to
produce two new cells. The life cycle of a cell has two phases: an interphase and a cell division. 

I.  INTERPHASE 

 At least ninety percent or  more of the life cycle of a typical cell is spent. 
 Cell carries out the metabolic activities necessary for life and perform specialized
functions.
 This preparation include increase in cell size due to doubling in quantity and
replication of cell's DNA. The centrioles within the centrosome are also duplicated. 
 Consequently when the cell divides, each new cell receives the organelles and
DNA necessary for continued functioning.
 Divided into three subphase, G1, S, G2 . In  G1 and  G2 , the cell carries out metabolic
activities while in S phase, new DNA is synthesized. 
 Many cells in the body do not divide for days, months or even years. These
resting cells exit the cell cycle and enter what we call G0 phase in which they remain unless
stimulated to divide. 

II. CELL DIVISION

New cells necessary for growth and tissue repair are produced by cell division. Cell division
involves two major events: the division of the nucleus to form two new nuclei and the division of
cytoplasm to form two new cells. Each of the new cells contains one of the newly formed nuclei. The
division of the nucleus occurs by  mitosis and the division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis. 
Major Periods of Cell Cycle:

Interphase - the main part of the cell cycle

Cell division -functions in reproduction, growth, and repair

INTERPHASE – a non-dividing phase which usually occupies most of the life cycle of the cell; it is
divided into three separate phases, namely:

G1 phase – gap 1 - usually the longest and most variable part of the cycle, it is a period of cell
growth and development and RNA synthesis, differentiate and perform their specialized function .
Also in G1, the cell volume, reduced by half during mitosis, returns to its previous size.

S phase – synthesis phase - characterized by DNA synthesis and duplication - It also duplicates a
microtubule-organizing structure called the centrosome. The centrosomes help separate DNA
during M phase.

G2 phase - gap 2 - relatively short period where proteins required for mitosis accumulate; energy
for mitosis is stored; DNA replication is analyzed; formation of organelles needed in cell
division; cells prepare for nuclear division (mitosis); G2 phase ends when mitosis begins.
MITOSIS PHASE (CELL DIVISION) involves two distinct division-related processes: mitosis and
cytokinesis.

Mitosis – the division of the nucleus; nuclear DNA of the cell condenses into visible
chromosomes and is pulled apart by the mitotic spindle, a specialized structure made out of
microtubules. Mitosis takes place in four stages: prophase (sometimes divided into early prophase
and prometaphase), metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Cytokinesis - the cytoplasm of the cell is split in two, making two new cells. Cytokinesis usually
begins just as mitosis is ending, with a little overlap.

Cells in some tissues progress continually through the cell cycle to accommodate tissue growth or
cell turnover, these cells are called renewing cells. Cells of certain tissues such as stem cells of gut
and skin are renewing cells, they undergo continuous cell cycle replacing cells lost during normal
wear and tear.

Terminally differentiated cells leave the cycle after the M phase and enter a state of continuous
differentiated function designated as G0 phase. Most muscle and nerve cells lose the ability to
undergo mitosis.

Facultative dividers, such as liver cells, do not divide normally but retain the capacity to undergo
mitosis should the need arise.

Cell division and differentiation are balanced by cell death, both during the development and
growth of the immature organism and in the mature adult. In this circumstances, cell death occurs by
a mechanism known as apoptosis.
 EMBRYOLOGY
Embryology came from the word "embryon" meaning the unborn, and "logia" which is the branch
of Biology that deals with prenatal development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization and development
of embryo and fetuses.  Additionally, it also encompasses the study of congenital  disorders that
occur before birth, known as teratology.  An Embryologist is a scientist who studies embryology.

 Importance of Embryology include: 

 understanding  the stages of  development of embryo until formation of various

body organ/systems;
 for prenatal diagnosis and surgical treatments;
 understanding of the  detailed account of human congenital anomalies including
their etiology in each organ/system; and
 providing aid in therapeutic procedures for infertility. 

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

    Prenatal development, is defined as the process of growth and development happening within
the womb in which a single cell zygote (the cell formed by the combination of a sperm and an egg)
becomes an embryo, a fetus and then a baby

Stages of Prenatal Development :

 Germinal /Pre-embryonic period - approximately the first two weeks of

development during which the primitive germ layers are formed; 
 Embryonic Period - from about the second to the end of the eight week of
development, during which the major organ systems come into existence; and
 Fetal Period -  the last thirty weeks of the prenatal period during which the
organ system grow and become more mature.

GAMETOGENESIS

Gametogenesis is the process whereby a haploid cell (23 chromosomes) is formed from a diploid
cell (46 chromosomes) through meiosis and cell differentiation. Gametogenesis in the male is known
as spermatogenesis and produces spermatozoa. Gametogenesis in the female is known as
oogenesis and result in the formation of ova.

 SPERMATOGENESIS
Spermatogenesis is the origin and development of the sperm cells within the male
reproductive organs, the testes. Sperm cells are produced within the testes in structures called
seminiferous tubules. Once the sperm has matured, it is transported through the long
seminiferous tubules and stored in the epididymis of the testes until it is ready to leave the
male body.
- Males start producing sperm when they reach puberty, which is usually from 10-16 years
old.
 - They are produced in large quantities (~200 million a day) to maximise the likelihood of
sperm reaching the egg.
- Sperm are continually produced as males need to be ready to utilise the small window of
fertility of the female.
- Sperm production occurs in the testes of the male, specifically in the seminiferous
tubules.
- Sertoli cells have a role in supporting the developing spermatozoa.

Spermatogonia (primitive germ cell) are the initial pool of diploid cells that divide by mitosis to give
two identical cells:

 A1 spermatogonia - will be used to replenish the pool of spermatogonia - This replenishment

of spermatogonia means that males are fertile throughout their adult life.
 Type B spermatogonium – will eventually form mature sperm. - these cells are known as
primary spermatocytes which then undergo meiosis.

Meiosis I produces two haploid cells, known as secondary spermatocytes

Meiosis II produces four haploid cells, known as spermatids

- The cytoplasmic bridges break down and the spermatids are released into the lumen of the
seminiferous tubule
- a process called spermiation.
- The spermatids undergo spermiogenesis (remodelling and differentiation into mature
spermatozoa) as they travel along the seminiferous tubules until they reach the epididymis.
- From the seminiferous tubule they travel to the rete testis, which acts to “concentrate” the
sperm by removing excess fluid, before moving to the epididymis where the sperm is stored
and undergoes the final stages of maturation.

Spermatogenesis takes approximately 70 days, therefore in order for sperm production to be

continuous and not intermittent, multiple spermatogenic processes are occurring simultaneously
within the same seminiferous tubule, with new groups of spermatogonia arising every 16 days
(spermatogenic cycle). Each of these populations of spermatogenic cells will be at different stages of
spermatogenesis.
Note that once sperm leave the male body and enter the female reproductive tract, the
conditions there cause the sperm to undergo capacitation, which is the removal of cholesterol and
glycoproteins from the head of the sperm cell to allow it to bind to the zona pellucida of the egg cell.

 OOGENESIS
- Oogenesis differs from spermatogenesis in that it begins in the fetus prior to birth.
- Primordial germ cells (which originate in the yolk sac of the embryo) move to colonise the
cortex of the primordial gonad(ovary) and replicate by mitosis to peak at approximately 7
million by mid-gestation (~20 weeks).
- Cell death occurs after this peak to leave 2 million cells which begin meiosis I before birth,
these are known as primary oocytes. Therefore, a human female is born with approximately 2
million primary oocytes arrested in meiosis, meaning they have a finite supply of potential ova.
During childhood, further atresia (cell death) occurs, leaving ~40,000 eggs at puberty.

Once puberty begins, a number of primary oocytes (15-20) begin to mature each month, although
only one of these reaches full maturation to become an oocyte.

 Ovulation - ovum is released from the ovary and taken up into the fallopian tube via the
fimbriae (finger-like projections of the fallopian tube).
 Fertilisation - The secondary oocyte will only complete meiosis II following fertilisation, giving
off a third polar body once meiosis II is completed and a fertilised egg. If fertilisation never
occurs, the oocyte degenerates 24 hours after ovulation, remaining arrested in meiosis II.

If the egg is fertilised however, the peristaltic movements of the fallopian tube move the egg to the
uterus where it can implant into the posterior uterine wall.

The period of time required for full development of a fetus in utero is referred to as gestation (gestare
= “to carry” or “to bear”). It can be subdivided into distinct gestational periods:

• Pre-embryonic stage - first 2 weeks of prenatal development

• Embryonic stage - during weeks 3–8, a developing human is referred to as an embryo

• Fetal stage - 9th week of gestation until birth and the developing human is referred to as a fetus

The pre-embryonic and embryonic stages of development are characterized by cell division,
migration, and differentiation. By the end of the embryonic period, all of the organ systems are
structured in rudimentary form, although the organs themselves are either nonfunctional or only semi-
functional.

Fertilization

The first week of human development begins with fertilization of the egg by sperm forming the
first cell, the zygote.

Cleavage Stage – series of rapid mitosis

Following fertilization, the zygote and its associated membranes, together referred to as the
conceptus, continue to move toward the uterus by peristalsis and beating cilia. During its journey to
the uterus, the zygote undergoes five or six rapid mitotic cell divisions. Although each cleavage
results in more cells, it does not increase the total volume of the conceptus.

Zygote undergoes series of rapid mitosis which leads to the formation of a ball of cells, the
morula. Each daughter cell produced by cleavage is called a blastomere.

Morula Stage

Approximately 3 days after fertilization, a 16-cell conceptus reaches the uterus. The cells that
had been loosely grouped are now compacted and look more like a solid mass. The name given to
this structure is the morula (morula = “little mulberry”).
Blastula Stage

Once inside the uterus, the conceptus floats freely for several more days. It continues to
divide, creating a ball of approximately 100 cells, and consuming nutritive endometrial secretions
called uterine milk while the uterine lining thickens. The ball of now tightly bound cells starts to
secrete fluid and organize themselves around a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel. At this
developmental stage, the conceptus is referred to as a blastocyst.

Within this structure, a group of cells forms into an:

- inner cell mass or embryoblast which develops to become the embryo; and The cells that form
the outer shell
- outer cell mass or trophoblasts - these cells will develop into the chorionic sac and the fetal
portion of the placenta (the organ of nutrient, waste, and gas exchange between
mother and the developing offspring).

Implantation
The process of implantation, signals the end of the pre-embryonic stage of development.
 EPITHELIAL TISSUE
EPITHELIALTISSUELEC-2 PDF

 They are embryonically derives from ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. It covers body and
organ surfaces, lines body cavities and lumina (the hollow portions of body organs or vessels) and
forms various glands. 
 Characteristics of Epithelial tissue:
 Composed of continuous and tightly packed cells  covering the surfaces of the body and  stand
on a basement membrane  which provides a site of attachment for the epithelium, and acts as a
selective filtration barrier.
 With very little intercellular material, they do not have their own blood supply (avascular),
relying  on diffusion for exchange of oxygen and metabolites.
 They  contain specialized cell-cell junctions that bind adjacent cells to each other.
 Epithelial cells exhibit polarity which means there are  intrinsic asymmetry observed in cells,
either in their shape, structure, or organization of cellular components especially along the apical-
basal axis. These can include receptors and channels for transportation of substances. 
 Two major types of epithelia: the Covering Epithelia and Glandular Epithelia
 COVERING EPITHELIA
 Covering epithelia are sheets of tissue that cover the external surfaces (skin, lungs, gut) and
line the internal cavities (blood and lymphatic vessels, pleura) of the body. 
 This type can be classified according to the number of layers: simple or stratified; and
according to shape: squamous, cuboidal, columnar. The following tables show the classification of
simple and stratified epithelia.

CLASSIFICATION OF SIMPLE EPITHELIAL TISSUE

TYPE OF EPITHELIUM TYPICAL LOCATIONS TYPICAL FUNCTIONS

Simple Squamous
Simple Cuboidal
Simple Columnar
Stratified Squamous
Stratified Cuboidal
Stratified Columnar
Transitional
Pseudostratified Columnar
Lining of heart, blood
vessels, and lungs
Lining of kidney tubules and
other ducts
Lining of gastrointestinal
tracts
Epidermis skin
Lining of sweat gland ducts
Lining of large ducts
Lining of urinary bladder
Lining of the upper
respiratory tract
Filtration and secretion
Secretion and absorption
Secretion and absorption
Protection
Protection
Protection
Elastic properties
Secretion and movement
 CLASSIFICATION OF STRATIFIED EPITHELIAL TISSUE

TYPES STRUCTURE & FUNCTION LOCATION

Stratified Squamous
(keratinized)
Stratified Squamous
Epithelium (non keratinized)
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Transitional Epithelium
Multilayered, contain keratin,
outer layers, flattened and
dead, protection
Multilayered, lacks keratin,
outer layers moistened and
alive, protection and pliability
Usually two layers of cube
shape cells, strengthening of
luminal walls
Numerous layers of rounded
non keratinized cells;
distention
Epidermis of the skin
Lining of oral and nasal
cavities, esophagus, vagina,
and anal canal
Ducts of larger sweat glands,
salivary glands and pancreas
Lining urinary bladder and
portions of ureters and
urethra

GRANDULAR EPITHELIA
- These are  glands consists of  one or more cells that produce and secrete a specific product. 
- Are classified into two groups based on characteristics: where they release their product,
glands can be endocrine (lack ducts and secrete their products hormones directly into the
bloodstream) or exocrine (with ducts) ;  and the number of cells they contain,  glands can
be unicellular (one-celled) or multicellular (more than one
cell).  https://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/tissue_types/epithelia/epithelia_function.php
 

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Connectivetissuelec,pdf

This  is the most abundant and widely distributed of the primary tissues. Its functions include binding
and supporting; protection ; insulation; storing reserve fuel and transporting substances within the
body . All connective tissue originate from mesoderm germ layers. 
Two major categories of connective tissue are Embryonic and Adult connective tissue. Embryonic
connective tissue include Mesenchyme and Mucous connective tissue.  By eight weeks of
development most of the embryonic tissue has become specialized to form the types of connective
tissue seen in the adults. 
The table below presents the classification of adult connective tissues:
X
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER (examples of these are shown below)

 loose irregular connective tissue:  contains many cells, with  loose arrangement of fiber and
moderately viscous fluid matrix
 dense irregular connective tissue:  contains a dense woven network of collagenous (and some
elastic) fibers in a viscous matrix. Found in joint capsules, in the connective tissue that envelops
muscles (muscle fascia), and it forms dermis of skin. It is impact
resistant. https://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/tissue_types/connective/connective_tissue_types.php  
(Links to an external site.)

LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Areolar also called Loose connective tissue(LCT), function for binding and packing;
protection & nourishments; holds fluids, secretes heparin and located deep to skin, surrounding
muscles, vessels and organs
 Adipose/adipocytes, are fat cells. Two types are white fat cells, which are the most common
type in adults and brown fat cells which are are smaller than white adipocytes and present in large
amounts in the new-born, but restricted to areas around kidney, aorta and regions of the neck and
mediastinum of an
adult. https://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/tissue_types/connective/connective_tissue_types.php  (Lin
ks to an external site.)
 Reticular, a type of loose connective tissue in which reticular fibers are the most prominent
fibrous component, forms the supporting framework of the lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, spleen,
tonsils), bone marrow and liver. https://histologylab.ctl.columbia.edu/lab03/reticular-connective-
tissue/

DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 This is  enriched in collagen fibers with little ground substance. If the closely packed bundles of
fibers are located in one direction, like in tendons it is called regular; if oriented in multiple
directions like in dermis it is referred to as irregular. 
 Elastic connective tissue: for flexibility and distensibility and located in the arteries , larynx,
trachea and bronchi. 

SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Cartilage is a connective tissue with a large amount of the matrix and variable amounts of fibers.
The cells, called chondrocytes, make the matrix and fibers of the tissue. Chondrocytes are found in spaces
within the tissue called lacunae. Cartilage is avascular and its cells rely on diffusion for nutrients. Because of
this, damaged cartilage heals poorly after injury. Cartilage occurs where flexibility is required.

Cartllagelec.pdf

Bones support and protect the body and its organs. They also produce various blood cells,
store minerals, and provide support for mobility in conjunction with muscle. Bone is made of bone
tissue, a type of dense connective tissue.
         Bone (osseous) tissue is the structural and supportive connective tissue of the body that forms
the rigid part of the bones that make up the skeleton. Overall, the bones of the body are an organ
made up of bone tissue, bone marrow, blood vessels, epithelium, and nerves.
         There are two types of bone tissue: cortical and cancellous bone. Cortical bone is compact
bone, while cancellous bone is trabecular and spongy bone. Cortical bone forms the extremely hard
exterior while cancellous bone fills the interior. The tissues are biologically identical but differ in the
arrangement of their microstructure.
Bonetissue.pdf

pp. 138-155

Blood is considered a connective tissue because it has a matrix. The living cell types are red
blood cells, also called erythrocytes, and white blood cells, also called leukocytes. The fluid portion of
whole blood, its matrix, is commonly called plasma.
          In humans, all blood cells originate from hematopoietic stem cells.  Its is estimated that
about 95 percent of the body's blood cells are produced in the bone marrow.  In an adult, most of the
bone marrow is concentrated in the breastbone and in the bones of the spine  and pelvis. Several
other organs  help to regulate the production of blood cells such as liver and lymphatic
system  structures (lymph nodes, spleen and thymus)
Bloodtissue.pdf

Muscle tissue is composed of cells that optimize the universal cell property of contractility.  As in all
cells, actin microfilaments and associated proteins generate the forces necessary for the muscle
contraction, which drives movement within organ systems, of blood, and of the body as a whole.  
There are three types of muscle tissue that can be distinguished on the basis of morphologic and
functional characteristics, with the structure of each  adapted to its physiologic role.
1. Skeletal muscle contains bundles of very long, multinucleated cells with  cross-striations. Their
contraction is quick, forceful, and usually under voluntary control.
2.  Cardiac muscle also has cross-striations and is composed of elongated, often branched cells
bound to one another at structures called intercalated discs which are unique to cardiac
muscle.  Contraction is involuntary, vigorous, and rhythmic.
3. Smooth muscle consists of collections of fusiform cells which lack   striations and have slow,
involuntary contractions.
Muscletissuelec.pdf

The human nervous system is formed by network of many    billion nerve 
cells or neurons, all assisted by many supporting cells called glial cells.  Each  neuron has
hundreds of interconnections with other neurons, forming a very complex system for processing
information and generating responses.
Nerve tissue is distributed throughout the body as an integrated communi-cations
network.  Anatomically, the two major  divisions of the nervous system are:
1. Central Nervous System(CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord
2.Peripheral nervous system(PNS) composed of the cranial, spinal and  peripheral nerves
conducting to and from the CNS(sensory and motor nerves, respectively) and ganglia that are
small aggregate of nerve cells outside the CNS.
Nervourtissue. ppt