POST-HARVEST GRAIN

TECHNOLOGY
FTO-101
Need for Post-Harvest Technology
• It is estimated that 6%–11% food grains are lost during postharvest operations. If these losses are
minimized, the shortage of food in many countries can probably be eliminated.
• Food grains are stored for later use as seed, reserved food, or buffer stock.
• Insect microorganisms and rodents not only consume the edible and inedible parts of the growing
crops and stored grains but also lead to the deteriorations in quality.
• Hence, integrated approach for the control of pests is essential for maintaining quality during
growth, production, as well as at the postharvest handling and storage periods.
Storage Principles
• Food grains are living organisms. Hence, the grain should be stored as a living seed.
• A grain is physiologically quite stable after harvesting and this stability as well as its viability should be preserved
in a good storage method.
• Under natural conditions, however, stored grain undergoes chemical changes within itself. Its further
deterioration is caused by external living organisms, such as insects, microorganisms, moulds, fungi, mites, and
rodents.
• The stored grain in bulk is a system in which deterioration results from interactions among physical, chemical,
physiological, and biological variables.
• Some of the variables are temperature; moisture; oxygen; storage structure; physical, chemical, and biological
properties of grain bulks; microorganisms; and insects, mites, rodents, and birds.
• They interact with the grain in groups, among themselves. Initially, the rate of deterioration is slow, but as the
favourable combinations of variables are set and the storage period is prolonged, a very high loss in grain quality
and quantity occurs.
 Storage Principles
• The major variables that cause various changes and deteriorations in
food grains during storage are given as follows:

1. Physical temperature and humidity

2. Chemical moisture and oxygen (or O2:CO2)
3. Physiological respiration and heating
4. Biological insects, fungi, moulds, mites, microorganisms, and
rodents

• Insects, microorganisms, fungi, moulds, mites, and rodents may

cause both these damages.
• Moisture, temperature and soundness of grain are the most crucial
variables.
Factors affecting Storage: Moisture
• The moisture of food grain limits the development of bacteria, fungi, mites, and insects that cause spoilage of stored
grains.
• Three features need to be stressed on:
(i) moisture contents of grains below 13 % arrest the growth of most of the microorganisms and mites;
(ii) moisture contents below 10 % limit development of most of the stored grain insect pests;
(iii) moisture contents within a grain bulk are rarely uniformly distributed and are changeable.
• Thus, regular routine measurement of moisture within a grain bulk is necessary.
• The limit of moisture for safe storage of cereal grains, in regard to insect pest and microorganism infestation, is about
13%–14%, which is equilibrated with the atmospheric relative humidity of around 70%–75%.
• If a cereal grain is to be stored for a long period, its moisture should be below 12%.
 Factors affecting Storage: Temperature
The following important points are to be considered:

i. Generally, mites do not develop below 5°C and insects do

not grow below 15°C;
ii. Most of the storage fungi do not develop below 0°C
iii. The effect of temperature on an organism can be
correlated with the amount of grain moisture.
iv. The rate of respiration of grain, the growth of
microorganisms, and the chemical and enzymatic
reactions during storage also accelerate up to a certain
temperature.

When the grain temperature rises to around 20°C, it starts

getting easily infested with insects and microorganism,
simultaneously, its rate of respiration becomes rapid with the
expense of chemical constituents.

The grain temperature is always to be considered in

combination with its moisture content.
• The relative humidity, which is in Relative Equilibrium Relative
equilibrium with the grain moisture, varies Humidity Relative Humidity Humidity
with the temperature.
is Low is High

• As the Equilibrium Relative Humidity (ERH)

of food products decreases, the metabolic
activity of spoilage bacteria, fungi and
insects is slowed because they require
water to function.

• When sufficient water is removed from the

system, they are unable to remain
metabolically active and either develop
desiccation-resistant structures (e.g., Air absorbs Equilibrium Grain absorbs
fungal spores) or perish (die).
moisture from Moisture content moisture from
grain: Drying air: Moistening
• The ERH at which this occurs is consistent across all
products, but the product MC at that ERH varies according
to the composition of the product.

• Products with a higher oil content will have a lower MC at

any ERH than products with a lower oil content.
• This is because water is excluded from the hydrophobic
oil bodies in the products’ cells, thus it reduces the water
content relative to the total product weight.

• However, the relationship between MC and ERH at a given

temperature (termed an “isotherm”) is consistent for a
given product.

• Either ERH or MC interchangeably to refer to the water

activity or content of the product, but w.r.t. storage biology,
it is preferable to use ERH rather than MC because the
effect of ERH on spoilage organisms is consistent across
products regardless of their composition.
Effect of Grain Temp. and Moisture on Stored Grain
• The ranges of activity of different organisms can be plotted in
relation to the ERH (or MC) and temperature (T) ranges at which
they can grow.
• Respiration of seeds stops below about 95% ERH.
• Bacteria do not grow below about 90% ERH.
• Fungi also are unable to be metabolically active or grow at ERH
values below 65%.
• This ERH corresponds closely with the recommended maximum
MC for storage of cereals (12–14%), pulses (13–15%) and oil crops
(6–9%) (FAO, 2014).
• Grain storage insects are able to be active below 65% ERH due to
their ability to limit water loss and to generate water
metabolically from their food.
• However, storage insects are unable to survive at ERH values less
than about 35%.
• Thus, drying to less than 35% ERH will prevent activity of both
fungal and insect pests.
The Cold-Dry Chain for Grain Storage
Changes in Food Grains during Storage
Chemical Changes
• Oxidation, enzymatic reactions, and respiration influence the chemical
changes in cereal grains during storage.
• All cereal grains contain certain enzymes that decompose their
constituents such as starch, proteins, and lipids.
• These enzymatic activities are enhanced with the rise in grain moisture and
temperature.
• During storage, the lipase that is inherently present in rice bran hydrolyses
its fats into free fatty acids and glycerol.
• Free fatty acids increase rapidly when both grain moisture and temperature
are high.
• Moreover, with the growth of mould, decomposition of fat is further
accelerated by the action of its enzymes.
 Changes in Food Grains during Storage
Chemical Changes
• When moisture content of a rice kernel is considerably at a higher level, the carbohydrates are fermented. As a result,
alcohol and acetic acid are produced with the formation of acid odour.
• During storage of paddy, reducing sugars and acidity increase whereas non-reducing sugars decrease.
• The percentage of germination, non-reducing sugars, and acidity are the three most sensitive characteristics of grain
storage.
• The changes in protein during storage are comparatively small and slow.
• Besides enzymatic reactions, oxidation by the surrounding air causes changes in colour and flavour. Regarding other
constituents of cereal grains, vitamins are gradually diminished under ordinary storage conditions.
 Changes in Food Grains during Storage
Respiration
• Direct consequences of respiration are the loss of mass and gain in
moisture content of the grain, rise in the level of carbon dioxide in the inter-
granular air space, and rise in the temperature of the grain.
• The rate of respiration is high for the old and the pest-infested grain
compared to the fresh grain. The moulds, etc., respire at much higher rates
compared to the grain itself.
• The respiratory rate of stored grain depends largely on its moisture content
and temperature.
• Other factors involved in grain storage are the amounts of O2 and CO2 in
the air.
• The respiration of grain under anaerobic condition usually weakens viability
and induces quality deterioration.
• Storing cereal grains under vacuum or airtight conditions appears to be
very effective, but anaerobic respiration of the grain at high moisture
content makes it unsuitable.
 Changes in Food Grains during Storage
Longevity
• The viability period of a grain during storage can be short or long.
• The grain dies due to the degeneration of protein which is influenced by decay of components in the cell nucleus.
• The life of a stored grain is regulated by the grain type, the seed-borne microflora, and by the interaction between
temperature and moisture.
Heating
• The stored grain is sometimes heated up by itself without any external cause. This spontaneous heating can be attributed
to the respiration of grain in combination with the respiration of infested pests.
• Heating usually occurs when grain is stored in bulk. But respiration alone doesn’t increase the temperature above 35°C.
• The growth of microorganisms is very rapid and the combined effects of respirations become high, generating more heat.
• Of the total heating phenomena, 60%–70% of heating can be ascribed to the respiration of pests.
Sprouting
• Sprouting of the grain during storage occurs mainly owing to generation of heat as a result of infestation.
• A grain sprouts only when its moisture content exceeds certain limit of moisture content of 30%–35%.
Grain Storage structure: Silo
Moisture Migration in a Silo
• Moisture migration takes place in a bin even if the cereal grain is at a
safe storage moisture level of about 12% or so.
• The moisture content of the top layer may go as high as 25%–30%.
• It results in spoilage of food grains from stored grains in a bin after
about 1 year.
• Greater losses may occur in stored grains in bins for the following
conditions:
i. when grains are stored at a high moisture content;
ii. where there is an appreciable difference between ambient and
grain temperatures;
iii. when a tall or deep bin is used.
 Moisture Migration in a Silo
• Most of the times, grains are placed in the bin when the grains are warm.
- The air in the grain near the surface of the storage bin is comparatively cold and
moves down along its circumference and then goes up near the centre of the
bin, where the air and grain are warm.
- The air moving through the centre of the bin picks up moisture until it moves
across the top of the bin.
- At this location, the grain surface is comparatively cold and the moisture is
condensed on the grain, thus raising its moisture content. Thus, a large quantity
of grain is spoiled at the top of the bin.

• Sometimes, the grains are fed to the bin under cold condition as in the winter.
- The air currents rise along the circumference of the bin and move down through
its centre to the bottom, where moisture condenses on the cold bottom.
- Under this condition, spoilage of grain takes place at the bottom of the bin.
Solution: Aeration System
 Detection of Insect Infestation
Determination of infestation can be carried out by the following methods:
(i) visual examination of surface holes (vii) phenol method;
(ii) floatation method (viii) ninhydrin method
(iii) staining method for detecting egg plugs (ix) aural techniques
(iv) cracking floatation method; (x) carbon dioxide as an index of infestation
(v) gelatinization method (xi) x-ray method
(vi) uric acid method

Apart from these methods, milled grain can be analysed for insects and fragments by the standard AOAC method
and grain mites can be detected by liquid paraffin floatation method and saturated saline floatation method.
 Grain Storage Insects

Grain Weevil Meal moth Red Rust Flour Beetle Pulse beetle Khapra beetle

Flat grain beetle Grain moth Flour moth Borer beetle

 Control of Storage Pests

Preventive Curative
Measures Measures Food grain pests can be
controlled by preventive
and curative methods.
Physical and Physical Mechanical Chemical Biological
Chemical
Mechanical methods methods methods methods

Grain Microbial
Drying Heating Centrifugation Spraying The preventive measures
protectants Control
are undertaken to avoid
infestation by the pests,
Cooling by
aeration
Attractants Radiation Fogging Natural Enemy while the curative
measures are used to
wipe out any kind of
Airtight infestation.
Repellents Dusting
storage

Low
temperature Vaporizers It is desirable that preventive
storage
measures are taken before the
occurrence of infestation and
Protective subsequently curative
Fumigation
packaging
measures have to be taken.
Fumigation
• Fumigation is an insect-controlling method of exposing stored grains to a lethal concentration of
highly toxic gas long enough to kill the insects.
• Fumigants are chemicals used for killing stored grain pests.
• In the gaseous phase, fumigants can penetrate through stored grains anywhere in bags on stacks or
in bulk and mill the hiding insects. These do not have any residual effect.
• The insecticides for grain storage pests are divided into preventive and curative insecticides.
• For control of additional re-infestation from outside sources after fumigation, a contact insecticide
(grain protectant) must be applied immediately after the fumigation on the surface of the stored
grains.

Grain protectants help in preserving the quality of the grain from insect damage.
Grain protectants are insecticides applied to the grain as it is being loaded into the storage structure.
 The fumigant gas reaches the body of the
insect to render the insecticidal effect.
Lethal Effect
The lethal effect mainly depends on (i) toxicity of chemical
agent; (ii) dosage; (iii) exposure period; and (iv) temperature. The penetration of gas in between individual kernels of the
stored grain mass is accomplished by molecular diffusion of
fumigant gas due to concentration gradient of gas.

Efficiency of the penetration depends upon

Sorption of gases by grain and structural materials of the same Penetration (a) kind of fumigant; (b) kind of stored grain;
storage system reduces in concentration of fumigant gases. (c) gas concentration; and (d) temperature.

The rate of sorption of fumigant gases by grains is dependent

on (i) kind of fumigant; (ii) kind of stored grain; (iii) temperature; Rate of vaporization depends upon the
(iv) gas concentration; and (v) exposure time Sorption kind of fumigant, method of application,
temperature, and air flow rate.

The vaporized fumigant gases reach every nook and Liquid and gaseous fumigants are common.
corner of any storage system by diffusion. Methyl bromide is a gaseous fumigant.
The diffusion of gas takes place by convection of air. Diffusion Ethylene bromide is a liquid fumigant.

The rate of diffusion Aluminium phosphide is a solid fumigant.

depends on It reacts with the atmospheric moisture to form hydrogen
(i) kind of fumigant;
Vaporization phosphide gas that has lethal effect on microorganisms.
(ii) Temperature
(iii) method of
application. Application of fumigant After application of fumigant, generally it starts vaporizing.
Transportation of Grain
• The truck/ship must be substantially
clean, dry, and ready to receive grain
before the loading can begin.
• Before loading, holds/containers should
also be examined by an independent
inspector for potential defects such as
rust scale, insect infestation, oil sludge,
and water, and an appropriate certificate
obtained.
• It is also very important to separate
different types of grains if they are
carried in the same vessel. Safe grain
carriage requires certain temperature,
humidity/moisture and ventilation
conditions.
• The favourable travel temperature is
around 20°C.