Proceedings of The 14th International Scientific Conference: Computer Aided Engineering

Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
Eugeniusz Rusiński
Damian Pietrusiak Editors
Proceedings of the
14th International
Scientific Conference:
Computer Aided
Engineering
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering (LNME) publishes the latest develop-
ments in Mechanical Engineering—quickly, informally and with high quality.
Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core
of LNME. Volumes published in LNME embrace all aspects, subfields and new
challenges of mechanical engineering. Topics in the series include:
• Engineering Design
• Machinery and Machine Elements
• Mechanical Structures and Stress Analysis
• Engine Technology
• Aerospace Technology and Astronautics
• Nanotechnology and Microengineering
• Control, Robotics, Mechatronics
• Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
• Dynamical Systems, Control
• Fluid Mechanics
• Engineering Thermodynamics, Heat and Mass Transfer
• Precision Engineering, Instrumentation, Measurement
• Materials Engineering
• Tribology and Surface Technology
To submit a proposal or request further information, please contact the appropriate

Springer Editor:
Li Shen at li.shen@springer.com (China)
Dr. Akash Chakraborty at akash.chakraborty@springernature.com (India)
Dr. Leontina Di Cecco at Leontina.dicecco@springer.com (all other Countries)
Please check the Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering at http://www.springer.
com/series/11693 if you are interested in monographs, textbooks or edited books.
To submit a proposal, please contact Leontina.dicecco@springer.com and
Li.shen@springer.com.
Indexed by SCOPUS. The books of the series are submitted for indexing to
Web of Science.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11236

Eugeniusz Rusiński Damian Pietrusiak
•
Editors
Proceedings of the 14th

International Scientific
Conference: Computer Aided
Engineering
123
Editors
Eugeniusz Rusiński Damian Pietrusiak
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Wrocław University of Science Wrocław University of Science
and Technology and Technology
Wrocław, Poland Wrocław, Poland
ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-04974-4 ISBN 978-3-030-04975-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018967408
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
Numerical Analysis and Tests on Selected Dynamic Parameters

of Shooting Stand Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Paweł Abratowski
The Numerical-Experimental Studies of Stress Distribution in the
Three-Arm Boom of the Hybrid Machine for Demolition Works . . . . . 8
Jakub Andruszko and Damian Derlukiewicz
Analysis of the Causes of Fatigue Cracks in the Carrying Structure
of the Bucket Wheel in the SchRs4600 Excavator Using
Experimental-Numerical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Jakub Andruszko, Przemysław Moczko, Damian Pietrusiak,
Grzegorz Przybyłek, and Eugeniusz Rusiński
Numerical-Experimental Approach to the Design of the Mounting
System for Fast Clamping of the Equipment of the Electrical
Demolition Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Jakub Andruszko and Eugeniusz Rusiński
Use of Rapid Manufacturing Methods for Creating Wind Tunnel
Test Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Piotr Araszkiewicz
Statistical Analysis of Loading for the Simulation of Belt
Conveyor–Based Transportation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Piotr J. Bardziński, Witold Kawalec, and Robert Król
Determining Power Losses in the Cycloidal Gear Transmission
Featuring Manufacturing Deviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Sławomir Bednarczyk
Structural Analysis of Historical Masonry Church Construction . . . . . 64
Łukasz Bednarz, Artur Górski, Jerzy Jasieńko, and Eugeniusz Rusiński
v
vi Contents
Use of Artificial Neural Networks for the Estimated Prediction

of Haul Trucks Operating States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Przemysław Bodziony, Rafał Kudelski, Michał Patyk,
and Zbigniew Kasztelewicz
Fatigue Life Calculation with the Use of the Energy Parameter
for the Elastic Material State in the Spectral Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Michał Böhm and Tadeusz Łagoda
Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Bolted Connections
with Blind Rivet Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Cezary Borowiecki, Artur Iluk, Paweł Krysiński, Eugeniusz Rusiński,
and Marek Sawicki
Numerical Model of an External Gear Pump and Its Validation . . . . . 96
Rafał Cieślicki, Jacek Karliński, and Piotr Osiński
Modelling of a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Blade Adjusting
Cam Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Michał Ćmil
Vibration Analysis of an Exhaust Fan in the Exhaust Gas Duct
of a Power Plant Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Jerzy Czmochowski, Przemysław Moczko, Maciej Olejnik,
and Damian Pietrusiak
A Sub-modeling Approach for Building Numerically Efficient
Discrete Model for Shape Optimization - A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Piotr Danielczyk
Identification of Influence of Part Tolerances of 2PWR-SE Pump
on Its Total Efficiency Taking into Consideration Multi-valued
Logic Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Adam Deptuła, Piotr Osiński, and Marian A. Partyka
Application of Decision Logical Trees and Predominant Logical
Variables in Analysis of Automatic Transmissions Gearboxes . . . . . . . 136
Adam Deptuła and Marian A. Partyka
Structural Analysis of Live Steam Pipelines in the Context
of the Replacement System Hanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Tomasz Dobosz, Jakub Dominiak, Michał Paduchowicz, and Artur Górski
Application of Fem Method for Modeling and Strength Analysis
of Feed Elements of Vibroscreen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Mikhail Doudkin, Alina Kim, and Vadim Kim
Numerical Investigations of the Influence of Seismic Vibrations
on the Transformer Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Sławomir Duda, Sławomir Kciuk, Jacek Gniłka, and Tomasz Kaszyca
Contents vii
Aspects of the Cryogenic Equipment Mechanical Calculations

on an Example of the FRESCA2 Cryostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
P. Duda, J. Polinski, M. Grabowski, A. V. Craen, V. Parma,
and M. Chorowski
Modelling Machine Tool Rocking Vibrations Using Reduced
Order Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Paweł Dunaj, Stefan Berczyński, and Michał Dolata
Algorithmic Method of Constructional Features Selection of the
Module System of Hydraulic Cylinders Utilized in National
Mining Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Piotr Gendarz, Aleksander Gwiazda, and Lothar Kroll
Animation and Simulation as the Base of Technical Means
Systems Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Integration of Constructional Features Selection
and Construction Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Spatial Reduced Dynamic Model of a Bucket Wheel
Excavator with Two Masts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Nebojša Gnjatović, Srđan Bošnjak, and Nenad Zrnić
Innovative Rotor of Water Turbine Save for River Ecosystem . . . . . . . 236
Aleksander Górniak, Anna Janicka, Joanna Mikołajczak,
Maria Skrętowicz, Dariusz Piętas, Radosław Włostowski,
and Maciej Zawiślak
Analysis of Composite Structure Effect on Radio-Frequency
Characteristics of the RFID Tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Piotr Górski, Jacek Lewandowski, Paweł Krowicki,
and Tadeusz Lewandowski
Design of the Vehicle Frontal Protection System for Emergency
Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Artur Górski, Tadeusz Lewandowski, Wiktor Słomski, and Mariusz Ptak
Application of CFD Methods in Determining the Implementation
Areas of Protective Coatings Used to Improve a Water Turbine
Lifetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Dominika Grygier, Anna Janicka, Agnieszka Kocikowska, Alina Rudiak,
Małgorzata Rutkowska-Gorczyca, Krzysztof Sobczak,
and Maciej Zawiślak
viii Contents
Comparison of Stress Distribution Between Geometrically

Corrected Wire-Raceway Bearings and Non-corrected
Wire-Raceway Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Dominik Gunia and Tadeusz Smolnicki
Modeling of the Constrain of the Foot with the Bicycle Pedal
While Driving with a Constant Cadence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
A. Handke and J. Bałchanowski
Computer Aided Diagnosis and Prediction of Mechatronic Drive
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Mariusz Piotr Hetmańczyk and Jerzy Świder
Experimental Investigation of Load Carrying Structure
of 155 mm Self-propelled Howitzer During Test Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Artur Iluk and Mariusz Stańco
Statistical Evaluation of an Exhaust Gas Mixture for Photocatalytic
Reactor Test-Station Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Anna Janicka, Maciej Zawiślak, Aleksander Górniak,
and Daniel Michniewicz
Diagnostic Procedure of Bucket Wheel and Boom Computer
Modeling – A Case Study Revitalization Bucket Wheel and Drive
of BWE SRs2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Predrag Jovančić, Dragan Ignjatović, Taško Maneski, Dragan Novaković,
and Časlav Slavković
Comparative Analysis of Experimental and Numerical Evaluation
of Strength of a Boom of the Underground Loader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Jacek Karliński and Paulina Działak
Sustainable Development Oriented Belt Conveyors
Quality Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Witold Kawalec and Robert Król
The Numerical Calculation Module for Piston Rings & Cylinder
of Combustion Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Andrzej Kaźmierczak and Marcin Tkaczyk
Numerical Simulation of Residual Stress Induced by Welding
of Steel-Aluminum Transition Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
M. Kowalski and M. Bohm
Designing of the Structure Elements Being Bent from the Fatigue
Life Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Justyna Koziarska, Andrzej Kurek, and Tadeusz Łagoda
Contents ix
Selection of Geometric Features of V-Belt Transmission Through

Multi-criteria Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Michał Krawiec
Design, Strength Analysis and Destructive Testing Rotating
Discs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Kamil Krot and Piotr Górski
Methodology for Assessing Blast Threat of EOD Personnel . . . . . . . . . 379
Edyta Krzystała, Krzysztof Kawlewski, Sławomir Kciuk,
Grzegorz Bienioszek, and Tomasz Machoczek
Numerical Modelling of Cylindrical Test for Determining
Jones – Wilkins - Lee Equation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Michał Kucewicz, Paweł Baranowski, Jerzy Małachowski,
Waldemar Trzciński, and Leszek Szymańczyk
Strain-Life Fatigue Curves on the Basis of Shear Strains
from Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Andrzej Kurek, Marta Kurek, and Tadeusz Łagoda
The Use of Selective Laser Melting as a Method of New Materials
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Tomasz Kurzynowski, Konrad Gruber, and Edward Chlebus
Processing of Magnesium Alloy by Selective Laser Melting . . . . . . . . . 411
Tomasz Kurzynowski, Andrzej Pawlak, and Edward Chlebus
Strength Analysis of the Multi-tasking Car Trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Piotr Ladra and Bogdan Posiadała
Correlation of Wear and Time in Research Conducted
at Concentrated Point Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Tadeusz Leśniewski
Feasibility Study on Location Monitoring of Technical Objects
During Operational Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Jacek Lewandowski, Piotr Górski, Tadeusz Lewandowski,
Paweł Krowicki, and Maciej Merek
Bending Strength of a Thick-Walled Composite in a Thermoplastic
Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Karolina Łagoda, Andrzej Kurek, Anna Kulesa, Wojciech Błażejewski,
and Tadeusz Łagoda
Computer Aided Design of Wood Pellet Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Marek Macko and Adam Mroziński
x Contents
CAE/FDM Methods for Design and Manufacture Artificial

Organs for Exercises Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Marek Macko, Zbigniew Szczepański, Dariusz Mikołajewski,
Joanna Nowak, Emilia Mikołajewska, and Jacek Furtak
Parameter Selection Rules for Energy-Absorbing Element
of the Spring Type Based on Numerical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Adrian Małczuk
Strength and Fatigue Analysis of the Welding Connection
on the Compressed Air Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Paweł Maślak and Tadeusz Smolnicki
Welding Procedure in Designing Carrying Structures
of Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Robert Misiewicz, Grzegorz Przybyłek, and Jędrzej Więckowski
Numerical and Experimental Testing of the WLS Series Axial Fans
Used for Local Ventilation of Underground Excavations . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Przemysław Moczko, Jędrzej Więckowski, and Piotr Odyjas
Integration of Motion Capture Data Acquisition with
Multibody Dynamic Simulation Software for Nordic Walking
Gait Analysys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
A. Muraszkowski, J. Szrek, S. Wudarczyk, J. Bałchanowski, R. Jasiński,
B. Pietraszewski, and M. Woźniewski
Conceptual Design and Concept Development of Compressed
Biogas Transport System Using CAD/CAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Marek Mysior, Sebastian Koziołek, and Bartosz Pryda
Determination of the Bucket Wheel Suspension Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Marek Onichimiuk, Marian Wygoda, Adam Bajcar, Damian Pietrusiak,
and Przemysław Moczko
Numerical Analysis of the Crash-Test Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Krzysztof Podkowski, Zbigniew Barszcz, and Patryk Melańczuk
Head-to-Bonnet Impact Using Finite Element Head Model . . . . . . . . . . 545
Mariusz Ptak, Dorota Czerwińska, Johannes Wilhelm,
Fábio A. O. Fernandes, and Ricardo J. Alves de Sousa
Numerical and Experimental Analysis of Polyethylene Material
Compositions for Use in Joint Endoprosthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Anita Ptak, Piotr Kowalewski, and Żaneta Michalska
Numerical Simulation of a Motorcycle to Road Barrier Impact . . . . . . 565
Mariusz Ptak, Johannes Wilhelm, Olga Klimas, Grzegorz Reclik,
and Leszek Garbaciak
Contents xi
Use of Radiography to Identify the Gangue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574

Agnieszka Pustułka and Tadeusz Leśniewski
Qualitative Evaluation of Modeling the Aramid Fabric
Elementary Cell in the Piercing Process with a 9 mm Full Metal
Jacket Projectile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Dariusz Pyka, Joanna Pach, Miroslaw Bocian, and Krzysztof Jamroziak
Development of Auxiliary Gas Protection During Laser Cladding
on the Axisymmetric Ti6Al4V Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Przemysław Radkiewicz, Piotr Koruba, and Jacek Reiner
Structural Analysis of Composite Scooter Monocoque . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Igor Rogacki, Eugeniusz Rusiński, and Marek Sawicki
Analysis of Material Properties Base on Fluid Structure
Interaction Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Robert Roszak, Daniela Schob, Holger Sparr, and Matthias Ziegenhorn
Structural Analysis of PVC-CF Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Przemysław Rumianek, Piotr Żach, Radosław Nowak, and Piotr Kosiński
Selected Problems of Fatigue Testing of Automotive
Drive Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Eugeniusz Rusiński, Tomasz Dobosz, Fabian Grendysz,
Selected Problems of Strength Calculation of Power Boiler
Steam Superheater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
Eugeniusz Rusiński, Artur Górski, Michał Attinger, Jerzy Czmochowski,
and Michał Paduchowicz
Simulation of Cavitation Participation in the Water Treatment . . . . . . 645
Lech J. Sitnik
Modeling of Liquid Exchange Process in a Hydraulic Cylinder
Chamber in the Aspect of Power System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
Tomasz Siwulski, Urszula Warzyńska, Łukasz Moraś, Piotr Rosikowski,
and Paweł Pac
Assessment of Atmospheric Air Quality in the Area
of the Legionow Square in Wroclaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
Maria Skretowicz and Anna Galas-Szpak
Application of Multi-vector Iteration to Identification
of Load Distribution in Slewing Bearing of Excavator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Michał Smolnicki and Tadeusz Smolnicki
xii Contents
Numerical Modelling of Thermal and Mechanical Properties

of Construction Elements in a Heat Storage Unit with
Phase Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
Daniel Smykowski, Tomasz Tietze, Piotr Szulc, and Kazimierz Wójs
Thermal Evaluation of Operation of Disc Brakes Made of Selected
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
Justyna Sokolska and Piotr Sokolski
Problems of Strength Estimation of the Vulnerable Zones in the Tools
of Hydraulic Hammers for Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Marek Sokolski and Piotr Sokolski
Thermo-Mechanical Material Modelling for Cyclic Loading
a Generalized Modelling Approach to Different Material Classes . . . . . 705
Holger Sparr, Daniela Schob, and Matthias Ziegenhorn
Kinematic Analysis of a Mobile Robot While Overcoming Curb . . . . . 712
Przemysław Sperzyński and Bogusz Lewandowski
The Impact of Piston Design on Thermal Load of Internal
Combustion Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
Zbigniew J. Sroka and Kacper M. Kot
Analysis of the Influence of Leaf Geometry on Stiffness
and Effort of the Heavy-Duty Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
Mariusz Stańco
Failure Analysis of a Damaged U-Bolt Top Plate
in a Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
Mariusz Staco, Paulina Działak, and Maciej Hejduk
Development of Measuring Points for Experimental Tests
of Loads on the Driving Axle of a City Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
M. Stańco, A. Górski, and D. Derlukiewicz
Static and Dynamic Tests of Suspension System Heavy
Off-road Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
M. Stańco, A. Iluk, and M. Sawicki
Studies of Resistances of Natural Liquid Flow in Helical
and Curved Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
Michał Stosiak, Maciej Zawiślak, and Bohdan Nishta
Designing Gear Pump Bodies Using FEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
J. Stryczek, K. Biernacki, and J. Krawczyk
Modal Analyses of Small Wind Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
Tomasz Szafranski, Jerzy Malachowski, and Krzysztof Damaziak
Contents xiii
Force Measurement Module for Mechatronic Nordic

Walking Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
Jaroslaw Szrek, Artur Muraszkowski, Jacek Bałchanowski,
Slawomir Wudarczyk, Ryszard Jasiński, Tadeusz Niebudek,
and Marek Woźniewski
Modelling of Thermal and Flow Processes in a Thermal Energy
Storage Unit with a Phase-Change Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
Piotr Szulc, Daniel Smykowski, Tomasz Tietze, and Kazimierz Wójs
FEM Analysis of Mini-Plate for Osteosynthesis of Mandibular
Fractures Dedicated for Future Manufacturing with Additive
Technologies (AM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
Patrycja Szymczyk, Małgorzata Rusińska, Grzegorz Ziółkowski,
Beata Łoś, and Edward Chlebus
Correlation of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Tightness for Brake
Fluid Reservoir Non Return Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
Maciej Wnuk and Artur Iluk
Linked a Priori and a Posteriori Models of Composite Manufacturing
Process Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
J. Wollmann, D. R. Haider, M. Krahl, A. Langkamp, and M. Gude
Simulation of a System for Controlling Atmosphere in Furnace
Used to Heating of Blanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
Ireneusz Wróbel and Krzysztof Sikora
Kinematic Design of the Drilling Rig Boom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
Sławomir Wudarczyk, Jacek Bałchanowski, and Jarosław Szrek
Modeling of Energy Recovery from Lowering the Fork Carriage
Using the Adams System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
P. Zajac and S. Kwasniowski
Modeling of the Energy Consumption of a Forklift Truck
Using the Matlab Simulink System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
P. Zajac and P. Skorupski
Brown Coal – Today and in the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
Sławomir Zawada
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
Numerical Analysis and Tests on Selected
Dynamic Parameters of Shooting Stand Frame
Paweł Abratowski(&)
Institute of Aviation, Transport Systems Departament, Al. Krakowska 110/114,

02-256 Warsaw, Poland
pawel.abratowski@ilot.edu.pl
Abstract. To build a machine gun on a helicopter board sufficiently rigid frame

of shooting stand is required. The construction of the frame ensures changing a
shoot direction in the vertical and rotation in the horizontal plane. The frame is
hinged and can be pivoted to the inside of a helicopter. The frame design
requires dynamic analysis and appropriate laboratory tests. The paper presents
calculated results of the systems response to the applied dynamic loads in
comparison to the laboratory tests results.
Keywords: FEM dynamic analysis Stand frame tests Clearance modeling
1 Introduction
One of the topics implemented by Institute of Aviation was laboratory tests and
numerical analysis of the frame of a shooting stand designed by customer of the
institute. Preliminary analysis of a similar new designed column stand for aircraft
multi-barrel machine gun was also carried out and published in [2]. Similar shooting
stand frames are described also in [1]. The frame, which is the subject of this article, is
mounted in emergency exit of Mi-17 helicopter. The frame consist of welded steel
pipes, steel sheets and hinges as one part. The hinges allow the frame to be pivoted to
inside of the helicopter. On the other side the special pin (on a spring) makes it possible
to lock the frame in working position. A rotary base is attached to the frame on which
the machine gun is mounted. 7.62 mm multi-barrel machine gun weights 30 kg. The
frequency of shots is 70 Hz. The steel 30HGSA is used as the material of the structure.
The frame construction with a machine gun is shown on Fig. 1.
Laboratory frame test included:
– Static test
– Dynamic test – damped free vibrations test. The machine gun replaced by mass
substitute
– Dynamic test – load of dynamic force. The loads has been realised in 3-seconds
cycles. The assumed firing frequency of the machine gun was 70 Hz but there was

E. Rusiński and D. Pietrusiak (Eds.): CAE 2018, LNME, pp. 1–7, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_1
2 P. Abratowski
applied 35 Hz due to the limitations of the test stand. The structure was loaded
calculated force as if the machine gun was mounted, therefore the tests were per-
formed without mass of the gun.
The purpose of the analysis is to examine the system’s response to a static and
dynamic load and compare it to the test results. Fatigue tests and calculations are not
taken into account in this article.
Fig. 1. Shooting stand frame with the machine gun
2 The Loads and Numerical Model
The dynamic force, shown in Fig. 2, is used directly from the laboratory test stand [3].
The duration of the dynamic force is limited to 1.5 s. Two variants model are made:
variant 1 – without clearance, variant 2 – modification of variant 1 with clearance
simulation. Geometric model with the method of applying support and load is shown in
Fig. 3. The loads variants used for analysis are shown in Table 1. The value of U1 is
maximum absolute value obtained in the test. This is initial displacement boundary
condition.
Table 1. Loads
Analysis variant Name Description Value
Static analysis, nonlinear Load 1 Static force F1 = −1329 N
Load 2 Static force F2 = 818 N
Dynamic analysis, free Load 3 Displacement U1 = −0.253 mm
vibrations
Dynamic analysis, time Load 4 Course of calculated Fig. 2
dependent force load dynamic force f(t)
Numerical Analysis and Tests on Selected Dynamic Parameters 3
Fig. 2. Dynamic force F(t) [N]
The numerical model including the frame together with rotary base is developed
using ANSYS program. The mesh model is shown on Fig. 4. The FE models are
developed using 4-nodal shell elements (6 degrees of freedom at each node), 8-nodal
solid elements (4 degrees of freedom at each node), beam elements (6 degrees of
freedom at each nodes), mass element (the machine gun, forced vibrations) and 2-nodal
contact element for clearance modeling. Simplified contact model is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Loads, supports and clearance model

4 P. Abratowski
Fig. 4. FE discretization
3 Static Analysis
Static nonlinear analysis is performed using two models (as mentioned in Chap. 2).
First – without clearance in supports and second – the clearance is applied in the P3
support (Fig. 3). The clearance values is determined based on the results of the tests
and the model without clearance. The clearance is selected so as obtain approximate U0
displacement to the tested model. The chart shown in Fig. 5 shows displacement U0
(Fig. 3) for the test results [3], model without clearance results and model with applied
clearance.
Fig. 5. U0 [mm] displacement static results

4 Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic transient implicit analysis is performed using Newmark method [4]. Default
Newmark parameters in Ansys are applied. In the frame structure the Rayleigh model
damping [5] is applied:
½C ¼ a½M þ b½K; ð1Þ
where, a = 0, three coefficients b are applied: 0.0007, 0.001 and 0.0015.

Free vibration analysis is performed using model with mass substitute of the gun
m = 30 kg (as mentioned in Chap. 1). The initial displacement is applied such that U1
is equal to the maximum amplitude of the test result. The results (shown in Fig. 6)
shows U1 time dependent displacements for three b damping coefficients in comparison
to the test results [3]. The test results are also published in [6].
Fig. 6. Free vibrations. U1 [mm] displacement results
The chart shows the difference in the course of the damping between the test and
calculations results. It can be seen that the result for assumed b = 0.0015 is the nearest
to the test result (on the negative side), whereas the vibration period increases at the
fastest rate.
The frame analysis with dynamic force load is performed without the mass (as in
laboratory tests). During the tests, the load of time dependent force was performed in
series. There were performed above 85000 series. Due to the limited volume of this
article, there was selected one typical test result for comparison. The test and calcu-
lation results for the b = 0.0015 coefficient are shown in Fig. 7.
6 P. Abratowski
Fig. 7. U0 displacement results [mm]
The chart shows the difference in the maximum amplitude values between test and
calculations results. The minimum difference for the maximum absolute displacements
is 0.241 mm at about t = 0.05 s. At steady state (from about t = 1.25 s) the difference
in maximum displacement is 0.227 (4%), whereas the amplitude of the calculated
results is approximately twice the tests.
The Fig. 8 shows the frame on the test bench with marked characteristic measuring
points.
Fig. 8. The frame mounted on the test bench. Configuration of the test stand for: (a) – free
vibrations test, (b) – tests with dynamic loads
5 Summary and Conclusions

1. Static analysis shows high accuracy in comparison to test results, especially model
stiffness. There is possible to set the clearance value in the frame at a high level of
accuracy basing on comparison of the calculations and the test results.
2. Free vibrations analysis shows the differences. It is possible to set the damping
coefficient, whereby with a higher damping factor, the vibration period increases
faster. In the next step of the research, a non-linear damping coefficient will be
applied.
3. Although the value of the clearance may be set with the high accuracy, the cal-
culated results differ from the test results. The differences between maximum and
minimum displacements may be caused the different masses between real and
numerical model. The mass and stiffness of the dynamometer (shown in Fig. 8b) are
not take into account. It can affect the dynamic calculation results. The influence of
mass and stiffness of the dynamometer on dynamic results should be checked.
References
1. Cyшкoв C, Cтpyцкий BГ, Дaнeкo AИ, Пoлкoвникoв BA, Tимaшeв ИB (1998)
Aвиaциoнныe apтиллepийcкиe ycтaнoвкиl, Mocквa, Издaтeльcтвo MAИ. ISBN 5-7035-
1383-9
2. Abratowski P, Krasoń W, Barnat W, Gnarowski W (2017) Dynamic analysis of column stand
for aircraft multi-barrel machine gun with consideration of bearing clearance. In: Lecture
notes in mechanical engineering. Springer International Publishing AG
3. Gębski M, Raport z badań próby stanowiska strzeleckiego 7.62 mm WPKM (7.62
Wielolufowy Pokładowy Karabin Maszynowy), raport wewnętrzny Instytutu Lotnictwa nr
CBMK/LM1/51073.01-04/1/2010
4. Bushby HR, Staab GH (2008) Structural dynamics: concepts and applications. CRC Press
5. ANSYS 14 (2005) Manual
6. Abratowski P, Krasoń W, Barnat W, Gnarowski W (2017) The overview of construction and
selected aspects of testing mounting frames of aircraft machine guns. J Sci Gen 49(1): 183.
Tadeusz Kosciuszko Military Academy of Land Forces, Wrocław
The Numerical-Experimental Studies of Stress
Distribution in the Three-Arm Boom
of the Hybrid Machine for Demolition Works
Jakub Andruszko(&) and Damian Derlukiewicz
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,

Department of Machine Design and Research,
Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Łukasiewicza 5, 50-370
Wroclaw, Poland
{jakub.andruszko,damian.derlukiewicz}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. An electric machine for construction works is a multi-functional,

remote-controlled demolition robot which is designed to be operated in hard
work condition where the human being is not recommended due to high risks
resulting, for example high dust content, high temperature or noise. In such
machines, their parts wear out very quickly. The article presents the approach to
validate the project assumptions using experimental and numerical studies. The
experimental studies provided the information about the adverse efforts and
frequency states of the machine. The numerical calculation consigns the infor-
mation about the stress distribution in the whole arm working system.
Keywords: Demolition machine Electric machine Arm working system

Numerical-experimental studies Construction works High-speed camera
Testing Finite element method
1 Introduction
As a result of the growing demand for automating the process of demolishing building
structures and for the removal of rocks and spoil in the mid-nineteenth century, the
development of specialized demolition machines took place. Over time and the need to
automate the process of demolition, the strength of human muscles has been changed to
light machines and then to heavy machines such as excavators equipped with spe-
cialized equipment for demolition. Over the years, entrepreneurs have at their disposal
cranes or excavators with a suspended sphere, excavators with specialized arms and a
mounted hydraulic hammer. The most crucial moment was the provision of an electric
demolition machine, whose dimensions allowed for demolition of elements inside
buildings. The use of electric demolition machines allows to optimize the working
environment of the machine in terms of operator safety. The use of electric drive allows
the machine to move in closed rooms without causing it to become smoky or producing
harmful exhaust gases as in the case of machines with the use of an exhaust system [9]
(Fig. 1).

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_2
The Numerical-Experimental Studies of Stress Distribution 9
Fig. 1. Visualization of the electric D-REX demolition machine
2 Experimental Studies
Several measurement methods can be used for measurements in the machine’s working
environment. The most often used is a strain gauges, and to eliminate measurement errors
in its application resulting from environmental conditions and for validation of the
computational model to determine resonant frequencies a high-speed camera can be used
[1, 2]. Comparing the determined resonance frequencies with those calculated in the FEM
analysis, we gain assurance of the adopted assumptions and simplifications in the con-
struction of a computational model [7]. Due to the need to eliminate the harmful effects of
the environment on the results of measurements, a high-speed camera was used.
The measurements were carried out in the working environment of the machine and
the element which has been subjected to the breaking process was a block of reinforced
concrete, which was a fragment of the foundation of the building. In the case of such
positioning of the machine, the maximum possible extension of the cylinders was chosen
so that the position of the arms could generate the greatest possible torque at the rotating
element of the working system. This case is the worst possible case of the work system in
this environment. Figure 2 shows the machine in the work environment together with the
prepared measuring stand and the basic parameters of the measurement.
Speed of the camera: 10 000 frames

per second
Density of sampling of displacement

signal: 0.001 m
Fig. 2. Work environment of the machine, test stand and parameters of the measurement
10 J. Andruszko and D. Derlukiewicz
The measurement concerned the work of the hammer, which hit the concrete block,
destroying the forged material. The obtained graph of displacement in relation to time
presents the vertical component of motion, the horizontal one was negligibly small, so
it was decided not to plot its dependence and not to apply it in the simulation process
(Fig. 3) [3].
Displacements [m]
Time [ms]
Fig. 3. Displacement of the fastening system point during breaking
To obtain the correct results, image scaling was performed by determining the
actual distance between two points in the mounting system (distance between pins).
Thanks to the TEMA Motion software and the registered image was analyzed. Having
the measured displacement of the system and the time of the measurement, the speed of
the desired point was determined and then its acceleration. The minimum size of the
pixel can be 20 um, and a change in its size can affect the measurement error. In the
measuring the natural frequency of the system, acceleration diagrams were determined
from time, and then the relationship between acceleration and frequency was plotted
thanks to FFT analysis [4] (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. The spectrum of the signal recorded on the last arm and hammer during operation in the
range up to 150 Hz
3 Computational Model
In order to check the strength of the designed working system, a discrete model was
built [6, 8]. Discrete model was built on the basis of shell and beam-rod and rigid
elements. The geometrical assembly model is built without pins, actuators and addi-
tional connecting elements that is modeled as connections in the process of building a
computational model [5]. The discreet model with simplifications used in the form of
additional elements and named parts is shown in Fig. 5.
A1
Mounting
A0
Hammer A2
mass A3
Fig. 5. Discrete model of the working system
Numerical analyzes were carried out in two stages: in the first stage, the resonance
frequencies of the working system were determined in order to validate the calculation
model with the real model, while in the second stage the effort of the working system,
with the given displacement, was analyzed.
4 Results of the Simulation
To assess the correctness of the preparation of the computational model, the results of
measurements using a high-speed camera and modal analysis carried out using com-
puter simulation were used. Spectral analyzes carried out in the working system,
regardless of where the measurements were made (hammer, arm tip) showed exactly
the same natural frequencies. The graphs for these measurements differ only in the
magnitude of accelerations. Table 1 presents the comparison of the natural frequency
obtained by experimental and numerical methods together with the error that the cal-
culation model was burdened with. An example of the form of natural frequencies is
shown in Fig. 6.
Table 1. Comparison of exemplary natural frequencies

HS Camera (Hz) FEM (Hz) Difference (Hz)
1,5 2,6 1,1
13 14,5 1,5
25,25 26,8 1,55
38,75 44,6 5,85
52 56,8 4,8
89,63 86,2 3,43
128,75 128,1 0,65
Fig. 6. An example of the deformation of the model
After checking the accuracy of the calculation model, the verification of its
response to the displacement was carried out. As a result of applying displacement, the
dependence of stresses on the time occurring in the structure during the breaking
process was obtained, which is shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Dependence of stresses from time in the breaking process
With the applied force in the form of displacement and the analysis of the graph in
Fig. 7, it can be concluded that the maximum stresses occur in 0.27 s of simulation.
Maximum stresses appeared in the places where the A0 was mounted to the robot
structure. This place is stiffened in this type of analysis, so after analyzing the whole
structure, it was found that the maximum stresses in the structure amount to 122 MPa
and also appeared at the junction of two sheets of the A0. Equivalents (using H-M-H
theory) stress distribution are shown in Fig. 8, while the distribution of stress in indi-
vidual components is shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 8. Equivalents (using H-M-H theory) stress distribution along whole model
77 MPa
122 MPa
25 MPa
41 MPa
26 MPa
Fig. 9. Equivalents (using H-M-H theory) stress distribution in individual components

Studies using a fast camera to measure displacements and accelerations, allowed to

precisely determine the extortion that worked on the robot’s arm during its operation. The
comparison of the resonant frequency carried out by high-speed camera and simulation
confirmed the correctness of the prepared calculation model. Resonance frequencies
obtained during experimental research are similar to the resonance frequencies obtained
during modal analysis performed by simulations using the Finite Element Method. The
computational model contained simplifications so that deviations between the values
derived from the numerical analysis and the experiment could be observed.
Analyzing FEM simulations, it can be concluded that the maximum stresses occur
in 0.27 s simulation, which is caused by the increase of displacement in the initial
violation of the cohesion of the forged material and local cracks. The maximum stresses
in the structure occur in the A0, which was an expected effect, because in this place the
largest torque acting on the structure is generated.
It can be stated that the numerical and experimental approach gives sufficient
information on the state of effort of demolition machine working systems. The use of a
high-speed camera to determine the displacement and at the same time to determine the
acceleration of the system in order to validate the calculation model limits the number
of measuring instruments used to a minimum.
Acknowledgments. The project was carried with the support of the National Centre for
Research and Development in Poland under the “Szybka Ścieżka” program no POIR.01.01.01-
00-0582/15-00, in cooperation with Advanced Robotic Engineering Ltd. company.
References
1. Derlukiewicz D, Ptak M, Wilhelm J, Jakubowski K (2017) The numerical-experimental
studies of demolition machine operator work. In: Lecture notes in mechanical engineering.
Springer, pp 129–138
2. Derlukiewicz D, Cieślak M (2017) Study of the causes of boom elements cracking of electric
demolition machine with use of experimental and numerical methods. In: Lecture notes in
mechanical engineering. Springer, pp 109–119
3. Karliński J, Rusiński E, Lewandowski T (2008) New generation automated drilling machine
for tunneling and underg round mining work. Autom Constr: 224–231
4. Piszczek K, Walczak J (1982) Drgania w budowie maszyn, wyd. 3. Warszawa
5. Rusiński E (2002) Design principles supporting structures of motor vehicles, in Polish.
Wrocław
6. Rusiński E, Czmochowski J, Smolnicki T (2000) Zaawansowana metoda elementów
skończonych w konstrukcjach nośnych. Wrocław
7. Rusiński E, Czmochowski J, Pietrusiak D (2012) Problems of steel construction modal
models identifcation. Maint Reliab: 54–61
8. Zienkiewicz O, Taylor R (2006) The finite element method for solid and structural mechanics,
6th edn., 3rd repr. edn. Amsterdam
9. Global Construction Robots Market 2016–2020 with Brokk (2016) Fujita & ULC Robotics
Dominating. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20160524005815/en/Global-Con-
struction-Robots-Market-2016-2020-Brokk-Fujita
Analysis of the Causes of Fatigue Cracks
in the Carrying Structure of the Bucket Wheel
in the SchRs4600 Excavator Using
Experimental-Numerical Techniques
Jakub Andruszko, Przemysław Moczko, Damian Pietrusiak(&),

Grzegorz Przybyłek, and Eugeniusz Rusiński
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Machine Design and

Research, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Lukasiewicza 7/9,
50-371 Wrocław, Poland
damian.pietrusiak@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The article presents design faults related to the carrying structure of
the bucket wheel of the SchRs4600 excavator working in the brown coal mine.
The authors analyzed cases of damages of this type of structure occurred in the
past in such machines. In order to determine the damage of the carrying structure
of the bucket-wheel excavator, non-destructive examinations were carried out
using visual and magnetic-particle methods. The real loads occurring during
operation of the machine in the case of fatigue were also determined. These
measurements were used to verify the numerical model. A strength analysis was
carried out using the Finite Element Method. The cause of fatigue cracks was
determined by measurements and numerical calculations.
Keywords: Mining Excavator Bucket-wheel Cracks

Non-destructive testing Strain gauges Stress analysis Finite element method
1 Introduction
One of the basic methods of exploiting mineral raw materials such as brown coal is the
opencast method, and its systems have been described in detail in [1]. In order to
conduct brown coal mining, specialized machines operating in appropriate systems are
used [1].
One of these machines used in open cast mining are bucket-wheel excavators
(Fig. 1) and they are a part of a group of machines called basic mining machines. These
machines are working in a continuous manner and equipped with a mining head with a
number of elements, which are e.g. buckets with teeth. These machines are an integral
part of the basic technological system of the open cast mine, where they constitute its
first and one of the most important links. The construction of various types of bucket-
wheel excavators is practically the same and is based on very similar or even identical
functional systems. The construction of various types of bucket-wheel excavators is
practically the same and is based on very similar or even identical functional systems.
Small differences are described in [2]. One of the basic functional system of a bucket-

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_3
16 J. Andruszko et al.
wheel excavator is a mining system consisting of a carrying structure, which is a bucket

wheel and a mining boom.
Fig. 1. SchRs4600 bucket-wheel excavator
Currently, in the design of carrying structures of basic mining machines, in this case
bucket-wheel excavators, the available standards are used. They have been developed
based on many years of experience of the manufacturers of these machines. These
standards were created at the beginning of the 20th century, and some machines
working in brown coal opencast mines were designed according to older standards,
which were less precise. The standards have some differences depending on which
parts of the world they are used in. Differences between the assumptions occurring in
individual standards concerning the design of basic mining machinery are presented in
paper [3], where the authors presented differences in terms of static, dynamic and
fatigue loads.
Due to the age of these machines, and consequently their large repair history, which
is not always correctly carried out, the size of these machines, the complexity of the
technological process and the existence of high variable loads that cannot be clearly
predicted, these machines are exposed to occurrence of various types of failures [4].
One of the first and at the same time one of the most key elements that is in contact with
the material is the bucket wheel of the machine. It is exposed to extreme dynamic loads
resulting both from the mining technique, the properties of the material being mined
and the hardly-abrasive or non-abrasive materials contained therein. Due to the high
variability of loads, sometimes this part of the structure is exposed to various types of
failures.
Research articles that have started to appear recently are the result of these failures,
and the authors present their individual approaches to determining their causes. One of
such failures of the mining system, which was the drive shaft of the bucket wheel in the
SRs 2000.32/5.0 + VR92 bucket-wheel excavator, was described in [5], where the
Analysis of the Causes of Fatigue Cracks in the Carrying 17
authors showed that by using an additional split sleeve, the shaft was broken. Another
example of failure of the bucket-wheel excavator working system is paper [6], in which
the authors give incorrectly made welding technology as a cause of bucket-wheel
failure. The abovementioned possibilities of degradation of bucket-wheel excavators do
not only apply to the machine mining system, but also to other components, as shown
in [7–10].
The problems described above were also visible on the SchRs4600 bucket-wheel
excavator after about two years. In the bucket wheel, the regions of its damage were
identified. A view of the bucket-wheel excavator with the marked areas of the identified
defects are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Bucket wheel of SchRs 4600 bucket-wheel excavator with marked areas of cracks
Figure 3 shows the technical documentation of the critical area of the bucket-wheel
with the location of the occurrence of cracks. Figure 4a and b show examples of
damage, in the form of fatigue circumferential cracks, located in a bent bar made of the
HEA240 profile in the area of intermittent fillet welds fixing the wheel cladding. They
occur in a repetitive manner, in the area of joining the divisions wall with the cylin-
drical part of the bucket-wheel.
2 Investigation of the Problem
In order to identify the problem, non-destructive testing (NDT) [11] were carried out
using visual and magnetic-particle methods near the connection of the divisions wall
and sidewall of the bucket wheel. The research area included selected structural ele-
ments and welds together with the heat affected zone (20 mm on both sides). During
the preliminary assessment of joints, the visual method was used in accordance with the
standard [12]. On the basis of the conducted investigations, the detected geometric
Fig. 3. Location of the cracks in SchRs4600 bucket-wheel excavator
Fig. 4. Bucket-wheel break in SchRs4600 bucket-wheel excavator - view from outside (a) and
inside (b)
welding non-conformities according to the standard [13] were classified, and their
permissible values were compared with the standard [14].
In order to fully illustrate the magnitude of detected defects, additional testing of
joints was carried out using the wet magnetic-particle method with permanent mag-
netization according to the standard [15]. Figure 5 shows the location and designation
of test areas on the bucket-wheel. The places in which welding incompatibilities were
detected are highlighted in red. The Figure also indicates the location of a strain gauge
measuring point, which was used to measure actual loads in the vicinity of the localized
crack.
Fig. 5. Bucket-wheel - research areas
As a result of the conducted tests, numerous material discontinuities in the structure

were found at the connecting points of the divisions wall and sidewall of the bucket-
wheel from the conveyor side. The lengths of detected welding non-conformities for
individual test areas, according to Fig. 5, are summarized in Table 1, in case of
material discontinuity, this was marked as MD (material discontinuity).
Table 1. List of the length of detected cracks for individual areas (Fig. 5) - the areas with the
largest identified crack length were marked in red
Area number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Type of
MD MD MD MD MD MD - MD MD MD - MD MD MD MD MD
discontinuity
Length [mm] 220 40 80 115 8 545 - 500 210 180 - 600 590 12 47 415
Figures 6 and 7 show, together with the description, two representative areas with
the greatest length of material discontinuity.
Fig. 6. Test area No. 12. The maximum recorded crack with a length of l = 600 mm
Fig. 7. Test area No. 13. One of the longest material discontinuities of l = 590 mm
3 Investigation of the Cause
In order to determine the actual state of strain of the carrying structure of the bucket-
wheel, in the area of cracks, strain gauge experimental tests were used. The results of
the conducted research served as a validation of the calculation model of the bucket-
wheel in order to determine the causes of the occurrence of fatigue cracks.
3.1 Experimental Research Using Strain Gauges

As part of the research, a measuring point consisting of three strain gauges was
installed in the region marked in Fig. 5 (individual strain gauges were marked as C1,
C2, C3). Figure 8a and b present the exact positioning of individual measurement
locations. The strain gauges were placed from the inside of the bucket-wheel at the
height of the divisions wall on the T-shaped profile (made of the HEA240 beam),
which is subject to fatigue failure. The tests were carried out within one week of
continuous registration during the normal operation of the excavator.
Fig. 8. Strain gauge measuring points C1, C2, C3 of the region of occurrence of damage to the
bucket wheel of the SchRs4600 excavator
Fig. 9. Stress alternations during the exploitation of SchRs4600 excavator recorded at

measuring points C1, C2 and C3 [MPa]
Based on the recorded data, the path of stress changes at the measurement points
C1, C2 and C3 were determined. Examples of stress alternation diagrams during
operation are shown in Fig. 9.
The maximum range of stress changes was registered at measurement point C1 and
was:
DrC1 ¼ 42 MPa
At the symmetrical point C3 slightly lower values of stresses were recorded:
DrC3 ¼ 35 MPa
However, at point C2 (at the height of the center of the division wall), the maxi-
mum range of stress changes by a value of:
DrC2 ¼ 20 MPa
The recorded values of changes in the stress range were used to calibrate the
numerical model.
3.2 Numerical Calculation

Thanks to the previously prepared geometrical and discrete model, fatigue calculations
in accordance with the standard [16] were carried out, considering the results of
experimental studies. These works were carried out using Finite Element Method.
The numerical model of the bucket-wheel was built as shell model, while in the
area of fatigue cracks the geometric features of the T-profile and cladding were
modeled in a detailed manner. In order to distribute the load on the bucket-wheel, beam
elements were used to simulate buckets. This model is shown in Figs. 10 and 11.
Fig. 10. The numerical model of the SchRs4600 bucket-wheel excavator - general view
Fig. 11. The numerical model of the SchRs4600 bucket-wheel excavator – detailed views
The scheme of the load application on the bucket-wheel is shown in Fig. 12. The
calculations consider the following load cases of the bucket-wheel:
• digging forces included in Fig. 12 - applied to three buckets, and for fatigue
strength calculations:
– transverse force U = 560 kN,
– lateral force S = 160 kN.
Fig. 12. Scheme of application of loads on the bucket-wheel - fatigue case
According to [16] the calculations were carried out for the following combinations
of load:
H1b – fatigue strength according to the following algorithm:
H1b ¼ ð þ =0Þ U þ ð þ =Þ S þ ð þ =Þ E
The loads were applied in the places where the corners of the buckets were located.
Two cases of mining were adopted:
• mining to the left – L case,
• mining to the right - R case.
The bucket-wheel is mainly made of S355J2 steel according to [17] with the
following strength parameters (Table 2) (for sheets up to a thickness of t = 40 mm):
Table 2. Mechanical properties of the material

Re [Pa] Rm [Pa] A5 [%] E [Pa] G [Pa]
3.55 108 5.33 108 18 2.07 1011 8.016 1010
The results of numerical calculations are presented in the form of contours of the
range of stresses. For the case of fatigue strength, the permissible stress range values
according to [16] are:
• base material outside the area of connections (typical W2 assessment group):
Drbase:;perm: 200 MPa
• welded joints (assumed for the region of the occurrence of fillet welds in the
combination of the cladding with the T-profile, in the place of cracks) - the lowest
strength parameters:
Drwelds:;perm: 80 MPa
The stress range contours for the above case are shown in Figs. 13 and 14. The
model compliance with experimental studies was also assessed. To this end, the stress
values obtained from the tests were compared with the results obtained from the
numerical model in analogous points. In point C1, the maximum range of stress
changes recorded during experimental studies, comparison of the results of the
numerical model obtained is as follows:
Fig. 13. Stress range contours [MPa] - H1b case, slewing to the right - variant with claddings
welded to the T-profile
Fig. 14. Stress range contours [MPa] - H1b case, slewing to the right - variant with claddings
welded to the T-profile
rC1;tens ¼ 42 MPa; rC1;model ¼ 49 MPa:
The value determined from the numerical model is determined for the maximum
normal mining force U and S and is slightly higher than the measured values. The
comparison shows that the numerical model correctly describes the critical strength of
the region and clearly identifies the causes of fatigue cracks.
Due to the occurrence of high stress values in the vicinity of the place of joining the
claddings with the T-profile of the bucket-wheel and in order to thoroughly understand
Fig. 15. Numerical model of the bucket-wheel of the SchRs4600 bucket-wheel excavator -
version without claddings in the area of the T-profile
the impact of their use, a numerical analysis was carried out using a model without
claddings. This model is shown in Fig. 15.
The same boundary conditions as in the previous simulation were used. The stress
range contours for the above case are shown in Figs. 16 and 17.
Fig. 16. Stress range contours [MPa] - H1b case, slewing to the right - variant without claddings
Fig. 17. Stress range contours [MPa] - H1b case, slewing to the right - variant without claddings
4 Conclusion
In the article, authors have presented a method for determining the cause of the bucket-
wheel cracks in critical jointing areas of claddings with an integral part of the bucket-
wheel structure which is the HEA240 profile.
The numerical and experimental approach was presented to determine the cause of
fatigue cracks in the area of joining claddings with the HEA240 profile. The use of
non-destructive testing using visual and defectoscopic methods made it possible to
determine the exact length of cracks. The total length of all cracks was 3662 mm.
Strain gauge experimental tests allowed to determine the real effort of the bucket-wheel
in the vicinity of the connection of the claddings with the HEA240 profile.
Due to the measured values of actual loads and combining of loads in accordance
with the standard [16], the correctness of the numerical model was verified. After
numerical calculations, for the numerical model with claddings, in the region of
maximal effort (134 MPa - welded joints), the significant exceeding of the acceptable
range of fatigue stress was found, which is the reason for fatigue crack of the
SchRs4600 bucket-wheel excavator. In order to analyze the influence of the welded
claddings, calculations of a bucket-wheel without claddings were made. In the case of
removing claddings (and thus welded joints) from the sensitive region, we obtain a
similar maximum stress range of 132 MPa. For this variant, there are no welded joints
in the area of maximum effort, therefore the condition of fatigue strength is met
because:
Drmax ¼ 132 MPa\Drbase;perm: ¼ 200 MPa
The difference between the model using claddings and the model without claddings
is shown in Fig. 18.
Fig. 18. Comparison of models with claddings and without them
It was found that the cause of occurrence of fatigue cracks in the construction of the
bucket-wheel is the concentration of stress in the fillet weld of attaching claddings to
the T-profile. In the case of a model without cladding around the radius of the T-profile,
i.e. around the geometric notch, no welds are present, so despite the occurrence of
stresses of similar magnitudes, the fatigue strength condition is retained.
References
1. Kasztelewicz Z (2012) Excavators and spreaders: mining technology (in Polish). Science and
Mining Traditions Foundation, Cracow
2. Kołkiewicz W (1974) The use of mining machines in opencast mining. (in Polish). “Śląsk”
Publishing House, Katowice
3. Moczko P, Pietrusiak D, Rusiński E (2018) Material handling and mining equipment-
International Standards Recommendations for Design and Testing. FME Transactions 2018.
https://doi.org/10.5937/fmet1803291m
4. Babiarz S, Dudek D (2007) Chronicle of failures and catastrophes of mining machines in
Polish opencast mining (in Polish). Wroclaw University of Science and Technology
Publishing House
5. Savković M, Gasić M, Arsić M, Petrović R (2010) Analysis of the axle fracture of the bucket
wheel excavator. Eng Fail Anal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2010.09.031
6. Arsić M, Bošnjak S, Zrnić N, Sedmak A, Gnjatović N (2010) Bucket wheel failure caused
by residual stresses in welded joints. Eng Fail Anal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.
2010.11.009
7. Savković M, Gasić M, Petrović D, Zdravković N, Pljakić R (2011) Analysis of the drive
shaft fracture of the bucket wheel excavator. Eng Fail Anal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
engfailanal.2011.11.004
8. Rusiński E, Czmochowski J, Iluk A, Kowalczyk M (2009) An analysis of the causes of a
BWE counterweight boom support fracture. Eng Fail Anal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
engfailanal.2009.06.001
9. Rusiński E, Harnatkiewicz P, Kowalczyk M, Moczko P (2009) Examination of the causes of
a bucket wheel fracture in a bucket wheel excavator. Eng Fail Anal. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.engfailanal.2010.03.004
10. Danicic D, Sedmak S, Ignjatovic D, Mitrovic S (2014) Bucket wheel excavator damage by
fatigue–case study. Proc Mater Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mspro.2014.06.278
11. Lewińska-Romicka A (2001) Non-destructive testing. The basics of defectoscopy (in
Polish). Scientific and Technical Publisher, Warsaw
12. EN 13018:2016 (2016) Non-destructive testing. Visual testing. General principles. European
Committee Standardization
13. EN ISO 6520-1 (2007) Welding and allied processes. Classification of geometric
imperfections in metallic materials. Fusion welding. European Committee Standardization
14. EN ISO 5817 (2014) Welding. Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys
(beam welding excluded). Quality levels for imperfections. European Committee
Standardization
15. EN ISO 9934-1 (2016) Non-destructive testing. Magnetic particle testing. General
principles. European Committee Standardization
16. DIN 22261-2 (2011) Excavators, spreaders and auxiliary equipment in opencast lignite
mines-Part 2: calculation principles. German Institute for Standardization
17. EN 10025-1 (2004) Hot rolled products of structural steels. General technical delivery
conditions
Numerical-Experimental Approach
to the Design of the Mounting System for Fast
Clamping of the Equipment of the Electrical
Demolition Machine
Jakub Andruszko(&) and Eugeniusz Rusiński
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Machine Design

and Research, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Łukasiewicza 5,
50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
{jakub.andruszko,eugeniusz.rusinski}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. Currently, there are many types of connectors that ensure secure
mounting of machine tools, increasing their versatility by the possibility of
connecting a large number of different tools. Bolts, quick couplings, adaptive
plates for light machines and devices using wedge connections are used. In
electric demolition machines, joints using wedge connections are used due to the
possibility of their quick disassembly of the elements. As a result of insufficient
durability of the currently used joints, the authors presented a numerical-
experimental approach to their design, which allows to determine the actual
loads acting on the designed element, and thus to improve the existing solution.
Keywords: Demolition machine Electric machine Arm working system

Mounting tool Numerical-experimetnal studies Construction works
Testing Finite element method
1 Introduction
The first device using the pin connection to assemble the working system with the tool
was a Brokk company patent. This device is used to connect the equipment of work
machines such as loaders, excavators and other tools of the broadly defined heavy
industry [8]. Defining the shortcomings occurring in existing joints was a key aspect in
the approach to designing a new element. As a result of the machine’s operation due to
vibrations, the coupling system lost its compactness, and the distance between the pins
were increased. Another drawback was the inaccuracy in the execution of the holes for
locking linchpins, which made it difficult to fit the pine hole with the hole in the
fastening beam. The project of the mounting system was started by setting the dimension
between the pins, which are fixed in the adaptive plate. This dimension was changed
accordingly, so that the structure, even after some changes in the geometrical features
resulting from the impact hammer work, remained compact. The mounting system was
provided with protection against its bending in the form of a protruding end in Sheet I.
After designing the preliminary mounting system to secure it, a wedge-shaped model
was made consisting of a wedge track and two opposing wedges securing the mount

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_4
30 J. Andruszko and E. Rusiński
(Mounting module). The wedge connector is protected by special locking pins. It was
decided to use two wedges symmetrically to increase the pressure exerted by the pins on
the calibration plate. The above-described structure is shown in Fig. 1.
Locking pins
Sheet 2
Sheet 1
Mounting
module
Pins
Fig. 1. Device for quick coupling of the equipment of the electrical demolition machine
2 Experimental Tests
In order to determine the actual loads acting on the fastening element, it was decided to
perform measurements on the prototype of the Advanced Robotic Engineering machine
in real working conditions. A high-speed camera was chosen for the measurements,
which allows for safe measurements in the machine’s working environment, by putting
away the measuring device from the place of danger and giving an uncomplicated
measuring system [1, 2]. As a result of measurements using high-speed camera, we can
determine the displacements of individual previously selected points on the machine
structure. It was decided that the point located in the center of gravity of the hydraulic
hammer, determined on the basis of data from the manufacturer, will be the point for
measurements. In order to correctly carry out measurements on the hammer structure,
reference points with high contrast were placed so that as a result of the camera being
put away from the machine’s work place, after recording the image, it was easy to read
the measuring points in the image processing program. The distance between the
attachment points of the robot arm was also determined in order to properly calibrate
Fig. 2. Measuring point and test stand

Numerical-Experimental Approach to the Design 31
the object during data analysis. The selected point and the working environment of the
machine together with the measurement stand are shown in Fig. 2.
For the measurement the speed of the camera was 10 000 frames per second and
the density of sampling of displacement signal was 0.001 m. The element that
underwent the process of breaking was a block of reinforced concrete, which was a part
of the foundation of the building. In the case of such the most frequently used position
of the machine during breaking, so that the cylinders are maximally extended, the
greatest torque is generated at the rotating element of the working system [3]. This case
is the worst possible case of the work system in this work environment. It was decided
to measure during breaking the working material, but only with initial crushing, which
causes large vibrations of the working system and may cause loss of the tightness of the
mounting system [4]. After the breaking measurements, where the hammer hit the
concrete block causing its destruction, the relationship between the displacement of the
measuring point and the time has been plotted. Analyzing the measurements, it turned
out that the largest displacements of the hammer occur in its axis, so it was decided to
omit other components generating small displacements and it was decided not to apply
them to numerical analyzes. The vertical displacement graph is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Diagram of vertical displacement of the hydraulic hammer point
3 Determination of the Loads of the Mounting System
In order to determine the load of the mounting system, a geometric model of the
demolition robot’s working system was built and a mounting model was applied to it,
giving the appropriate bonds in the form of kinematic pairs [5]. The approach to
simulation was used as the Rigid Body Dynamics (RBD) in the first stage, and then,
thanks to the information on the forces acting in the kinematic pairs, a computational
calculation model was built, and forces derived from the RBD analysis were applied.
Rigid Body Dynamic is based on the second law of motion in classical mechanics. In
the three-dimensional arrangement of orientation RBD can be described in various
ways. The most popular are: Euler angles, Tait-Bryan angels, Orientation vector,
Orientation matrix, Orientation quaternion. To consider rigid body dynamics in three-
dimensional space, Newton’s second law must be extended to define the relationship
between the movement of a rigid body and the system of forces and torques that act on
it. In this article, authors determine forces in kinematic pairs using RBD analysis, in
which forces are determined in the following way:
Fj ¼ mj aj ð1Þ
The dynamics of an interconnected system of rigid bodies, Bi, j = 1,…, M, is

formulated by isolating each rigid body and introducing the interaction forces. The
resultant of the external and interaction forces on each body, yields the force equations
The model used for RBD analysis is shown in Fig. 4.
Joint 2
Joint 4
Joint 1
Joint 3
Joint 5
Fig. 4. The model used for RBD analysis with specified kinematic pairs
Thanks to the RBD analysis, the values of forces in the kinematic pairs of the
mounting system were obtained, which have been applied to the calculation model. The
force graphs in kinematic pairs are presented in Fig. 5.
a
Force [N]
Time [s]
Fig. 5. Graphs of forces in the kinematic pairs of the fastening system: a - horizontal axis, b -
vertical axis
4 Numerical Calculation
In order to conduct a strength analysis using the Finite Element Method, a discrete
model with a division into finite elements was built based on a geometric model [6].
HEXA8 type elements with a linear interpolation function were used for the analysis.
In order to accurately represent the behavior of the system, during the operation
contacts between the mounting elements has been given [7]. The beam element was
used to model the screw connection between the fixing plates. Due to the limitation,
already at the stage of analysis of experimental data, the values of displacements only
to values in the symmetry plane of the working system, its symmetry has been used for
the computational model. The discrete model is shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Discrete model with division into finite elements
Thanks to the forces obtained from the RBD analysis and the discrete model built, a
computational model with boundary conditions was built. Due to the dependence of
forces on time, a quasi-static analysis was performed. The calculation model with
boundary conditions is shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. The calculation model of the mounting system with boundary conditions
As a result of applying the forces obtained from the RBD analysis over time, the
dependence of stresses on the time occurring in the structure during machine operation
was obtained, which are shown in Fig. 8.
Stress distribution for the maximum effort of the structure occurring in 0.58 s of
individual components are shown in Fig. 9. The maximum stress is 142 MPa.
Stress [MPa]
Time [s]
Fig. 8. Dependence of stresses in time on the structure
26 MPa
88 MPa
142 MPa 55 MPa
14 MPa
23MPa
Fig. 9. Stress distribution according to the H-M-H hypothesis

The authors showed a numerical and experimental way to determine the effort of
elements of working systems of machines for construction works. The main problem
when designing such a device is to obtain a good compactness of the structure so that it
does not quickly degrade. It was found that the components of the device do not carry
heavy loads. Studies using a high-speed camera to measure displacements of the
determined points of the machine’s working system allowed to determine the input
parameters for the RBD analysis, which gave the input parameters for the strength
analysis using the Finite Element Method.
It can be stated that the numerical and experimental approach with the use of a
high-speed camera and appropriate combinations of numerical techniques gives the
possibility to determine the effort of elements of the working system of demolition
machines. The use of a high-speed camera to determine the displacement of defined
points limits the number of measuring instruments used to a minimum.
Acknowledgments. The project was carried with the support of the National Centre for
Research and Development in Poland under the “Szybka Ścieżka” program no POIR.01.01.01-
00-0582/15-00, in cooperation with Advanced Robotic Engineering Ltd. company.
References
1. Derlukiewicz D, Ptak M, Wilhelm J, Jakubowski K (2017) The numerical-experimental
studies of demolition machine operator work. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering.
Springer, pp 129–138
2. Derlukiewicz D, Cieślak M (2017) Study of the causes of boom elements cracking of electric
demolition machine with use of experimental and numerical methods. Lecture Notes in
Mechanical Engineering. Springer, pp 109–119
3. Karliński J, Rusiński E, Lewandowski T, (2008), New generation automated drilling machine
for tunneling and underground mining work. In: Automation in Construction, pp 224–231
4. Piszczek K, Walczak J (1982) Drgania w budowie maszyn (wyd. 3). Warszawa
5. Rusiński E (2002) Design principles supporting structures of motor vehicles, in Polish.
Wrocław
skończonych w konstrukcjach nośnych, Wrocław
7. Zienkiewicz, O, Taylor R (2006) The finite element method for solid and structural mechanics
(6th ed., 3rd repr.. ed.). Amsterdam
8. Global Construction Robots Market 2016–2020 with Brokk (2016) Fujita & ULC Robotics
Dominating. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20160524005815/en/Global-Con-
struction-Robots-Market-2016-2020-Brokk-Fujita
Use of Rapid Manufacturing Methods
for Creating Wind Tunnel Test Models
Piotr Araszkiewicz(&)
Institute of Aviation, Al. Krakowska 110/114, 02-256 Warsaw, Poland

Piotr.Araszkiewicz@ilot.edu.pl
Abstract. Due to the high costs, time and work consuming of a model man-
ufacturing, it is often impossible to conduct wind tunnel tests at the early stages
of an aircraft design, especially, when the geometry of the plane is still subject to
change. The modern rapid manufacturing methods can overcome this problem.
In 2017 in the Institute of Aviation, Warsaw, Poland the works on the con-
ceptual design of a new type of an aircraft has been started. A few configurations
of the plane were designed and analysed by the means of computational fluid
dynamics (CFD). For the chosen configuration a model have been built and
tested in a 1.5 m diameter wind tunnel. The fuselage of the model and its
vertical and horizontal stabilizers were 3D printed. This study discuses advan-
tages and shortcomings of employing rapid manufacturing methods for creating
test models. Special consideration was put to the cost and time saving, model
design aspects, model quality and possibility to introduce changes to the model
configuration.
Keywords: 3D printing FDM Wind tunnel Aerodynamic tests

Aerodynamic model
1 Introduction
The wind tunnel tests play a significant role in an aircraft design process. When
performed under the exact conditions they can give the most certain and accurate data
on the aerodynamic characteristics of the tested object (in this case – an airplane). The
results of wind tunnel tests can also be applied to validate and improve CFD models
making further numerical analyses more precise.
One of the most important conditions to achieve a high accuracy of the wind tunnel
tests results is a quality of the examined model. To produce a high-quality model it is
crucial, that the chosen manufacturing method ensure a good accordance between the
fabricated item and a theoretical geometry of the analysed aircraft. That also concerns
eventual joints between the model parts, which should not create discrepancies between
airflow around the model and around the actual airplane. A surface roughness is
another important factor as it can modify the boundary layer of the flow.
The stiffness and strength of the construction are another parameters that need to be
taken into consideration. Depending on the tests program, under designed aerodynamic
loads the model should either be rigid or deform in an intended way. It should not
vibrate in any unpredicted way, especially, no resonance or flutter can occur.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_5
Use of Rapid Manufacturing Methods for Creating Wind 37
Obviously, the model should not be destroyed nor damaged by any of the loads that can
arise according to the planned tests.
During construction of a model for wind tunnel tests it is necessary to design
mounting points for a balance. The characteristic of the balance that is meant to be used
during the tests, limits the maximum overall weight of the model, hence, it has an
influence on a choose of materials the model is to be made of.
In 2017 in the Institute of Aviation, Warsaw, Poland a team lead by D.Eng.
Włodzimierz Gnarowski started works on a design of a new type of an aircraft. At the
beginning a few configuration were designed and analysed with a use of CFD methods.
After that the most efficient construction was chosen for further development, including
wind tunnel tests. An aerodynamic model has been built and tested in a 1.5 m in
diameter wind tunnel (the 1.5 m diameter T-1 wind tunnel has been described in [1]).
The model had a length of 778 mm and a wingspan of 1 m. The angle of incidence of
the horizontal stabilizer was adjustable. The FFA I-646-2 tensometric balance mounted
inside the model was used [2]. The model had to be created fast, had to be inexpensive
and due to the balance characteristic it had to be lightweight.
In aim to meet all the requirements set for the model, various manufacturing
methods were considered.
2 Traditional Methods of Manufacturing Wind Tunnel Test

Models
One of the oldest techniques used for fabricating wind tunnel test models, nowadays
obsolete, is carpentry. The parts of the model are sculpted by a highly qualified car-
penter from a block of seasoned wood or plywood. To ensure a high precision of a
shape, templates are used. The method is time and work consuming. It needs an
expensive high quality wood and an experienced staff. Due to these drawbacks wooden
models are nowadays rarely used.
When the high precision is the most important requirement that a model must fulfil,
the most favourable technique to manufacture it, is a numerically controlled milling
from a block of metal. The most commonly used materials are steel and aluminium
alloys. Except a great shape accuracy, the method offers a high strength and stiffness of
the models. As the metal parts can be easily jointed by standard mechanical methods,
introducing changes to a model is simple. While the steel models have better param-
eters, they are heavier, more expensive and creating them is more complicated than
aluminium ones. A very high costs of the materials, complicated machining and high
weight of metal models often makes them unavailable and not very efficient, especially,
at the initial stages of a design.
The most common way of fabricating wind tunnel test models is the composite
technology. It is relatively cheap, gives a good shape accuracy and strength. The
composite models are usually lightweight and can be easily modified. The method is
however time consuming.
A good precision, low workload and relatively low costs offered by the modern
rapid manufacturing methods make them seem to be suitable for creating wind tunnel
test models. In the described project it was decided to employ them to manufacture the
38 P. Araszkiewicz
model of the newly designed aircraft. The method that was chosen was the fused
deposition modelling (FDM).
The comparison of the costs and workload needed by the FDM and the composite
Table 1. The comparison of the costs and workload needed by the FDM and the composite
method (the workload is not the same as the total model manufacturing time).
Composite method FDM
Workload (man-hours)
Total 60 42
Print service – 2
Finishing – 40
Total cost of the model (PLN) 9000 7000
method, estimated for the described model, is shown in Table 1.
3 Fused Deposition Modelling
The fused deposition modelling is a method of 3D printing trademarked by Stratasys. It

uses a thermoplastic materials in a form of filaments. The filament is unwound from a
spool and pushed through an extruder nozzle. In the nozzle it is heated and melted. The
molten material is deposited on a table, where it immediately solidifies. The nozzle is
moved by a numerically controlled mechanism to create the wanted shape. The part is
build layer by layer.
When there are overhangs in the built shape the support structures are needed. They
are usually created in the same way as the actual part, but from a different material.
Depending on the used material, after completing the printing, the support structures
can be dissolved or removed mechanically.
The method gives a good shape accuracy. The surface quality depends on
parameters of the process. It is possible to introduce a lattice structure inside the
manufactured part to reduce weight.
The basic principle of the FDM method is shown in a Fig. 1.
The printer that was used in the described project was the Stratasys Fortus 250mc.
It builds parts using the FDM technology from the ABSplus material. One of the most
important parameter of a 3D printer is a build envelope. It determines the maximum
dimensions of an object that can be printed. The Fortus 250mc has the build envelope
of 254 mm 254 mm 305 mm [3].
The machine uses two cartridges for filaments – one for the ABSplus and the
second one for a support material. The support material is soluble. After the building
process, the supports are removed chemically in a bath.
The Fortuss 250mc offers three layer thicknesses to choose from: 0.178 mm,
0.254 mm and 0.330 mm. The accuracy depends on the part geometry and the building
process parameters.
Fig. 1. Scheme of the fused deposition modelling (FDM); a – table, b – heated head, c –
extrusion nozzles, d – build material spool, e – support material spool, f – built part, g – supports,
h – tray.
4 The Model Design and Fabrication
The parameters of the printer and the material it uses has a strong influence on a model
design. The ABSplus characteristics are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. The ABSplus characteristics (according to [4])

Tensile strength 31 MPa
Tensile modulus 2,200 MPa
Specific gravity 1.04
Due to the low tensile strength of the material and small printer build envelope it
was decided that only the fuselage and stabilizers should be created by printing. The
wing of the model had to be made of carbon composite or durable plastic by numer-
ically controlled milling [5].
The outside geometry of the model was created in the Autodesk Inventor through
the scaling of the surface model that was used for the CFD analyses. To ensure high
enough stiffness of the model it was decided that its walls in all points should have
thickness no less than 5 mm. The only additional stiffeners were introduced around
wing mounting points and as a seating for a bushing of the balance (see Fig. 2).
40 P. Araszkiewicz
To reduce the printing time and material consumption (which lowered the costs)
and to make the model more lightweight a sparse fill pattern was applied. The inside of
every part was not made of a solid material, but was created as a lattice structure (see
Fig. 3). The structure was, however, dense enough to provide required strength,
stiffness and to support the screws and bolts that was used to secure joints between
model parts. This way of time, cost and weight saving is not available to the traditional
fabrication methods and can be carried out only by the means of the additive
manufacturing.
Fig. 2. The middle part of the fuselage; (a) – cross section of a CAD model, (b) – photo of an
actual part; 1 – seating for the balance bushing, 2 – stiffeners, 3 – seating for the wing.
Fig. 3. A cross section of the horizontal stabilizer – the sparse fill pattern and the widened
trailing edge are visible.
As the model length was much greater than the printer build envelope, the fuselage
had to be divided into smaller parts. The fuselage sections were as follows:
• nose part;
• middle part with a seating for the balance bushing and wing mounting points;
• end part of the passenger compartment;
• tail part with a vertical stabilizer and mounting points for the horizontal one;
• rear-end part of the fuselage.
The horizontal stabilizer was also made as a separate part.
In aim to avoid inaccuracies of the model assembly, all couplings between the
fuselage parts were shaped in a way that allowed joining them only in one position. An
example of such junction is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Junction between the middle and the nose part of the fuselage. Holes for securing bolts
can be seen.
Due to a high shape and dimension precision, no additional finishing of joints

surfaces was necessary.
On an actual airplane, the angle of incidence of the horizontal stabilizer needs to be
adjusted according to the flight conditions. Because the influence of that angle on the
aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft needed to be analysed, the wind tunnel test
model was to be examined with three different angles: 00, 20 and 40. To allow changes
of the angle of incidence, the horizontal stabilizer was mounted on a hinge. One part of
the hinge was printed with the tail part of the fuselage, while the other was made with
the stabilizer itself. To avoid introducing additional parts into the model structure, the
rear-end part of the fuselage was employed to fix the selected angle. That made the
shape of the rear-end part more complicated and caused the need to design and
manufacture three different parts – each for a different angle. Fabrication of this parts
with traditional methods would be very difficult and ineffective, but was possible and
easy to do with the FDM. Additionally, the markings, that allowed easy recognition of
the parts, could be simply printed in its surfaces.
The way of fixing the angle of incidence of the horizontal stabilizer is shown in
Fig. 5.
42 P. Araszkiewicz
Fig. 5. Mounting of the horizontal stabilizer; a) – design of the hinge, b) – design of the angle
fixing rear-end parts of the fuselage, c) – the actual model with three rear-end parts.
One of the biggest issues concerned with the printing of the stabilizers was
necessity to ensure a good quality of the trailing edges in a small scale of the model.
The edges thickness was lower than the printer accuracy. The use of the sparse fill
pattern caused a further problem, as it produced empty spaces near the edges. Due to
these reasons, all sharp edges had to be widened and shaped manually after the
printing. The widened trailing edge can be seen in Fig. 3.
In the FDM technology objects are created layer by layer and, depending on the
used printer and chosen process parameters, every layer has a finite thickness. Fur-
thermore, the starting and finish point of every layer is visible on the surface of the
created part as a seam. That caused the model surface roughness to be unsatisfactory
for wind tunnel tests. The surface of every part had to be finished manually. The seams
were filed off, and after that the parts were painted with primer and sanded. To make
the model suitable for a flow visualisation, it was painted black matt.
After the finish and final assembly, the model was 3D scanned and its geometry
was compared with the CAD models of the theoretical geometry of the airplane [6].
The model showed a good shape and dimension accuracy sufficient for wind tunnel
tests.
The complete model with 3D printed fuselage and stabilizers and milled wing was
tested in the T-1 wind tunnel [7]. It fulfilled all the requirements that was set for it. The
data collected during the wind tunnel tests were successfully used in the following
stages of the design process. The model showed good durability and, after some
modifications, is still used for further tests.
5 Conclusions
The use of the fused deposition modelling greatly decreases the model manufacturing
time. It also reduces significantly the amount of workload, although the manual fin-
ishing is still needed.
The method offers a good accuracy, making it suitable for fabrication of wind
tunnel test models. Possibility of creating very complicated shapes facilitates the model
designing and implementing further changes. The surface quality of the printed parts is
not satisfactory, but can be improved by a more rigorous selection of the process
parameters.
Due to the material properties (which are not guaranteed by the manufacturer) the
method was considered not suitable for creating highly loaded parts.
The cost of the materials used in 3D printers is quite high, but taking into account
the workload reduction, the total cost of fabrication of a model is comparable with the
composite technology and still much cheaper than the aluminium alloys milling. As the
technology become more common, a further prices reduction can be expected. That
would make the method even more effective.
References
1. http://cntpolska.pl/zespol-aerodynamiki/laboratorium-aerodynamiki-stosowanej/?lang=en
2. Ruchała P (2017) Dobór wagi do modelu samolotu ILX-34 w tunelu T-1, report no.
5/CNTA/2017, Institute of Aviation, Warsaw
3. Stratasys – Fortus 250mc – specification sheet
4. Stratasys – ABSplus – P430 – material specification sheet
5. Zięba M, Bątruk O (2017) Opracowanie technologii wytwarzania modeli do badań
tunelowych, report no. 07/CKTT/2017, Institute of Aviation, Warsaw
6. Bątruk O, Krauze W (2017) Raport z porównania skanu 3D modelu z geometrią nominalną
samolotu ILX-34, report no. 05/CTKK/2017, Institute of Aviation, Warsaw
7. Ruchała P (2017) Badania eksperymentalne modelu samolotu ILX-34 w tunelu T-1, report no.
16/CNTA/17/P, Institute of Aviation, Warsaw
Statistical Analysis of Loading
for the Simulation of Belt Conveyor–Based
Transportation System
Piotr J. Bardziński(&), Witold Kawalec, and Robert Król
Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wrocław University of Science

and Technology, Na Grobli 13/15, 50-421 Wrocław, Poland
piotr.bardzinski@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. Mean inter–arrival time of haul trucks at the loading points was
calculated from the arrival count recorded in a time window of 15 min from five
consecutive working days, each of which divided by four shifts. Normality of all
distributions was investigated with D’Agostino–K2, Anderson–Darling and
Kolmogorov–Smirnov normality tests. Courses of most haul trucks of class A
gave right–skewed, leptokurtic distributions, while of class B and C slightly left
skewed, platycurtic distributions. The obtained values of mean inter–arrival
times were almost identical for haul trucks of class A for the loading points
located within the G–1 and G–4 mining departments. Haul trucks of class B and
C yielded similar bimodal–like distributions, which for G–9 department showed
more left–skewed triangular–like distribution pattern. Most of the haul truck
courses did not exhibit normality of distribution of mean inter–arrival times,
thus the non–parametric Spearman Rank and Kendall correlation coefficients
were calculated. Only the haul trucks of class A represented significant Spear-
man rank correlation at the 0.05 level for G–1 and G–4 mining departments.
Thus, the histograms of the haul truck courses will be taken as empirical dis-
tributions from which the haul truck courses will be modelled in the FlexSim
simulation of the mine’s transport system. The data shown that mean inter–
arrival times of the haul truck courses did not differ significantly among various
parts of the mine and are more haul truck class–dependent. Typical values of
mean inter–arrival times were in the ranges 400–500 s. Maximum inter–arrival
time corresponding to distance limit for the mine was 900 s. Haul trucks with
the largest shovel capacity were sent to such mining fronts. LHD’s with lower
shovel capacity were used where several mining fronts were exploited in the
same time by several haul trucks.
Keywords: Copper mine Transport system Haul trucks Inter–arrival time

Correlation analysis Non–parametric tests
1 Introduction
Many transportation systems, such as freeway traffic [1], can be characterized by the
inter–arrival time. This parameter influences the throughput, capacity and safety,
strongly affecting the economic output of the whole system. The inter–arrival time

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_6
Statistical Analysis of Loading for the Simulation of Belt 45
distribution is also an important parameter in the network traffic modelling [2, 3],
dynamic and stochastic vehicle routing problems [4], vessel or airplane arrivals at a
port system [5] as well as geometric and non–homogeneous Poisson processes [6, 7],
equilibrium queuing systems with feedback [8] or delayed renewal processes [9].
The DISIRE project is aimed at controlling the origin, mixing and quality of the ore
distributed from different sources through the belt conveyour network to the Ore
Enrichment Plant [10–12]. As a result, it could lead to selection of more adequate
crushing, grinding and flotation parameters and thus, energy savings. In order to
accurately reproduce the frequency with which the ore is supplied to the mine’s
transport system from particular mining fronts, knowledge of the statistics of haul truck
courses is needed. This is necessary in order to create a model that would reliably
represent the transport system of the ZG Lubin copper mine. Thus, the haul truck mean
inter–arrival time distributions investigated in the current study can be used as a
FlowItem generation functions in a FlexSim environment. The mentioned software
pacakge was already successfully applied worldwide in the studies over the mining
transport systems [13–15].
2 Methodology
Within five–day period, based on block–crushing device operators’ reports, the evi-
dence of haul truck courses was recorded for the chosen loading points of mining
departments number G1, G4 and G9 of ZG Lubin mine. The haul trucks were classified
depending on their loading capacity: A (15 t), B (12 t) and C (8 t). The number of haul
truck courses was count every 15 min of each shift. Division of 900 s by the number of
recorded courses yielded the mean inter–arrival time. Sample size varies between
loading points and haul trucks due to different scheduled operational times. The
assumption was made that the distance difference between the mining front and the
Fig. 1. Location of loading points in the ZG Lubin mine

46 P. J. Bardziński et al.
loading point (e.g. comparing the mining fronts in departments G1 and G9 of the mine)
have no statistical influence on mean inter–arrival time of haul truck courses.
Three mining departments of the ZG Lubin mine were considered in the study, i.e.,
northern – G9 and southern, G4 and G1, with respect to the main haulage conveyors, as
shown in the Fig. 1. As the latter two mining departments are placed in a close
proximity with each other and that only two loading points of department G1 are
considered in the study, they are treated as one department in the correlation tests.
Distributions of mean inter–arrival times recorded for each loading point were tested
for normality using Kolmogorov–Smirnov, Anderson–Darling and D’Agostino–K2
tests. Then, Spearman Rank and Kendall correlation coefficients were calculated for
each haul truck class in mining departments G1 + G4 and G9 separately as well as
Table 1. Sample size for the haul truck courses recorded at each loading point
Loading point number Mining department Haul truck Sample size
Class Transported mass [t]
8 G–4 A 15 201
B 12 107
C 8 70
13 A 15 144
B 12 43
C 8 53
10 A 15 241
C 8 60
24 A 15 11
B 12 10
18 A 15 51
B 12 14
C 8 15
6 G–9 A 15 14
B 12 296
C 8 44
14 B 12 103
7 B 12 263
C 8 7
11 A 15 91
B 12 14
C 8 10
L71 G–1 A 15 11
B 12 104
C 8 108
22 A 15 203
C 8 48
Table 2. An example of normality tests performed for mean inter–arrival time distributions of
haul truck courses from chosen loading point 11
Kolmogorov–Smirnov
DF Statistic p–value Decision at level (5%)
LP 11 HT A 92 0.53065 1.05E–24 Reject normality
LP 11 HT B 15 0.29712 1.14E-01 Can’t reject normality
LP 11 HT C 11 0.47162 9.12E-03 Reject normality
Anderson–Darling
Statistic p–value Decision at level (5%)
LP 11 HT A 35.14149 6.97E–78 Reject normality
LP 11 HT B 1.47732 5.00E–04 Reject normality
LP 11 HT C 2.7527 1.65E–07 Reject normality
D’Agostino–K2
Statistic p–value Decision at level (5%)
LP 11 HT A Omnibus 198.91122 0 Reject normality
Skewness –11.59899 0 Reject normality
Kurtosis 8.02339 1.11E–15 Reject normality
LP 11 HT B Omnibus 1.19952 5.49E-01 Can’t reject normality
Skewness –0.8117 4.17E-01 Can’t reject normality
Kurtosis –0.7353 4.62E-01 Can’t reject normality
LP 11 HT C Omnibus 23.94567 6.31E–06 Reject normality
Skewness –3.67547 2.37E–04 Reject normality
Kurtosis 3.23057 1.24E-03 Reject normality
regardless in which mining department the loading point was situated. Then, datasets of
haul truck courses of each class were compared between mining departments G1 + G4
and G9 and the correlation coefficients were calculated. Two–tailed test of significance
was used in all correlation calculations. Correlations which are found significant at the
0.05 level are marked with an asterisk (*). Note that LP stands for loading point, while
haul truck class was abbreviated as HT. Statistical analyses were performed using the
OriginPro 9.0 64–bit package.
3 Results and Discussion
Total sample size of haul truck courses count over all mining fronts was 2336, mini-
mum value – 7, maximum – 296, average 87 ± 85. In order to choose the statistically
significant data, the sample sizes for different loading points were compared in Table 1.
White to light gray shades represent high statistical significance while darker shades
indicate relatively small sample size. An example of normality test results was pre-
sented in Table 2. D’Agostino–K2 normality tests yielded slightly positive or one order
of magnitude higher negative skewness of most datasets. It indicates that courses of
most haul trucks of class A gave right–skewed distributions (negative skewness) while
of class B and C were slightly left skewed (positive). Most of mean inter–arrival time
distributions of haul trucks class A were leptokurtic, but haul trucks of class B and C
yielded thin–tailed platycurtic distributions. Omnibus–K2 was chosen as a general
alternative for assumed non–normal distribution [16]. In the case of LP 6 HT C, LP 11
HT B, LP 18 HT B, LP 18 HT C where normality hypothesis cannot be rejected, the
Omnibus–K2 yielded relatively small values from 1 to 6. In the other cases, the nor-
mality hypothesis was rejected and the omnibus measure was higher than 7. For several
cases, namely LP L71 HT B, LP 13 HT A, LP 8 HT B, LP 6 HT B, LP 22 HT A, LP 10
HT A, LP 11 HT A, LP 8 HT A and LP L71 HT C, the omnibus was as high as from
near 100 to slightly more than 400, respectively. The normal distribution hypothesis
was rejected in all cases in Anderson–Darling test and not rejected only in case of LP
18 HT B, LP 18 HT C and LP 11 HT B in Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Thus, we can
conclude that most or all of the distributions didn’t comply with the normal distribution
and slightly resemble the bimodal nature, as mean inter–arrival times were typically in
the ranges 400–500 and 900–1000 s. The above was the reason, that non–parametric
tests were chosen to study the correlations between the datasets.
Fig. 2. Comparison of mean inter–arrival times distribution for loading points of G–1 and G–4
mining departments of ZG Lubin mine
Fig. 3. Comparison of mean inter–arrival times distribution for loading points of G–9 mining
department of ZG Lubin mine
According to Figs. 2 and 3, the obtained distributions were mostly dependent on

the haul truck class. The obtained values of mean inter–arrival times were almost
identical for haul trucks of class A for the loading points located within the G–1 and G–
4 mining departments. In the case of G9 department, there was an absence of the peak
occurring at 450 s for the southern part of the mine, what could be attributed with the
absence of the additional mining front located in a closer proximity to the loading
point. The histograms of HT A were dominated with the 900 s peak. It was supposed
that the haul trucks of class A, with the largest shovel capacity were sent to the mining
Fig. 4. Comparison of mean inter–arrival times distribution for G–1 + G–4 and G–9 mining
departments of ZG Lubin mine
fronts located at a maxiumum distance from the loading point, which is typically about
300–400 m. If the distance becomes larger due to pending mining works, the mine staff
decides to add the belt conveyour rather than increase the HT course duration to more
than 15 min, what can be considered a distance limit for that mine.
Within departments G–1 and G–4 as well as within the department G–9, courses of
haul trucks class B and C were similarly distributed. Haul trucks of class B and C
yielded similar bimodal–like distributions, which for G–9 department showed more
left–skewed triangular–like distribution pattern than in the case of G–1 and G–4, as can
be seen in the Fig. 4. Eg. for HT B at LP 6 located in G–9 the mean inter–arrival times
were distributed between 100–450 s while for HT class B and C at the depatments G–1
and G–4 the time was in the shorter range, of 300–450 s. 900 s peak was present for
every studied loading point. It could be explained with the nature of the room–and–
pillar mining scheme, illustrated in the map of two sample mining fields sketched in the
Fig. 5. Overall course time of a haul truck is consisted of waiting in the eventual queue,
loading/unloading time and maneuvering – which all can be considered roughly con-
stant, and ride between the mining front and the loading point (i.e., the transportation
path), which is distance–dependent. As can be seen in the Fig. 5, the haul trucks with
lower shovel capacity (class B and C) were used where several mining fronts were
exploited in the same time by several haul trucks. These mining fronts were relatively
close to the loading point, but with different distance. By summing up the haul truck
inter–arrival times only class–specific, regardless of the loading point location in the
mine, the three distinct distributions can be specified, as shown in the Fig. 6.
Fig. 5. Two mining fields of G–9 mining department
Fig. 6. Comparison of mean inter–arrival times distribution for haul trucks of each class from all
mining departments of ZG Lubin mine
Table 3. Comparison of correlation coefficients calculated for mean inter–arrival times of haul
truck courses from G–1 + G–4 and G–9 mining departments of ZG Lubin mine
G9 HT A G9 HT A
G1 + G4 HT A Spearman Corr. 0.22069* G1 + G4 HT A Kendall Corr. 0.21885
Sig. 0.03451 Sig. 0.38047
G9 HT B G9 HT B
G1 + G4 HT B Spearman Corr. 0.0369 G1 + G4 HT B Kendall Corr. 0.03294
Sig. 0.54078 Sig. 0.97372
G9 HT C G9 HT C
G1 + G4 HT C Spearman Corr. 0.20351 G1 + G4 HT C Kendall Corr. 0.18642
Sig. 0.13615 Sig. 0.85212
Spearman Rank and Kendall correlation coefficients were calculated and the results
of the comparison of different mining departments was shown in the Table 3. Note that
HT class-, loading point- and mining department-specific correlation matrices were
described below but not shown explicitly due to space limitation of the current
manuscript. Only the haul trucks of class A represented significant correlation at the
0.05 level. For the data acquired for HT A from G–1 and G–4 mining departments,
significant Spearman Rank correlation was obtained for LP 22 and LP 8, LP 24 and LP
71 as well as for LP 18 with all other loading points from G–1 and G–4 mining
departments. This might suggest comparable transportation paths for the mentioned
loading points. Kendal correlation was much less sensitive, as it was significant only in
the case of HT A at LP 8 and LP 22. Thus, the correlation calculations were incon-
clusive and strongly dependent on the chosen alghorithm. HT B from G–1 and G–4
shown no significant correlation for both methods, while for G–9 department corre-
lation was significant only for LP 6 and LP 7 in both alghorithms. Considering cor-
relation coefficients calculated for mean inter–arrival times of haul truck courses from
G–1 + G–4 and G–9 mining departments, Spearman correlation coefficient was sig-
nificant only for HT A, yielding the value of 0.22069 (*).
4 Conclusions
Histograms of mean inter–arrival times of haul truck courses at the loading points
located in the mining departments no. G1, G4 and G9 were obtained, depending on the
haul truck class and the department, what was considered separately. It can be con-
cluded that the transportation distances changes with respect to the pending mining
works. When the mining front becomes too far from the loading point, the latter is
moved to ensure the mean distances between the mining front and the loading point in
the different places of the mine were comparable. Thus, mean interarrival times of the
haul truck courses did not differ significantly among various parts of the mine.
Maximum inter–arrival time corresponding to distance limit for the mine was
900 s. Haul trucks with the largest shovel capacity were sent to such mining fronts. On
the other hand, haul trucks or rather LHD’s with lower shovel capacity (class B and C)
were used where several mining fronts were exploited in the same time by several haul
trucks.
The sample size was statistically significant to perform normality and correlation
tests. Only the haul trucks of class A represented significant Spearman rank correlation
at the 0.05 level for G–1 and G–4 mining departments, what could indicate comparable
transportation paths for the loading points in the considered area of the mine.
Courses of most haul trucks of class A gave right–skewed, leptokurtic distributions,
while of class B and C slightly left skewed, platycurtic distributions. Most of the haul
truck courses did not exhibit normality of distribution of mean inter–arrival times and
can't be described by some reliable probability distribution. Instead, the histograms of
the haul truck courses will be taken as a empirical distribution from which the haul
truck courses will be modelled in the FlexSim simulation of the ZG Lubin mine
transport system. The model will be presented in a separate study.
Acknowledgements. This work was supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher
Education as scientific statutory project No. 0401/0131/17.
References
1. Öner E (2013) Cumulative interarrival time distributions of freeway entrance ramp traffic for
traffic simulations. PROMET Traffic Transp 25(1): 1–12
2. Arshadi L, Jahangir AH (2017) An empirical study on TCP flow interarrival time
distribution for normal and anomalous traffic. Int J Commun Syst 30(1)
3. van Doorn EA, Jagers AA (2004) A note on the GI/GI/∞ system with identical service and
interarrival–time distributions. Queueing Syst 47(1–2):45–52
4. Bertsimas DJ, Van Ryzin G (1993) Stochastic and dynamic vehicle routing with general
demand and interarrival time distributions. Adv Appl Probab 25(4):947–978
5. Liu Y, Luo X, Liu J, Li Z, Liu RW (2017) Mixed models of single-berth interarrival time
distributions. J Waterw Port Coast Ocean Eng 144(1):04017034
6. Aydoğdu H, Karabulut İ, Şen E (2013) On the exact distribution and mean value function of
a geometric process with exponential interarrival times. Stat Probab Lett 83(11):2577–2582
7. Aydoğdu H, Karabulut İ (2014) Power series expansions for the distribution and mean value
function of a geometric process with Weibull interarrival times. Nav Res Logist (NRL) 61
(8):599–603
8. Burke P (1976) Proof of a conjecture on the interarrival–time distribution in an M/M/1 queue
with feedback. IEEE Trans Commun 24(5):575–576
9. Cuffe BP, Friedman MF (2006) On the exact distribution of a delayed renewal process with
exponential sum interarrival times. Eur J Oper Res 172(3):909–918
10. Jurdziak L, Kawalec W, Król R (2017) Application of Flexsim in the DISIRE project. Stud
Proc Pol Assoc Knowl Manag 84: 87–96
11. Kawalec W, Kro R, Zimroz R, Jurdziak L, Jach M, Pilut R (2016) Project DISIRE (H2020)–
an idea of annotating of ore with sensors in KGHM Polska Miedz SA underground copper
ore mines. In: E3S Web of conferences, vol 8. EDP Sciences
12. Jurdziak L, Kawalec W, Król R (2017) Study on tracking the mined ore compound with the
use of process analytic technology tags. In: International conference on intelligent systems in
production engineering and maintenance. Springer, Cham, pp 418–427
13. Checinski S, Witt A (2015) Modelling and simulation analysis of mine production in 3D
environment. Min Sci 22:183
14. Chen C, Shi L (2017) Simulating and optimizing of tramcar transportation attempter in open
pit mine. Adv Intell Syst Res 132:29–33
15. Libing Y, Hanhong C, Yuncai C, Haiyang Y (2008) Simulating and optimizing of logistics
system in strip mines. In: 3rd international symposium on modern mining & safety
technology proceedings, pp 138–143
16. Poitras G (2006) More on the correct use of omnibus tests for normality. Econ Lett 90
(3):304–309
Determining Power Losses in the Cycloidal
Gear Transmission Featuring Manufacturing
Deviations
Sławomir Bednarczyk(&)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science

and Technology, Łukasiewicza 5, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
slawomir.bednarczyk@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. An analytical method of determining power losses in the hypocy-

cloidal gearing has been discussed. The losses depend on the friction between
the hypocycloidal profile and the rollers. When defining the losses, the manu-
facturing tolerance of the elements making the gearing was taken into account.
Therefore, intertooth clearances (backlash) were determined which effect in the
value of intertooth forces, including power losses.
Keywords: Power losses Cycloidal gearing
1 Introduction
The cycloidal planetary gear, which is a gear transmission, has many advantages:
• small size,
• high efficiency,
• coaxiality of the input and output shaft,
• the possibility of significant overloading,
• small moments of inertia of its main elements.
Friction, and consequently abrasive wear of the gear transmission components,
affects the efficiency of the drives with a cycloidal gear [1]. The efficiency of the
transmission can be determined by analytical and experimental methods. In [4], two
analytical methods for determining the efficiency of a cycloidal gear are compared. And
the authors of [3, 6] analyze the influence of geometrical and material parameters on
power losses in the transmission, whereas the authors of [5] determine experimentally
the impact of the type of oil on the efficiency with which the transmission works.
One of the factors affecting the efficiency of the transmission are the intertooth
forces. The author of [2] considers the influence of friction on the value of those forces.
However, in [7], the influence of the manufacturing tolerance of the cycloidal gear
transmission elements on the generated gaps and intertooth forces is discussed.
In the abovementioned works, the authors focus on determining the efficiency of
backlash-free gear transmissions and, predominantly, of the epicycloidal gears, are
considered. Therefore, it was decided to determine power losses in the gearing, taking
into account the manufacturing tolerance of the gearbox components. A hypocycloidal

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_7
56 S. Bednarczyk
curve was considered. In addition, the losses, including the geometry of the gearing, the
backlash as well as the intertooth forces, have been described in a uniform manner.
2 Gear Transmission Structure, Rolling Pairs
In planetary gear transmissions, cycloidal curves are successfully used as a gear profile
[10]. A distinction is made between two versions of those transmissions called
cycloidal gears [9]. In both types of the transmissions, the cycloidal gear collaborates
with the rollers making the teeth of the other gear. In one of them, the epicycloidal
curve makes the contour of the external gear, whereas in the other one, the hypocy-
cloidal curve is the outline of the internal gear. The transmission with the hypocy-
cloidal gearing is shown in Fig. 1 [8].
Fig. 1. Cycloidal gear transmission
The cycloidal gears and the rollers form the internal gearing. The cycloidal
transmissions are mainly used in drive systems as reducers. A cycloidal gear trans-
mission is a rolling transmission in which all geometrically connected elements are
moved by rolling motion (Fig. 2). This results in a maximum reduction of losses
caused by friction. Three rolling pairs can be distinguished:
• planetary gear (1) with rollers (2) collaborates with fixed body (6) with the
hypocycloidal profile; rollers (2) rotate around their own axis at speed xr;
• planetary gear (1) collaborate with the central bearing (of the eccentric) (3); the gear
is fixed eccentrically on the input shaft, moving at angular speed xh;
• planetary gear (1) collaborates with sleeve (5), together with pin (4) moving at
speed xt in the hole of the planetary gear.
Determining Power Losses in the Cycloidal Gear Transmission 57
Fig. 2. Rolling pairs of the cycloidal gear transmission
3 Power Losses in the Gearing (Mesh)
Although the analyzed gearbox is a rolling gear transmission, there are power losses in
the above-mentioned rolling pairs due to the friction of the interacting elements.
A significant part of the losses is observed in the mesh. Due to the transmission of the
load through the gearbox, intertooth forces Fi act in the mesh. Therefore, the power loss
in a pair of the planetary gear co-operating with the teeth of the other gear can be
expressed as follows:
NCkrðhipoÞ ¼ NTkr þ NTroðhipoÞ ð1Þ
where: NTk-r – power loss between the centre of the planetary gear and the roller, NTr-o
(hipo) – power loss between the roller and the body with the hypocycloidal gearing.
The power loss of the rolling friction occurring between the roller and the centre of
the planetary gear can be defined as:
NTkr ¼ Fi fkr ðxk þ xr Þ ð2Þ
where: fk-r – coefficient of the rolling friction between the roller and the planetary gear
centre.
The power loss of the rolling friction occurring between the roller and the
hypocycloidal outline of the body is defined as:
NTroðhipoÞ ¼ Fi fro xr ð3Þ
where: fr-o – coefficient of the rolling friction between the roller and the outline of the
hypocycloidal body.
58 S. Bednarczyk
The angular speed of the i-th roller xr fixed in the planetary gear can be determined
using Fig. 2. On its basis, it is possible to define the relationship of the angular velocity
of gear xk with the angular velocity of roller xr:
ð ui 2 g Þ
xr ¼ xk ð4Þ
2g
where: ui – the distance from the contact point of the roller and the toothing to rolling
point C of the planetary gear; ui = AiC.
The relation of the angular velocity of the planetary gear xk and the speed of the
input shaft xh is:
e
xk ¼ xh ¼ xk u ð5Þ
rw1
where: e – eccentricity, rw1 – rolling radius of the planetary gear, u – gear ratio. By
inserting expressions (2), (3) (4), (5) into expression (1) and after their transformation,
the total power lost in the hipocycloidal gearing is determined:
X
n
e ui ui
NCkrðhipoÞ ¼ xh Fi fkr þ fro 1 ð6Þ
rw1 i¼1
2g 2g
3.1 Intertooth Clearance (Backlash)

The dependencies described above relate to an ideal gearbox, made without backlash.
However, its elements are made with some assumed tolerance. Thus, intertooth
clearances are assumed for a gear transmission, even if to allow its assembly. The
determination of the resulting clearance in mesh Di is necessary to determine the actual
Fig. 3. Manufacturing tolerances for the main elements of the transmission

distance ui and the value of intertooth Fi. The manufacturing tolerances of the indi-
vidual elements influencing the creation of intertooth clearance Di are shown in Fig. 3.
Therefore, the following manufacturing tolerances can be distinguished:
• tolerance for the gear outline - Tzh;
• tolerance for the roller - Tr;
• tolerance for the rollers arrangement radius - TRg;
• tolerance for the angular arrangement of the rollers - TuR;
• tolerance for the eccentric - Te.
Based on Fig. 4, the following can be specified:
– distance ui
rw2 yozri
ui ¼ þ wi ð7Þ
cos #
– distance wi
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
wi ¼ ðxzh xozri Þ2 þ ðyozri yzh Þ2 ð8Þ
The real outline of the hypocycloidal gearing, with deviation dzh from the theo-
retical outline can be described in relation to the X02Y system as follows:
cos g k cosðz 1Þg

xzh ¼ q ðz 1Þ cos g þ k q cosðz 1Þg þ ðg þ dzh Þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2
1 2 k cos zg þ k
ð9Þ
sin g þ k cosðz 1Þg

yzh ¼ q ðz 1Þ sin g k q sinðz 1Þg þ ðg þ dzh Þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2
1 2 k cos zg þ k
where: dzh – deviation of the theoretical hypocycloidal outline.

The coordinates of the position of the roller’s centre for both gearings are deter-
mined by the expression:

xozri ¼ Rg þ dRg sinðaki þ daki Þ
ð10Þ
yozri ¼ Rg þ dRg cosðaki þ daki Þ ðe þ de Þ
where: dRg – deviation of the rollers’ placement radius Rg, daki – deviation of angle aki
of the rollers placement, de – deviation of eccentric e.
Intertooth clearance Di (backlash) for both gearings is determined from the
dependence:
Di ¼ wi ðg þ dg Þ ð11Þ
where: dg – deviation of the roller radius

60 S. Bednarczyk
Fig. 4. Defining section ui
The determination of intertooth clearance Di, especially its boundary values, taking
into account all tolerances (Fig. 3), requires the use of probabilistic methods to
determine the distribution function of that clearance. It is also possible to narrow down
the search field for the value of that clearance by selecting transmission elements, e.g. a
roller featuring the same deviation and a drive shaft featuring the same deviation of the
eccentric.
3.2 Intertooth Forces

During the operation of the cycloidal gear transmission, MK torque is generated and it
acts on the planetary gear. This torque generates intertooth forces Fi which occur
between the radius g rollers and the hypocycloidal curve that gets in contact with them.
The distribution of forces is shown in Fig. 5.
The load (torque MK) is transferred by half of the tooth pairs on the active side of
the backlash-free gear transmission. In the case of the gear transmission featuring
intertooth clearances Δi (backlash), the number of collaborating tooth pairs decreases
depending on the size of that clearance. Each intertooth force Fi is a linear displacement
function di proportional to force Fmax, which can be expressed as:
hi di Di
Fi ¼ Fmax ¼ Fmax ð12Þ
hmax dmax
where: hi – rolling radius, hmax – max rolling radius, di – displacement, dmax –maxi-
mum contact displacement.
When di−Δi < 0, it is assumed that the roller does not come into contact with the
outline of the gear collaborating in a given pair of teeth, that is Fi = 0 [N].
Fig. 5. Distribution of intertooth forces Fi
The maximum displacement dmax at the contact of the roller with the cycloidal
outline can be determined using expression (13):

2 ð1 v2 Þ Fmax 0 2 16 jRek gj
dmax ¼ þ ln ð13Þ
EpB 3 c2
where: v – Poisson’s number, E – Young’s modulus, B – width of the planetary gear,

Fmax0 – maximum intertooth force for the backlash-free gear transmission, Rek –
hypocycloid equidistant radius, g – radius of the roller.
Constant c is determined by expression (14):
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
2 ð1 v2 Þ Fmax Rek g
c ¼ 0; 00499 ð14Þ
EB Rek þ g
Torque MK is balanced by a flat arrangement of intertooth forces Fi acting on radii

hi :
X P
ð di D i Þ hi
MK ¼ Fi hi ¼ Fmax ð15Þ
dmax
After transformation of expression (15):
dmax
Fmax ¼ MK P ð16Þ
ðdi Di Þ hi
62 S. Bednarczyk
Forces Fmax and displacements di cannot be derived directly from the equations,
hence, for that purpose, the iterative method ought to be used. The iteration process is
interrupted provided that:
jFmax k þ 1 Fmax k j 0:01 Fmax k ð17ÞÞ
In order to achieve the aim of the paper, a method of determining power losses in a
hypocycloidal gear transmission featuring manufacturing deviations has been pre-
sented, which, among others, includes the definition of tooth clearance Di and the
determination of intertooth forces Fi.
Analyzing expression (6), it can be concluded that the power losses in the gearing
depend on:
• geometrical features of the gearing,
• gear u,
• number of tooth pairs in the mesh (intertooth clearance Di),
• intertooth forces Fi,
• material characteristics (friction coefficients),
• angular speed xh of the drive shaft.
For another thing, the value of intertooth clearance Di and the intertooth forces Fi
are influenced by manufacturing tolerances of the hypocycloidal curve, of the roller, of
the rollers placement radius, and of the eccentric. In addition, intertooth forces Fi
depend on the displacement at the contact points of the rollers with the outline of the
hypocycloid.
Determining power losses in meshing allows to choose executive deviations in such
a way that the losses are as small as possible.
References
1. Gorla C et al (2008) Theoretical and experimental analysis of a cycloidal speed reducer.
J Mech Des (ASME) 130
2. Blagojević M et al (2012) Influence of the friction on the cycloidal speed reducer efficiency.
J Balk Tribological Assoc 18(2):217–227
3. Sensinger J (2010) Unified approach to cycloid drive profile, stress, and efficiency
optimization. J Mech Des (ASME) 132:024503-1024503-05
4. Mackic T et al (2013) Cyclo drive efficiency. In: SERBIATRIB ’13, 13th international
conference on tribology. Kragujevac, Serbia, 15–17 May 2013, pp 230–233
5. Olejarczyk K et al (2017) Experimental impact studies of the application mineral oil and
synthetic oil on the efficiency of the single-gear cycloidal. TRIBOLOGIA 1(2017):67–73
6. Cichocki W (1990) Tarcie i opory ruchu w wybranych parach kinematycznych przekładni
typu CYCLO. Prace Komisji Mechaniki Stosowanej, Mechanika, Nr 14/1990. Wyd. PAN -
Oddział w Krakowie, Krakow 1990:7–23
7. Dudek A, Sendyka B (1986) Siły międzyzębne w przekładni obiegowej z zazębieniem

cykloidalnym. Przegląd Mechaniczny Nr 14:3–6
8. Bednarczyk S (2015) Designing the hypocycloidal gearing in the planetary transmission.
Mach Dyn Res 39(3):5–23
9. Bednarczyk S (2017) Analysis of the possibility of applying Epi- and hypocycloid in
planetary transmissions. Mach Dyn Res 41(1):113–128
10. Stryczek J (1990) Projektieren der Zykloidenverzahnungen hydraulischer Verdranger-
maschinen. Mechanism Mach Theor 25(6):597–610
Structural Analysis of Historical Masonry
Church Construction
Łukasz Bednarz1(&), Artur Górski2(&), Jerzy Jasieńko1,

and Eugeniusz Rusiński2
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,
Plac Grunwaldzki 11, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
lukasz.bednarz@pwr.edu.pl
2
artur.gorski@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The authors present an analysis (comprehensive study of the struc-

tural condition of the structure) of the historical church with a proposal for repair
and monitoring. The paper presents the research in form of structural calcula-
tions. The scope of the presented analysis affect the knowledge of the state of
preservation and helped in making a right decision on further work – according
to structure and conservation of the church. In the paper, authors also proposed
the methodology for strengthening as well as structural health monitoring
(SHM) solutions in this type of historical objects.
Keywords: Masonry Analysis Strengthening FEM SHM
1 Introduction
The reasons for damage to the masonry structure may be the external factors such as
water, temperature or air pollution. Significant damage, under the influence of these
factors, occurs with the expiration of exposure time. The other cause of incorrect
construction operation may be the design and implementation errors, eg the adoption of
too small sections of individual elements or an uneven load system. The main sign of
the improper work of the brick structure is the appearance of cracks and scratches on
the building’s elements (walls, vaults).
The verification of the technical condition of the building, apart from traditional
destructive tests of construction materials, also allows non-destructive or quasi-non-
destructive testing. These studies are particularly applicable to historic buildings, where
it is often impossible to use destructive testing methods due to the cultural value of
decorations and details. Non-destructive or quasi-non-destructive tests allow to esti-
mate the strength parameters of materials, detect the presence of water, and to locate all
types of cracks, delamination, air voids or foreign bodies (invisible reinforcement,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_8
Structural Analysis of Historical Masonry 65
ankylars or even wooden elements). In addition, non-destructive testing includes var-

ious types of measurement and inventory methods offered by modern technology (laser
scanning, digital photogrammetry). Accurate measurements also allow to evaluate,
among others the degree of deformation of the structure and the size of damage. The
whole set of research on the object, in addition to significant knowledge about the
technical condition of the architectural object, is also a set of data necessary to develop
numerical models.
Below, on the example of one of the historic brick churches, a load capacity
analysis procedure is presented and a method for strengthening and monitoring the state
of deformation is also proposed. Based on the general analysis of the object, a 3D
model was developed, which was then subjected to numerical analysis using the finite
element method. The building is characterized by a massive construction, the wall
thickness is (in the aboveground zone) from 0.8 to even 1.5 m. The wall on which the
naves are supported has an average thickness of 1.2 m. Within the presbytery and apse,
the wall is thicker. Changing the wall thickness is probably a consequence of the lack
of side parts of the building at this point (chapels with galleries do not occur within the
apse). Chapels and side galleries are separated by walls perpendicular to the walls
bounding the nave. These walls act as elements that stiffen the structure. The thickness
of the perpendicular walls is about 1.5 m. These walls are elevated above the vaults of
the empors, where they are chamfered in accordance with the shape of the roof. They
completely disappear just above the place of supporting the nave of the nave. These
transverse walls constitute a kind of massive buttresses for the construction of the nave
and take over the struts from the main vault. The location of the buttresses is not
accidental, they occur in the axes of double pilasters and buttresses. The only openings
in the buttresses are passages on the galleries and technical openings at the level of the
attic (above the galleries). The verification of the state of effort and deformation of the
vault structures proved to be the biggest challenge when analyzing the condition of the
supporting structure of the building.
2 Inventory Control of the Structure
Support for the coffered ceiling is the perimeter walls of the nave and presbytery. The
walls are perforated in the form of two-level arcades and reinforced with double
pilasters and buttresses.
The vault, like the whole object, exhibits a slight curvature of the longitudinal axis
visible on the following projections (Figs. 1 and 2).
The improper construction work is also evidenced by the deformations that can be
observed thanks to laser measurements (3D scan).
Within the vault, the deformation of the presbytery’s cross vault was distinguished,
where the central part of the system was reduced. The value of the reduction in relation
to the level at the lowest point may exceed even 10 cm. The potential cause of this
deformation is the settling of the foundations of the apse (analogically to the reason for
the scratches in this place). An additional deformation in this area is the shape
66 Ł. Bednarz et al.
Fig. 1. Ground floor plan and vault plan (intrados view) with cracks.
Fig. 2. North-western elevation and north-east elevation (from the presbytery) with cracks (red
colour) and range of moisture (blue colour)
disturbance of arcs within the arcades at the level of the empora. Here, an analogical
genesis of damage is also predicted. Another noticeable deformation in the object is
deflection of the ground floor. The middle part creates a kind of pan.
3 Structural Analysis
The numerical analysis of the subject of the study was carried out in the Abaqus CAE
Standard program, which allows for calculations using the finite element method. The
analyzed object is made in the masonry technique. The wall is an anisotropic material
consisting of two basic elements: small-sized ceramic elements and the mortar that connects
them. According to [1–4, 6, 7, 10] taking into consideration the available calculation
possibilities and the degree of their complexity, it is impossible to analyze larger objects or
their parts considering the division of material into said components. In connection with the
above, it is assumed that when analyzing larger elements or entire structures, the material
can be treated as isotropic with elastic properties. In order to determine the parameters of the
masonry as an isotropic material, it is necessary to carry out the homogenization process,
which will allow to determine the resultant material parameters based on the parameters of
the components and the relationships between them. The basic parameter necessary to
determine is the substitute Young’s modulus (elasticity, E). The source of obtaining
information about the substitute module can be tests of stiffness of the real wall element and
adjustment of material parameters in this Young module to the analogical numerical section
of the computational model under analogous load conditions and assumption of the
appropriate degree of compliance of test results and computer simulations.
The following are the values of the material parameters implemented to the cal-
culation model.
Young’s modulus (homogenized): E = 5.500 MPa
Poisson coefficient (homogenized): t = 0,167
Bulk weight of the wall: q = 18 kN/m3
In order to analyze the vault, a 3D model of the entire system was created. The
model included the whole vault of the nave with the presbytery and the apse. Also
included are perimeter walls with buttresses and a massive internal cornice and window
openings. The scope of the model was completed at the level (−2.3 m) below the level
of the upper edge of the cornice. The upper edge of the perimeter wall was completed at
the level in accordance with the inventory, at this level also the walls of towers were
completed, which in reality have their continuation above the indicated level. The
model takes into account small simplifications, among others the symmetry of the
system was assumed, when in reality the building shows a slight curvature of the
longitudinal axis (visible on the sections of the building) (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Vaults model and model discretization

After the initial state analysis, it was found that the largest irregularities in the work
of the structure are concentrated within the presbytery. This is evidenced by numerous
cracks and scratches. The arrangement of scratches allows to assume that the cause of
damage is subsidence of a part of the building due to the loss of foundation support
caused by water being washed by the neighboring watercourse. This assumption was
also taken as the basis for the analysis. The use of numerical models allowed to
simulate the state of deformation and effort of the object for various variants of
boundary conditions. It was decided to perform the simulation in several variants of
support. As a starting variant, full support was assumed, around the circumference of
the vault. In subsequent simulations, support was lifted on selected sections (in each
variant taking a different zone without support), Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of simulation results, vault intrados and extrados views

No. Scheme Vault (extrados view) Vault (intrados view)
1
Due to the massiveness of the structural elements of the church and the presence of
transverse walls constituting buttresses for the analyzed vault, high stiffness of the
supports was assumed. Consequently, for the support zone in the lower plane of the
model, the boundary condition corresponding to full restraint was assumed.
The local inspection allows to determine the lack of additional loads within the
vault. In connection with the above, the weight of the vault was assumed to be its own
weight (gravitational acceleration of 9.81 m/s2).
In addition, loads within the top of the perimeter wall were also determined. In the
place of rectangular towers, the load assumed from their upper part, omitted in the
model (load value 450 kN/m2). Within the southern wall, between the towers, a load
was assumed from the higher fragment of this wall, omitted in the model (load value
327 kN/m2). On the remaining area of the perimeter wall, the average load from the
roof structure was assumed: in the vertical direction 1.97 kN/ m2, in the horizontal
direction 1.74 kN/ m2.
The analysis allowed to observe changes in the way the system works depending on
the method of support. Taking into account the hypothesis of the greatest unit defor-
mation adequate for a given material, selected results of computer simulations in the
form of deformation and concentration of stresses were presented. Analyzing the form
of deformation and strain of the entire supporting structure of the analyzed object, it
can be noticed that the greatest stress values are concentrated within the transverse axis
located at the beginning of the support of the perimeter walls. The increase in stresses
within the walls is directed towards nearby window openings. In further variants, a
significant increase in stresses is also noticeable at the top of the perimeter wall -
Table 2.
The closest course of the existing scratches is variant No. 2, in which stresses
concentrate along the transverse axis of the cross vault and have their continuation on
the side walls. This means that the subsidence zone most probably includes the entire
apse along with the first pair of buttresses and reaches to the window lines at the cross
vault. Further enlargement of the subsidence zone deep into the object caused the
transfer of the greatest stresses towards the main nave, which does not coincide with
the existing damage of the object.
Table 2. Maximum and minimum stress value in various variants

Location scheme Max value Min value
Variant 1
1,17E+06 9,19E+02
Variant 2
6,65E+06 7,67E+02
Variant 3
3,21E+07 8,26E+02
4 Strengthening and Structural Health Monitoring
Numerical analysis allowed to confirm the reasons for structural damage assumed at the
beginning. In the object, the cause of damage is the subsidence of the presbytery zone
due to the weakening of the land by the nearby watercourse. In order to strengthen the
object, stiffeners within the entire system should be applied. Three main reinforcement
zones were taken into cosideration: the foundation of the object, the main walls as well
as the arches and ribs of the vault. Within the foundations it was proposed to perform
piling under the entire building, with piles burning within the northern part due to the
established settlement and within the towers and the front façade due to the high own
weight of the walls in this place. As reinforcement of the walls, it was proposed to
make two levels of reinforcement in the form of glued rods placed in the outer face of
the walls. This reinforcement would include the level of the vault base and the floor
level of the gallery. An additional reinforcement in the scope of the walls was the
sewing of larger scratches by gluing rods in the wall joints. Strengthening the arches
and ribs of the vault was adopted in the form of composite meshes embedded in the
mineral mortar, [2–6, 8, 9]. Two layers of meshes with different layouts can cover both
the dorsal surface and the roof of the vault (excluding the decorative areas). Deter-
mining the possibility of monitoring the object’s state, due to the deformations and
displacements of structural elements, the most appropriate was the conduct of cyclical
geometry measurements, both outside and inside the object [5], combined with tradi-
tional methods of measuring the differences between cracks, deformations, etc.
The analyzed church is a historical object of great historical and aesthetic value.
Unfortunately, according to the analysis, there are large irregularities in its structure
that threaten further safe use. The presbytery seems to “detach” from the rest of the
church due to the weakening of the ground under the foundations. The implemented
solutions are designed to stop the progress of deformation by stopping the process of
settling foundations. In addition, wall reinforcements are to counteract the tensile forces
present in it and restore the state of stress close to the original (before the appearance of
damage). Strengthening of the vault surface is aimed at stabilizing the structure in
places of cracks and deformations (mainly cross vaults) and preventing further damage.
The proposed method of reinforcement in connection with the monitoring of dis-
placements and stresses in the critical nodes of the structure, will allow to restore the
stability of the structure in the tested facility and ensure the safety of use.
References
1. Bathe KJ (1996) Finite element procedures. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
2. Bednarz Ł (2003) Metody wzmacniania zabytkowych, zakrzywionych konstrukcji
ceglanych. Wiadomości Konserwatorskie (Journal of Heritage Conservation). 2003:14
3. Bednarz Ł (2008) Praca statyczna zabytkowych, zakrzywionych konstrukcji ceglanych
poddanych zabiegom naprawy i wzmacniania. Wrocław: Politechnika Wrocławska, 2008.
praca doktorska
4. Bednarz ŁJ, Górski A, Jasieńko J, Rusiński E (2011) Simulations and analyses of arched
brick structures. Autom Constr 20(7):741–754
5. Bednarz ŁJ, Jasieńko J, Nowak TP (2015) Test monitoring of the Centennial Hall’s dome.
In: Wrocław (Poland), SPIE conference, optics for arts, architecture, and archaeology,
Munich, Germany
6. Bednarz ŁJ, Jasieńko J, Rutkowski M, Nowak T (2014) Strengthening and long-term
monitoring of the structure of an historical church presbytery. Eng Struct 81:62–75
7. Faires JD, Burden Richard L (2012) Numerical methods. Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc; 4th
edition (20 April 2012)
8. Jasieńko J, Bednarz Ł (2009) Innowacyjne technologie wzmacniania historycznych łuków i

sklepień ceglanych. Materiały Budowlane, 2 (438)
9. Jasieńko J, Nowak T, Mroczek P, Bednarz ŁJ (2010) Construction conservation using new
technologies on the example of St. Anna’s Church in Ząbkowice Śląskie. Wiadomości
Konserwatorskie (Journal of Heritage Conservation) 28:18–30
10. Oñate E (2009) Structural analysis with the finite element method. Linear Statics. Volume 1.
Basis and Solids. ISBN: 978-1-4020-8732-5. First edition, March 2009. Springer/CIMNE
Use of Artificial Neural Networks
for the Estimated Prediction of Haul Trucks
Operating States
Przemysław Bodziony1(&), Rafał Kudelski2, Michał Patyk1,

and Zbigniew Kasztelewicz1
1
Department of Surface Mining, AGH University of Science and Technology,
Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
{przembo,mpatyk,kasztel}@agh.edu.pl
2
Department of Manufacturing Systems, AGH University of Science and
Technology, Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
kudelski@agh.edu.pl
Abstract. The paper presents basic information on the prognosis of technical

condition estimation by a neural network algorithm. Mining transport systems
based on the use of haul trucks should result from a thorough analysis of
technical and operating issues - which can have a crucial impact on the cost of
minerals extraction. This selection should consider hitherto disregarded criteria,
such as technical infallibility, operating parameters like mean failure intensity
and fault modes, and the effect analysis based on the information from the past
and from the current state etc. The selected forecasting method by the prediction
using neural networking has been described. Neural networks can be used for
prediction with various levels of success. Considering the above issues, the
paper is an attempt to analyse operating parameters and to show the result of
prediction using a neural network of backpropagation type on a fleet of haul
trucks used to transport minerals in the surface mining.
Keywords: Surface mining Haul truck Fault modes and effect analysis
Neural network Operating states
1 Introduction
The future technical state of machines is strictly related to the current state and depends
also on the events that already occurred in the operational system. The analysis of those
parameters can allow to make earlier decisions on the process of use and maintenance,
and hence - the main operational processes of a mine. The specification and analysis of
operational parameters of technological vehicles used in the surface mining is possible
due to more and more advanced diagnostic - telemetric systems. Determination of
operational state parameters and their individual components allows to start preventive
actions, resulting in the improvement to the organisation of work of the entire mine
machinery system. Because of an appropriate amount of data it seems possible to
model the prediction of machines technical states. To find the best form of the esti-
mation model for the failure intensity of a haul trucks fleet, it is necessary to assess the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_9
Use of Artificial Neural Networks for the Estimated Prediction 73
impact of input and output parameters form on the model accuracy. The paper presents
results of such modelling search. In the considered case a model using artificial neural
networks as a tool seems appropriate. They create a possibility to estimate the future
failure intensity of a haul trucks fleet based on the technical state components
depending on the operation.
The paper presents the estimation method for the failure intensity of a haul trucks
fleet. Artificial neural networks were used in the research.
2 Parametrisation of Haul Trucks Technical States
Assuming that the technical state assessment affects the making of operational deci-
sions, to carry out analyses it is necessary to determine characteristics, for each anal-
ysed vehicle and cumulative for the entire haul trucks. Characteristics (conditioning
parameters) belonging to individual states can have a specified (one or more) range of
values, which in practice allows to distinguish classes of technical and operational
states related to the aspect of a technical object use.
So a set of technical states SKU distinguished for the decision making purposes in
the process of use will contain [4]:
SKU ¼ fSz ; Szw1 ; . . .; Szwl ; Snz g ð1Þ
where:
Sz – total up state,
Szw1, … Szwl - conditional up states,
Snz – fault state.
The distinguished classes of technical states can be related to decisions in the
process of haul trucks use. Technological vehicles as objects of operational analyses
feature certain operational properties allowing to determine dependability characteris-
tics of the entire vehicle. They can allow using the vehicle without limitations or with
limitations with respect to the fulfilled functions or other conditions of use or indicate
the necessity of maintenance. Three technical states are distinguished for haul trucks:
the first two (total up state and conditional up state) qualify the machine for use and the
third (fault state) results in qualifying the machine to the maintenance state. However,
because of the difficulty to classify to the conditional up state, the performed analyses
were limited to the occurrence of two states: up state and fault state, expressed by the
function of failure intensity [2, 4].
The failure intensity can be estimated on the basis of statistical studies as the
parameter describing an empirical number of haul trucks exclusions (failure intensity)
from the transport system use due to a failure. This parameter allows to determine a
mean number of maintenance requests for each vehicle to the restoration system,
neglecting the restoration time. The mean failure intensity was determined as the mean
value of exclusions number for the analysed haul trucks population, falling to the entire
range of analysed operation time acc. to relationship (2). This parameter’s value is
74 P. Bodziony et al.
expressed as [failure/mth]. In this case the failure intensity is defined as the ratio of the
objects number Dni, which failed in the considered period of time Dti to the product:
period Dti length and the number (N – ni) of objects fit to use at the beginning of the i-th
period Dti, i.e. [1, 2]:
Dni
ki ¼ ½failure=mth ð2Þ
ðN ni ÞDti
where:
Dni - number of registered failures in the i-th period of operation (number of analysed
objects, machines),
N – sample size (number of analysed machines),
ni – number of objects, machines fit to use at the beginning of the i-th period
Dti – total length of vehicle operation period (mth), in which the analysis was carried
out.
Moreover, the damaged vehicles during the observation are not replaced with fit to
use ones. The failure intensity estimation is the more accurate, the larger is the sample
size N and the shorter are the time periods Dti (if the failure intensity is constant, the
length of Dti period does not affect the estimation accuracy). Moreover, the requirement
related to the objects uniformity in the sample and those objects operational conditions
uniformity (each object in the sample should operate exactly under the same condi-
tions) must be met [1–3].
A specification of failure intensity and the analyses performed for a fleet of eight
haul trucks of the same type used by a limestone quarry in Poland are presented below.
To determine the mean failure intensity the studies were carried out for a group of haul
trucks (N1, N2, and N3). Group N1 comprised two haul trucks with average operation
equal to 8700 mth, group N2 consisted of three haul trucks with average operation of
16985 mth, and three haul trucks with average operation of 35944 mth were group N3.
For all analysed vehicles the course of failure intensity was determined (acc. to rela-
tionship 2), based on the maintenance requests to the restoration system. Those
requests, comprising both major failures and also defects indicated by the self-
diagnostic system, were treated equally, because they resulted in the necessity to
exclude haul trucks from the technological operations. All maintenance requests were
registered in an especially prepared spreadsheet comprising a precise time of the failure
occurrence (request), for a specific value of the operation time (in mth), for each haul
truck on an individual basis. The period of mean failure intensity observation com-
prised 8.941, 8.890, and 6.989 mth for groups N1, N2, and N3, respectively. All the
analysed haul trucks were used under similar operating conditions and the haul trucks
in individual groups (N1, N2, and N3) had a similar operation time and technical
condition (were fully fit to use).
Based on the results of studies, for the analysed haul trucks from group N1, N2, and
N3, a detailed histogram of failure intensity was prepared (Fig. 1).
N3
N3
N3
N2
N2
N2
N1
N1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
Operation time [kmth]
Fig. 1. Detailed histogram of mean failure intensity for analysed haul trucks from groups N1,
N2, and N3
Then, for the analysed haul trucks from groups N1, N2, and N3, a cumulative
histogram of failure intensity was prepared (Fig. 2). The prediction of failure intensity
for haul trucks from groups N1 and N2 was the main modelling objective.
Fig. 2. Cumulative histogram of mean failure intensity
The prediction of failures for group N1 and N2 vehicles, within the range of 13-25
kmth, in which the failure intensity was estimated, was made by means of an artificial
neural network (ANN). The use of this tool for forecasting has the advantage, that it
enables permanent enlargement of the training set with an increment in the measure-
ment data, which results in higher predictive accuracy. The Matlab software with the
nftool addition (Neural Network Fitting Tool) was used for the neural network mod-
elling and for calculations. By means of this software a unidirectional two-layer net-
work was modelled, with one hidden layer, comprising 10 neurons, and one output
layer with structure presented in Fig. 3.
The neurons in the hidden layer are activated via a sigmoidal function, while in the
output layer via a linear function. The network training is performed with the appli-
cation of Lavenberg-Marquardt algorithm for backward error propagation. The network
has two inputs, representing the total time of a haul truck (fit to use) effective operation
and the number of failures and one output representing the number of haul truck
Fig. 3. The structure of neural network applied to predict failures of haul trucks.
operated motor-hours. In the modelling of failures estimation the neural network used
90% of data available for the training process.
Then a cumulative failure intensity histogram was prepared (Fig. 4) for all analysed
groups (N1, N2, and N3) and for the estimated failure prediction range for groups N1
and N2, marked in red. The analysis of failures estimation for groups N1 and N2,
obtained by means of a model with the application of a neural network, was carried out
up to the operation of 35 kmth based on the data from group N3.
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Group N1, N2, N3 Estimated mth
Fig. 4. Cumulative failure intensities histogram for groups N1, N2, and N3 and for the estimated
failure prediction range for groups N1 and N2.
Figure 5 below presents individual colour graphs for failure intensity prediction for
the analysed haul trucks from groups N1 and N2.
For the cumulative histogram of failure intensities a graph of failure intensity
function k(t) was prepared and the Weibull probability distribution densities were
assumed. When designing the Weibull distribution an assumption was made that the
probability of an event in a short time Dt is approximately equal to kiDt, i.e. an average
number of events per a time unit changes over time and depends on the observation
interval number.
80
70
60
50
failure
40
30
20
10
mth
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Fig. 5. Graphs of estimated failure intensities for haul trucks from groups N1 and N2
In the graph of mean failure intensity for the cumulated group (Fig. 6) it is possible
to see an initial haul trucks operation period (0–10 kmth), where an increase in the
failure intensity is observed, declining then over time. This effect is explained by the
fact that in the initial period of operation various manufacturing defects, assembling
defects etc. are the main reason for failures. In the next period of vehicles usage (10–
25 kmth) the failure intensity is much smaller due to both earlier elimination of defects
and faults as well as vehicles running-in, and also to appropriate operation quality. The
third period corresponds to a natural trend of losing technical fitness by ageing
vehicles.
mean failure rate

Mean failure intensity
0.00004 0.03
0.000035
0.025
0.00003
0.02
0.000025
0.00002 0.015
0.000015
0.01
0.00001
0.005
0.000005
0 0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Weibul probability density mean failure rate mth
Fig. 6. Mean failure intensity graph for the cumulated group, for the total observation time of
34,500 mth
In addition, a graph of cumulated failure intensity for groups (N1, N2) was pre-
pared, for the estimated failure prediction within the 10–25 kmth range based on the
data from the model using the neural network. It is possible to observe there, that after
the approximation of function k(t) course, the period of normal usage, during which
mainly faults caused by random factors occur, which cannot be identified in advance
(Fig. 7).
Mean failure intensity

mean failure rate
0.00006 0.009
0.008
0.00005
0.007
0.00004 0.006
0.005
0.00003
0.004
0.00002 0.003
0.002
0.00001
0.001
0 0
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
mth
Weibul probability density normal distribution mean failure rate
Fig. 7. Mean failure intensity graph for the cumulated group, for the total observation time of
34,500 mth
The carried out analyses show, how the failure intensity changes with the
increasing operation time of vehicles. Because of such analyses it is possible to
determine the operational potential of machines, understood as the capability to per-
form the operational tasks. The above operational characteristics can provide the basis
for the method of planned inspections performance and for their frequency.
A set of parameter values of individual state characteristics, which allow to thoroughly

characterise the haul trucks technical state, is a direct effect of a telemetric - diagnostic
system operation. At the assessment of operational indices based on telemetric analyses
it is necessary to classify the observable state, using previously developed and adopted
criteria. Determination of a distinguishable state is a necessary condition to make
decisions on further operational actions - use or maintenance. The assessment of haul
trucks dependability should be based on analyses of parameters such as the mean
failure intensity.
The use of a tool, being the artificial neural networks, contrary to traditional
methods, allows a relatively uncomplicated and quick modelling without the need to
build a formal model, having available only vectors of input and output data. However,
it is necessary that the data reflect proper relationships existing in the studied system of
operation. Therefore proper data acquisition is very important and their processing in
such a way as to preserve appropriate correlations existing between the input and
output data. The results obtained in the analysis allow to state that appropriate data
preparation and processing as well as the selection of data shape allow to use artificial
networks as a tool for modelling the failure intensity of a haul trucks fleet. The main
problems in the study consisted in a limited amount of training data.
Acknowledgment. The paper was prepared within the statutory work No 11.11.100.597 carried
out at the Faculty of Mining and Geoengineering.
References
1. Będkowski L, Dąbrowski T (2006) Podstawy eksploatacji cz. II. Podstawy niezawodności
eksploatacyjnej, WAT, Warszawa
2. Bodziony P, Kasztelewicz Z, Sawicki P (2016) The problem of multiple criteria selection of
the surface mining haul trucks. Arch Min Sci 61(2):223–243
3. Gulati R, Smith R (2009) Maintenance and reliability best practices. [Electronic] New York:
Industrial Press
4. Sowa A (2013) Ocena stanu technicznego pojazdów szynowych na podstawie cech
zdeterminowanych Seria Mechanika Monografia 430. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Krakows-
kiej, Kraków
Fatigue Life Calculation with the Use
of the Energy Parameter for the Elastic
Material State in the Spectral Method
Michał Böhm(&) and Tadeusz Łagoda
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Opole University of Technology,

Mikołajczyka 5, 45-271 Opole, Poland
{m.bohm,t.lagoda}@po.opole.pl
Abstract. The problem with the use of the energy parameter lying in its
indirect definition in frequency domain is discussed. Modification of the fatigue
life assessment method defined in the frequency domain with the use of the
energy parameter (stress-strain relation) is presented. The modification is based
on the direct use of power spectral densities (PSD) of stress and strain in the
process of the estimation of the stress-strain relation. The PSD’s are used to
calculate individual probability density functions (PDF) with the use of the
Benasciutti-Tovo model. The obtained probability densities are used to create a
joint probability distribution that for the elastic state of material is basically a
one dimensional degenerated PDF. The authors explain the process of trans-
formation and normalization of the obtained PDF and compare the obtained
PDF to other forms of PDF calculation. The results of calculations are compared
to experimental results and presented in fatigue life comparison graphs and are
discussed.
Keywords: Spectral method Fatigue life Energy parameter

Frequency domain
1 Introduction
Fatigue life estimation methods vary in many ways, but the basic differences lie in the
domain of the chosen method [3, 4, 6]. They gain importance if we are dealing with
random loading conditions or vibrations [15]. The methods are defined either in the
time domain (cycle counting methods) or in the frequency domain (spectral methods)
[18]. The objective of the paper is the presentation of a new calculation procedure of
fatigue life with the use of the energy parameter in the frequency domain. The fatigue
calculations in frequency domain are called spectral methods, because they use
parameters such as the power spectral density (PSD) and other relationships dependent
from this value. The energy parameter is an indirect method to describe the relationship
between stress and strain [11, 13]. Sometimes the only information we obtain for
calculation is defined as a PSD or a probability density function (PDF) of stress
amplitudes, which is not the case with energy parameter (stress-strain parameter).
Because first, we have to calculate the energy parameter in the time domain to obtain an
energy parameter history. The derived energy parameter history is then used to
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_10
Fatigue Life Calculation with the Use of the Energy Parameter 81
calculate the power spectral density as used by Banvilett et al. [1]. The calculation
procedure presented in this paper omits this step, which allows us to calculate the
fatigue life with the use of separate power spectral densities coming directly from stress
and strain.
2 Frequency Domain Calculations
The energy parameter describes the relationship between stress and strain and is often
presented as a product of their multiplication in different material states. The energy
parameter course can be described in the form of a simple formula with the use of the
signum function:
1 sgn½eðtÞ þ sgn½rðtÞ
WðtÞ ¼ rðtÞ eðtÞ ; ð1Þ
2 2
where: r(t)-stress course, e(t)- strain course.
The energy parameter amplitude can be described as presented below if the
amplitudes are the maximum values of the stress and strain:
Wa ¼ 0:5 ra ea ; ð2Þ
where: ra - stress amplitude, ea - strain amplitude.

The fatigue limit can be calculated with the use of the formula (for the elastic state):
r2af
Waf ¼ ; ð3Þ
2E
where: raf - fatigue limit in fully reversed tension-compression, E-Young modulus of
the material.
Power spectral density (PSD) is the main source of information for any frequency
domain defined calculation method. It is used mainly to define the spectral moments,
which are referring to such information as the variance etc. [8]. There are many
methods which allow us to calculate the PSD. We can divide them into two main
groups based on parametric and non-parametric methods [22]. The simplest method
uses the fast Fourier transformation (FFT) to obtain the PSD information. But as stated
by Bendat and Piersol [5] the PSD of a random signal describes its overall frequency
characteristic with the use of the spectral density of the squared mean value of the
analyzed signal. This value can be set for the interval [ f, f + Δf] for a specified nar-
rowband filter:
ZT
1
Wx ðf ; Df Þ ¼ lim x2 ðt; f ;Df Þdt; ð4Þ
T!1 T
0
where: Wx – mean square value of the signal x(t), T – observation time, x(t, f, Δf) –
component of the function x(t) in the frequency interval from f to f + Δf.
82 M. Böhm and T. Łagoda
For small values of Δf the formula describes a one-sided power spectral density:
2 3
ZT
Wx ð f ; Df Þ 1 4 1
Gx ðf Þ ¼ lim ¼ lim lim x2 ðt; f ;Df Þdt5: ð5Þ
Df !0 Df Df !0 Df T!1 T
0
Probability density function (PDF) defines the relative likelihood that the values of
a random variable, let it be a stress amplitude would be equal to the analyzed sample. In
this case the sample is defined as a PSD. There are many PDF models described in the
literature, most of them use the first few spectral moments like the Rayleigh model
[19]:

ra r2a
pðra Þ ¼ exp ; ð6Þ
n0 2 n0
Where: ra – stress amplitude, n0 - zero order spectral moment equal to the variance
obtained from PSD of transformed stresses according to the following equations
Z1
nk ¼ Gx ðf Þ f k df ð7Þ
0
for k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
For more sophisticated models we can choose the Dirlik model [10, 19, 20] or the
well-known Benasciutti-Tovo model [2], but not all, contrary to this one are suited for
fatigue life calculations:
2 2 2
c ra ra c ra ra c n0
pðra Þ ¼ b exp þ ð 1 bÞ 2 exp ; ð8Þ
n0 2 c n0 2
where: b - weight function dependent from the PSD,

The joint probability density of a bivariate Gaussian process can be written as [22]:

1 1 1
pðx; yÞ ¼ 1=2 exp ðt lt ÞT S1 ðt lt Þ ; ð9Þ
2p jSj 2
where: li - mean value of a process (first central moment),

The basic formula that is used to test the correlation between two variables is called
the correlation coefficient, which can be written:
rxy
qxy ¼ ; ð10Þ
rx ry
where: rx- standard deviation of process x, ry - standard deviation of process y, rxy-

covariance between x and y.
There are two main interesting cases in which qxy = 0 or qxy = 1. For the first case
it means that, variables are completely independent from each other and are uncorre-
lated, beside that their joint probability density can be calculated as:
pðx; yÞ ¼ pðxÞ pðyÞ; ð11Þ
where: p(x)- is the PDF of variable x, and p(y)- is the PDF of variable y.
For the second case the variables are completely correlated, which means that the
variables x and y are linearly dependent. Therefore if qxy = 1 then y = ax (where ‘a’ -is
a constant). In this case the two dimensional PDF will degenerate into a one dimen-
sional. The elastic state of material in which the calculations are performed in the
frequency domain sets a linear relationship between stress and strain (r = eE) [17]. For
the calculated formulas presented in this paragraph, we clearly confirm the assumption
by obtaining the correlation coefficient with the value of qxy = 1. That means that stress
and strain will have an identical rescaled PDF, and the joint probability density
function degenerates into a one dimensional PDF. For this purpose we can us the Eq. 2
which will allow us to construct a constitutive relation:
pðWa Þ ¼ 0:5 pðra Þ pðea Þ; ð12Þ
Due to the linear relationship between those densities we can also write a simplified
version of this formula:
½ pðra Þ2
pðWa Þ ¼ ; ð13Þ
2E
The densities have to be transformed and tied to each other in order not to lose their
placement and not to completely degenerate the shape of the density [14, 22]. A similar
PDF transformation but with different approach has been presented in the paper by
Niesłony and Böhm [18]. The resulting degenerated probability density can’t be used
directly in the obtained form. That’s why we have to perform a normalization of the
PDF. That means that the transformed normalized density can be calculated with the
use of the formula:
pðWa Þ
pN ðWa Þ ¼ : ð14Þ
R a
maxW
pðWa ÞdWa
minWa
For the case of fatigue calculations with the energy parameter stress and strain
amplitudes are defined on the basis of variance of their PSD, which is the first spectral
moment. This enables us the direct calculation of fatigue life with the use of the formula:
1
Tcal ¼ : ð15Þ
R1 pN ðWa Þ
Mþ Waf m0 dWa
0 N0 Wa
The material used for the verification of the procedure is the 10HNAP steel, that has
been tested by Lachowicz et al. [12] and then verified by Banvilet et al. [1]. Sam-
ple PSD of the energy parameter defined while using the classical procedure is pre-
sented in Fig. 1.
-4
x 10
3.5
2.5
, (MJ/m3)2/Hz
1.5
W(f)
G
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
f, Hz
Fig. 1. PSD of energy parameter history
The only problem with those signals lies in the fact that they are not Gaussian. To
overcome this problem we could choose for example the procedure presented by
Bracessi et al. [7] and later verified by Niesłony et al. [20]. The obtained shape of the
transformed density has been compared with: the degenerated shape; the shape
obtained with the use of the time domain defined PSD; rainflow amplitude distribution
generated for the signal [13]. The comparison is presented in Fig. 2. The calculation of
fatigue life has been performed with the use of the formula for stress and stress-strain
(Eq. 15). The authors have performed a comparison of experimental and calculation
results. The results of comparison have been presented in Fig. 3 with a scatter band
factor of 3. To calculate individual scatter error for each used method the authors use
the root mean square formula defined by Walat and Łagoda [23]:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
uP
un
u log2 TTexp i
ti¼1 cali
ERMS ¼ ; ð16Þ
n
where Texp and Tcal are the experimental and calculated fatigue life.
Benasciutti-Tovo degenerated
70 Benasciutti-Tovo transformed
Benasciutti-Tovo time domain
rainflow
60
50
p(Wa ), (MJ/m3 )-1
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
3
Wa , MJ/m
Fig. 2. Comparison of the shape of obtained PDF with the rainflow amplitude distribution.
6
10
stress TS
stress-strain TE
5
10
,s
cal
T
4
10
3
3
3
10
3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10
Texp , s
Fig. 3. Comparison of experimental and calculation results for fatigue life, calculated with stress
TS and stress-strain TE in the frequency domain.
Finally we obtain the mean deviation from the expected time to failure value with
the use of the formula:
TRMS ¼ 10ERMS : ð17Þ
3 Observations and Conclusions
Frequency domain fatigue life estimation methods have a constant growth potential due
to the fact that they are faster in comparison to classical time domain methods and due
to the fact that they can be implemented to vibration fatigue related problems which are
currently a major issue for the industry. The presented method is the first step to use the
energy parameter directly in the frequency domain. After analyzing the obtained results
we can formulate some observations and conclusions:
• It is possible to use a degenerated joint probability density to calculate a trans-
formed probability density function of the energy parameter.
• The degenerated joint probability density has to be properly transformed and nor-
malized to be used with the spectral method.
• A comparison of experimental and calculation results shows that the energy method
(stress-strain) gives better results within the scatter factor 3.
• For the case of individual root mean square calculation of scatter for the analyzed
methods: the energy parameter gives better results of scatter error which is 1.64 in
comparison to the stress method which gives 2.32.
• In the presented simplified form the relations can be applied in engineering practice
related to fatigue assessment of large constructions within the elastic state of
material.
References
1. Banvillet A, Łagoda T, Macha E, Niesłony A, Palin-Luc T, Vittori J-F (2004) Fatigue life
under non-Gaussian random loading from various models. Int J Fatigue 26:349–363
2. Benasciutti D, Tovo R (2005) Spectral methods for lifetime prediction under wide-band
stationary random processes. Int J Fatigue 27:867–877
3. Benasciutti D, Tovo R (2006) Comparison of spectral methods for fatigue analysis of broad-
band Gaussian random processes. Probabilistic Eng Mech 21:287–299
4. Benasciutti D, Tovo R (2010) On fatigue cycle distribution in non-stationary switching
loadings with Markov chain structure. Probabilistic Eng Mech 25:406–418
5. Bendat JS (2010) Random data: analysis and measurement procedures, 4th edn. Wiley,
Hoboken, NJ
6. Böhm M, Niesłony A (2015) Strain-based multiaxial fatigue life evaluation using spectral
method. Procedia Eng 101:52–60
7. Braccesi C, Cianetti F, Lori G, Pioli D (2009) The frequency domain approach in virtual
fatigue estimation of non-linear systems: the problem of non-Gaussian states of stress. Int J
Fatigue 31:766–775
8. Braccesi C, Cianetti F, Tomassini L (2017) Fast evaluation of stress state spectral moments.
Int J Mech Sci 127:4–9
9. Capponi L, Česnik M, Slavič J, Cianetti F, Boltežar M (2017) Non-stationarity index in
vibration fatigue: theoretical and experimental research. Int J Fatigue 104:221–230
10. Dirlik T (1985) Application of computers in fatigue analysis, Ph.d., University of Warwick
11. Kluger K, Łagoda T (2014) New energy model for fatigue life determination under
multiaxial loading with different mean values. Int J Fatigue 66:229–245
12. Lachowicz C, Łagoda T, Macha E (1995) Fatigue life of the machine elements of 10HNAP
steel under uniaxial random loading. Engn. Mach. Prob. 5:139–170
13. Łagoda T (2001) Energy models for fatigue life estimation under uniaxial random loading.
Part I: Model Elaboration Int J Fatigue 23:467–480
14. Martinez WL, Martinez AR, Solka J (2017) Exploratory data analysis with MATLAB, Third
Edition, CRC Press
15. Mršnik M, Slavič J, Boltežar M (2018) Vibration fatigue using modal decomposition. Mech
Syst Signal Process 98:548–556
16. Niesłony A (2009) Determination of fragments of multiaxial service loading strongly
influencing the fatigue of machine components. Mech Syst Signal Process 23:2712–2721
17. Nieslony A, Böhm M (2012) Application of spectral method in fatigue life assessment -
determination of crack initiation. J Theor Appl Mech 50:819–829
18. Niesłony A, Böhm M (2015) Mean stress effect correction in frequency-domain methods for
fatigue life assessment. Procedia Eng 101:347–354
19. Nieslony A, Böhm M (2016) Frequency-domain fatigue life estimation with mean stress
correction. Int J Fatigue 91:373–381
20. Niesłony A, Böhm M, Łagoda T, Cianetti F (2016) The use of spectral method for fatigue
life assessment for non-gaussian random loads, Acta Mechanica et Automatica 10
21. Palmieri M, Česnik M, Slavič J, Cianetti F, Boltežar M (2017) Non-Gaussianity and non-
stationarity in vibration fatigue. Int J Fatigue 97:9–19
22. Shin K, Hammond JK (2008) Fundamentals of signal processing for sound and vibration
engineers. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, England; Hoboken, NJ
23. Walat K, Łagoda T (2014) Lifetime of semi-ductile materials through the critical plane
approach. Int J Fatigue 67:73–77
Numerical and Experimental Investigation
of Bolted Connections with Blind Rivet Nuts
Cezary Borowiecki1,2(&), Artur Iluk2, Paweł Krysiński1,

Eugeniusz Rusiński2, and Marek Sawicki2
1
Rawicka Fabryka Wyposażenia Wagonów RFWW RAWAG Sp. z o.o. ul.,
Tysiaclecia 5, 63-900 Rawicz, Poland
cezary.borowiecki@pwr.edu.pl
2
Abstract. In the article authors presented numerical and experimental inves-

tigation of bolted connections with blind rivet nuts. Classification of screw
connections and the associated validation process are described. The influence
of the strength of connected elements on the strength of connection is discussed.
Authors present also tests results and mode of failure of rivet nut connection.
Results are significantly lower than values declared by manufacturer of a blind
rivet nuts.
Keywords: Blind rivet nut Bolted connection Testing method
1 Introduction
Bolted connection is commonly used in most of structures. Wide range of advantages

convinced designers to entrust major role in carrying structures. For calculation
bolt/screw connection multiple analytic approaches is established. From the other hand
authors present a few approaches to model and simulate bolt connections in Finite
Element Method software environment. Furthermore authors shows threats which
might occur in construction when some modifications are present. In this case standard
nuts with washers were replaced by rivet nuts. The aim of this paper is to underline the
major issue which reveals in bolted connections in train equipment structure.
In this article authors focused on bolted connection of a driver cabin door leaf frame
with a hinge. This connection is consists of a screw with countersunk head and a blind
rivet nut installed in a frame. In this case standard analytical calculations of bolt
connections based on VDI2230 may be insufficient and detailed FEA or real tests are
recommended.
2 Overview of Structure
All railway vehicles designed for European market are classified in categories based on
structural requirements of the vehicle bodies. The doors mentioned in this article are
dedicated to light duty metro vehicles, category P-IV in reference to PN-EN 12663-1

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_11
Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Bolted Connections 89
standard [1]. This standard determines also load cases for vehicle body and equipment
attachments like cab doors, for example. In this case static and fatigue load cases were
required. The door leaf shall be loaded by longitudinal, transverse and vertical accel-
erations. Forces occurring in the structure can determine by FEM calculations.
Since the DIN 25201 [2] standard is obligatorily required by end-users bolted
connections in vehicle structures must be classified. Based on DIN 25201 part 1 three
categories divide bolted connections into risk classes, depending on the importance of
the screw connection. Starting with the least important, design engineer describes
connection as G class, M class or H class. Classes are defined as follows: G class, form
German Gering, means low class of risk and it is assigned to the screw connection,
which if it fails leads only to loss of comfort for the passengers and/or operator staff, M
class, form German Mittel, means medium class of risk and it is assigned to the screw
connection, which if it fails leads to a malfunction of the vehicle, and H class, form
German Hoch, means high class of risk and it is assigned to the screw connection,
which if it fails there is direct or indirect danger for life and health. For M and H classes
screw calculations are mandatory.
The door leaf frame is made out of aluminum alloy EN AW 6060T6 extruded
profiles with welded corners made out of aluminum EN AW 5457 H111. The hinge
mechanism is made of the S355 steel. A few additional parts, such as spacer between
frame and hinge mechanism are made of the 1.4301 stainless steel. The hinge to frame
connection is consists of four M8 screws with countersunk head and blind rivet nuts
installed in a frame. The connection has been classified as the M class of risk.
Focus of this paper is region marked by circle at Fig. 1. Elements such as window,
lock mechanism or plastic cover shells are not considered in this paper and its influence
is neglected. It should be noted that in the simulations mass of entire structure was
taken into account [4].
Fig. 1. The general geometry of the door: inner door surface, isometric view and outer surface
90 C. Borowiecki et al.
In the Fig. 2 detail view of considered geometry is shown. Parts has been num-
bered: 1. Hinge mechanism, 2. Door leaf frame, 3. Bolt, 4. Blind rivet nut, 5. Additional
parts for positioning the door into a car body.
5 1
4
3
Fig. 2. Detail view of considered geometry
3 Finite Element Method Calculations
All FEM simulations were performed in Abaqus 6.13 [5]. Static general procedure was
used without stabilization of contact definition and without taking into account the
geometrical non-linearity. The linear elastic material model was used for all materials.
Authors do not considered plastic deformations of structure.
The main goal of the FEA is to determine if the structure is safe in general.
However, for bolted joint validation internal screw forces needs to be calculated for
used as an input data for validation process.
There are several types of screw connection modeling methods. Depending on
chosen method different values of internal forces can be shown as a result of calcu-
lations. In the Table 1 three approaches for simulation of bolted connections are given
with respective names of models. All calculations was performed for full structure. For
calculation most of part, including all in range of interest this paper, are represented by
solid finite elements. The boundary conditions are applied in lock mechanism points
and in non-movable hinge parts [6].
The approaches which are showed in Sect. 3 vary significantly, but in regions at
some distance from the connection, the results are similar. It means, that the simplest
approach (M1) might be used for examine the structure with assumption that bolt set is
properly designed. It reduces the computation time and complexity of model.
Table 1. Differences between used FEM models

Model Surface Normal Tangential Bolt element Bolt
name interaction behavior behavior pretension
M1 *TIE RIGID RIGID None None
M2 *CONTACT Hard Frictionless RIGID None
contact BEAM
M3 *CONTACT Hard l = 0.2 Elastic Nominal
contact BEAM
Based on FEM [7] results, it is possible to obtain the worst case scenario for bolted
connection, when it is assumed no bolt pretension and frictionless contact. Under such
assumptions, the highest possible bolt forces are calculated (M2 model) and used as a
input data for screw connection validation process.
The M3model is the most advanced and contains a bolt pretension and contact with
friction. It allows to check slipping and opening of the connection. However, the stress
in the connection area may locally exceed permissible values for nominal parameters of
bolt connection, such as support diameter, radius of influence, hole diameter and
pretension force [8, 9]. This type of modeling can be further used for detailed sub-
modeling. However, the retail representation of the screw connection with the use of
riveted blind rivet nut is very complicated, authors decided to make an real tests and
based on it considered about safety of the screw connection design.
4 The Real Strength Test
The strength of the blind rivet nut is provided by manufacturer in technical specifi-
cation of the product. For stainless steel, M8 diameter, blind, open, rivet nuts, with
special small countersunk head and hexagon shank, used in this example, standard
values of the axial load, shear force and tightening torque are shown in Table 2, with
manufacturer’s remark “These values may vary considerably depending on the quality,
surface and dimensional accuracy of screws, sheet and the mounting hole - Tests are
recommended”.
Table 2. Parameters of then rivet nut declared by manufacturer

Thread Axial load (kN) Shear force (kN) Tightening torque (Nm)
M8 30.0 7.3 24.2
In order to prove safety of the bolted connection, experimental test should be

conducted. In this case authors conducted three tests to check maximum force required
to pull the blind rivet nut out of material, to check degradation of the preload force by
plastic deformation of aluminum frame, and to check maximum shear force which can
be carried out by the connection. The tightening torque defined in technical docu-
mentation of the door assembly has been used in all tests.
4.1 The Maximum Pull-Out Force Test

In the test blind rivet nuts were mounted in the door frame profile according to the door
manufacturer technology. Profile was placed in special support with 22 mm hole. The
support was fixed in lower grip of a test machine. During the test, threaded bolt
mounted into rivet nut through the hole in support was fixed in upper grip of machine
and pulled out with continuous recording of translation and pulling force [10].
The test has been conducted on 5 samples. Results are shown in Table 3. All test
were carried out on Zwick&Roell machine with maximum axial tension force 33 kN.
Table 3. The results of the pull-out test

Sample no. 1 2 3 4 5
Axial force (kN) 10.7 10.5 11.1 11.8 11.5
Maximum pull-out force was on the level 11.8 kN, which is three times smaller
than the declared value of the blind rivet nut strength. The maximum pull-out force was
limited by strength of the aluminum frame (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. View of sample after pull-out test: aluminum profile (left) and blind rivet nut (right)
4.2 The Pre-tension Loosening Test

The goal of the second, pre-tension loosening test was answer, when an assembled
connection, loaded by increasing axial force, will loose of the preload necessary to keep
the friction required for transfer shearing forces. Connections were assembled with
special elements simulating a real connection. The test stand is shown in the Fig. 4. The
test specimen was fixed in a steel frame and loaded.
The increasing pull-out axial force was applied to the connection and between
subsequent loads the bolt every time was tightened with 17 Nm of torque. If the bolt
was rotating during application of torque, it was evidence of losing pre-tension of the
bolt. Loose of pre-tension was checked by measurement of angle of rotation during
tightening.
Force
Fig. 4. Test stand for pull-out test: a) general view, b) detail of application of the tension force
to the bolt head
Tests prove no loosening of the pretension force up to at least 3 kN. Properly

installed blind rivet nuts will keep the pretension force at constant level after static load
with maximum expected force.
4.3 The Maximum Shear Force Test

The last, maximum shear force test was conducted in order to resemble the real con-
ditions. The tests of the shear force were conducted on full set of bolted connections
with four bolts with blind rivet nuts, and positioning plates. Both sides of connection
were equipped with flat plate fixed in grips of the testing machine. Connection was
assembled with lubricated bolts and tightened with torque 17 Nm.
The first sample was tested up to 30 kN of shear force. The first slip was observed
between additional parts for positioning the door (Figs. 5 and 6).
Fig. 5. Assembled connection for a shear force test on testing machine.

Fig. 6. Sample 2 – after slip of stainless steel washers(left), destroyed connection (right)
Subsequent increase of shear force result in complete tear-out of the aluminum

profile. Maximum shear force carried out by connection was 32.5 kN.
On both samples the first slip is visible at force 6.4 kN. The slip starts on the contact
surface between stainless steel washers. The slip was observed during the test as a
smooth process, without slip-stick behavior. Subsequently, the aluminum profile is
progressively teared out by moving nuts up to complete destroying of the connection.
Classification of screw connections and the associated validation process has been
described. To prove the safety of the structure FEM calculations and real tests were
conducted and presented. Verification of more sophisticated bolted joint for example
connection which included using of blind rivet nut is a complex process. Blind rivet nut
manufacturers are showing strength of the connection without detailed information
about boundary conditions. Real tests or detailed FEM calculation are required to prove
strength of the connection.
It was also developed screw connection modeling method to determinate internal
force in screws as an input data for other tests.
Experimental tests have been carried out in order to check the strength of blind rivet
nut connection in the driver cabin door. Three kinds of test of the blind rivet nut
connection have been carried out – pull-out test, loose of pretension test and shear test.
Components used in test were a real components or geometrically equivalent ones. The
experimental test allows the acquisition of realistic limit forces, which also can be used
for evaluation of numerical simulation.
All forces connected with the discussed screw connection determined by FEA were
on lower level than maximum admissible values designated in real tests.
References
1. PN-EN 12663-1 + A1:2015-01, Kolejnictwo – Wymagania konstrukcyjno-wytrzymałościowe
dotyczące pudeł kolejowych pojazdów szynowych – Część 1: Lokomotywy i tabor pasażerski
(i metoda alternatywna dla wagonów towarowych)
2. VDI 2230: Systematic calculation of highly stressed bolted joints; Joints with one cylindrical
bolt
3. DIN 25201-1: Design guide for railway vehicles and their components - Bolted joints - part
1: Classification of bolted joints
4. Krysiński P, Łagoda T Badanie drzwi i okien szybkich pociągów, Rynek Kolejowy, No
4/2008, ss 74–75
5. Abaqus 6.13 User Guide. http://dsk.ippt.pan.pl/docs/abaqus/v6.13/index.html. stan na dzień
20 Apr 2018
6. Altair University, Practical Aspects of Finite Element Simulation, e-book. https://
altairuniversity.com/free-ebooks-2/free-ebook-practical-aspects-of-finite-element-
simulation-a-study-guide/ stan na dzień 20 Apr 2018
7. Zienkiewicz OC et al (1977) The finite element method. McGraw-Hill, London
skończonych w konstrukcjach nośnych. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej
9. Rusinski E (1990) Mikrokomputerowa analiza ram i nadwozi pojazdów i maszyn roboczych.
Warszawa: Wyd. komunikacji i łączności
10. Totten GE, Xie L, Funatani K (2004) Modeling and simulation for material selection and
mechanical design, Marcel Dekkler, Inc
Numerical Model of an External Gear Pump
and Its Validation
Rafał Cieślicki, Jacek Karliński(&), and Piotr Osiński

jacek.karlinski@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The article presents a methodology for the construction of a

numerical model of a gear pump with external meshing. The adopted load
diagram reflects the operation of the pump in real conditions. The developed
numerical model of the gear pump allows to determine the state of strain and
strain and displacement. Simulation research was carried out using the finite
element method. The calculations have been verified experimentally. Mea-
surements of deformations of the pump casing were made while working, using
resistance tensometry. The results obtained in numerical simulations were
compared with the results of the experiment.
Keywords: Gear pump Finite element method Resistance tensometry
1 Introduction
Gear pumps are widely used in many types of working machines as a power source for
a hydraulic drive. The main advantages of gear pumps are high efficiency, high power-
to-mass ratio (energy density), high durability, simple construction, low acoustic
emission compared to other types of positive displacement pumps, relatively high
discharge pressures and a relatively low price.
Currently, the development of gear pumps focuses, inter alia, on: lowering the level
of acoustic emission [1–3], optimization of geometry [4–6], increasing efficiency [7],
increasing working pressures [8] and reducing pulsation of the flow [8].
To improve the operating parameters of gear pumps, modelling and simulation tests
are currently being used at the design stage. One of the most popular numerical
methods is the finite element method, which allows to determine the state of effort, as
well as the displacements occurring in object under study. In [4–7], this method is used
to optimize geometry of gear pumps, taking into account mass criteria, component size
and efficiency.
This article presents the methodology of constructing the numerical model of a gear
pump (Fig. 1) with external meshing and its analysis. Strength calculations were made
using the finite element method in the Abaqus system.
The geometric model of the pump, imported into the Abaqus software, contained:
plate, cover plate, pump casing, bearing blocks, simplified model of gears, pins fixing
the position of the casing relative to the plate and bolts connecting the pump elements.
The calculation model contained a definition of contacts between cooperating elements.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_12
Numerical Model of an External Gear Pump 97
The pump was bolted to the flange plate, which all degrees of freedom were removed
on the side walls.
In order to reflect the operating conditions of the pump, a number of loads were
adopted. The load of the gear pump system coming from the tension of bolts con-
necting the pump elements was taken into account. To the appropriate internal surfaces
in the pump: bearing blocks, gears, plate and cover, pressure, values and distribution
were applied, representing differently loaded areas in the pump during operation. The
gears were loaded with forces resulting from operating pressure and meshing.
Fig. 1. Construction of the studied gear pump with external gearing.
The tested pump has a capacity of 32 cm3 per revolution. Nominal pressure of
discharge (pt) is 28 MPa, while the maximum allowable pressure is 32 MPa. The tested
pump is characterized by three-part construction. The pump casing and bearing blocks
were made of aluminium alloy PA9 / 7075. The gears were made of 17 HNM steel. The
cover plate was made of EN-GJS-500-7 cast iron. The steel bolts connecting the pump
elements (M12x120), in accordance with PN-M-82084, are characterized by a strength
class of 10.9.
2 Boundary Conditions and Numerical Model
The load model corresponding to the maximum working pressure of 32 MPa was
assumed for testing. The bolts connecting plate, pump casing and cover were loaded
with a tension of 48644 N. The tension force was determined based on the tightening
98 R. Cieślicki et al.
torque recommended by the manufacturer for pump assembling, including friction in

the bolt connection. The coefficient of friction l1 = 0.11 was assumed.
The following forces act on the gears (Fig. 2):
– P1h – force caused by hydrostatic pressure of the working fluid in the area of
pressure increase,
– P2h – force caused by hydrostatic pressure of the working fluid in the area of
constant pressure,
– PZ – force resulting from meshing.
The sum of these forces gives the resultant Pw, which was applied to the gears
(simplified model), in the middle of their axes. The forces acting on the driving gear
were marked with the upper index “c”, while the forces acting on the driven gear with
the upper index “b”. For the driving gear, the resultant is Pcw = 24033 N, and for driven
gear Pbw = 41028 N. The linear pressure accretion at angle u determined by the
beginning of the inlet port and the X axis was determined by determining forces. In the
further part it was assumed that the pressure is constant and equal discharge pressure.
Such pressure distribution results from the presence of a peripheral clearance between
the tooth tips of the gears and the casing [8–10]. The height of this slot changes as a
function of the angle of rotation of the gears.
Fig. 2. Load model of gears and pressure distribution on their circumference.
The loads that the gears are subjected to are transferred to the casing through
bearings that can move in the casing to a certain extent (floating bearing blocks). For
this reason, it has been assumed that pressure distribution around bearing blocks
corresponds to the distribution occurring on gears (Fig. 3c) [10].
The pressure distribution on the pump casing is shown in Fig. 3a. The yellow
colour indicates the zone of linear pressure accretion (the pressure accretion takes place
from the edge of the inlet port). The red colour is used for the areas on which the
discharge pressure is applied.
Fig. 3. Surfaces loaded with pressure: a) pump casing, b) plate and cover (from left) bearing
blocks.
Plate and cover (Fig. 3b) of the pump were loaded with a discharge pressure in the
area of axial clearance compensation (red colour).
Figure 4 shows the discrete model of the analysed pump. The geometry of the
numerical model has been simplified by omitting chamfers and roundings. The gear
model was presented as a roller. The shaft seal and the frontal clearance seal were
omitted. Contacts between the following elements have been defined (with a coefficient
of friction l2 = 0.1): casing / plate, casing / cover, casing / gears, cores / bearing blocks,
casing / screws, bearing blocks/ plate, bearing blocks / cover, gears / bearing blocks,
plate / bolt and cover screw. The model includes a pin that determines the position of
the casing relative to the plate. Contacts between peg, casing and plate have been
defined. The pump model has been divided into TETRA (C3D4) and HEXA type
elements (C3D8R) (Table 1).
Fig. 4. Discrete model of the gear pump.
Table 1. The number and type of finite elements in particular parts of the pump model.
Casing Front plate Cover plate Bearing block Gear Bolt
Number of elements 536447 310323 228640 140901 14626 2542
Element type C3D4 C3D8R
3 Apparatus and Measuring Station
In order to verify the numerical model, the deformation of the pump casing under
operating conditions was carried out. To measure the strain, seven self-compensating
linear strain gauges HBM K-LY43-6 / 120 (k = 2.1, a = 6 mm, R = 120 X) and a strain
gauge TENMEX TFrw-2/120 (k = 2.1, a = 2 mm, R = 120 X) were used. Each strain
gauge was connected in a quarter bridge configuration. The remaining part of the
bridge was implemented through the HBM QuantumX MX1615.
The tested pump 1 was driven by a 100 kW DC motor 2 (Pxob-94a). Measure-
ments of deformations were made for a pressure of 32 MPa and rotational speeds of
1000 and 1500 rpm. The hydraulic system (Fig. 5a) ensures continuous pressure set-
ting on the inlet and discharge ports. On the inlet side, the pressure setting is made
possible by a system consisting of a supply pump 3 and adjustable flow control valves
9 and 11. The pump load is obtained through a flow control valve 10 and secured by a
safety valve 7.
Pressure gauges 13, 14 are used to control the pressure on the suction side of the
pump, while the pressure gauge 15 is on the pressure side. The tested pump is coupled
through a torque gauge 19 with a drive motor 2. The rotational speed is controlled by
means of a tachometer which is included in the MT 100 torque meter. The station
enables the flow rate to be measured using flow meters 16. The temperature of the oil in
Fig. 5. Stand for simulation of actual pump operating conditions (a). Layout of strain gauges on
the gear pump (b).
the tank was controlled by means of a temperature meter with a thermistor sensor.
Before the measurements were taken, the tested unit was subjected to initial run-in
cycle provided by the manufacturer.
The measurement of deformation of the casing was started with loose bolts con-
necting the pump elements. Then, the bolts were tightened with a torque wrench while
measuring the deformation of the casing due to the tension of the bolts. Then, the
station was started. The pump was pumping the fluid (HL 68) with pressure of 32 MPa.
The pump casing deformation under load was measured.
4 Validation of the Numerical Model
Verification of the numerical model was carried out using the measurements of the
pump casing deformation. Figure 6 contains the average values of strains recorded
during eight measurements with their standard deviation, and the results of calculations
using the finite element method for measuring points: 1X, 2X, 3X, 4X, 5X, 6X, 6Z, 7Z,
8Z. The X and Z letters indicate the orientation of the strain gauges according to the
adopted coordinate system.

Fig. 6. Deformations calculated using the finite element method combined with the results of
experimental research.
The distribution of strains measured with strain gauges is consistent with the defor-
mations of the numerical model (Figs. 6 and 7) at selected points of the pump casing.
Convergence of deformation values is high for points 1X, 4X, 5X, 6Z, 7Z, 8Z. At
points 2X, 3X and 6X, the strains determined in the numerical model are smaller than
those measured during the experiment. It should be noted that these points are in the
plane (or near it - 6X) defined by the axes of rotation of the gears. The reason for the
lower deformation values can be a simplified geometric model of gears. It should also
be borne in mind that simplifications were also adopted in the load model. A simplified,
linear pressure distribution in the zone of its accretion was also adopted. Hydrodynamic
effects taking place in the bearing block are not taken into account.
Nevertheless, the developed model allows to determine the state of strength of the
gear pump with high accuracy. Further work will be focused on improving the accuracy
of the numerical model. It will be used to determine the clearances occurring inside the
gear pump and then to introduce structural solutions allowing to minimize them.
Increasing the internal tightness will allow to obtain pressures higher than 32 MPa.
References
1. Mucchi E, Rivola A, Giorgio D (2014) Modelling dynamic behaviour and noise generation
in gear pumps procedure and validation. Appl Acoust 77:99–111
Fig. 7. The results of numerical calculations - strains occurring in the pump.
2. Rodionov L, Pomatilov F, Rekadze P (2015) Exploration of acoustic characteristics of gear

pumps with polymeric pinion shafts. Procedia Eng 106:36–45
3. Osiński P (2017) Gear pumps with reduced noise emission. Wroclaw University of
Technology Publishing House, Wroclaw (In Polish)
4. Ozsoya M, Kurnaz C (2017) An optimization study of a hydraulic gear pump cover with
finite element method. Acta Phys Pol, A 132:944–948
5. Kattimani KD, Tavildar RK, Kakamari PP (2016) Finite element analysis and optimization
of external gear pump. Jetir 3:119–126
6. Kollek W, Radziwanowska U (2017) The influence of gear micropump body asymmetry on
stress distribution. Polish Marit Res 24(1):60–65
7. Kollek W, Radziwanowska U (2015) Energetic efficiency of gear micropumps. Arch Civil
Mech Eng 15:109–115
8. Osiński P (2013) High pressure and low pulse external gear pumps. Wroclaw University of
Technology Publishing House, Wroclaw (In Polish)
9. Kollek W, Osiński P (2009) Modelling and design of gear pumps. Wroclaw University of
Technology Publishing House, Wroclaw
10. Mucchi E, Dalpiaz G, Fernandez del Rincon A (2015) Elasto-dynamic analysis of a gear
pump–Part IV: Improvement in the pressure distribution modelling. Mech Syst Signal
Process 50–51:193–213
Modelling of a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
Blade Adjusting Cam Wheel
Michał Ćmil(&)
Institute of Aviation, Warsaw, Poland

michal.cmil@ilot.edu.pl
Abstract. The device called “Intelligent Wind Turbine with Vertical Axis of
Rotation”, was designed at the Institute of Aviation in Warsaw. This paper
presents the process of determining the coordinates of its cam wheel. Properly
made control track is a key element of a working turbine prototype, because it
allows precise setting of the angle of attack of the turbine blades as a function of
the rotor’s rotation angle in relation to the wind direction. Fulfillment of this
condition allows the blade to be optimally positioned, which will allow to obtain
maximum power for the predicted wind speed.
Keywords: Intelligent wind turbine Steering cam track Modelling
1 Introduction
The development of wind turbine power plants has been ongoing for a long time. From
the early 1990s, the capacity installed in the EU is systematically growing. According
to data published by the Wind Europe Association [1], at the end of 2017, 169 GW of
wind turbines were installed in the European Union, with 16,8 GW installed only in
2017. The leadership of the wind industry belongs to Germany, reaching the installed
capacity of 6,58 GW that year. In Poland, the installed power capacity grown to
5,8 GW. At the same time, growing interest in small wind turbines can be observed,
which gives the opportunity to develop a small power plants that could be used to
supply individual households, local lighting systems etc.
As a result of conducted research In Institute of Aviation, several different types of
devices have been developed [2]. The topic of this work will be presented on an
example on one of them, called “Intelligent Wind Turbine with Vertical Axis of
Rotation” [3]. It is a modification of the Darrieus type turbine, and is characterized by
high efficiency, ability to start independently and a simple construction. The designed
turbine is equipped with straight blades, parallel to the axis of rotation (Fig. 1).
2 Construction and Way of Working of the Device
The whole device can be divided into three basic components (see Fig. 2):
• The base stand placed on a foundation, ensuring proper bearing of the entire turbine,
and carrying the generated torque in to electric generator (pos. 1 on Fig. 2);

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_13
Modelling of a Vertical Axis Wind 105
Fig. 1. Overall view of designed turbine
Fig. 2. Turbine divided into 3 basic components
• Central module, containing turbine blades mounted between two setting plates,
fixed on the main shaft (pos. 2 on Fig. 2)
106 M. Ćmil
• Control module, including a plate with a cam track positioned for controlling the
angular position of the blades, and with rudder to control proper direction relative to
the wind (pos. 3 on Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Steering cam track under the upper plate
In this version, the turbine is equipped with seven vertical aerofoil blades. The
power to rotate the turbine comes from the wind pressing on the blades and also from
the aerodynamic force generated by them. The position of the blades relating to the
wind direction depends on the angle of rotation of the turbine is currently regulated by
the cam track, located under the upper plate, which is set relative to the wind via the
rudder (Fig. 3). This solution also avoids additional energy losses, when the blade is
positioned perpendicular to the wind direction. This is called the intelligent control.
A detailed way of working is presented in the Fig. 4, where the cam track and
blades with roller arms are shown. The cam track is attached under the control plate,
which is set in the direction of the wind by the rudder attached to it. The central module
(see Fig. 2 pos. 2) is rotating counter-clockwise (in top view). During rotation of the
turbine, the angle of the blades’ position is forced by the roller arms moving in the cam
notch. In order to better adjust the turbine parameters also to lower wind speeds, the
initial design assumed to adjust the blade position via additional servomotors.
3 Optimal Working Conditions
A precisely made cam wheel is essential for a properly working turbine prototype,
because it determines the precise setting of the angle of the turbine blades in relation to
the wind direction, and to the rotation angle of the central module [4]. Fulfillment of
this condition allows the blade to be optimally positioned, which will make possible
Fig. 4. Top view of the cam track and blades
obtaining maximum power for the considered wind speed. The optimal wind speed was
predicted as 10 m/s. It was assumed that for this speed, 1 kW of electric power will be
obtained.
To increase the efficiency of the turbine, it can be placed in bare space (e.g. on the
roof of a building) or in the place where wind energy is accumulated on the same
principle as in a diffuser (e.g. a gap between buildings). There is no point in using a
diffuser as such, because it would have to be attached to steering plate, rotating with the
entire turbine, and may also generate a strong torque, turning the device back to the
wind [5].
4 Determination of the Curvilinear Path of the Cam Track
Due to the need to adjust the angle of attack of the blades in relation to the wind
direction, there is a need to use a cam track–control kinematic system [6]. There were
considered two methods of determining shape of the cam track. First of them was
simplified engineering method, consisting of a graphic appointment of the vector of the
total air inflow speed on each of the turbine blades, as the sum of the wind speed and
the speed resulting from the rotary motion of the rotor (see Fig. 5). Next, the corre-
sponding lift factors were read from the profile characteristics. This allowed to calculate
the lifting force generated on the blades (1).
108 M. Ćmil
Fig. 5. Graphical determining of torque for each blade
1
Fi ¼ qVi2 SCzi ð1Þ
2
where:
• Fi–lift force generated on current blade [N],
• P–air density [kg/m3],
• Vi–total wind velocity [m/s]
• S–surface of current blade [m2],
• Czi–load factor of current blade.
Then torque for each blade position was calculated (2), and total torque generated
on the turbine’s rotor (3).
Mi ¼ gt Fi ri ð2Þ
X
M¼ Mi ð3Þ
i
where:
• Mi–torque generated on current blade [Nm],
• ri–arm of force Fi [m],
• gt –aerodynamic efficiency of the turbine.
Finally, it was possible to calculate the power generated by turbine (4) and the
actual power produced by the set of turbine, gearbox and electric generator (5).
Pt ¼ Mx ð4Þ
Pe ¼ gp gg Pt ð5Þ
where:
• Pt–Power generated by turbine [W],
• Pe –Power generated by the turbine–gearbox–generator set [W],
• gp –gearbox efficiency,
• gg –generator efficiency.
• x–rotation speed of the turbine rotor [rad/s],
The second method of modeling the cam track was using a regulation based on the
function of a sinusoidal form (6):
ai ¼ 44 sinð/i ðtÞ /i0 Þ ð6Þ
Fig. 6. Mathematical markings for the sinusoidal function.
where:
ai –the angle of attack of the blade [deg] (see Fig. 6),
ui0–initial angular position of the blade [rad],
ui(t)–position of the blade depending on the rotor rotation phase [rad].
A full set of calculations were made for both of these cases. After receiving the set
of angle values, the cam track was determined with use of a graphical method, as
shown in Fig. 7. Red lines in circles represent levers of blades. After setting all blades
at proper position, end points of each lever were connected with a spline, what in result
gave a shape of the cam.
Results of formation for both methods are shown on Fig. 8. The engineering
method resulted in more diversified track, when the second metod obtained more
smooth one.
Exact adjustment received by the engineering method would result in precisely
fitted cam track, but in order to simplify its construction, and thus minimize the
resistance of friction forces, it was decided to give up the exact adjustment of the attack
110 M. Ćmil
Fig. 7. Using a graphical method to determine the shape of cam track.
Fig. 8. Comparison of both methods
angles, and use method of modeling the cam track using a sinusoidal function. After
that, dynamic air flow analysis for all above cam track configurations was performed,
which gave satisfying results, showing relatively high efficiency of the selected
method.
With the specified coordinates of the cam wheel, it was possible to create a 3d
model, which was made using the Autodesk Inventor 2012 program. The operation was
Fig. 9. Part of the ready 3D model of cam track

simply made by swipe cross profile of a track alongside a spline created from calculated
coordinates. A part of ready model is shown on Fig. 9.
The most convenient way of manufacture the physical model of the track is by
CNC machining, which could be performed with a CNC milling machine. To simplify
the process, the cam wheel should be divided into 6 equal parts.
Above operations allowed to specify coordinates of the base cam track, and to receive a
3D solid model. The next action should be to create a physical model of a cam, and to
build a working prototype of turbine. Tests in wind tunnel could help to assess the
correctness of the construction of cam, as well as of the whole turbine. Finally, after
receiving the results, corrections to the structure should be made, if needed.
References
1. Wind Europe Association (2017) WIND IN POWER 2017 Annual wind energy statistics
2. Sawicki W, Zdrojewski W and others (2016) Small green power solution at the institute of
aviation. Warszawa
3. Araszkiewicz P, Abratowski P, Gnarowski W, Ćmil M, Pokorski M (2017) Intelligent 1 kW
vertical axis wind turbine–simplified analytical model. Warszawa
4. Stalewski W, Zalewski W (2015) Computational design and optimization of innovative, high-
efficiency wind turbine. J KONES
5. Placek R, Stryczniewicz W (2016) Analiza wpływu slotu na własności osiągowe
pierścieniowej turbiny wiatrowej. Internal report no. 12/CNTA/16/P, Institute of Aviation
6. Institute of Aviation (2010) Niezależna od kierunku wiatru obudowana turbina wiatrowa o
pionowej osi obrotu i poziomym położeniu wirnika, p 393945. Warszawa 23.04.2010
Vibration Analysis of an Exhaust Fan
in the Exhaust Gas Duct of a Power Plant Unit
Jerzy Czmochowski, Przemysław Moczko(&), Maciej Olejnik,

and Damian Pietrusiak
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and

Technology, Łukasiewicza 5, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
{jerzy.czmochowski,przemyslaw.moczko,maciej.olejnik,
damian.pietrusiak}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The subject of this paper is a vibration analysis of an exhaust fan in a

power plant unit. Excessive vibrations were observed during the exploitation of
the fan, preventing it from proper operation. In order to identify the causes of
excessive vibrations, FEM calculations of the vibrations of flue gas ducts, shaft
assembly, and measurements on the actual object were conducted. Based on the
numerical vibration analysis, the occurrence of resonant vibrations of the flue
gas duct and the shaft assembly was demonstrated. Calculations carried out with
the use of a laser vibrometer confirmed the occurrence of vibrations with fre-
quencies similar to the frequency forced by the movement of the exhaust fan’s
rotor. The results of the analysis contributed to the modification of the shaft
assembly and to the introduction of additional stiffening to the walls of pressure
and suction ducts.
Keywords: Axial fans Fan vibrations FEM Laser vibrometer
1 Introduction
Axial fans are utilized in many industries [1, 8, 9], especially in energetics, steelworks,
mining, chemical industry, etc. Due to the way machines work, they often fall into
excessive vibration, which is exceedingly dangerous to large-size fans of great power
[2, 3, 5, 7]. Vibrations of both large-size axial and centrifugal fans are the subject of
numerous studies and simulations [10, 12–14]. During the exploitation of flue gas
ducts, excessive vibrations of an exhaust fan of one of the power plant units were
observed. An axial action exhaust fan with the efficiency of 300 m3/s, total pressure
rise of 3580 Pa, power on the shaft of 1500 kW, and rotational speed of 745 rpm was
applied to the duct. Each of power plant units utilizes two exhaust systems no. 1 and
no. 2 with exhaust fans operating in a parallel configuration. Figure 1 presents the ducts
and the exhaust fan no. 1. What is characteristic to the issue is that the vibrations occur
only if the order in which the fans are turned on is changed. If the fans are started in the
proper order (first, the no. 1 fan is started, then the no. 2), the vibrations do not occur.
However, if the order is reversed, vibrations occur at the fan no. 1.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_14
Vibration Analysis of an Exhaust Fan in the Exhaust 113
Fig. 1. Flue gas duct with an axial exhaust fan
In order to identify the cause of vibrations, a FEM model of the suction duct and
pressure duct was created, and the measurements that should be carried out on the
object had been planned.
2 FEM Numerical Analysis of Flue Gas Ducts
A shell model with a stiffening in the form of beam finite elements was developed in
order to numerically calculate the vibrations of flue gas ducts [6, 11]. The geometrical
shell model is visible in Fig. 2. The frequency of excessive vibrations is associated with
Fig. 2. The discrete model of the suction and pressure ducts of the flue gas duct
114 J. Czmochowski et al.
Fig. 3. The vibration mode closest to the resonant frequency f9 = 12.76 Hz
Table 1. Natural frequencies of the flue gas duct

Mode Frequency [Hz]
7 11.21
8 12.05
9 12.76
10 12.92
11 13.36
the rotation of the fan, which amounts to 12.42 Hz. Natural vibrations were calculated
in a range close to the vibrations forced by the rotation of the fan. The obtained natural
frequencies are presented in Table 1.
The FEM analysis of the suction and pressure ducts’ natural vibrations shows that
the most prone to vibrations of frequencies forced by the rotational movement of the
fan are the walls of the pressure duct as shown in Fig. 3.
3 Analysis of the Vibrations of the Fan’s Shaft Assembly
In order to conduct a vibration analysis of the shat assembly and the fan’s rotor, a
model presented in Fig. 4 was created. It is a beam model with mass elements simu-
lating the mass, the moment of inertia, and the cross-section of the main shaft, rotor,
and the shaft between two clutches.
Fig. 4. FEM model of the shaft assembly with the rotor

The model uses the following data for mass and inertia moments:
- mass of the rotor wheel mw = 2070 kg

- flywheel effect GD2 = 7600 kGm2
- rotor wheel’s moment of inertia J = 7600/4 = 1900 kgm2
- mass of the shaft between two clutches mws = 1291 kg
- mass of the clutch (half of the clutch) ms = 440 kg
As a result of the vibration analysis of the shaft assembly with the rotor, the natural
frequencies and their vibration modes were obtained. Figure 5 presents the first natural
vibration mode, while Table 2 the values of consequent natural frequencies.
Fig. 5. The first natural vibration mode, f1 = 14,43 Hz
Table 2. The natural frequencies of the shaft assembly with the rotor
Mode Frequency [Hz] Form of vibration
1 14.43 Bending
3 40.14 Bending
5 84.26 Bending
7 107.21 Bending
9 110.52 Longitudinal
10 118.16 Torsional
Based on the vibration analysis of the shaft assembly with the rotor, it can be seen
that the bending vibrations dominate over the other. The base natural frequency
amounts to f1 = 14.43 Hz, which is too close for systems of fans to the resonant
frequency frez = 12.42 Hz. According to the recommendations [8], the natural fre-
quency of a system of fans should be outside of the range (0.85 1.25) frez, i.e.
10.56 Hz < f1 < 15.53 Hz. In case of the analyzed system, the vibration frequency
amounts to f1 = 1.16 frez, which is inside the range prone to the inducement of resonant
vibration.
In order to change the natural frequency of a system of fans, either its mass or
stiffness should be altered. In the analyzed case, the natural frequency should be
increased by stiffening the shaft. It can be achieved by several means:
– increasing the diameter of the shaft,
– thickening the walls,
– applying stiffening ribs.
A vibration analysis of the shaft assembly with the rotor was conducted for several
example diameters and wall thicknesses of the shaft made of pipes of standard
dimensions. The results for the current and suggested dimensions are presented in
Table 3. All of the analyzed pipes had the same inner diameter due to the connection
with the rotor’s shaft or similar section areas. The recommended values, for which the
frequency of the system is higher than 16 Hz, are bolded.
Table 3. The suggested dimensions of the shaft and the natural frequencies of the shaft
assembly with the rotor
Unit Ø30816 Ø355.613,6 Ø40612,5 Ø355.616 Ø355.620 Ø33020 Ø31820 Ø33025 Ø33028
t mm 16 13.6 12.5 16 20 20 20 25 28
D mm 308 355.6 406 355.6 355.6 330 318 330 330
d mm 276 327.8 381 323.6 315,6 290 278 280 274
m kg/m 115.22 114.50 121.30 134.00 165.53 152.90 146.98 188.04 208.54
f1 Hz 14.43 15.4 16.1 15.78 16.22 15.6 15.26 16.01 16.2
4 Measuring the Vibration of the Flue Gas Duct with the Use
of a Laser Vibrometer
In order to verify the values and vibration modes acquired numerically, a series of
measurements was carried out on the actual object. Inspection holes had been created in
the pressure and suction ducts through the layer of isolation to allow the vibrometer to
carry out the measurements, which were then conducted both during the standard
operation of the power boiler and during the occurrence of resonant vibrations [4, 15].
An example measurement is presented in Fig. 6, which shows the vibration mode and
the amplitude-frequency graph.
The measurements obtained with the use of a laser vibrometer show that the
dominant vibration frequency of the fan’s ducts is the rotational frequency
f * 12.5 Hz. What is more, the vibration mode acquired through measurements is
identical to the one obtained with the use of numerical methods.
Fig. 6. The vibration mode and the amplitude-frequency graph
5 Vibration Measurements of the Shaft Assembly

with the Fan’s Rotor
In order to determine the natural frequency of the shaft assembly (shaft rotor), an
experimental modal analysis was carried out. The vibrations were induced with an
impact hammer (Fig. 7a) and the response of the system was measured with acceler-
ation sensors. Four measuring points located on the system’s shaft were determined:
• horizontal direction, at 1/4 of the distance between supports, closer to the rotor,
• vertical direction (with the sensor on the bottom), at 1/4 of the distance between
supports, closer to the rotor,
• horizontal direction, at 1/2 of the distance between supports,
• vertical direction (with the sensor on the bottom), at 1/2 of the distance between
supports.
Fig. 7. Measurement system: a) impact hammer, sensors, and data recorder, b) the spectrum of
the system’s response to vibrations forced in the vertical direction
As a result of the analyses, it was determined that the main bending frequency of
the shaft assembly amounts to about 14.7 Hz, which means it is inside the range prone
to resonant vibration.
Dangerous vibrations of an exhaust fan operating in the flue gas duct of a power boiler
were the subject of the research. In order to identify the causes of vibrations, computer
simulations of the vibrations of pressure and suction ducts and the vibrations of the
shaft assembly with the rotor were conducted. What is more, experimental tests were
carried out on the actual object. The vibrations of flue gas exhausts were measured with
the use a laser vibrometer, while the vibrations of the shaft assembly were determined
by inducing vibrations with the use of an impact hammer. Based on the computer
simulations and experimental test, the following conclusions can be formulated:
– resonant vibrations f = 12.42 Hz occur in the fan’s assembly and flue gas duct,
– numerical FEM analysis of the flue gas ducts demonstrated vibrations f = 12.
76 Hz, close to the frequencies induced with by the movement of the fan’s rotor,
mainly in the pressure duct,
– vibration simulation for the shaft assembly with the fan’s rotor demonstrated
bending vibrations f = 14.43 Hz in the range not recommended for this type of
devices,
– vibration measurements conducted with the use of a laser vibrometer demonstrated
vibrations of high amplitude in the pressure duct with a frequency f = 12.5 Hz,
– vibration measurements of the shaft assembly with the fan’s rotor carried out while
inducing vibration with an impact hammer demonstrated bending vibrations with a
frequency f = 14.7 Hz,
– vibration modes and vibration frequencies of flue gas ducts and the shaft assembly
obtained through computer simulations are compliant with the values acquired with
the use of experimental methods,
– in order to limit the occurrence of resonant vibrations, it was suggested to stiffen the
walls of pressure ducts through applying additional ribs and sprags; to limit bending
vibrations of the shaft assembly with the rotor, the diameter of the shaft’s pipe
should be changed.
References
1. Bieniek C, Kolendarski W, Ostrowski J, Sobczyński W (1961) Wentylatory osiowe (Axial
Fans), WNT Warszawa
2. Czmochowski J, Derlukiewicz D, Górski A (2003) Analiza konstrukcji nośnej kanału spalin
bloku energetycznego (Analysis of the load-bearing structure of the flue gas channel).
Systems 8:112–121
3. Czmochowski J, Górski A (2003) Analiza numeryczna stanu wytężenia bandaży kanału

spalin kotła energetycznego (Numerical analysis of the state of effort of the flue gas channel
bandages) Górnictwo Odkrywkowe 45(4/5):30–33
4. Czmochowski J, Górski A, Paduchowicz M, Rusiński E (2012) Metodyka pomiaru drgań
urządzeń energetycznych (Methodology of vibration measurement of energy devices). Syst J
Transdiscipl Syst Sci 17:41–50, spec. iss
5. Czmochowski J, Górski A, Sawicki M, Śliwka A (2004) Analiza termiczno-
wytrzymałościowa MES kanału spalin kotła energetycznego (FEM Thermal analysis of
the power boiler flue gas duct) Systems 9:228–237
6. Czmochowski J, Paduchowicz M, Górski A (2013) Vibration analysis of power engineering
equipment. In: Alfirević I, Semenski D (eds) Proceedings, 30th Danubia-Adria Symposium
on Advances in Experimental Mechanics, Primošten, Croatia, September 25–28, 2013.
Zagreb: Croatian Society of Mechanics, pp 258–259
7. Czmochowski J, Moczko P, Odyjas P, Pietrusiak D (2014) Tests of rotary machines
vibrations in steady and unsteady states on the basis of large diameter centrifugal fans.
Eksploatacja i Niezawodność–Maintenance and Reliability. 16(2):211–216
8. Kuczewski S (1978) Wentylatory (Fans) WNT Warszawa
9. McPherson MJ (1993) Subsurface ventilation and environmental engineering. Malcolm J,
McPherson, Springer, Netherlands
10. Odyjas P, Moczko P, Zawiślak M, Pietrusiak D (2017) Investigation of influence of
unevenly spaced blades onto working parameters of centrifugal fans impellers used in mine
ventilation. In: Rusiński E, Pietrusiak D (eds) Proceedings of the 13th International Scientific
Conference: Computer Aided Engineering. Springer, Corporation, Cham, pp 389–398
11. Rusiński E, Czmochowski J Smolnicki T (2000) Zawansowana metoda elementów
skończonych w konstrukcjach nośnych (The advanced method of finite element in load-
bearing structures) Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław
12. Rusiński E, Moczko P, Odyjas P, Pietrusiak D (2014) Investigation of vibrations of a main
centrifugal fan used in mine ventilation. Arch Civ Mech Eng 14(4):569–579
13. Rusiński E, Moczko P, Odyjas P, Więckowski J (2017) The numerical and experimental
vibrations analysis of WLS series fans designed for the use in underground mines. In:
Rusiński E, Pietrusiak D (eds) Proceedings of the 13th International Scientific Conference:
Computer Aided Engineering. Springer, Corporation, Cham pp 489–504
14. Rusiński E, Odyjas P (2012) Przyczyny drgań wentylatorów w układach przewietrzania
kopalń (Reasons of vibrations of main fan used in mine ventilation systems) Syst J
Transdiscipl Syst Sci 16(2):327–336
15. Więckowski J, Odyjas P (2016) Usage of modal test in verification of numerical model.
Interdiscip J Eng Sci 4(1):42–44
A Sub-modeling Approach for Building
Numerically Efficient Discrete Model for Shape
Optimization - A Case Study
Piotr Danielczyk(&)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science,

University of Bielsko-Biala, Willowa 2, 43-309 Bielsko-Biala, Poland
pdanielczyk@ath.bielsko.pl
Abstract. The following paper formulates and solves a shape optimization

problem in order to determine the optimal dimensions of the relief in a beater of
the beater wheel mill. For this purpose, a numerical finite-element discrete
model using the submodeling technique has been developed. Simulation results
and conclusions have been presented. Benefits of this modelling approach have
been demonstrated in relation to the computational time and the size of files
generated during the analysis.
Keywords: Beater wheel FEM Optimization Numerical efficiency

Submodel
1 Introduction
Shape optimization problem defined and solved in computer software packages using
the Finite Element Method is a classic problem of nonlinear optimization with con-
straints. Solving the problem, regardless of the method chosen, is an iterative process
and takes place in several stages [1]. The entire process (Fig. 1) begins with defining
the geometric representation of an analysed object and selecting design variables of the
problem. Afterwards, with a parametric geometric model at one’s disposal, the problem
of optimization is defined, i.e. the objective function and constraints. If we assume that
the problem being discussed will be solved using the Finite Element Method, what
follows is the discretization of the model, the solution, and the analysis of the results.
Each iteration consists of three stages:
1. modification of a parametric geometric model according to changes in the value of
design variables,
2. reconstruction of the discrete model, its analysis and postprocessing,
3. sensitivity analysis and the optimization itself.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_15
A Sub-modeling Approach for Building 121
Fig. 1. Flowchart of the optimization task
It is a very time-consuming process. One of the ways to improve the efficiency of

the process can be the use of methods that make it possible to reduce the size of the
problem measured by the number of degrees of freedom of the calculation model. One
of the methods is sub-modelling, where the initial problem can be solved first based on
a coarse mesh. The next step is the analysis of the key areas of the model, mapping
them more precisely with the use of fine meshes–the submodels. Then the displace-
ments calculated at the boundary of the model division are interpolated using the shape
function and treated as boundary conditions for the submodel [2]. If the cutting limits
are sufficiently distant from the stress concentration site, one of the fundamental
principles of strength of materials - the de Saint-Venant principle is observed.
The presented work will show the process of searching the shape and dimensions of
the beater wheel relief with the use of an efficient numerical calculation model. A new
aspect will be to determine the amount of disk storage resources used when solving the
analysis and optimization problem. To this aim, a script has been developed in the
Windows Power Shell interpreter, which in real time monitors changes of the disk
memory while recording the calculation time.
2 The Object and the Aim of the Analysis
The main element of the beater wheel mill is the beater wheel which fulfils two
important functions: suction of the drying agent and transport of dust-gas mixture to
dust ducts (fan function) as well as pulverizing of coal, which is fed to the mill, with
appropriate granulation (grinding function) [3–5].
The wheel (Fig. 2) is mounted at the end of the shaft supported on two spherical
roller bearings. Connecting supports are bolted between the hub and the ring of the
beater wheel. They are the coupling elements between these two main parts of the
beater wheel. The upper and lower beaters are adjacent to the connecting supports.
122 P. Danielczyk
They do not adhere to the side surfaces of the hub and ring, but are only supported on
their edges (Fig. 3). They are the parts of the beater wheel most susceptible to erosion,
so this type of mills uses two stair plates with a thicker plate on the side more attacked
by coal. The bottom plate is secured against protrusion by the protective ring. Such a
design is used to efficiently replace worn beater plates. Fixed wheel elements such as
the hub and the ring are protected from excessive wear by special armour.
Fig. 2. Beater wheel construction
Fig. 3. Beater mounting method
Parts of the beater wheel that are in contact with the ground material (beaters,
protective elements) are made of GX120Mn13 abrasion resistant cast steel, whereas the
hub and steel ring are made of G17CrMoV5-10 cast steel maintaining stable strength
properties in high temperatures. Working speed for the presented beater wheel con-
struction is 600 rpm. It is assumed that the typical working temperature is approxi-
mately 150 °C. However, it may temporarily reach 400 °C and this temperature was
assumed for calculations.
One problem associated with the operation of the beater wheel are high local
stresses occurring in the relief of the upper beater (see Fig. 3). When the beater material
with a slight crack or material defect is under high stresses, the beater plate may break
and consequently a severe coal mill failure occurs. The shape of the relief suggested by
the designers actually reduces stress values of slightly more than 30 MPa (Fig. 4b) as
compared to the construction without a groove (Fig. 4a). However, this value is not
satisfactory. Although the stresses are slightly lower than the beater material yield point
of the 320 MPa at 400 °C [6], they differ significantly from the permissible values
determined at rperm ¼ 160 MPa. Therefore, a problem to find the optimal dimensions
of the relief in the upper beater will be formulated and solved so as to reduce the
stresses to an acceptable level.
Fig. 4. Values of stresses, MPa a) without the relief, b) with the relief (nominal dimensions)
3 The Discrete Beater Wheel Model and Submodel
The process of building the discrete model was divided into two stages. The first was the
structural analysis of the beater wheel unit, and its main purpose was to determine
deformations of the beater wheel under the working load so that the results of this analysis
could be used as boundary conditions for the next calculation step, i.e. calculations using
the submodel. The discrete calculation model for analyses that use the Finite Element
Method of the ANSYS package was developed based on a simplified geometric model of
the beater wheel (see Fig. 2). The simplifications used consisted in eliminating cham-
fering, filleting, fasteners and small holes. In practice, they do not affect the stiffness of the
beater wheel unit and mass distribution or mass moments of inertia. Due to the possibility
of using cyclic symmetry constraints and thus reducing the size of the problem, a single
sector of the beater wheel was considered (Fig. 5a). A Solid185 element from ANSYS
library was used for its discretization. At the contact of the beaters and connecting
supports as well as the beaters, hubs and rings (places marked red in Fig. 5b), surface-
surface contact elements (Conta172 and Targe169) with friction were used. The pre-
sented model consists of 565536 nodes and 124980 finite elements.
The kinetostatic problem was solved assuming that only inertial forces caused by
motion at constant angular velocity of x ¼ 62:8 rad=s(n ¼ 600 rpm). In addition,
thermal load associated with the wheel’s operating temperature reaching in extreme
Fig. 5. Discrete model of a beater wheel sector a) mesh and loads b) contact elements
124 P. Danielczyk
cases T = 400 °C was set (steady-state analysis). It should be noted that during the
milling process, there appear resistance forces which are the result of the coal impact on
the part of the wheel. Experience shows that, compared to inertial loads, they are
negligibly small.
Figure 6 shows beater wheel deformations. The results of this analysis will be used
to build a submodel with a fine finite element mesh to reduce the error of approxi-
mation of the beater relief shape. The submodel will be a part of the upper beater as
shown on the right side of Fig. 6. The displacements determined at the cutting edge
will be the boundary conditions for the submodel.
Fig. 6. Displacements of the beater wheel, m (left) and submodel boundaries (right)
An important step in this analysis is to determine whether the boundaries of the

submodel are correctly defined. Therefore, the values of reduced stresses at charac-
teristic points at the cut planes (Fig. 7b) for the model with the fine mesh of finite
elements and the results obtained during the analysis of beater wheel deformations
(Fig. 7a) were compared. It can be noticed that stress values for both analysed models
are similar (differences are not bigger than 6%), which makes it possible to conclude
that the boundaries of the model were correctly determined. The submodel with a fine
mesh consists of 31076 nodes and 6864 finite elements.
Fig. 7. Mesh and stresses a) beater wheel sector model (fragment), MPa b) submodel, MPa
4 Optimization Task
The presented submodel was used to determine the optimal dimensions of the relief in
the beater wheel. The problem of parametric optimization for determining the optimal
dimensions of the relief was formulated as follows:
• design variables: radius R, dimension determining the centre of radius x and
dimension y (see Fig. 8a),
• objective function: hatched area A ! max,
• limitation: the von Misses stresses rred in the relief should be smaller than the
permissible stresses for the beater material:rred rperm .
The form of the assumed objective function must be mentioned here. It is clear that
in order to remove stresses concentration in the relief, a groove with a larger radius
must be made or/and the groove centre (dimension x) must be moved inside the beater.
As a consequence, the surface of the beater’s contact with the ground material will be
reduced. In addition, unnecessary blows can be generated causing disturbances in the
flow of the dust-gas mixture. It is therefore accepted that the size of the relief should be
as small as possible. Thus, the hatched area A in Fig. 8a (lateral area of the submodel)
should be maximum when searching an optimal solution. A batch file was prepared for
analysis with Ansys Parametric Design Language (APDL) used to write the parametric
discrete model, along with the analysis of the calculation results and the formulation of
the optimization problem. The subproblem approximation method [2] was used to
solve the optimization problem itself. Calculations were performed on a computer with
an Intel® Core™ i7-4770 (3.4 GHz) processor and 16 GB of memory.
5 Calculation Results
The result of solving the optimization problem were optimal values of decision vari-
ables: bx ¼ 50 mm, ^y ¼ 28:3 mm, R ^ ¼ 13:4 mm. The shape of the relief with nominal
dimensions (x = 30 mm, y = 30 mm, R = 10 mm) and the one with optimal dimen-
sions (red) are shown in Fig. 8c.
Fig. 8. Shape optimization, a) parameters describing the shape of the relief, b) stresses after
optimization, MPa, c) optimal shape and relief dimensions
126 P. Danielczyk
To reduce von Misses stresses to the acceptable level of 160 MPa (Fig. 8b), a
much deeper relief than originally assumed is necessary. Still, the cutout on both sides
of the beater is less than 0.75% of its total area, which according to constructors of
beater wheels is acceptable.
Fig. 9. Summary of computation time and disk resource consumption in analysis and
optimization using the submodel
The process of solving the whole optimization problem with the use of the sub-
model took altogether 1 h and 26 min, which included a single analysis of the beater
wheel sector deformation tCS and the time needed to solve the optimization problem
itself using a submodel with a fine mesh of nodes topt ¼ 30 min (Fig. 9). Highest
demand for disk resources during analysis is PFS ¼ 23:7 GB. It is also worth noticing
that after the end of the analysis, the size of the working folder was EFS ¼ 5:2 GB.
This gives the wrong idea of the necessity to provide enough disk space–the temporary
demand for disk space is several times greater.
When preparing a parametric model for the analysis and optimization with the use of
the Finite Element Method, it is advisable to keep in mind its computational efficiency
from the very beginning. In the described problem, a significant advantage in relation
to calculation time and the amount of disk resources required was the application of
cyclic symmetry constraints and modelling techniques with the use of submodels. The
advantage of this modelling approach is that the initial problem, which is frequently a
very complex one, is solved once, and that the optimization problem uses a submodel
with a fine mesh with significantly lower computational complexity. In addition, it is
possible, if necessary, to analyse various shapes of the relief without having to re-
analyse the deformations of the entire beater unit. Referring to the analysis object, it
can be stated that the assumed shape and optimal dimensions of the relief of the beater
wheel meet the assumed criteria. Stresses are reduced to allowable stress levels.
References
1. Hsu YL (1994) A review of structural shape optimization. Comput Ind 26(1):3–13. https://
doi.org/10.1016/0166-3615(94)90028-0
2. Ansys Help SYSTEM (2008)
3. Danielczyk P, Wróbel I (2005) The influence of the size of the beater wheel elements’ wear on
the frequencies of free vibrations and stresses. Acta Mechanica Slovaca 9(3-B):45–52
4. Bajrić R, Zuber N, Šostakov R (2014) Relations between pulverizing process parameters and
beater wheel mill vibration for predictive maintenance program setup. Eksploatacja i
Niezawodnosc–Maintenance and Reliability 16(1):158–163
5. Danielczyk P, Wróbel I (2014) Zastosowanie inżynierii odwrotnej do oceny bezpieczeństwa
eksploatacji kół bijakowych. Mechanik 2:1–8 (in Polish)
6. Adler PH, Olson GB, Owen WS (1986) Strain hardening of Hadfield manganese steel. Metall
Trans A 17(10):1725–1737. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02817271
Identification of Influence of Part Tolerances
of 2PWR-SE Pump on Its Total Efficiency
Taking into Consideration Multi-valued
Logic Trees
Adam Deptuła1(&), Piotr Osiński2, and Marian A. Partyka1

1
Faculty of Production Engineering and Logistics,
Opole University of Technology, 75 Ozimska Street 5, 45-233 Opole, Poland
a.deptula@po.opole.pl
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Technology,
7/9 Ign. Łukasiewicza Street, 50-371 Wroclaw, Poland
piotr.osinski@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. This paper presents the way of identifying the influence of the tol-
erance of model pumps (TYPE 2PWR-SE) construction on the total efficiency.
The identification of sensitive control dimensions (Value /Tolerance) of exam-
ined pumps has been made by means of the multi-valued logic and inductive
decision trees. In order to confirm the obtained results, multiple-valued logic
trees have been used in the paper according to algorithms for the minimization
of individual logic functions. What is more, a specific monotonicity of values of
the most key parameters has been determined for the investigated set of pumps
having individual specification numbers.
Keywords: Multi-valued logic trees Optimization Gear pumps

Degree of parameters importance
1 Introduction
Overflow machines form a wide group of systems. The work of overflow machines is
most frequently based on two states: transient state (in which values of the system
functions change in time) and steady state (the functions values do not change in time
or change periodically) [1, 2]. Changes of construction parameters x1, x2,…, xn have an
influence on the behavior of functions f1, f2,…, fn depending on time t [3]. Fluid flow
energy generators are one of the principal components of any hydraulic system. The
improvement of internal tightness is connected with the minimization of energy losses,
increasing the transferred power and energy efficiency of the generator [4–9]. Due to a
significant difficulty of establishing a precise relationship, the influence of the manu-
facturing tolerance of particular elements on the energy efficacy of the created pump,
this paper tries to select critical deviations using the multiple-valued logic trees method.
The article focuses on the use of the multi- valued logic trees to determine the validity
of the parameters n and pt and the most important values of these parameters - from the
viewpoint of optimum total efficiency hc. In turn, the optimal values of efficiency hc

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_16
Identification of Influence of Part Tolerances of 2PWR-SE Pump 129
were determined by analyzing the impact of the tolerance of the pumps production. In
the analysis a heuristic method and the method of induction of decision trees were used
as the first. Control dimensions related to the five elements of particular pumps are: a
drive gear wheel, an idler gear wheel, a set of bearings, a machine body and a plate. It
was assumed that, the degree of sensitivity of control dimensions (value /tolerance)
implies the differences in the efficiency of the tested pumps. The article presents only
the results of a part of the research concerning the identification of the impact of
tolerances on the pump design model (2PWR-SE) on the overall efficiency and it is up
to the next stage of testing the tolerance points for model pumps. The article [10]
identifies the influence of the tolerance of model pumps (TYPE 3PWR-SE) con-
struction on the total efficiency. The Quine Mc- Cluskey algorithm of minimizing the
partial multi-valent logic functions allows to use the tree structures as the tools of
application and support design process, optimization and decision-making [11, 12].
2 The Research Object
Gear pumps of the prototype series 2PWR-SE belonging to II group [13] were the
research object. Wrocław University of Technology in co-operation with the company
HYDROTOR S.A. designed the units. The experimental pump has been designed taking
into consideration technological possibilities of the company HYDROTOR S.A. The
innovation of the prototype unit is based on using oblique gears with a involute teeth
modified in the lower and upper part of the profile. The modification in the lower part
was made using the so- called tooth root undercutting. The outline has an elongated
shape in the normal plane and its application causes the shortening of a part of the
buttress and decreasing of the sealed area [4, 7]. In the end, gears got the polyevolvent
outline. In order to determine the influence of the manufacturing technology on the level
of the emitted noise it has been decided to produce gears using the grinding technology.
Pumps prototypes were entirely executed by the company HYDROTOR S.A. The
research type of gear pumps with serial numbers and performance are summarized in the
Table 1.
Table 1. Tested gear pumps

No. Pump model Serial number
1 2PWR-SE-8/28-2-776 A 150 10001
2 A 150 10002
3 A 150 10003
4 A 150 10004
5 A 150 10005
6 A 150 10006
7 A 150 10007
8 A 150 10008
9 A 150 10009
10 A 150 10010
130 A. Deptuła et al.
Fig. 1. The exploded view of the prototype gear pump type 2PWR-SE
Figure 1 shows the exploded view of the prototype gear pump 2PWR- SE.
The analysed pump is characterised with a three-part construction. The consecutive
parts are composed of:
– a plate with sealing of a roller, flanges fastening the pump to the coupling casing,
holes for screws connecting the pump elements, dowel holes,
– casing, gears, slide bearing casings, discharge and suction ports, flow holes for
screws connecting the casing elements, holes for screws of the flange connections
and dowel holes.
3 Identification of the Impact Tolerances on the Pump Design

Model (Type 2PWR-SE)
The optimization in the analysed units of model pumps was composed of two parts:
The first part concerned the optimization of the pump tooth outline with the use of
multi-valued logic trees. The second part was based on the use of logic decision
structures in the optimisation of processing technology of elements having an influence
on the total efficiency of the newly designed unit (the issue has been more deeply
analysed in this article). It resulted in the limitation of dimensions and size tolerance
where it is necessary and decreasing the accuracy class in places of little importance.
The object of the analysis were the control measurements (value /tolerance) for gear
pumps prototype series listed in Table 1. The aim of the analysis was to identify
sensitive dimensions of the controls (value /tolerance) for the tested pumps. Check
dimensions of six pieces of data related to pumps: active gear KZ, passive gear KZPn,
cover PKr, a set of bearings KL and KLa, corps KR, plate PLt.The values and ranges
sensitive dimensions of the audits have not been given due to data protection and
tolerance design company producing pumps tested. For example, in Fig. 2a, b are
shown the most important and less important control points for the details: active gear
KZ, passive gear KZPn.
Fig. 2. The most important and less important control points for detail- a) active gear KZP b)
passive gear KZPn.
4 Application of Quine- McCluskey Algorithm

of the Minimization of Multi-valued Logic Functions
The Quine - McCluskey algorithm makes it possible to find all prime implicants of a
given logic function. It means that there is a shortened alternative, normal form SAPN
[14, 15]. The terms of incomplete gluing and elementary absorption have the main role
in the search of prime implicants and are used for the APN of a given logic function.
The values of arithmetic discharge pressure Pt and the rotation speed n, taking into
account the efficiency of the pumps model were coded logic of the respective periods
on the Figs. 3 and 4.
Table 2 show the specific and general logical coding for ranges of changes Pt and
n, in which at least 6 correspond pump efficiency defined with a tolerance of 5% for

general and specific logical encoding.
Figures 5 and 6 show multiple-valued logic trees for the tables shown in Figs. 3
and 4.
Fig. 3. General and specific encoding for the full range of change of the pressure Pt and n = 500
and 800 (rev/min)
Fig. 4. General and specific encoding for the full range of change of the pressure Pt and
n = 1000 and 1500 (rev/min)
Table 2. General and specific logical coding for ranges of changes Pt and n, in which: at least 6
correspond pump efficiency defined with a tolerance of 5%
General Specific
encoding encoding
Pt n Pt n Pt n Pt n
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 2 0 0 2
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 2 2 0 1 1 1 1
0 3 3 0 2 1 1 2
0 2 2 0
1 2 2 1
0 3 3 0
1 3 3 1
Fig. 5. Multiple-valued logic trees for the table shown in Fig. 3 - general encoding
Fig. 6. Multiple-valued logic trees for the table shown in Fig. 4 - specific encoding
The object of the analysis was the control measurements (value /tolerance) for gear
pumps prototype series. The number of numerical values of a given interval is the
number of branches in a single bundle and the number of all tracks from the bottom to
the top of the logic tree equals exactly to the number of all combinations of the
considered discrete intervals. Then it is due to extract real options only, that means
achievable, i.e. meeting the requirements of optimization. If in the logic trees there will
be calculated by the number of branches of the real problems of discrete optimization
with the possibility of exchange of levels of logic variables then only logic trees with
the smallest number of branches can describe at the same time the true status of the
validity of such parameters from the most important at the bottom to the least important
at the top. The complexity of logic tables or truth tables grows exponentially in relation
to the number of variables. In case of a bigger number of decision variables, there are
practical geometric problems in order to extract the least and the most important data.
What is more, the graphic matrix formalization can be a computer record of parametric
game trees as an adjacency matrix.
In the case of 3 - value coding {0, 1, 2} decision discharge pressure Pt {2, 4, 6, 8,
10}, {10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20}, {22, 24, 26, 28}, for 4- value coding for valuable
rotational speed n {500, 800, 1000, 1500} obtained higher rank of importance for Pt to
n. The difference is approx. 150%, according to the contractual scale accuracy calcu-
lated the number of branches in the relevant decision trees. Then a minimum of 6
pumps meets certain performance criteria with a tolerance of 5%. If the increase
decisiveness discharge pressure Pt to 5- value for encoding {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} respectively,
for the values {2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7}, {8, 9, 10}, {11, 12, 13}, {14, 15}, at the same speed
ranges n, it receives a higher rank higher rank of importance for Pt to n. The difference
is approx. 190%, according to the contractual scale accuracy calculated the number of
branches in the relevant decision trees Then a minimum of 7 pumps meets certain
performance criteria with a tolerance of 5%. It is also possible for the above various
decision-making valence trading discharge pressure Pt and identical decision valence
rotational speed n, assume that the 10 pumps meets certain performance criteria with a
tolerance of 5%. Then receive always the same range of validity for n and Pt.
References
1. Francis J, Betts PL (1997) Modelling incompressible flow in a pressure relief valve. Proc Inst
Mech Eng Part E: J Process Mech Eng 211(2/1997):83–93
2. Kollek W, Osiński P (2009) Modelling and design of gear pumps. Wydawnictwo PWr,
Wrocław
3. Deptuła A (2012) Coefficient of the structure complexity for multi-valued decision logic
trees, XLI Konf. Zast. Mat., Zakopane 2012, Inst. Mat. PAN, Warszawa
4. Kollek W, Osiński P (2009) Modelling and design of gear pumps. Wroclaw University of
Technology Publishing House, Wrocław
5. Kollek W, Osiński P, Stosiak M, Wilczyński A, Cichoń P (2014) Problems relating to high-
pressure gear micropumps. Arch Civil Mech Eng 14(1)
6. Kollek W, Radziwanowska U (2015) Energetic efficiency of gear micropumps. Arch Civil
Mech Eng 15(1)
7. Osiński P, Deptuła A, Partyka MA (2013) Discrete optimization of a gear pump after tooth
root undercutting by means of multi-valued logic trees. Arch Civil Mech Eng 13(4)
8. Osiński P (2013) High-pressure and low-fluctuation internal gear pumps. Wrocław
University of Technology Publishing House, Wrocław
9. Osiński P, Kollek W (2013) Assessment of energetistic measuring techniques and their

application to diagnosis of acoustic condition of hydraulic machinery and equipment. Arch
Civil Mech Eng 13(3):167–172
10. Deptuła A, Osiński P, Partyka MA (2017) Identification of Influence of part tolerances of
3PWR-SE pump on its total efficiency taking into consideration multi-valued logic trees.
Polish Maritime Res 24, 1(93)
11. Deptuła A (2014) Application of multi-valued weighting logical functions in the analysis of
a degree of importance of construction parameters on the example of hydraulic valves. Int J
Appl Mech Eng 19(3):539–548
12. Partyka MA (1983) Some remarks on the Quine – Mc Cluskey minimization algorithm of
multiple- valued partial functions for design structures. In: 7th Inter. Cong. Log. Method.
Phil. Sc., Salzburg, Austria
13. Kudźma S, Kudźma Z (2015) Refined model of passive branch damper of pressure
fluctuations. J Theor Appl Mech 53(3)
14. Deptuła A, Osiński P (2017) The optimization of three-involute tooth outline with taking
into consideration multi-valued logic trees. In: Book: Proceedings of the 13th international
scientific conference, Springer International Publishing, pp 99–107
15. Deptuła A, Macek W, Partyka MA (2017) Assessing the damage importance rank in acoustic
diagnostics of technical conditions of the internal combustion engine with multi-valued
logical decision trees. In: II International conference of computational methods in
engineering science CMES’17, exploitation and machine building, ITM Web Conf. 15,
05003
16. Deptuła D, Kunderman P, Osiński U, Radziwanowska R Włostowski (2016) Acoustic
diagnostics applications in the study of technical condition of combustion engine. Arch
Acoust 41(2):345–350
17. Deptuła A, Osiński P, Radziwanowska U (2016) Decision support system for identifying
technical condition of combustion engine. Arch Acoust 41(3):449–460
Application of Decision Logical Trees
and Predominant Logical Variables in Analysis
of Automatic Transmissions Gearboxes
Adam Deptuła(&) and Marian A. Partyka
Faculty of Production Engineering and Logistics,

Opole Universityof Technology, 75 Ozimska Street 5,
45-233 Opole, Poland
a.deptula@po.opole.pl
Abstract. In the article was discussed the possibility of using decisive logical
trees and predominant variables for the analysis of automatic gearboxes. The
purpose of modeling an automatic gearbox with graphs can be versatile, namely:
determining the transmission ratio of individual gears, analyzing the speed and
acceleration of individual rotating elements. In a further step, logic tree decision
methods can be used to analyze functional schemes of selected transmission
gears. Instead, for graphs that are models of transmission, parametrically acting
tree structures can be used.
Keywords: Decision logical trees Optimization Hsu graph

Computer analysis Automatic transmission gearboxes Predominant variables
1 Introduction
Machine system as a system is a set of objects (blocks, elements), each of which is

described by means of an appropriate mathematical model with indications of all
connections existing between objects. System objects are usually individual devices:
heat exchangers, extractors, compressors, etc. Engineering practice requires a correct
assessment of the mathematical model describing a given system by means of vari-
ables. Models describe a given system with different accuracy Graphs and structural
numbers play a role as models of mechanical systems [1, 2] and are still systematically
developed [3–9]. Power flow graphs (graphs of bonds) in layout modeling have been
presented, among others by [10] and graphs used in hydraulic systems by [11]. In
addition, there are special stream graphs, e.g. in chemical and process engineering.
Unlike graphs, dendrite-tree structures do not have cycles, but there may be a different
number of initial vertices. Therefore, such structures are applicable to variant searching
and optimizing the solutions of the designed system [12].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_17
Application of Decision Logical Trees and Predominant Logical 137
2 Theory-Graphic Models of Transmissions
An important advantage of modeling mechanical systems with graphs is, among others,
that some considerations can be carried out in parallel in the field of mechanics and
graph theory [13]. The relevance of the results is based on the transformation of
knowledge between these two areas. At present, there is considerable interest in
graphical methods in optimization, and especially in modeling of gears, hydraulic
systems, all mechanisms, trusses and frames [13].
Among the methods of analysis of planetary gears, one can distinguish among
others: Hsu [14], Freudenstein [15] and Marghit [16]. In the case of Hsu rules, the
graph is built according to the following rules: geometrical dimensions are omitted and
kinematic pairs are considered: rotary, “planet - yoke” and meshing. The contour graph
method used for the analysis of mechanical systems was discussed, among others in
[7–9, 12, 13]. It is particularly useful for considering mechanisms of various types
(so-called planar, crossheads, etc.). In particular, it can be used in the analysis of
planetary gears. The idea of this method is based on distinguishing a series of sub-
sequent rigid links of mechanisms that form a closed loop - the so-called contour.
Unlike graphs, dendrite-tree structures do not have cycles, but there may be a different
number of initial vertices. Therefore, a different approach has been developed as a
translation of a directed graph of dependence, among others for parametrically acting
structures [5, 6]. For example, in [12], the structures that parametrically used for the
contour graph were used as a further step in the analysis of planetary gears. In turn, in
[9], a complex complexity index was used for parametrically acting structures as a
further stage of analysis.
3 Analysis of the Automatic Transmission Gearboxes

with Logical Decision Trees
The analysis of automatic gearboxes is similar to the analysis of a single planetary gear
[13] (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Model drawing of an exemplary automatic gearbox

138 A. Deptuła and M. A. Partyka
The analysis is carried out for each run separately by introducing some transfor-
mations of the respective graphs. A novelty proposed in [13] is the modification of the
Hsu graph by introducing a path from the entrance to the exit. This path is formed by
the corresponding edges of the gear graph. Input and output are marked additionally.
This path allows the analysis of the sequence of transmission of rotational motion by
subsequent elements of the transmission. In addition, it allows the detection of so-
called redundant elements for a given gear currently under consideration. The conse-
quence of this approach is the idea of transforming the graph proposed in the work.
Determining the importance of the sequence of individual settings can be carried out
taking into account logical decision trees, as shown in [17].
3.1 Analysis of an Exemplary Automatic Gearboxes Including Multi-

Valued Logical Trees
Figure 2 shows an example of an automatic transmission gearbox performing four
gears [13, 17].
Fig. 2. Functional diagram of an exemplary automatic gear box, where: Cl- clutch, Br-brake
The automatic clutch and brake control system makes it possible to achieve next
gears, hence Table 1 lists the corresponding sequences of control settings. In the work
of the gear unit, it is assumed that the clutch C1 and the brake Br can take two states 1
and 0 (1- active, 0- passive). For the gears from Fig. 2 there are 4 decision variables:
Cl1, Cl2, Br1, Br2 - divalent [17].
Table 1. Sequences of control elements in the considered transmission

Control/Drive Cl1 Cl2 Br1 Br2
I 0 1 0 1
II 0 1 1 0
III 1 1 0 0
Rev 1 0 0 1
3.2 Decision Logical Trees

The canonical alternative normal form of KAPN of a two- or multi-valued logical
function describes all variants or real (realizable) solutions of a given problem,
obtained according to the principles of the morphological table, because the full array
of logical variables combinations describes all the theoretical variants. As a result of
minimization (e.g. following the application of the Quine-McCluskey algorithm), we
obtain from the solutions realizable real solutions as an abbreviated alternative normal
form of the SAPN logic function. After further binary or multivalent logic transfor-
mations, the minimal alternative normal form of the MAPN logical function is finally
obtained, which means the most important real solutions. To reduce the computational
complexity, i.e. permutational analysis of logical decision trees with possible floor
conversions, the search for true sub-solutions with real-code cutting of full branches on
contractual code entries using the Quine- McCluskey algorithm minimizes complex
alternative forms of ZAPN, which ultimately leads to the minimal complex alternative
form of normal MZAPN logic function. In the case of multi-valued logic functions, as
in Boolean functions, the basic role in searching for the first implicants is played by
concepts of incomplete sticking and elemental absorption, which apply to the APN of a
given logic function.
The bonding operation is called transformation [18]:
Ajo ðxr Þ þ . . . þ Ajmr 1 ðxr Þ ¼ A ð1Þ
The operation of incomplete sticking is called transformation:
Ajo ðxr Þ þ . . . þ Ajmr 1 ðxr Þ ¼ A þ Ajo ðxr Þ þ . . . þ Ajmr 1 ðxr Þ ð2Þ
where: r = 1, …, n and A - a partial elementary product whose variables of individual

literals belong to the set {x1, …, xr-i, xr + i, …, xn}.
The elementary absorption operation is called transformation:
Aju ðxr Þ þ A ¼ A ð3Þ
where: 0 u mr -1, 1 r n and A- a partial elementary product whose

variables of individual literals belong to the set {x1, …, xr-i, xr+i, …, xn}. If the above
equality occurs, then Aju absorbs (xr).
All transformations concern the so-called Quine- McCluskey algorithm to minimize
individual partial multi-valued logic functions.
In the combinatorial sense there are 16 combinations (states): 000, 0001, 0010,
0011, 0100, 0110, 0111, 1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111. In the
transmission of Fig. 1 there are 3 forward gears (I-III) and reverse gear (Rev). For
example, for the first gear we have: Cl2 clutch and Br2 brake are active (0101). All
possible sequences of gear control elements from the figure are shown in Table 2.
These are realizable gear states representing simultaneously the KAPN (Canonical
Alternative Normal Form) of a given logic function.
Table 2. Realizable gearbox operating conditions KAPN data combinations

Control/Drive Cl1 Cl2 Br1 Br2
I 0 1 0 1
II 0 1 1 0
III 1 1 0 0
Rev 1 0 0 1
If all the paths of a traditional logical tree mean a set of all the theoretical variants of
the discrete optimization process, then real variants, i.e. realizable ones, should be
distinguished. The problems of minimizing logic functions, in relation to the mor-
phological table and decision table enable computer aided design process at the stage of
searching for realizable solutions, examining the importance of fixed variables, detailed
analysis of realizable solutions, etc. In the considered transmission, logical trees decide
decisively the sequences of control elements. At the same time, they indicate the
continuity of the automatic control system when achieving next gears with equal
importance for parameters Cl and Br. There are automatic gearboxes with a large
number of possible element sequences. Then determining the rank of importance, in
what order should be changed individual elements to active, can allow the detection of
so-called redundant or temporarily redundant components for a given gear currently
under consideration.
In the permutation analysis 24 logical decision trees were generated. Figure 3
shows examples of logical trees with given bunk systems [19].
Fig. 3. Example logical trees with bunk systems: {Cl1, Cl2, Br1, Br2} /{Cl1, Cl2, Br2, Br1} /{Br1,
Cl1, Cl2, Br2} /{Br2, Cl1, Cl2 Br1}
In addition, determining the rank of the importance of elements allows you to create
a simplified graph of the given transmission [19].
4 The Application of Predominant Logical Variables
Examples of logical trees from Fig. 3 have the coding according to Table 2. The next
constructional and operational parameters Cl1, Cl2, Br1, Br2 can be determined by the
decision variables x1, x2, x3, x4 = 0,1 respectively and then 20 optimal logical decision
trees with the least number of twigs are obtained 13:
f(x1, x2, x3, x4), f(x1, x2, x4, x3), f(x1, x3, x2, x4), f(x1, x3, x4, x2),
f(x3, x2, x1, x4), f(x3, x2, x4, x1), f(x3, x4, x1, x2),
f(x3, x4, x2, x1),f(x4, x2, x1, x3), f(x4, x2, x3, x1), f(x4, x3, x1, x2),
f(x4, x3, x2, x1),
Such logical decision trees correctly describe the importance of design and oper-
ation parameters from the most important at the bottom to the least important at the
top. The other logical decision trees f(x1, x4, x2, x3), f(x1, x4, x3, x2), f(x4, x1, x2, x3), f(x4,
x1, x3, x2) have the number of branches 14 and are therefore not optimal, which means
an incorrect description of the importance of decision variables. Records of logical
decision trees f(x1, x4, …), f(x4, x1, …) mean that if x1 (or x4) is the most important, then
x4 (or x1) can not be only slightly less important, which means that x1 (or x4) is
dominant to x4 (or x1). In the case of optimal trees, such domination does not take
place, i.e. the order is acceptable (…, x4, x1, …) or (…, x1, x4, …).
5 Conclusions
There is a necessity to take into account logical dominant variables just as substitutive
and conditional variables have been taken into account in the study of the importance
of construction and operation parameters [20, 21]. Unlike traditional graphs of
dependencies and tree classifiers, the graph of dependencies with parametric trees has
the advantage of having a relationship of importance to the vertices (states) with the
height of a tree structure.
The paper presents the possibility of applying logical decision trees and predom-
inant variables in the analysis of an exemplary gearbox. Here the analysis does not end.
There is a possibility of introducing further generalizations and modifications, in
particular the development of an optimization method for parametrically acting
structures and direct generation of systems of equations with their solutions. In addi-
tion, parametric structures allow for future analyzes and syntheses, such as checking
the isomorphism of designed gears, analyzing the range of transmission applications by
generating the optimal set of ratios on individual gears.
References
1. Wojnarowski J (1977) Grafy i liczby strukturalne jako modele układów mechanicznych,
Inst. Podst. Konst. Masz. Polit. Śląs., Gliwice
2. Buchacz A (1993) Aided synthesis of bar systems characterized by a cascade structure
represented by graphs. In: 1st international conference on graphs and mechanics, Ustroń
1993 (vol. 1), Polit. Śląs., Gliwice
3. Buchacz A (2008) Projektowanie układów prętowych ze względu na zadane widmo
częstości. – Transp. Przemysł. Nr 2(32)- supl
4. Orlikowski C(1993) Symbolic analysis of bond graphs by application of Coate’s Rule. In:
1st International conference on graphs and mechanics, Ustroń 1993 (vol. 1), Polit. Śląs.,
Gliwice
5. Deptuła A, Partyka MA (2010) Application of game graphs in optimization of dynamic
system structures. Int J Appl Mech Eng 15(3):647–656
6. Deptuła A, Partyka MA (2010) Zastosowanie grafów rozgrywających parametrycznie i
dekompozycji w procesie optymalizacji dynamicznych struktur systemowych, Górnictwo
Odkrywkowe 3/2010
7. Drewniak J, Zawiślak S (2010) Graph methods in kinematical analysis of multi-speed
epicyclic Sears. Int J Appl Mech Eng 17(3):791–798
8. Drewniak J, Zawiślak S (2010) Kinematical and dynamical analysis of closed kinematical
chains using graphs and profile equations. PAMM- Proceedings on: Anwendung Mechanik
und Mathematik 9(1):547–548
9. Deptuła A, Drewniak J, Partyka MA (2017) Application of dependence graphs and game
trees in analysis of a planetary gear modeled with a contour graph. In: International
conference methods & tools for CAE- concepts and applications, Bielsko- Biała, str. 219–
224
10. Cellier FE (2009) Object-oriented modeling of mechatronics systems in modelica using
wrapped bond graphs. in: Proceedings IEEE international conference on mechatronics,
Malaga, Spain
11. Palczak E (1993) Modelowanie układów hydraulicznych za pomocą grafów Coatesa. –
Sterowanie i Napęd Hydrauliczny, Nr 3/93
12. Deptuła A, Drewniak J, Partyka MA (2017) Analiza przekładni planetarnej zamodelowanej
grafem konturowym z uwzględnieniem metody struktur rozgrywających parametrycznie,
Mechanik 7/2017, str. 640– 642, ISSN 0025- 6552
13. Zawiślak S (2010) The graph-based methodology as an artificial intelligence aid for
mechanical engineering design. Wydawnictwo Akademii Techniczno-Humanistycznej,
Bielsko- Biała
14. Kron G (1930) Generalized theory of electrical machin ery, AIEE Transactions 49, 666–683,
Discussion, ibid., 683–685.5
15. Hsu CH (1992) Graph notation and kinematic equations of motion of planetary gear trans.
Int J Veh Design 13(3):233–241
16. Freudenstein F (1971) An application of Boolean algebra to the motion of epicyclic driver.
ASME J Eng Ind Ser B 93:176–182
17. Deptuła A (2017) Analiza automatycznych skrzynek przekładniowych z uwzględnieniem
logicznych drzew decyzyjnych, XLVI Konf. Zast. Mat., Zakopane 2017, Inst. Mat. PAN,
Warszawa
18. Partyka MA (1999) Logika systemów projektowania na przykładzie CAD układów
maszynowych, St. i Monogr. Nr 105, Ofic. Wydaw. Polit. Opol., Opole
19. Deptuła A, Zawiślak S, Partyka MA (2017) Zastosowanie decyzyjnych drzew logicznych i

grafów zależności w analizie automatycznych skrzynek przekładniowych, Autobusy –
Technika. Eksploatacja. Systemy Transportowe, 12/2017, str. pp 808–814
20. Partyka MA, Tiszbierek A (2017) Computer supporting of determining decision interactive
variables for the importance rank of construction and exploitation parameters ilustrated with
an example of a gear pump after tooth root undercutting. In: Book: Proceedings of the 13th
international scientific conference: computer aided engineering, Springer International
Publishing, pp 399–406
21. Tiszbierek A, Partyka MA (2017) Computer supporting of determining decision conditional
variables for the importance rank of construction and exploitation parameters ilustrated with
an example of a whirl-propeller pump. In: Book: Proceedings of the 13th international
scientific conference: computer aided engineering, Springer International Publishing,
pp 571–579
Structural Analysis of Live Steam Pipelines
in the Context of the Replacement System
Hanger
Tomasz Dobosz1, Jakub Dominiak2, Michał Paduchowicz1(&),

and Artur Górski1
1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Department of Machine Design and Research,
Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
michal.paduchowicz@gmial.com
2
ZEC DIAGPOM sp. z o.o., Wrocław, Poland
Abstract. In the article subject matter associated with endurance analysis of the
pipeline of fresh steam was brought up with using the finite element method
calculations described at the work allowed for the validation of effected mod-
ernizations of the arrangement of fastening. It enabled also to determine the
technical condition of the pipeline and to suggest of further solutions in the
destination of the improvement in the work of the object [1].
Keywords: Power engineering Power boilers Live steam pipelines

Finite element methods
1 Introduction
They are playing fastening the pipeline important part in the correct work of the
installation. The proper selection and the use are ensuring the permanent vitality of the
object long and consequently smaller running costs. Also a safety is a relevant aspect of
the correct work of the element. Inadequately acting can cause fastening the collision
with the supporting structure and creating the stress concentration in material of the
pipeline [2].
Therefore in the following article he was brought up with problem of correct
conducting the structural analysis of pipelines of fresh steam after the modernization of
permanent-weight suspensions. A wrong work of the system of fastening the pipeline in
the hot state which it caused was a reason of the exchange wrong dynamic transfers of
permanent-weight suspensions from one putting the thermal state in the work in the
second estate. Two thermal states of the work of the pipeline of fresh steam are being
distinguished:
Cold condition - it is state of the pipeline in which triggered burdens of the
increased temperature aren’t appearing, the pressure and the weight of the factor.
Powers working on the pipeline come exclusively from the weight of the pipeline along
with insulatio.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_18
Structural Analysis of Live Steam Pipelines in the Context 145
Hot state - it is state of the pipeline in which the full load is appearing. Burdenit is
triggered both with the temperature, the pressure and the weight.
While passing the pipeline from the state of the cold food to hot dynamic transfers
are appearing, tied they are with the increase in powers of threshold permanent-weight
suspensions. Threshold powers are needed for overcoming internal resistances of
suspension at passing the pipeline from one thermal state in second. During the long-
term work of suspensions threshold forces are increasing, contributing for big bur-
dening springs what in consequence is leading to, of damaging fastening [3].
The pipeline of fresh PK-1 steam is linking the outlet chamber of the pot with the
steam manifold of the block I-go. The course of this installation along with the
emphasized scheme of abutments and suspensions is showing Fig. 1. Border of steam
OP-130 pipeline / (PK1) are: from the side of the pot: belonging to the pipeline welded
joint behind the bolt of the OP-130 pot and in front of the correcting reducer belonging
to the pipeline from the side of the interceptor [4].
Fig. 1. Scheme of the pipeline PK-1. [5]
Parameters of fresh steam flowing through this pipeline are raising: nominal
pressure pr = 7,2 MPa, the working temperature tr = 500 °C, he density of steam in the
state of the work dp = 23,3 mkg3 [3].
A geometrical and exploitation following parameters taken into account stayed in
calculations of this device: dimension of cross sections of the pipeline Ø298,5 17,5,
length lK1 = 37,7 m, insulation thickness t = 200 mm, density of the isolation di = 140
kg
m3 , working hours of the pipeline tK1 = 102 975 h.
The analysed pipeline is made of steel 15HM(13CrMo4-5), of which mechanical
properties and endurance for the room temperature and high equal 500 °C they pre-
sented in the Tables 1, 2 and 3.
146
T. Dobosz et al.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of steel 15HM in the room temperature according to [6]
Steel grade Mechanical properties when stretched at room temeperature Impact properties
Steel mark Stell number Upper yield point or conventional yield stress ReH or Rp0,2 for Wall Tensile strength Rm Elongation Minimum averange Energy absober
thickness T min A min. % KVJ in temperature
T 16 16 < T 40 40 <T 60 60 <T 100 l t l t
MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa 20 0 −10 20 0
15HM 1.7335 290 290 280 – 440 do 590 22 20 40 – – 27 –
Table 2. The minimal yield point stipulated in the contract Rp0;2 steel 15HM in the increased temperature according to [6]
Steel grade Wall thickness The minimum contract yield strength Rp0,2 MPa in temperature ◦C
Steel mark Steel number 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
10 HM 1.7335 60 264 253 245 236 192 182 174 168 166 –
Structural Analysis of Live Steam Pipelines in the Context
147
148
T. Dobosz et al.
Table 3. Withdrawn physical properties of steel 15HM according to [7]

Density Modulus of elasticity kN/mm2 at Thermal Thermal capacity Linear factor 10−6K−1 thermal expansion
20 ◦C conduvtivity in in 20 ◦C J/kgK between 20 ◦C and
kg/dm3 20 ◦C 300 ◦C 400 ◦C 500 ◦C 20 ◦C W/mK 300 ◦C 400 ◦C 500 ◦C 600 ◦C
7,76 210 185 175 165 33 622 12,9 13,5 13,9 14,1
These properties next were exploited, as the input for defining the model of material
in endurance calculations with using the finite element method [8].
2 Geometrical and Numerical Model
For the purposes of endurance calculations a geometric model drawn up of the pipeline
stayed. On account of the little thickness of the partition wall in comparing to his
external diameter a cover model was defined received after through conducting the
coating by the middle of the thickness of his partition wall. By analogy in the desti-
nation of more late reflecting the work of the pipeline, was modeled also clamping
rings of his supports. Additionally on ends of the installation a flow limiting solid
models of bolts of steam was situated (Fig. 2). This way the geometric model drawn up
was digitized with the finished respective elements [9].
Fig. 2. Geometric model of the object. Isometric projection.
The discreet model was drawn up among others with coating elements Tinsell type
CQUAD4. They reflected with them the geometrical form of the course of the pipeline
and clamping rings of supports, their thickness they accepted as corresponding to the
real dimension of the partition wall of this organising elements. The number of finished
elements took out 28989 [10].
Propping the pipeline was carried out after through getting transfers and turnovers
back after all axes in the initial place of the pipeline. The end of the pipeline from the
side of the interceptor was blocked this way so that the pipeline as well as the inter-
ceptor had free crosswise axes X and Y. The freedom in these axes allows for transfers
connected with the thermal expansion of the interceptor. Longitudinal transferring the
150 T. Dobosz et al.
pipeline was blocked. Turnovers were also frozen in all directions. Suspensions were
performed with spring objects of the type 1D CELAS2 (Fig. 4) corresponding to the
stiffnesses of these springs hanger The contact of the surface of clamping rings of
fastening and the pipeline was carried out with the SURFACE CONTACT. Objects
CELAS2 they were fixed in three pivots in the upper hub [11, 12].
Fig. 4. Completion of supporting fastening.
Fig. 3. Outside burdens acting in the cold

state of the pipeline.
Determining straining the pipeline two cases of his work discussed to begin with
were considered of article. A work of the pipeline is the first case in the cold state. Such
a state is straining the pipeline only a gravity working on mass of pipeline and thermal
insulation. (Figure 3) a second estate is a hot state. The work in these conditions differs
than previous, that to the burden resulting from mass a triggered burden of field is
reaching with the temperature, mass and the pressure of the factor [13].
3 Calculations
Four variants of the work of the pipeline were analysed. The first variant is a pipeline in
the cold condition before the modernization of suspensions. A second case is an object
in the hot state before the modernization of suspensions. Two another coincidences it
by analogy to two first but in the state of the pipeline after the exchange of fastening
permanent-weight. Below chosen results of the simulation were indicated on the
Figs. 5, 6 and 7 [3] (Fig. 8).
Fig. 6. Distribution of equivalent stress

Fig. 5. Distribution of temperature filed - hot according to Hubera- Misesa hypotheses
state before the modernization. [MPa] hot state before the modernization.
Fig. 7. Distribution of temperature filed - hot state

after the modernization. Fig. 8. Distribution of equivalent stress
according to Hubera- Misesa hypotheses
[MPa] hot state after the modernization.
4 Analysis of the Results
Made simulations allowed to get the row of information about the work of the object.
Collected data was drawn up and presented in collective tables (Tables 4, 5 and 6).
Table 4. Putting together results of displacement of hanger before the modernization.

Hanger Cold state Hot state Displacement
Values X Y Z X Y Z ΔX ΔY ΔZ
in mm
Z2 0,189 0,128 −1,434 12,179 1,278 0,528 11,990 1,150 1,962
Z3 0,084 0,291 −7,342 16,825 19,478 2,048 16,741 19,187 9,390
Z4 −0,289 0,110 −10,576 −1,152 42,765 9,574 −0,863 42,655 20,150
Z5 −0,742 −0,078 −8,561 −22,935 66,084 25,492 −22,193 66,162 34,053
Z6 −1,098 −0,124 −5,015 −39,781 83,430 41,265 −38,683 83,554 46,280
Z7 −1,429 0,038 −0,734 −45,834 108,381 75,286 −44,405 108,343 76,020
Z8 −0,427 3,173 −0,010 −7,603 131,447 76,705 −7,176 128,274 76,715
Z9 0,577 6,878 −0,024 21,251 148,891 44,457 20,674 142,013 44,481
Z10 0,811 8,718 −0,019 34,221 157,555 11,022 33,410 148,837 11,041
Table. 5. Putting together results of displacement of hanger after the modernization.

Hanger Cold state Hot state Displacement
Values X Y Z X Y Z ΔX ΔY ΔZ
in mm
Z2 0,254 0,413 −1,950 12,197 1,180 0,415 11,943 0,767 2,366
Z3 −0,656 1,208 −13,789 17,365 19,089 2,193 18,021 17,881 15,983
Z4 −3,128 0,947 −26,370 0,701 42,358 11,305 3,829 41,412 37,675
Z5 −6,315 0,383 −28,030 −19,358 65,670 29,131 −13,042 65,287 57,160
Z6 −8,869 0,075 −20,431 −34,817 83,042 46,215 −25,948 82,967 66,646
Z7 −11,223 1,235 −5,322 −39,583 107,376 78,189 −28,360 106,141 83,512
Z8 −3,504 10,863 0,295 −5,641 130,036 76,515 −2,137 119,173 76,220
Z9 4,893 21,254 0,146 18,478 147,865 44,352 13,585 126,611 44,206
Z10 8,591 26,398 0,049 29,248 156,733 10,985 20,656 130,335 10,936
Table 6. List of stress results reduced by the Huber-Mises hypothesis on pipeline fasteners in
various load states
Hanger Naprężenia Von-Mises
Values in MPa Before the After the
modernization modernization
Cold state Hot state Cold state Hot state
Z2 10,791 51,403 21,637 51,307
Z3 3,950 54,062 7,477 53,943
Z4 11,048 55,307 23,418 55,099
Z5 5,072 53,894 30,990 53,419
Z6 2,501 53,696 11,467 52,598
Z7 1,783 51,483 6,267 51,600
Z8 1,113 59,133 7,660 56,452
Z9 0,448 55,468 4,527 54,666
Z10 0,499 56,095 4,983 55,793
The greatest stresses on the pipeline 26,427 105,178 39,140 101,025
According to obtained information this pipeline in accordance with the law isn’t
subject right EU on account of the year of the production. It is possible to determine
acceptable stresses of the connection with it based on the value of acceptable stresses.
Value these faces oneself from the model Sd ¼ Sfw where Sd – acceptable stresses
expressed in MPa, Sw – value tense acceptable of material in the operating temperature
expressed in MPa and f – coefficient of reduction of stresses which he is taking out
1,65. It follows that the allowable stress for the operation of the pipeline at 20 °C is
175 MPa, while during operation at 500 °C is 102 MPa [12].
5 The Summary and Conclusions
Analyzing the obtained values of displacements and reduced stresses, it can be con-
cluded for the pipeline before and after modernization that the modernization of fas-
teners had a significant impact on its operation. The displacement increments after
modernization along the transverse axes X, Y have been reduced, which indicates an
increase in the stiffness of the pipeline fastening system in these planes. The further
operation of the pipeline for its fastening system characterized by larger displacements
could damage the structures located in the vicinity of the pipeline as well as itself. At
the same time, the increase in the displacement of the structure in the direction of the Z
axis, after structural changes, revealed the incorrect fixing work before modernization,
i.e. the fixtures blocked the pipeline in its movements. The movement of the pipeline in
this longitudinal direction is not considered harmful due to the compensation of these
movements by means of vertical fastenings. Referring to the value of stresses, the
pipeline under the influence of the exchange of fasteners “freed itself”. The conse-
quence of this was the storage of stress arising during operation. These values have
been reduced to the limit values. In summary, the structural analysis of the pipeline
shows the correctness of measures taken during the modernization of fixed braces. It
should be noted, however, that despite the use of new fixings, the stresses arising in the
pipeline continue to oscillate within the permissible limits. In order to reduce the value,
further adjustment of the remaining fasteners, observation and continuous inspection of
the fasteners is proposed [14, 15].
References
1. Kruczek S (2001) Kotły: konstrukcje i obliczenia. Oficyna Wydaw. Politechniki
Wrocławskiej, Wrocław (in polish)
2. Okrajni J, Twardawa M, Mutwil K, Junak G (2015) Maszyny i urządzenia energetyczne
węglowych bloków na wysokie parametry pary. In: Maszyny i urządzenia energetyczne
węglowych bloków na wysokie parametry pary, 1st ed., Gliwice: Wydawnictwo Politechniki
Śląskiej, pp 374–492 (in polish)
3. Okrajni J, Twardawa M (2013) Boundary conditions in models of power plant components
under thermal loading. 62(1), 28–35. (in polish)
4. Laudyn D, Pawlik M, Strzelczyk F (2006) Elektrownie. WNT. (in polish)
5. Shared materials of the company ZEC DIAGPOM sp. z o.o.. Wrocław (2016) (in polish)
6. Rury stalowe bez szwu do zastosowań ciśnieniowych Warunki techniczne dostawy Część 2:
Rury ze stali niestopowych i stopowych z określonymi własnościami w temperaturze
podwyższonej,” PN-EN 10216-2:2014-02, 2015(in polish)
7. Ražnjević K (1996) Tablice cieplne z wykresami: dane liczbowe w układzie technicznym i
międzynarodowym. Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne. (in polish)
8. Okrajni J (2010) Life and operational safety of power systems and chemical plants. 43(1),
38–63
skończonych w konstrukcjach nośnych. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej.
(in polish)
10. Zienkiewicz OC, Taylor RL, Zhu JZ (2013) The finite element method: its basis and
fundamentals. Elsevier Science
11. Farragher TP, Scully S, O’Dowd NP, Leen SB (2012) Thermomechanical analysis of a
pressurized pipe under plant conditions. J Press Vessel Technol 135(1):11204
12. Okrajni J, Junak G, Marek A (2008) Modelling of the deformation process under thermo-
mechanical fatigue conditions. Int J Fatigue 30(2):324–329
13. Twardawa M, Okrajni J (2016) The influence of the grade of materials and their state on the
thermo-mechanical behaviour of the chosen power plant components. Solid State Phenom
250:238–243
14. Okrajni J (2011) Zmęczenie cieplno-mechaniczne oraz wytrzymałość i trwałość instalacji
energetycznych. Wydaw, Politechniki Śląskiej (in polish)
15. Gronostajski Z, Hawryluk M, Krawczyk J, Marciniak M (2013) Numerical modelling of the
thermal fatigue of steel WCLV used for hot forging dies. 15(2), 129–133. (in polish)
Application of Fem Method for Modeling
and Strength Analysis of Feed Elements
of Vibroscreen
Mikhail Doudkin, Alina Kim(&), and Vadim Kim
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, East Kazakhstan State Technical University,

Serikbayeva Street 19, 070010 Ust-Kamenogorsk, Kazakhstan
{vas_dud,k.a.i.90}@mail.ru
Abstract. The article presents a three-dimensional solid-state computational

model of vibroscreen feed elements, as well as the analysis results of the stress-
strain rods state. An algorithm for solving the problem numerically using the
finite element method is proposed. The obtained results were used at the stage of
feed elements designing for an industrial vibroscreen.
Keywords: Vibroscreen Feed elements Strength analysis
1 Introduction
Important groups among construction machines are vibroscreens used for segregation
of bulk materials [1, 2]. In the scientific and technical literature, the results of theo-
retical and experimental research on these machines are presented [3–5]. Paper [6]
presents a new vibroscreen construction solution, i.e. vibroscreen with additional feed
elements. The schematic structure of the machine is shown in Fig. 1. Sieve (1) is
mounted in the box (2) and on elastic supports (3). Sieve (1) is set in a vibrating motion
using the vibration engine (4). Above sieve, feed elements (5) are placed, which are
mounted in platform (6). Bulk material (7) flowing down the sieve is simultaneously
vibrated by the vibration engine and crushed and shredded by feed elements. These
simultaneous effects increase efficiency and shorten the sieving process time.
Feed elements play a very important role in this process. Their effectiveness
depends on the efficiency and reliability of the sieving process. Therefore, the aim of
the work was to carry out modeling and strength analysis of feed elements. This process
was carried out using the FEM method, which as shown, among others, in [7–9] is
commonly used in the construction of machines and it will be useful for feed elements
research.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_19
156 M. Doudkin et al.
Fig. 1. Scheme of vibroscreen with additional feed elements: 1 - sieve, 2 – box, 3 - elastic
supports, 4 – vibration engine, 5 - feed elements, 6 - platform, 7 – bulk material.
2 Modeling of Vibroscreen with Feed Elements
The solid-state 3D model of the whole vibroscreen with a special area of feed elements
(Fig. 2) and separate calculation models (Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7) of the feed elements part
were developed and executed in the system of parametric solid-state modeling
KOMPAS-3DV17.1. Calculations were made in the APM FEM system, which is an
integrated tool in KOMPAS-3DV17.1 for the preparation and subsequent finite element
analysis of a three-dimensional solid model (Attestation Certificate No. 330 dated April
18, 2013).
Fig. 2. Geometric 3D model of the vibroscreen and platform with feed elements: a - vibroscreen;
b - platform with feed elements
The investigated object is feed elements platform of 8 vertical rods, by 4 in two

rows and at a certain distance from each other. The installation of feed elements on the
vibroscreen is shown in Fig. 2a. The calculated finite-element grid of the platform with
feed elements is shown in Fig. 3. Conditional groups, sorted material with a shadow
trace from the movement is shown schematically between the feed elements. Condi-
tionally, it is assumed that in the middle of the screen the flow of bulk material flowing
around the feed elements rods is higher, and to the edges it flows smoothly below,
which is shown in Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7.
Application of Fem Method for Modeling and Strength Analysis 157
Fig. 3. Mesh of the platform with feed elements: a - the platform with feed elements and streams
of bulk material (arrows), b - fixing of feed elements
The feed elements platform can be conditionally divided into two groups of
homogeneous elements - a metal corner (Steel 20, according to interstate standard
GOST 1050-2013), from which the platform is made, it serves as a base for fastening
the rods; and rods (Steel 45, GOST 1050-2013) mounted on this platform.
The initial data for solving the problem are summarized in separate tables
(Tables 1, 2 and 3).
For each distributed force, acting on the feed elements, the corresponding objects
are selected and the following load parameters are applied: Force vector: X = 400;
Y = 0; z = 0. Force value 400 N, which is measured in experimental studies,
depending of bulk material flow.
Fig. 4. Equivalent stresses of the feed elements platform on Mises
Accordingly, information on fixations and coinciding surfaces is included in the

program, and the finite element mesh is selected, consisting of 10 nodal tetrahedrons.
Tetrahedrons are the only elements that can be used to thicken the adaptive grid.
When the density of the grid is increased, the solution becomes more precise. So it is
unerringly assumed a relatively slow change in the stresses in these areas.
The loadings of the model are determined in Table 4.
Table 1. Data of platform material (Steel 20, GOST 1050-2013)

1 Yield stress (MPa) 235
2 The modulus of normal elasticity (MPa) 200 000
3 Poisson’s ratio 0,3
4 Density (kg/m3) 7 800
5 The temperature coefficient of linear expansion (1/C) 0,000012
6 Thermal conductivity (W/m • C) 55
7 Compressive strength (MPa) 410
8 Tensile strength (MPa) 157
9 Torsional fatigue strength (MPa) 139
Table 2. Data of feed elements material (Steel 45, GOST 1050-2013)

1 Yield stress (MPa) 560
2 The modulus of normal elasticity (MPa) 210 000
3 Poisson’sratio 0,3
4 Density (kg/m3) 7810
5 The temperature coefficient of linear expansion (1/C) 0,000013
6 Thermal conductivity (W/m • C) 47
7 Compressive strength (MPa) 600
8 Tensile strength (MPa) 294
9 Torsional fatigue strength (MPa) 150
Table 3. Parameters and results of feed element location

Description Value
1 Element type 10-nodal tetrahedrons
2 Maximum length of the element side (mm) 10
3 The maximum coefficient of condensation on the surface 5
4 The coefficient of vacuum in the volume 3,5
5 Number of finite elements 114953
Table 4. The inertial characteristics of the model

Name Value
1 Weight of the model (kg) 55,810975
2 Center of the model gravity (m) (0,000011; −0,117649;
−0,000087)
3 The inertia moment of the model relative to the mass (8,229942; 7,831576;
center (kg • m2) 3,248618)
4 The reactive moment with respect to the mass center (0,656308; −47,820212;
(N • m) −1151,888135)
5 The total reaction of supports (N) (−3057,227214; 0,157531;
−1,370206)
6 The absolute value of the reaction (N) 3057,227525
7 The absolute value of the moment (N • m) 1152,880514
3 Results of FEM Analysis
Static calculations were performed for all accepted parameters; the results are presented
in Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7.
According to the calculation results, large deformations or stresses exceeding the
yield strength of the material are not found in the design, so it is no need to solve the
problem with new data. The finite element method gave an approximate solution for the
physical and geometrical linear feed elements rods of the screen, greatly simplifying
the resulting system of equations.
The equivalent stresses for Mises - SVM (support vector machine, MPa) (Fig. 4),
ranged from the minimum value (0) to the maximum (118.57). Accordingly, the total
linear displacement, USUM (mm), also varied from the minimum value (0) to the
maximum of 3.90 (Fig. 7).
Fig. 5. Total linear displacement on the platform

The Fig. 4 shows the minimum and maximum (critical) stresses that arise in a given
construction under loading, and also allows determining the numerical value of the
stresses at any point.
The displacement map (Fig. 5) represents the minimum and maximum (critical)
displacement (determination) occurring in a given structure under loading, and also
allows the determination of the numerical value of the displacement (determination) at
any point.
Yield coefficient is a strength characteristic of a stressed construction within the
framework of the elasticity law (Hooke), within the limits of elastic vibrations. The
Fig. 6 shows the minimum and maximum safety factor of the construction at the yield
point, and also allows you to determine the numerical value of this coefficient at any
point.
Fig. 6. Distribution of the yield coefficient on the platform
Fig. 7. Distribution of strength limit on the platform

The Fig. 7 shows the minimum and maximum safety factor of the structure by the
tensile strength, and also allows determining the numerical value of this coefficient at
any point.
The yield factor varied from the minimum value (1.98), to the maximum (1000) –
Fig. 6. The safety factor for strength ranged from 3.45 to 1000 (Fig. 7).
Fig. 8. Industrial platform with feed elements is installed in the vibroscreen trough, built on the
data basis of finite element modeling and analysis
The main check of any calculation results is a physical experiment. Considering

that the above calculations represent only simulation of the real structure of the feed
elements, and how accurate the model and mathematical apparatus implementing this
model depend on the results of experimental verification. Therefore, according to the
finite element analysis, a natural, industrially applicable platform with feed elements
was assembled (Fig. 8), tested for strength and reliability in real production conditions.

1. The simulation model with the finite element method, in contrast to full-scale
manufacturing, allows determining the « weak » places in the design at the design
stage and approaching the task of optimal parameters selection. The finite element
analysis of the feed elements platform is the best and accurate method of
researching and predicting the operability of the structure under given operating
conditions, allowing selecting the parameters of the future design reasonably prior
to its industrial manufacture.
2. The application of the mathematical apparatus (FEM) simplifies the construction of
an object model consisting of a finite elements set. FEM allows obtaining a solution
in the form of stress and strain fields in practically any section of the element. These
advantages of the method have not yet been used in the design of vibroscreen
elements. Their implementation can reduce the metal equipment consumption,
increase the reliability of its operation and reduce self-cost and, ultimately, improve
the quality of the sorted material.
3. Computer simulation technology with the help of FEM allows reliable determina-
tion of the real operational characteristics of products, helps customers to ensure
that their products comply with the necessary requirements and standards.
References
1. Doudkin M, Pichugin S, Fadeev S (2013) Contact force calculation of the machine
operational point. Life Sci J 10(39):246–250
2. Doudkin M, Vavilov A, Pichugin S, Fadeev S (2013) Calculation of the interaction of
working body of road machine with the surface. Life Sci J 133:832–837
3. Detyna J (2010) Stochastic models of particle distribution in separation processes. Arch Civil
Mech Eng 10:15–26
4. Detyna J Bieniek (2008) Methods of statistical modeling in the process of sieve separation of
heterogeneous particles. Appl Math Model 32:992–1002
5. Fedotov AI, Młyńczak M (2016) Analytical identification of parameters influencing
measurement quality using flat brake tester. Adv Intell Syst Comput T. 470: 47–155
6. Kim A, Doudkin M, Vavilov A, Guryanov G (2017) New vibroscreen with additional feed
elements. Arch Civil Mech Eng 17(4):786–794
7. Rusinski E, Moczko P, Odyjas P, Pietrusiak D (2014) Investigation of vibrations of a main
centrifugal fun used in mine ventilation. Arch Civil Mech Eng 14(4):569–579
8. Stryczek J, Banaś M, Krawczyk J, Marciniak L, Stryczek P (2017) The fluid power elements
and systems made of plastics. Procedia Eng 176(2017):600–609
9. Krawczyk J, Stryczek J (2014) Construction and experimental research on plsiccycloidal
gears used in gerotor pumps. In: 8th FPNI PhD symposium on fluid power. Laapperanta,
Finland. June 11–15 2014, 228(18):3395–3404, SAGE
Numerical Investigations of the Influence
of Seismic Vibrations on the Transformer
Structure
Sławomir Duda1, Sławomir Kciuk1, Jacek Gniłka1(&),

and Tomasz Kaszyca2
1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology,
ul. Akademicka 2A, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
jacek.gnilka@polsl.pl
2
Power Sp z o.o., ul. Chemiczna 14, 41-100 Siemianowice Śląskie, Poland
Abstract. The aim of this paper is to analyse the structure of a transformer

subjected to the seismic impact, determine the state of critical stresses on the
structure, but also to ensure that the structure remains undestroyed after the
impact of seismic forces. The numerical calculations, in particular those related
to the structure load states, were based on the standard: IEEE Std 693-2005,
IEEE Recommended Practice for Seismic Design of Substations.
Keywords: Seismic analysis Finite element method

Response spectrum analysis Transformer analysis
1 Introduction
Power transformers play a key role in the electricity distribution systems. A crucial
aspect is, therefore, to secure conditions fostering uninterrupted operation of compo-
nents of the type. A factor that poses a risk for correct operation of transformers could
be an earthquake.
Designed structures of the type are analysed in terms of their seismic resistance in
compliance with the standards in force. Due to their complexity, a frequent approach is
an analysis with the application of the finite element method. In the study [1] the MES
analysis of a transformer was performed with the application of the intermittent load;
furthermore, an additional wind-derived load was taken into account, in compliance
with the standard GB 50260-2013. In the study [2] different analytical methods are
presented, in compliance with the IEEE and IEC standards, and the presence of liquids
in containers was taken into account. It also presents the FSI method (Fluid Structure
Interaction) – an approach basing on formulas of Euler and Lagrange (Coupled Euler
Lagrange approach), and an analysis with the application of acoustic elements. The
paper [3] addresses aspects relating to designing a 110 kV power transformer caused by
seismic loads. A modal MES analysis and the load of the acceleration spectrum were
performed, in compliance with the standard IEEE Std. C-57.114.1990. The paper [4, 10]
compares the results of an experimental seismic analysis with numerical analyses of

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_20
164 S. Duda et al.
selected nodes of the transformer structure on the basis of Japanese Seismic Test
Standard (JEAG5003) and US Seismic Test Standard (IEEE693). The study [5] based
on the response spectrum analysis of the transformer presents a comparison of the
applied SRSS, CQC, and ROSENBLUETH methods. The work aiming to assess the
interdependence of K and R coefficients used for the purposes of parametrisation of the
structural form of the height of the transformer housing and the high-voltage discon-
nector with reference to their resistance to seismic impact - [6]. The most frequently
analysed issue are numerical and analytical investigations of high-voltage disconnectors
of a transformer consisting of a porcelain insulator with reference to the resistance to the
seismic impact [7, 8, 16–21]. The work [9] presents a numerical analysis in the field of
the time of the transformer structure subjected to the load exerted by seismic forces,
taking into account the substrate model. A numerical analysis of the seismic impact on
an underground substation taking into account the ground model is described in the
study [11]. Report in the form of an assessment of the reliability of the electric energy
transmission system of a substation in Memphis, Tennessee in the event of the impact of
seismic shocks - [12]. Numerical seismic analysis of a concrete support structure of a big
underground power plant - [13]. Application of the finite element method in the analysis
of the structural strength of a transformer and high-voltage disconnectors taking into
account the impact of the movement of a liquid in a container - [15, 21].
This paper constitutes a description of experimental investigations and numerical
analyses performed for the transformer structure with special emphasis on the effect of
the inertia of external coils on the strength of the bearing structure of the transformer.
2 Experimental Studies – Determination of Parameters

of Rubber Washers
Intermediary elements between the transformer core and coil are mounting systems
containing rubber washers.
An element which exhibits the highest values of formability is a rubber washer. In
the transformer modelling process by means of the finite element method these systems
were substituted with springs coupling the coil with the core.
Hence, it is crucial to determine the value of substitute stiffness that needs to be
assigned to these elements. An issue to be solved in this respect is the fact that rubber
washers used in the structure introduce kinematic constraints for the structure, and –
consequently – freedom for the coil to be displaced along the washer planes. Therefore,
the deformation model of the washers needs to address the non-linear nature of the
relation between the force and the deformation, where after exceeding a critical value
there occurs a slip of one element towards the second one, and consequently a lateral
displacement of the coil.
In order to determine relevant characteristics, a test stand presented in Fig. 1 was
built.
Numerical Investigations of the Influence of Seismic Vibrations 165
Fig. 1. Test stand for slip testing
The MTS testing machine with a hydraulic cylinder with an embedded force and
displacement sensor was used. At the end of the cylinder rod a special steel block was
installed, which through a system of the tested rubbers was pressed by intermediary
elements present in the tested object (Fig. 2).
As it was observed, the values received point to two facts. The first one is that the
force with which the pin was slid out from the rubber washers strongly correlated with
the force used to compress the system (the friction force depended on the pressure /
downforce). The second fact is that in the first phase elastic deformations of the rubber
were visible, until reaching a critical force. When it was exceeded, there occurred a slip
of the block along the surfaces of the rubber washers (in principle, the force of friction
developed was not subject to any changes).
Fig. 2. View of the test stand

166 S. Duda et al.
Considering the fact that the weight force derived from the mass of the coil equals
2500 N and taking the existence of an additional pressure in the system into account,
deriving from the screws fixing the coil on the support structure, it was decided to
determine an equivalent value of stiffness of the spring from the upper characteristics.
Hence, the determined stiffness value equals k = 120 kN/m (F = 1200 N at
x = 5 mm), the interpretation being that when the value of the force in the spring
exceeds 1200 N, there could occur a permanent displacement of the coil towards the
core (Figs. 3, 4 and 5).
Tightening torque 2 Nm
Load [N]
Displacement [mm]
Fig. 3. Family of characteristics of the reaction force of the system versus displacement
The mass of the coil was assumed in compliance with the data provided by the
manufacturer, m = 250 kg. The coils are mounted on the structure via intermediary
elements – rubber washers. The stiffness of the rubber washers on the directions
rectangular towards the mounting plane of the coils was determined by means of tests
conducted on testing machines.
As a result of the tests performed, characteristics of the rubber element were
obtained – deformation versus load. On this basis, assuming a linear increase of the
deformation resulting from the working load, the stiffness factor of the rubber washers
was determined k = 7 MN/m.
Fig. 4. View of the test stand; a) general view; b) view of the compressing head
12000
10000
8000 Rubber_sample_5mm_test
1 to 10 kN
6000
Rubber_sample_5mm_test
Load [N]
4000 2 to 10 kN
2000
0
-2000
-1 0 1 2
Displacement [mm]
Fig. 5. Characteristics of the head displacement versus force
By assuming in the model that the coil is connected with the underframe by means
of four elastic systems (in a parallel way), the frequency of natural vibrations of the
system model in the 1st degree of freedom was determined.
rffiffiffiffiffi
8k
x¼ ¼ 473rad=s f ¼ 75 Hz
m
3 Numerical Model
The numerical model was developed on the basis of a 3D model of the transformer
(Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. 3D model of the transformer

168 S. Duda et al.
The model was simplified by means of eliminating elements of the transformer

fittings which have no effect on its strength properties. Screw connections between the
profiles were substituted with bonded connections (Fig. 7a). In the numerical model
technological holes the presence of which could have its effect on the strength of the
structure were left (Fig. 7b).
Fig. 7. Elements of a discrete transformer model a) way of connecting profiles, b) longitudinal

member model with process openings
Fig. 8. 3D model of the transformer after discretisation
Having introduced simplifications, the model was discretised by means of functions

densifying the finite element mesh so as to reflect details of the structure which might
have their effect on the strength properties (Fig. 8). The statistics of the division into
finite elements are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Statistics of the model division into finite elements

Name Number
Total nodes 335,631
Total elements 415,210
Total body elements 199,004
Total contact elements 216,206
Element types 11
Components 14
Contacts 30
The numerical calculations were carried out in the ANSYS software. The modal
analysis and response spectrum modules were applied.
In the first place, a numerical modal analysis was performed; next, the response
spectrum analysis was carried out, where the transformer model was burdened with the
spectral characteristics of acceleration.
It was assumed in the model that the material used to make profiles of the support
structure of the transformer is steel with the following parameters: Young’s modulus
E = 2e + 05 MPa, Poisson’s ratio c = 0,3 and density q = 7850 kg/m3.
4 Boundary Conditions of the Numerical Analyses
The modal numerical analysis was performed within the frequency range 0.5 Hz–
50 Hz. The model of the structure was virtually mounted on the substrate, in so doing
depriving it of 6 degrees of freedom (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. Degrees of freedom of the coil towards the core (the colours signify free degrees of
freedom)
170 S. Duda et al.
The essence of further analyses is the connection of the coils with the core of the
transformer. On the basis of experimental studies the coils of the transformer were
connected to the core by means of a kinematic pair, depriving the coil of 3 degrees of
freedom, as shown in Fig. 10, and fixed by means of springs with the rigidity of
k = 120 kN/m in the radial and circumferential direction (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10. Degrees of freedom of the coil towards the core (the colours signify free degrees of
freedom)
The boundary conditions of the response spectrum numerical analysis for the hor-
izontal extorsion are described below. The response spectrum simulation is a deter-
ministic analysis, bringing the considered problem down to a statistical issue, as a result
of which a solution is proposed in the form of maximum tensions and displacements. For
the purposes of the simulation the load in the form of the acceleration spectrum was
adopted, on the basis of the standard: IEEE Std 693-2005 (Figs. 11 and 12).
20
16
Acceleration [m/s^2]
12
8
4
0
0.1 1 10 100
Extortion frequency [Hz]
Fig. 11. Characteristics of the seismic load applied in the simulation according to the standard
IEEE Std 693-2005
The operation of the presented extortion was applied in the place of fixing the model to
the substrate. The variants of the simulation performed are depicted in Fig. 14.
0 degrees 30 degrees
60 degrees 90 degrees
Fig. 12. Direction of operation of the seismic extortion
5 Calculation Results
10 forms of natural vibrations were determined in the analysed range, the first 9 of
which are displacements of the coils, and the last form of the vibrations refers to the
entire structure.
Results of the response spectrum analysis for the horizontal extorsion. The maxi-
mum displacement values and the maximum values of reduced tensions HMH are
presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Results of the response spectrum analysis in a horizontal plane.

Model orientation
0° 30° 60° 90°
Maximum coil displacement (mm) 4.86 4.7 4.7 4.79
Maximum reduced tensions of the bearing 117.25 109.51 109.51 89.413
structure (MPa)
172 S. Duda et al.
Fig. 13. Maximum displacements of the model for the extortion orientation of 0°
Fig. 14. HMH tensions of the lower profiles for the extortion orientation of 0°
6 Conclusions
The study presents results of numerical analyses of the transformer, illustrating the
condition of tensions of selected structural elements and relative displacements of
elements, particularly the coils. For this purpose, the Authors made a number of
assumptions, which in their view reflect the concept of functioning of the structure in
the mechanical aspect. Furthermore, a series of experimental studies were performed on
actual transformer elements, thanks to which parameters describing physical properties
of the system were determined. Implementation of these parameters to the MES model
and the numerical analyses performed allowed to obtain results in the form of coloured
maps of displacements and reduced tensions according to the HMH hypothesis in
different variants of the model load.
The numerical analyses performed led to a conclusion that as a result of the
influence deriving from seismic vibrations modelled according to the acceleration
spectrum of the extortion signal presented in Fig. 13, the analysed structure satisfies the
strength-related requirements. This means that reduced tensions in any region of the
structure are considerably below the admissible tensions limit provided for the material
which individual elements of the structure are made of.
As a result of the influence deriving from seismic vibrations modelled according to
the spectrum of accelerations of the extortion signal presented in Fig. 13, the trans-
former coils are displaced within an admissible range, which means that when the
extortion ceases they will not change their position towards the core. This solution was
obtained with an assumption that the coils are kept in place towards the core exclu-
sively by elastic deflection forces of the rubbers located between the coil and the
bearing structure.
In the reality, an additional barrier preventing the displacement of the coil towards
the core are “protrusions” of the fixing elements, which was confirmed during the
bench tests.
References
1. Chun L, Deping Y (2015) Seismic safety evaluation of power transformer based on response
spectrum method. In: 3rd international conference on machinery, materials and information
technology applications (ICMMITA), pp 1139–1142
2. Płatek R, Juszkiewicz G (2011) Computer aided seismic analyses for transformers. Techn
Trans Mech 7:439–447
3. Shendge AD (2005) Earthquake resistant design of a transformer. WIT Trans Built Environ
81:395–404
4. Iwasaki S et al (2017) Latest trends of transformer bushing seismic analysis. Electron
Commun Jpn 100(1):27–43
5. Sinvhal et al (2015) Seismic analysis of transformer using different mode combination
methods. Int J Sci Res Dev 3(04):773–777
6. Bellorini S et al (1998) Seismic qualification of transformer high voltage bushings. IEEE
Trans Power Deliv 13(4):1208–1213
7. Wen B et al (2017) Experimental and analytical studies on multiple tuned mass dampers for
seismic protection of porcelain electrical equipment. Earthq Eng Eng Vib 16:803–813
174 S. Duda et al.
8. Dembowski P et al (2010) Modelowanie odpowiedzi odłącznika wysokiego napięcia SGF

123 podczas trzęsienia ziemi. Modelowanie Inżynierskie 40, Gliwice, pp 55–60
9. Stefanov D (2008) Seismic qualification of sst auxiliary transformer. in: The 14-th World
conference on earthquake engineering, Beijing, China, 12–17 October 2008
10. Dharmanto A, Shokeh M (2005) Construction of power transformer tank against high
seismic required response spectrum. in: The 21st conference of electric power supply
industry (CEPSI 2016), Bangkok China, 23–27 October 2016
11. Wen B et al (2017) Soil–structure–equipment interaction and influence factors in an
underground electrical substation under seismic loads. Appl Sci 7, 1044
12. Huo J-R, Hwang HHM (1995) Seismic fragility analysis of equipment and structures in a
memphis electric substation. Technical Report NCEER-95-0014, National center for
earthquake engineering research, State University of New York at Buffalo
13. Wang X et al (2017) Seismic response analysis of concrete lining structure in large
underground powerhouse. Hindawi Mathematical Problems in Engineering Volume 2017
14. Yan C, Hao Z, Zhang S, Zhang B, Zheng T (2015) Numerical methods for the analysis of
power transformer tank deformation and rupture due to internal arcing faults. PLoS ONE 10
(7):e0133851
15. Platek R, Juszkiewicz G (2014) Seismic analyses for power transformers. J Energy 63
(Special Issue):209–216
16. Zhang X et al (2014) Seismic reliability of UHV porcelain arrester with damping system.
Open Electr Electr Eng J 8:222–228
17. Liu Ch et al (2017) Study on earthquake response of high voltage electrical equipment
coupling system with flexible Busbar. In: IOP conference series: materials science and
engineering, vol 280:012023
18. Ersoy S, Saadeghvaziri MA (2004) Seismic response of transformer-bushing systems. Trans
Power Deliv 19(1)
19. Saadeghvaziri MA et al (2010) On seismic response of substation equipment and application
of base isolation to transformers. Trans Power Deliv 25(1)
20. Filiatrault A et al (2015) Experimental seismic response of high-voltage transformer-bushing
systems. Earthq Spectra 21(4):1009–1025
21. Płatek R et al (2010) Fluid influence on dynamic characteristics of transformer-bushing
system using fluid structure interaction (FSI) approach. IEEE Trans Dielectr Electr Insulation
17(2)
22. Hatami M et al (2004) Experimental and analytical study of a high voltage instrument
transformer. In: 13th World conference on earthquake engineering, vancouver, B.C.,
Canada, 1–6 August 2004, Paper No. 2550
Aspects of the Cryogenic Equipment
Mechanical Calculations on an Example
of the FRESCA2 Cryostat
P. Duda1(&), J. Polinski1, M. Grabowski1, A. V. Craen2, V. Parma2,

and M. Chorowski1
1
Faculty of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science
and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
pawel.duda@pwr.edu.pl
2
CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, Geneva, Switzerland
Abstract. The feature of all cryogenic equipment is that they operate at

extremely low temperatures. Typically, a liquid gas flows through or is stored in
such devices. In order to ensure that such processes are technically and eco-
nomically viable, each cryogenic device must have high quality thermal insu-
lation which will reduce heat inleaks into the cryogen. Therefore, the vast
majority of cryogenic devices employ vacuum insulation, which entails the need
to use an additional vessel on the outside of the vessel or the pipes in which the
cryogen is stored. Mechanical calculation of the cryogenic equipment should
include both the vacuum vessel loaded with external pressure and the cryogenic
vessel loaded with internal pressure. Additionally, the calculations should
include potential emergency states and loads during the equipment production
tests. This paper presents all the described aspects of mechanical calculations on
the example of the FRESCA2 (Facility for Reception of Superconducting
Cables) test station currently under design in collaboration between European
Organization for Nuclear Research CERN (Switzerland) and Wroclaw Univer-
sity of Science and Technology (Poland)
Keywords: Cryostat Fresca 2 Cryogenic Helium Vacuum
1 Introduction
Common features of the cryogenic equipment are requirements of sufficient mechanical

strength and limitation of the heat flow from the environment to the elements at the
cryogenic temperature [1]. The heat flow limitation is realized with use of the high
efficiency, vacuum based thermal insulation as well as by the reduction of the cross
section area and extension of the length of the elements that connecting the cryogenic
temperature parts with room temperature. A poor design of insulation or its damage can
lead to a very intense heat transfer to the cryogenic substance and its rapid ejection via
emergency valves [2]. On the other hand, the proper mechanical strength of the
equipment elements can be realized by selection of the materials with large cross
section area. Therefore, proper design of the cryogenic equipment requires very
sophisticated thermo-mechanical optimization.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_21
176 P. Duda et al.
A special type of the cryogenic equipment are the cryostats that provide the
cryogenic temperature environment for test of different kind. Often the cryostats
comprise a large-diameter cryogenic vessel that the bottom part is in the cryogenic
temperature while the top part is connected directly to the elements at room temper-
ature. Besides the thermal loads, internal pressure, vessel and cryogen weight, the
cryogenic vessel can be subjected with significant mass of the tested elements, high
magnetic field or electrical currents. In an addition, due to leakage of the cryogen to
and its thermal expansion in the vacuum space the cryogenic vessels can be loaded by
the external pressure. Similar loads can be generated in production process during leak
tightness tests of the vessel.
Correct mechanical calculations of the complete structure require considering all of
the mentioned aspects related to the nominal operation of the device as well emergency
situations. The method for the mechanical calculations shall be presented on an
example of the FRESCA 2 cryostat.
2 The Fresca 2 Design
The FRESCA 2 test station (acronym for Facility for the Reception of Superconducting
Cables) is the new CERN facility for the characterization and qualification of super-
conducting cables at temperatures in the range 1.9–4.3 K at currents up to 70 kA in the
presence of a background magnetic field of up to 13 T. The magnet is connected
through a pair of 13 kA HTS current leads to a 16 kA current supply. The magnet is
placed in a separate cryostat (referred to as the Outer Cryostat), which is cooled
independently (Fig. 1). It must be kept at cryogenic temperatures in order to assure the
superconductivity of the coil cables [3]. The samples to be tested are housed in a
Fig. 1. Cross-section of the 3D cryostat model

Aspects of the Cryogenic Equipment Mechanical Calculations 177
second cryostat (referred to as the Inner Cryostat) which penetrates through the aperture
of the dipole magnet. Thus, the magnet can be kept cold while each week a new sample
is cooled down, tested and warmed up. The main advantages of the double cryostat
concept is significant reduction of time and helium consumption that is required to
conduct the particular test. Its disadvantages, however, include a more complicated
construction and increased number of potential load states in the device, as the number
of vessels in this solution is twice the number of vessels in the standard device [4].
Therefore, it is vital to predict all possible load states and perform mechanical calcu-
lations only for those states which prove critical to mechanical strength.
3 Cryostat Load State Characteristics
Cryostat load states may be divided into two basic types – conditions during nominal
operation and conditions during emergency situations. Table 1 shows the loads which
may occur both during nominal operation and emergencies. Loads designated with
letter G are due to own mass of the device and loads designated with letter Q are due to
the mass of helium and test items installed in the cryostat, as well as to forces and
moments generated by the tested elements. Loads due to pressure were designated with
letter P and thermal loads – with letter T. As all of the loads provided in Table 1 never
occur simultaneously, combinations of the potential cryostat load states should be first
listed and then those states which prove critical to mechanical and thermal strength
should be selected for further mechanical calculations. Table 2 contains a list of load
combinations which may occur during nominal operation of the device. The following
designations have been used for Tables 2 and 3:
Table 1. List of loads which may occur during nominal operation, tests and cryostat failures
Types and values of loads Types and values of loads
Name Value Description Name Value Description
G1 45 (kN) Self – weight (Outer Cryostat) P1 0.15/0 Inner Vacuum
(MPa) Vessel
G2 10 (kN) Self – weight (Inner Cryostat) P2 0.15/0 Outer Vacuum
(MPa) Vessel
Q1 5 (kN) Inserts (Inner Cryostat) P3 0.39/0 Inner Helium
(MPa) Vessel
Q2 90 (kN) Magnet (Outer Cryostat) P4 0.39/0 Outer Helium
(MPa) Vessel
Q3 0.17 (kN) Liquid helium weight (Inner T1 2 (K) Inner Helium
Cryostat) Vessel
Q4 4.7 (kN) Liquid helium weight (Outer T2 2 (K) Outer Helium
Cryostat) Vessel
Q5 2000 (Nm) Torque T3 193 (K) Outer Vacuum
vessel
178 P. Duda et al.
– for forces and moments: “+” load acts on the elements of the device, “0” load is not
present; for pressures: “+” pressure has maximum value, “0” pressure value is equal
to atmospheric pressure value “-” vacuum; for temperature: “+” temperature has
minimum value “0” ambient temperature.
Table 2. List of load combinations which may occur during nominal operation of the cryostat
Load case G1 G2 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 P1 P2 P3 P4 T1 T2
LC1 + + + + + 0 – – + 0 + 0
LC2 + + + + 0 + – – 0 + 0 +
LC3 + + + + + + – – + + + +
The LC3 case was selected as the most critical load state in nominal operation. In
this case, both vessels contain liquid helium having pressure of 0.39 MPa, the vacuum
vessels are under vacuum.
Table 3. List of load combinations which may occur during production tests of the cryostat
Load case G1 G2 Q1 Q2 P1 P2 P3 P4
LC4 + + + + + + − −
LC5 + + + + – – test test
LC6 + + + + – – − test
Table 2 contains a list of the load combinations which may occur during production
tests of the cryostat.
For this case two most critical load states were selected: the LC4, when pressure
inside vacuum vessels is 0.15 MPa, while helium vessels are under vacuum, and the
LC5, when helium vessels are loaded with a test pressure greater from the maximum
allowable working pressure by a factor of 1.43.
4 Calculations of Vessel Wall Thickness Based on EN

13445-3
Initial thickness values of the walls in the cryostat were calculated analytically using
the EN 13445-3 [5] standard. All vessels were assumed to be made of austenitic
stainless steel 1.4306. All material strength properties for calculation were taken from
the respective European standards. Allowable design stresses were obtained by
applying the safety factor of EN 13458-2 [6], clause 4.3.3.3 and EN 13445-3 Table 1.
Minimum wall thickness values were calculated for both cylindrical parts and the
torispherical ends. All vessels were tested for the loads caused by both internal and
external pressure. For the vessels in which heat transfer must be reduced, reinforcement
ribs were used, allowing a reduction in wall thickness and thus a reduction of heat flux
to helium. Analytical calculations of wall thickness values allowed constructing a

model which was used in further FEM calculations.
5 Application of Finite Element Method

in Thermomechanical Calculations of the Cryostat –
Selected Examples
Thermomechanical calculations of the cryostat were performed in the ANSYS

Workbench 13 environment with us of the discrete model with the solid and shell
elements. Vessels, stubs and pipes were modeled as shell elements type 281. Figure 2a
shows the model together with the FEM mesh. The analysis for the LC3 case, required
in the first step a thermal analysis aimed at determining temperature distribution in the
model. In the next step, the plotted temperature distribution was imported as one of the
boundary conditions for the mechanical model. The following boundary conditions
were assumed for the thermal analysis (Fig. 2b): temperature of elements in contact
with liquid helium is 2 K, temperature of thermalization elements is 77 K, convective
heat exchange between the upper part of the cryostat and the environment having heat
transfer coefficient of 2 W/m2K and at ambient temperature of 295 K. The conservative
approach to heat transfer coefficient provides the thermal margin required to avoid
water condensation on the external walls of the cryostat. The results of thermal analysis
allowing determination of the static heat inleaks into helium present in the cryogenic
vessels and plotting temperature fields in the tested device (Fig. 3a).
Fig. 2. FEM model; a) grid; b) boundary conditions for thermal analysis

180 P. Duda et al.
Fig. 3. Plotted temperature field; a) for the complete cryostat; b) for the upper plates
Temperatures obtained for the upper plates of the device (Fig. 3b) are of special
interest, as these are the places mostly prone to water condensation. The determined
temperature distribution was subsequently used in static mechanical analysis to find
thermal shrinkage values for vessels and stress values due to loads which occur during
nominal operation of the device. Determination of stress values with Finite Element
Method requires finding primary stress, secondary stress, as well as membrane stress
and bending stress. In the next step, the above values should be compared with
allowable stress values, depending on the type of load and stress location. This pro-
cedure is detailed in EN 13458-2 Annex A. The distributions of the stress intensity
(membrane + bending + peak stresses) are shown in Fig. 4) and membrane stresses are
shown in Fig. 4b.
Fig. 4. Stress intensity a) and membrane stress b) for nominal operation of the device
The maximum membrane stress in the vessel (176 MPa) is lower than the maxi-
mum allowable membrane stress (192 MPa). The maximum stress intensity in the
vessel (289 MPa) which can be found in opening of external helium vessel is lower
than the maximum allowable total stress for nozzles and opening (360 MPa).
A similar analysis was performed for the remaining load conditions selected from
the list of potential loads during device production tests (LC4 and LC5). The LC4 load
case is the most interesting as the loads acting on the cryogenic vessels and on the
vacuum vessels are completely different than loads in nominal conditions. The distri-
butions of the stress intensity are shown in Fig. 5a) and membrane stresses are shown
in Fig. 5b).
Fig. 5. Stress intensity a) and membrane stress b) for production tests of the device
The maximum membrane stress in the vessel (110 MPa) is lower than the maxi-
mum allowable membrane stress (192 MPa).The maximum stress intensity in the
vessel (115 MPa) is lower than the maximum allowable total stress.
Complete mechanical analysis of the vessels in the presented cryostat requires an
additional stability check of the vacuum vessel loaded with external pressure. This
procedure may be performed with the use of a method proposed in EN 13445-3 Annex
Sect. 8 (Design by Analysis – Direct Route: Instability). This method is based on the
application of loads on a pre-deformed model with imperfection based on the buckling
shapes of the structure. To define the deformed model, the method proposed in Pressure
Vessel Design – the direct Route [7] can be used.
Cryogenic devices in different operation modes and under production tests can be
loaded with different thermal and mechanical forces that vary in values and in direc-
tions. Thus, a number of the mechanical calculation cases is normally very high what
increase the design works time. However, it was shown that as the load types can be
classified into groups and as the worst case scenarios can be identified from the per-
spective of material strength, it is possible to significantly limit the number of analyses
required.
182 P. Duda et al.
Standards – based analytical calculation allowing determination of the preliminary

dimensions of reinforcement elements and thicknesses of vessel walls, but thermal load
aspect is difficult for implementation. Only employing of the Finite Element Method in
the mechanical calculations enabling establishing a full connection between mechanical
and thermal loads and offer an overall analysis of the model developed for a particular
load case.
References
1. Skrzypacz J, Jaszak P (2018) Selected aspects of cryogenic tank fatigue calculations for
offshore application. Int J Appl Mech Eng 23(1):251–259
2. Malecha ZM (2017) The numerical evaluation of safety valve size in the pipelines of
cryogenic installations. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 171
3. Lubryka E, Malecha ZM (2017) The numerical boundary conditions of the wrapping pattern
of thin insulation. Int J Heat Mass Transf 108, Part A
4. Vande Craen A, Grabowski M (2016) Fresca 2 cryostat - functional specification, CERN
5. EN 13445-3:2002 Unfired pressure vessels – Design
6. EN 13458-2:2006 Cryogenic vessels. Static vacuum insulated vessels – Design, fabrication,
inspection and testing
7. Zeman JL, Rauscher F, Schindler S (2006) Pressure vessel design: the direct route. Elsevier,
p 324, ISBN 0-080-97214-4
Modelling Machine Tool Rocking Vibrations
Using Reduced Order Models
Paweł Dunaj(&), Stefan Berczyński, and Michał Dolata
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics,

West Pomeranian University of Technology Szczecin, 19 Piastów Avenue,
70-310 Szczecin, Poland
pawel.dunaj@zut.edu.pl
Abstract. In presented paper, an experimental investigation on dynamic prop-

erties of a machine tool basis was conducted. A process of modal parameters
estimation was carried out and as a result modal model was built. Significant
mode shapes from the viewpoint of rocking and self-excited vibrations was
identified and briefly described. According to fact that specimen was a prototype,
structural elements characterized by excessive levels of vibration were indicated.
Keywords: Model order reduction Guyan reduction

Craig-Bampton reduction Kammer reduction Machine tool body
Finite elements method
1 Introduction
The finite elements method allows the determination of static and dynamic charac-
teristics machine tools without the need for expensive and time-consuming experi-
mental research. Unfortunately, complicated structures, especially kinematic pairs,
require complicated simulation models. These, in turn, require large computational
effort. Many authors show in their publications, for example [7], that complicated parts
of the model can be replaced by their simplified replacements. The process of creation
of replacement elements requires a lot of experience and knowledge and does not
significantly reduce the dimensionality of the whole model. Machine manufacturers try
to meet the increasing demands of customers by using offset compensation methods in
the machine’s control system. For such applications, calculation models with a mini-
mum number of degrees of freedom are necessary. For this and other reasons many
authors look for methods to reduce computational models. In this article, FEM, Guyan,
Craig-Bampton and Kammer reduction methods will be compared. In addition, the
results of the analytical methods will be compared to the experimental data.
2 Finite Element Model
The object of study shown in Fig. 1 was a machine tool body composed of two bolted
components: the first was a grey cast iron casting, the second one was a welded steel
construction.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_22
184 P. Dunaj et al.
bolted connection
grey cast iron
steel
support
Fig. 1. Machine tool body composed of two materials
In the first stage of the work, a machine body model was built using finite elements
method. Modeling began with the construction of a geometrical model, i.e. giving the
structure the appropriate dimensions and shapes and selection of material constants
describing the actual mechanical system. During the construction of the model, some
simplifications were made in relation to the actual construction involving the removal
of elements of the model, irrelevant from the point of view of the analyzed phe-
nomenon, i.e. small holes, small fillets, chamfers, etc. After the geometrical model was
prepared, bodies were discretized using CTETRA type elements. The model subjected
to discretization is shown in Fig. 2.
simplified geometric model discretized model
fixed
Fig. 2. Machine tool body model subjected to discretization

Modelling Machine Tool Rocking Vibrations 185
The next step was to model the contact between the components. Due to the nature
of the connection between steel and grey cast iron parts, it was decided to model it as
coincident mesh, which is common practice and corresponds to the welded contact
model.
Due to the more complicated nature of contact between the body and support,
limited selection of contact models and reduction method restrictions it was decided to
model it using a third body contact model [1, 8] (Fig. 3).
contact joint
„third body”
contact model
fixed fixed
Fig. 3. Modelling machine body tool support contact stiffness
3 FEM Model Experimental Identification
The FEM model presented in Sect. 2. was subjected to experimental identification.

Experimental setup is schematically shown in Fig. 4. The excitation was realized at
points indicated by arrows in three orthogonal directions, using PCB 086D20 modal
hammer with 1.5 [kg] head mass. The structure response was measured in 71 points
using three-axis IPC accelerometers, characterized by sensitivity of 10 mV/(m/s2) and
accurate signal representation at the low frequency range. This corresponds to expected
(thanks to preliminary tests and literature sources [3, 6]) dynamic properties machine
tool bodies – rocking vibrations occur, in low frequency range. The experiment
Fig. 4. Experimental setup

186 P. Dunaj et al.
included measurements, data processing, analysis of vibration levels in order to select

the relevant mode shapes. Modal model was build and validated using LMS TestLab
software Scadas III hardware.
As a result of experiment, 213 frequency response functions were determined using
H1 type of FRF estimator. On their basis, using a Polymax method for esti-mating a set
of natural frequencies and corresponding mode shapes (in range 10100 Hz) modal
model was build. The modal model poles selection was based on stabilization diagram.
In addition Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC), was used to indicate physical mode
shapes with low orthogonality level. Table 1 contains a comparison of eigenfrequen-
cies obtained from experiment and from the FEM model, Fig. 5 shows examples of
determined mode shapes.
Table 1. Comparison of eigenfrequencies from FEM and the experiment

Mode number FEM model Experimental data
1 10.92 Hz 12.76 Hz
2 14.04 Hz 14.90 Hz
3 22.39 Hz 20.77 Hz
4 29.72 Hz 30.41 Hz
5 41.58 Hz 53.10 Hz
FE model Experimental data
10.9 Hz 12.8 Hz
14.1 Hz 14.9 Hz
Fig. 5. Comparison of selected mode shapes obtained on the basis of the FE model and
experimental data
4 Model Order Reduction
The finite element method is one of the most popular computer methods for solving
problems related to the dynamic behavior of the structure. Its essence consists in
replacing a continuous model of a mechanical system described by means of partial
differential equations with a discrete model, which in the mathematical description
assumes the form of a system of algebraic equations:
M€
u þ Ku ¼ f ð1Þ
where: M – global mass matrix, K – global stiffness matrix, f – load vector, u – state
vector, M; KRnxn and u; f Rnx1 . The purpose of model reduction is to find the
m DOFs system preserving the dynamic characteristics of the full model, in which
m n. The commonly used approach is to approximate the state vector by means of
transformation u ¼ TuR , where TRnxm and uR Rmx1 :
€R þ K R uR ¼ f R
MR u ð2Þ
where the reduced matrices MR, KR are:
M R ¼ T T MT K R ¼ T T KT ð3Þ
Guyan Reduction
One of the first and also the most popular methods of reduction is static condensation
also called static reduction or Guyan reduction [4]. This method consists in reducing
the degrees of freedom of the FEM model to degrees of freedom located on the border
of the model (master DOFs). Reduction is made by removing slave degrees of freedom
defined as being outside the model boundary while master DOF’s retain the stiffness
and inertia of the model. Partitioning of the state vector in the master and slave DOFs
allows divided system matrices into submatrices as follows:

M mm M ms €m
u K mm K ms um fm
¼ ð4Þ
M sm M ss €s
u K sm K ss us fs
where: um – master degrees of freedom, us – slave degrees of freedom

Solving the second row equation in (4) for us results in:
us ¼ K 1 €m þ M ss u
ss ½M sm u €s þ K sm um ð5Þ
188 P. Dunaj et al.
assuming that there are no loads acting on slave degrees of freedom (fs = 0) and
neglecting the inertia terms, results in the transformation of the state vector for Guyan
reduction:

um I
¼ um ¼ T G u m ð6Þ
us K 1
ss K sm
where TG is the Guyan transformation matrix and can be used do obtain reduced
system matrices.
Due to its static nature, Guyan reduction brings acceptable results for frequencies
close to the lowest eigenfrequencies of the system. At higher frequencies, the concept
of neglecting inertia have a stronger influence, causing significant errors. The efficiency
of this method depends to a large extent on the choice of master degrees of freedom.
Craig-Bampton Reduction
Craig-Bampton reduction [2] unlike Guyan reduction accounts for both inertia and
stiffness making it more accurate. Craig–Bampton, reduction compensates for the
neglected inertia terms by including a set of generalized coordinates n. These coor-
dinates represent the amplitudes ratios of mode shapes calculated for slave structure,
with the master DOFs being fixed (um = 0. Assuming a harmonic solution and that
there are no loads acting on the slave DOFs (fs = 0) results in the following eigenvalue
problem:
ðK ss kM ss Þ/ ¼ 0 ð7Þ
Eigenmodes / obtained from solving eigenvalue problem (7), are selected as

additional vectors to the approximation of the slave DOFs:
X
us ¼ K 1
ss K sm um þ /i ni ¼ Wum þ /n ð8Þ
This gives the following transformation of the state vector for Craig-Bampton
reduction:

um I 0 um um
¼ ¼ T CB ð9Þ
us W / us ns
where TCB is the Craig-Bampton transformation matrix.

As with Guyan reduction, the accuracy of Craig-Bampton reduction depends on the
selection of the master DOFs, which affects both the static modes and the eigenmodes
of the slave structure. In addition, it should be noted that the accuracy of Craig-
Bampton reduction also depends on the choice of eigenmodes, some eigenmodes have
a greater impact on the result than others. Generally the more modes specified the better
the accuracy at the cost of increased computation time.
Kammer Reduction
Kammer reduction [5] is based on normal mode shapes. Kammer reduction provides
that all dynamic information contained in FEM model is preserved by the reduction
process.
u ¼ /n ð10Þ
According to Kammer reduction method a state vector u can be partitioned

according to master and slave DOFs, resulting in to simultaneous matrix equations:
um ¼ /m n ð11Þ
us ¼ /s n ð12Þ
To obtain a relationship between coordinates um and us, Eq. (11) must be solved for
n. However, due to the fact that the matrix /m in general will be rectangular, it is not
possible to solve this equation by direct inversion. Premultiplying Eq. (11) by /Tm , and
solving it for n yields to:
T 1 T
/m /m /m um ¼ n ð13Þ
1
where: /Tm /m /Tm represents the Moore-Penrose generalized inverse of /m .
Submitting Eq. (13) in to (12) gives:
1
us ¼ /Tm /m /Tm um ð14Þ
The transformation matrix is defined as follows:

I
TK ¼ 1 : ð15Þ
/Tm /m /Tm
Model developed in Sect. 2 was subjected to a presented reduction method (re-

ducing its size from 11 970 DOFs to 113 DOFs), comparison of eigenfrequencies
obtained by different methods is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Effect of applied reduction method on eigenfrequencies values

Mode Full Guyan reduced Craig-Bampton Kammer reduced
number model model reduced model model
1 10.92 Hz 10.94 Hz 10.93 Hz 10.93 Hz
2 14.04 Hz 14.05 Hz 14.04 Hz 14.04 Hz
3 22.39 Hz 22.51 Hz 22.39 Hz 22.39 Hz
4 29.72 Hz 29.84 Hz 29.72 Hz 29.72 Hz
5 41.58 Hz 42.06 Hz 41.58 Hz 41.48 Hz
190 P. Dunaj et al.
This paper presents the analysis of FEM model simplification methods. First, a full
FEM model was created and based on it, dynamic analyzes were carried out. In order to
verify the quality of the model, experimental tests of the real object were carried out.
Considering the simplifications made, the degree of matching of results was very high.
Attention should be paid to the higher natural frequencies obtained experimentally.
The next stage was the reduction of the FEM model. It was decided to carry out the
reduction with three methods: Guyan, Craig-Bampton and Kammer. Despite com-
pletely different methodology of operation during the reduction, the results obtained
with all methods were very similar to the results of the full model. The comparison
concerned low frequencies - the first five modal characters. Despite many advantages of
the reduction and the results, which are at least good, it should be noted that the
preparation of the model for reduction and the process itself for all methods many times
exceeds the calculation time. The use of reduction methods makes sense only if very
short calculation times are needed. Models after reduction retain full information about
the object as shown in Table 2. However, the calculations made with their use are very
fast. The application of reduction methods, which in the first place requires the con-
struction of a full FEM model, may take place in positioning compensation methods in
machine tools control system.
References
1. Chlebus E, Dybala B (1999) Modelling and calculation of properties of sliding guideways.
Int J Mach Tools Manuf 39(12):1823–1839
2. Craig R, Bampton M (1968) Coupling of substructures for dynamic analyses. AIAA J
6(7):1313–1319
3. Dunaj P, Chodźko M (2017) Experimental investigation on dynamic properties of turning
machine. Adv Manuf Sci Technol 41(1)
4. Guyan RJ (1965) Reduction of stiffness and mass matrices. AIAA J 3(2):380
5. Kammer DC (1987) Test-analysis model development using an exact modal reduction. Int J
Anal Exp Modal Anal 2(4):174–179
6. Kono D et al (2015) A method for stiffness tuning of machine tool supports considering
contact stiffness. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 90:50–59
7. Pajor M, Marchelek K, Powałka B (2002) Method of reducing the number of DOF in the
machine tool-cutting process system from the point of view of vibrostability analysis. Modal
Anal 8(4):481–492
8. Szwengier G, Goduński T, Berczyński S (2000) Identification of physical parameters in
contact joints models of machines supporting systems. Adv Eng Softw 31(2):149–155
Algorithmic Method of Constructional
Features Selection of the Module System
of Hydraulic Cylinders Utilized in National
Mining Industry
Piotr Gendarz1(&), Aleksander Gwiazda1, and Lothar Kroll2

1
Institute of Engineering Processes Automation and Integrated
Manufacturing Systems, Silesian University of Technology,
Konarskiego Street 18a, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
{piotr.gendarz,aleksander.gwiazda}@polsl.pl
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Lightweight Structures
and Polymer Technology, TU Chemnitz, Reichenhainer Str. 31/33,
09126 Chemnitz, Germany
lothar.kroll@mb.tu-chemnitz.de
Abstract. Modular system of constructions allow, with a limited number of

constructional modules, created a wide spectrum of modular constructions
(assemblies) adapting them to the needs of a future user. At the same time, due
to the seriality of manufacturing and possibility of specialization of the pro-
duction devices it allows decreasing the manufacturing costs. Guiding by these
premises it has been elaborated the modular system of hydraulic cylinders of:
supports, gangway devices and longwall shearers for national mining industry.
Keywords: Integration Parameterization Graphic program
1 Introduction
The creation of modular systems requires an integral view on a specific family of

technical means rkn (e.g. hydraulic cylinders (props) for the hard coal mining industry),
due to their operating conditions, innovativeness and operational reliability. The
modular system of a construction is created by the modules MKn together with the rules
of their selection RGn, Fig. 1. The creation of a modular system of a family of con-
structions is the highest form of its ordering and is a very labor-intensive and arduous
issue [1, 7, 9, 10]. That is why its computer aiding is justified by means of methods to
which next methods are included [2, 3]: of creating a knowledge base about the family
of constructions, of characteristic features unification, of constructional form typiza-
tion, of typical constructional solutions disaggregation, of dimension values selection,
of optimization of the dimension values diversity, of parametric description of a
construction, of assembly creation basing on the substitution of constructional modules
(Fig. 2).

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_23
192 P. Gendarz et al.
Fig. 1. Modular system of hydraulic cylinders
Fig. 2. Main stages of creating of ordered families of construction
The result of these stages is an ordered family of constructions. The following types
of assignments were distinguished in the process:
a – between unified characteristic features and typical constructional solutions,
b – between typical constructional solutions and typical constructional forms of
elements,
c – between unified characteristic features and dimension values,
d – between unified characteristic features and optimally differentiated dimension
values, which mainly affects the number of ordered components of the construction
family.
Basing on the assignment a, b, c, d rules for the selection of ordered components of
the construction family are created.
Algorithmic Method of Constructional Features Selection 193
Of the above-mentioned stages of the process of creating ordered families of

hydraulic cylinder constructions is the choice of the dimension values in which the
assignment c is realized.
2 Assignment c - Selection of Dimension Values
The subject of considerations at this stage are the quantitative constructional features
wejil ðj ¼ 1; jzÞ selected due to the unified values of the characteristic features cchuic ,
called the assignment c
cchuic ! wejil ðj ¼ 1; jzÞ: ð1Þ
The result of the assignment is an array of variable dimension values created for a
particular constructional form and dimension system of an element, Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Assignment c
Due to formalization of the description, from the set of characteristic features one
has distinguished CCHcu quantitative characteristic features called parameters of the
construction family Paua ða ¼ 1; azÞ. The matrix of parameters pauia represents the
independent variables when quantitative constructional features of the elements xuia ¼
pauia are determined In contrast, variables of dimension values are dependent ones
yejml ¼ wvejml .
On the basis of the conducted research, the following methods for determining the
quantitative values of constructional features have been distinguished [1]:
1. traditional method,
2. method of constructional similarity,
3. algorithmic method,
4. method of neural networks.
The subject of consideration in this work is the algorithmic method.
2.1 Algorithmic Method

The algorithmic method in the ordered fimily of constructions is the method of creating
the assignment c between the unified values of parameters xuia and quantitative features

of the construction of elements yejml ; l ¼ 1; lvj , in the order and relation created on the

basis of the graph of the coupling relations G ptej rw using operators [O], according to
the dependence below [4]:
yejml ðj ¼ 1; jzÞ ¼ ½O xuia ; for m ¼ i; dla m ¼ i: ð2Þ
The model of assignment creation is shown in Fig. 4.

The basis for selection the quantitative constructional features are operators [O].
The operators determine relations between values of unknown dimensions yejm;nz based
on values of parameters xuia or values of known dimensions yejm;zn :
½O ½O
xuia ! yejm;nz or yejm;zn ! yejm;nz ð3Þ
The following types of operators have been distinguished, Fig. 5:

• geometric operators OG,
• strengths operators OW,
• selected elements operators dobieranych OD,
• manufacturing process operators OP,
Fig. 4. Model of algorithmic creation of the assignment c

Fig. 5. Operators of selection the quantitative constructional features
• constructional similarity operators OC,

• conjugated dimensions operators OS.
Values of unknown dimensions yejm;nz are usually determined using the geometric
operators. This group of operators includes such operators like: arithmetic, trigono-
metric, conditional and adjusting values to the series of normal numbers:
OG 2 OAR [ OTR [ OWA [ ONO : ð4Þ
Strength operators use the conditions of strength verification of a construction.

Because these conditions are dependent on the dimensions being chosen, this is why
they can be used as the basis for determining the values of unknown dimensions yejm;nz :

r ¼ f yejm;nz kr
Ow
s ¼ f yejm;nz ks ! yejm;nz ð5Þ

p ¼ f yejm;nz kp
In the process of determining the values of dimensions yejm;nz , the selected elements
operators (catalog elements, normalized ones, manufactured by cooperators) are used
as the first. In this group of operators one should first meet the criterion of selecting the
typical values by defining the parameters of the selected element X jD on the basis of
known dimensions yejm;zn , and then meet the criteria of the assembly, choose the values
of dimensions of their arrangement wD zab . The general model of the application of
selected elements operators is determined by:
OD
jD
yejm;zn ! X
OD D ð6Þ
jD !
X wzab
yejm;nz ¼ f ðwD
zab Þ
Fulfilling the criteria resulting from the right of manufacturing possibilities, the
manufacturing process operators are designated. These operators are used similarly to
the operators of standardized elements:
OP P
j
yejm;zn ! X
OP P ð7Þ
jP !
X wc
yejm;nz ¼ wPc
The constructional similarity operators can be interpreted

as follows: if for the
0 the values of the dimensions Y0;zn yejo;zn are known, then
given parameter values X u ej
maintaining the condition of construction congruency [5,

6] - what
dimension values
will be accepted by the newly constructed element Ym;nz ym;nz for new vectors of
ej ej
iu :
needs X

0u ! Y0ej yej0;zn
X
ð8Þ
iu ! Ymej yejm;zn
X
The basis for creating conjugated dimensions operators is the graph of coupling
relations G ptej
rw , Fig. 6a [4]. On the basis of operators of conjugated dimensions OS
and known dimensions yejm;zn are determined the values of unknown dimensions of the
cooperating element yejm;nz
þ1
:
OS
yejm;zn ! ym;nz
ej þ 1
: ð9Þ
Presented formalized operations allow determining the values of particular features

of the analyzed type of a construction.
Taking into account in the graph the coupling relations Gðptej rw Þ all of the mentioned
operators is the basis for creating the algorithm for choosing the values of dimensions
depending on the system and variant structure of the construction family [8], Fig. 6b.
Fig. 6. Model of creating the computer program designating the assignment c
The final result is the computer program elaborated in Visual Fortran, C++,
AutoLISP or another programming language that allows calculating the values of
dimensions of the components of the construction family [2, 3] for the unified values of
parameter.
Constructional modules are created only after optimizing the variety of dimension
values [1]. The calculation program PO contains a variant structure, distinguishing the
sub-programs of the variant POzr
w . The sub-programs of the variant are divided next into
program modules POejrw that correspond to typical constructional forms of elements ptej
rw .
The program structure is additionally extended with program modules: of the strength
verification (containing operators OW), of program of selected elements (containing
operators OD), of program including the technological process (including operators
OD), of program of constructional similarity (containing operators OC), and of program
for results saving.
References
1. Gendarz P (2002) Methodology for ordered sets of machine constructions creating,
Wydawnictwo Politechniki Śląskiej, Gliwice. (in Polish)
2. Gendarz P (2009) Elastic modular system of machine design. Wydawnictwo Politechniki
Śląskiej Gliwice. (in Polish)
3. Gendarz P (2009) Hauptzuordnungen bei Modulbildungsprozessen von Konstruktionen.
Forschung Im Ingenieurwesen – Engineering Research, Springer 73(4):245–255. (in
German)
4. Gendarz P (2010) Kopplungsrelationen im Prozess der Bildung geordneter Konstruktions-
familien. Forschung Im Ingenieurwesen – Engineering Research, Springer 74:175–184. (in
German)
5. Gendarz P (2010) Bildung von geordneten Konstruktionsfamilien unter Anwendung von
Ähnlichkeitsgesetzen. Forschung Im Ingenieurwesen – Engineering Research, Springer 77
(3):105–115. (in German)
6. Gendarz P, Kroll L, Rabsztyn D (2015) Praktische Verifizierung von Ähnlichkeitsgesetzen
in Typenreihen. Forschung Im Ingenieurwesen – Engineering Research, Springer 79(1):67–
74. (in German)
7. Gendarz P, Rząsiński R, Rabsztyn D (2017) The process of parameterization and creating
reference construction. In: Proceedings of the 13th international scientific conference
computer aided engineering. Springer, pp 167–174
8. Kohlhase N (1997) Strukturieren und Beurteilen von Baukastensystemen, Strategien,
Methoden, Instrumente. Diss. TH Darmstadt 1997, Fortschr. -Ber.VDI, R.1. Nr 275
Düsseldorf. VDI Verlag
9. Gwiazda A (2014) System of designing complex technical means using fuzzy analysis. Appl
Mech Mater 474:1–88. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.474.147
10. Winkler T, Tokarczyk J, Michalak D (2013) Virtual working environment. In: Haight JM
(ed) Handbook of loss prevention engineering, vol 1, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
KGaA, Weinheim, pp 393–421
Animation and Simulation as the Base
of Technical Means Systems Verification

1
Institute of Engineering Processes Automation and Integrated Manufacturing
Systems, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego Street 18a,
44-100 Gliwice, Poland
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Lightweight Structures
and Polymer Technology, TU Chemnitz, Reichenhainer Str. 31/33, 09126
Chemnitz, Germany
Abstract. The main work of a designer in a design and construction office is a

system. It describes the operation of the future technical means and thus
determines how the need will be fulfilled. There are various forms of notation of
a system. The best effects, due to the accuracy and possibility of verification of
operation of the future technical means, give the animation or simulation. The
most important is the notation of a system in the form of animation in the
graphic program. It allows among others verifying operations of the technical
means being design. The advantages of this method are presented in this paper.
1 Introduction
According to the Methodology of the Silesian School of Design and Construction,

whose precursor is Prof. Janusz Dietrych [1], the system is an arrangements of coupling
relations and transformations ones that describes the operation of the future technical
means [2, 3]. It is the basic work of an engineer in the sphere of abstraction. The design
and construction process is the most important and at the same time the most creative
stage of the product’s life cycle, Fig. 1. On the basis of the need (I), one tries to
formalize it fp, which results in the design and construction assumptions Zpk. The next
phase is the design one pr, which results in the system (Sn). It describes the operation of
the future technical means and answers the question of how the need will be fulfilled.
Providing the system with details leads to an outline of the structure (constructional
form Pn) of the future technical means. The system Sn, together with the constructional
form Pn, create a constructional solution of the technical means RKsn stored in the
form of the project (Pr). As a result of further providing the system with details and
selecting the constructional features, the construction (Ks) is created.
It is the result of constructing (ks) and describes the external structure, internal
structure as well as the states of the product created during manufacturing. The con-
struction notation is created in the form of construction documentation (DKs). The next

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_24
LIQIDATED DESIGN
TECHNICAL MEANS Pr
DES-CON
0 ASSUMPTIONS
Zpk
SYSTEM
Sn
NEED
FORMALIZATION
fp
RECYCLING NEED
DESIGNING
rc
pr
REGENERATED NEED SATISFYING CONSTRUCTING CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTIONAL

TECHNICAL MEANS DOCUMENTATION
zp ks Ks DKs
ZŚt
MANUFACTURING
EXPLOITATION PREPARATION
uż pw
MANUFACTURING
wt
TECHNICAL TECHNOLOGY
MEANS Te
St
PRODUCT
ARTIFACTS Wt TECHNOLOGICAL
DOCUMENTATION
Ar DTe
USER
MANUAL
IUż
Fig. 1. Product life cycle phases
stage of the process from the need to satisfying this need is preparation of manufac-
turing process (pw). Its result is technology (Te). The technology notation is made in
the form of technological documentation (DTe), which includes: an operation sheet,
machining instruction cards, heat treatment instruction cards, machine tooling cards,
etc. After elaboration of three works of engineering design process, in the sphere of
abstraction (system, construction and technology), follows “a clash of engineering
thought” with matter. The first effect is the manufacturing (wt) of components of the
designed technical means. On the basis of manufactured elements, subassemblies,
assemblies and ordered components of the technical means, their assembly is under-
taken, resulting in the product itself (Wt). Its state is usually the product prepared for
dispatch along with the instructions of use (IUż). Only the installed and operating
product becomes a technical means (Dt). The set of technical means creates artifacts
(Ar). As a result of damage of a technical means, its recirculation is carried out (re), i.e.
the elements are replaced or regenerated. Its result can be a remanufactured technical
means (ZŚt). As a result of technical aging and damage, the technical means is sub-
jected to liquidation (O).
2 Coupling and Transformation Relations
Elementary operations, of the future technical means, respond to particular relations of

its system. The most compact form of describing the operation of a future technical
means is the general system. The general system System ogólny SOn [4–6] is a system
reduced to the most general form, the most often to one coupling relation or one
Transformation Relation.
Animation and Simulation as the Base of Technical 201
Coupling relations are couplings between cooperating future: technical means,

assemblies, subassemblies or elements. In this relation, the input Ij is equal or nearly
equal to the output of Oj (Ij Oj). These relations may refer to all components of the
hierarchical structure of the technical means, e.g. at the assembly level the coupling
relation could be established between the motor and the toothed gear, using for
example a flange coupling.
Transformation relations are connected with transforming the input Ij into the
output Oj (Ij ! Oj): of information, energy and mass. There are two types of these
relationships: processing and transition. The processing relations relate to changing the
form of information, energy and mass into another one, e.g. electricity into mechanical
energy (electric motor), hydraulic fluid energy into mechanical energy (hydraulic
cylinder). However, the transition consists in maintaining the same form: information,
energy and mass, but with different parameters, e.g. mechanical energy with a specific
torque MI and rotational speed nI in mechanical energy with the torque MO and
rotational speed nO.
3 Forms of the System Notation
There are distinguished notations of a system in the next form [1, 3, 6]: verbal, block,
description of relations, graphs, animations or simulations of operation in a graphic
program.
The verbal form of the system notation is a verbal description of the operation of
a future technical mean. It often takes place in the instruction and manuals of a
technical means. It can describe verbally the operation of a future technical measure
with a different degree of details.
The system notation in a block form is determined by the description of inputs,
outputs and the relations between an input and an output, realized in the form of a
graph or verbal description. Figure 2 shows the transformation relation of the input
torque MI into the output torque MO, creating a block notation of the of an overload
clutch. If the value of the output torque MO is less than the value of the overload torque
MP (MO < MP), then the value of the input torque MI is equal to the value of the output
torque MO (MI = MO). If the value of the output torque MO equals or exceeds the value
of the overload moment MP (MO MP), then there will be a slip between the active
and reactive half of the clutch, i.e. the value of the input moment MI will be equal to the
overload torque MP (MI = MP). In this way, the drive system is protected against
overloading and thus destruction.
Fig. 2. Notation of a system in the block form

The notation of a system with the description of relationships is a graphic

notation of realized relations along with the verbal description of the relationships
performed by the distinguished components of a technical means (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. System notation in the form of a description of stages of operation of a technical means
The verbal description of the relations is as follows:

relation A – device 2 mines the soil on the work face and feeds it on a conveyor belt
4,
relation B – in the resulting excavation, the tube 1 is moved by means of hydraulic
cylinders 3 and the rim 6 repelling itself from the previously made part
of the tunnel,
relation C – the rim 6 is retracted by the hydraulic cylinders 3 so that a free space is
created for the installation of hollow structural sections forming the
next segment of a tunnel,
relation D – after installing the next segment and filling the free space 5 with the liquid
concrete, the cycle is finished and follows the return to the relation A.
The system notation with the use of a graph is a notation in which the graph
nodes correspond to the transformation or coupling relations, while their connections
represent the edges of the graph (Fig. 4).
In Fig. 4, nodes of the graph are marked with numbers from 1–16, which corre-
spond to the relations of transformation and couplings undertaken by components or
sets of the gear cooling system. The basic transformation relations realized in the
Fig. 4. Phenomenological model with a system notation in the form of a graph of the oil cooling
system of a tooth gear [2]
cooling system are: heat exchange in the gearbox (1), conversion of electric energy into
the oil flow in the pump (10), heat exchange in the heat exchanger (7). However,
exemplary coupling relationships are realized through wires (2, 4) and valves (3, 8).
Connections between relations determine the edges of the graph with the sense con-
sistent with the flow of the medium, creating the so-called oriented graph. In this way,
the graph not only describes the system relations, but also records its structure.
4 Animation and Simulation in the Advanced I-Deas NX

Graphic Program
Animation graphically presents the operation of a future technical means, i.e. its system
with a visual description of mainly coupling relations. The simulation, in turn, is an
animation with a simultaneously detailed description of transformation relations such
as relations of: elastic deformation, displacements, velocities, accelerations and forces
(Fig. 5).
Taking into account the chronology creation of a project starts with a formalized
description of the need in the form of a verbal notation of the general system:
“gripping an element for its displacement”,
and ending, as a result of creative activities, on the notation of the constructional

solution rkszn in the last row of the table, Fig. 5. It captures the hierarchical structure of
a gripper, i.e. basic assemblies: gripping tips, drive transmission system, drive system
SYSTEM
SYSTEM (CONSTRUCTIONAL SOLUTION) NOTATION
DESIGNATION
GENERAL SYSTEM
Move of
gripping tip
Energy GRABBING AN ITEM
Gripping
TO MANIPULATE IT force
I LEVEL OF SYSTEM DETAILING

Move of
Energy gripping tip
CATCHING HOLDING RELEASING Gripping
force
II LEVEL OF SYSTEM DETAILING

CATCHING RELEASING
ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY
CONVERTION TRANSFORMATION
HOLDING CONVERTION TRANSFORMATION
CONSTRUCTIONAL SOLUTION
PHENOMENOLOGICAL MODEL
CATCHING HOLDING RELEASING
CONSTRUCTIONAL SOLUTION
DETAILING OF THE OUTLINE OF THE GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONAL FORM
Gripping tip
Normal screws St
GRIPPING St
TIPS
Left jaw Bolt
Al St
Guide ring
Guide
DRIVE Right jaw PAc
St
TRANSMISSION Al Spring
Yoke
SYSTEM St
Housing St
Al
Packing ring
Piston sleeve
Socet head PU
DRIVE cap screws
St
SYSTEM St
Fig. 5. Degrees of detail of the system and constructional solution of a vice gripper
and components assigned to these assemblies. The elements are described mainly by
the constructional form P (i.e. the constructional geometrical form Pg and the con-
structional material form Pt).
On the basis of the developed project in an advanced graphics program, the 3D
models of the components of the gripper are created. Then its hierarchical structure is
stored, Fig. 6a. The next stage of creating the notation of the gripper system is
determining the coupling relations between interacting components also called con-
straints, Fig. 6b. These constraints are created between two: surfaces, edges or axes of
interacting models of components. The piston sleeve motion is obtained through the
coupling relations between the interacting components of the gripper system, which is
described in the form of animation, Fig. 7.
Fig. 6. Preparatory stages of animation of a vice gripper a) Notation of the hierarchical structure
of the gripper b) Assigning the coupling relations between the cooperating components
Fig. 7. Animation of a gripper operation
The notation of the system in the form of animation in the graphic program allows
accurately verifying the future operation of the technical means and the interactions of
its elements. On this basis it is easy to develop structural modifications along with the
selection of structural features with correctly carried out strength verification. Also it is
possible to conduct the optimization of dimension values using the variant analysis
method [7, 10]. Through the application of the theory of structural similarity and
parameterization of 3D models [5, 7–9], it is possible to quickly modify the selected
structural features of the components and obtain the final structure of the technical
means.
The test results could be compiled with funds from the DAAD Stipendium in TU
Chemnitz 2012.
References
1. Dietrych J (1985) System and construction. WNT Warsaw (in Polish)
2. Gendarz P (2012) The parametric record ordered families of machine design. Monograph,
Gliwice (in Polish)
3. Gendarz P, Rabsztyn D (2014) Finite element based optimization in the process of selecting
the geometric design features constructions. Int J Mod Manuf Technol VI(2):15–22
4. Pahl G, Beitz W, Feldhusen J, Grote K-H (2007) Engineering design: a systematic approach.
Springer Verlag, Berlin
5. Camba JD, Contero M, Company P (2016) Parametric CAD modeling: an analysis of
strategies for design reusability. Comput-Aided Des 74:18–31
6. Bodein Y, Rose B, Caillaud E (2014) Explicit reference modeling methodology in
parametric CAD system. Comput Ind 65(1):136–147
7. Zehtaban L, Elazhary O, Roller D (2016) A framework for similarity recognition of CAD
models. J Comput Des Eng 3(3):274–285
8. Gendarz P, Kroll L, Rabsztyn D (2015) Praktische Verifizierung von Ähnlichkeitsgesetzen
in Typenreihen. Forschung Im Ingenieurwesen – Engineering Research, Springer 79(1):67–
74 (in German)
9. Gwiazda A (2014) System of designing complex technical means using fuzzy analysis. Appl
Mech Mater 474:1–6 (DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.474.147)
10. Winkler T, Tokarczyk J, Michalak D (2013) Virtual working environment. In: Haight JM
(ed) Handbook of loss prevention engineering, vol 1, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
KGaA, Weinheim, pp 393–421
Integration of Constructional Features
Selection and Construction Description

1
Institute of Engineering Processes Automation and Integrated Manufacturing
Systems, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego Street 18a, 44-100
Gliwice, Poland
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Lightweight Structures and
Polymer Technology, TU Chemnitz, Reichenhainer Str. 31/33, 09126 Chemnitz,
Germany
Abstract. Adaptation of the graphic program for constructing of a specific

class of technical means, being the specialty of the design and construction
office, is the basic challenge of the market economy. This office that prepares the
offer and then the competitive construction of the technical means in the shortest
possible time as a result obtains the order. This effect is enabled by graphic
software applications.
1 Introduction
Elaboration of a specific application of a graphic program rest on adapting this program

to specific, design-constructional tasks as well as to design particular families of
constructions, which most often are in an ordered form, i.e. series of types or modular
systems. This adaptation of the graphics program for specific design and constructional
tasks allows significantly accelerating computer aiding and increase its quality. Self-
preparation of formats with partially filled labels, using calculation programs to select
constructional features of components, to automatic generate displacements, forces and
speeds characteristics, to use standardized and cataloged elements, to parameterize
repetitive elements, etc. makes design offices more competitive in a market economy.
Therefore, it is justified to develop the skills related with creating graphic software
applications. [1–3, 5]: The most effective tool for creating graphical application
applications is parameterization.
2 Parameterization
Parameterization is understood as a form of a construction description in which the

constructional form and the system of dimensions are mapped in the computer’s
operating memory (computer program, 2D models, 3D models), while variable values

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_25
of dimensions are read from external bases. In this way, a combination of the quali-
tative constructional features (geometric constructional form) with the quantitative
constructional features (dimension values) takes place. Changing the dimension values
in the parametric description of a construction is associated with a change of the model
of the created element description. Its results in a construction description presented
with high accuracy in the appropriate scale.
Depending on the method of introducing quantitative constructional features, next
parameterization types are distinguished [4, 6, 7]:
• dynamic,
• relational,
• graphic.
• program.
Dynamic parameterization consists in a manual change of the values of selected
dimensions, as a result of which the construction description is dynamically modified to
the given dimension values. It is rarely used in the description of series of types of
constructions.
Relational parametrization allows changing the description of a construction by
changing the values of dimensions determined in a relational way to an independent
variable, e.g.: the technical means parameter, a significant dimension. The relations
between the independent variable and the dimension values are stored in the appro-
priate editor using the algebraic, trigonometric and logical relations. So it is possible to
elaborate algorithm including mathematical relations which could be easy transformed
into any computer program.
When the specified dimension is subordinated to the independent variable, the
dimensional values are calculated, and then the existing construction description is
updated. An example of relational parameterization can be the parameterization of the
cylinder sleeve mounted on the rocker arms in the advanced graphic program I-DEAS.
Relationships between dimensions are saved in the editor designed for relations
establishing, Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Editor designed for relations establishing

Integration of Constructional Features Selection 209
On the basis of the relational parameterization, 3D models of elements could be

created, Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Models of MRO (code of elements) for the piston diameter DK = 50, DK = 100,
DK = 160
Graphical parameterization does not require programming skills, but only the
possibilities of a graphic program are used. The input data in this form of parame-
terization are tables of variable dimension values, Fig. 3, adapted to the created
parametric description.
Fig. 3. Structure of a table with variable dimensions
Among the parameterization methods mentioned above, the program parameter-

ization is used the most often.
3 Integration of Constructional Features Selection

with the Construction Description Using Program
Parameterization
Program parameterization consists in utilizing the programming language to create the

description of a construction in a graphic program. It is a form of parameterization that
allows integrating the process of selection of constructional features with the con-
struction description.
An example of such integration can be the use of special languages dedicated for
graphic programs. The most often used are:
• programming language GRIP in the advanced graphic environment PLM
Siemens NX,
• programming language AutoLISP in the graphic program AutoCAD Mechanical.
As the example of program parameterization is presented the application of its
second form related with the creation of 2D parametric descriptions. The programming
language AutoLISP, like any other programming language, uses such operations like:
data reading, performing calculations according to complex mathematical relations,
conditional loops functions, iterative loops ones, conditional “if” … “to” … functions,
data outputting in the form of arrays (charts). In addition, it uses the commands of the
graphic program, which allows selecting the constructional features and integrating
them with the description of a construction.
The parametric description in this form of parameterization is represented by a
calculation program saved in the AutoLISP language, intended for describing the
construction of elements, assemblies or repetitive components such as drawing labels,
surface roughness marks, collective surface roughness ones, shape and position tol-
erances symbols. A particular application of program parameterization is the descrip-
tion of series of types of construction based on calculation algorithms or data tables.
There are two basic ways to integrate the selection of constructional features with
the description of a construction:
• direct,
• indirect.
Direct integration involves the use of the AutoLISP program and direct determi-
nation of the dimension values in the parametric program based on the values of the
characteristic features. The calculation program along with the commands of con-
struction description may be in the form of a *.LSP file, which is run from the graphical
program level by the LOAD command or by a function run from the level of any
parametric program.
For more complex calculations, indirect integration is used. It involves the use of
external computational programs written in a programming language, e.g. C, Visual
Fortran, Visual Basic, and the results of calculations are gathered in properly formatted
tables. Initiating the program of the *.EXE or *.COM type can be implemented by
initiating the AutoLISP program from any parametric program or from menu using the
instruction as follow: (command “_.start” (strcat kxx4 “OBLICZENIA”)), where
“OBLICZENIA” is the name of the program of the EXE type located in an available
catalog. In turn, the created parametric programs *.LSP allow reading the created tables
and using the commands of the graphic program they create description of a con-
struction. This connection of calculations with the construction description is one of the
possibilities of creating flexible systems of modular constructions.
In advanced graphic programs, the documentation of the 2D constructions
description is still dominant in the form of a traditional construction drawings, despite
numerous attempts to create a 3D construction descriptions with the system of
dimensions and a description of other constructional features, Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. 3D Description of a construction in a form of a working 3D drawing
For more complex elements, this description (Fig. 4) becomes less readable,
therefore still dominant is the 2D description of a construction, created semi-
automatically from the 3D model in the Drafting module of a graphic software, what is
presented in Fig. 5. In order to omit the labor-intensive transition from 3D description
to 2D one, a direct description of the 2D construction is created, e.g. using program
parameterization [8, 9].
During creating the parametric program of the construction description, in the form
of a working drawing, one could distinguish auxiliary and main operations coded in the
AutoLISP language. Auxiliary operations are mainly: cleaning the screen from pre-
vious records, reading from the tables or making a selection of constructional features,
determining the format and scale of the drawing, adjusting the values of dimensions to
the scale, creating the frame and drawing label. The main operations include the
description of: a constructional form, hatching of the cross-sections, drawing the axis of
symmetry, creating the system of dimensions, the marks of surface roughness, shape
Fig. 5. Transition from the 3D description of a construction to the 2D one
and position tolerances, as well as additional information and marks, and writing
variable data in the label.
For example, the description of a constructional form is carried out point by point,
where the coordinates of the characteristic points of the outline are determined as a
function of dimensional values:

xn ; yn ¼ f ytej
il : ð1Þ
An example of such creating of the parametric program is shown in Fig. 6. Fig-

ure 6a presents the construction with an open system of dimensions. In contrast, in
Fig. 6b are shown the characteristic points of the outline of the element whose coor-
dinates are to be calculated on the basis of dimensional values.
A fragmentary description of the parametric program in the AutoLISP program-
ming language is shown in Fig. 6c. The exemplary construction descriptions based on
this parametric program and created in the graphic program are shown on the right side
of Fig. 6. They represent an entire 2D documentation according technical requirements.
Parametric programs could be saved using a special Visual LISP editor of the
graphics program AutoCAD Mechanical. It gives the possibility for more efficient
programming, among others in terms of: verification of the number of open and closed
brackets, quick access and use of AutoLISP commands as well as compilation of this
program. Parametric programs, created in AutoCAD Mechanical, work very effectively
and quickly. A certain additional possibility is also the utilization of dialog windows.
The dialog windows are program created using the DCL programming language which
is initiated via the AutoLISP program command editor.
The creation of graphic software applications supports the creation of description of

repeating fragments of drawings, e.g. axes of symmetry, collective mark of surface
roughness, frames as well as labels. It is also possible to create descriptions of
Fig. 6. Stages of creating the parametric program of constructional form description of an

element
construction of ordered families of construction in the form of constructional docu-

mentation - assembly drawing, working drawings, and bills of elements. In addition,
one can elaborate the repeating stages of the design and construction process, such as
the selection of catalog and standardized elements, optimization of joints due to costs
analysis as well as optimization of sheet cutting in the given format.
Graphic programs applications increase the competitiveness of design and con-
struction offices. But their rational utilization requires not only the skills of designing,
constructing, describing of a construction, but also programming ones related with the
AutoLISP language for creating parametric programs, the DISEL language for creating
customized menu, the DCL language for creating: dialog windows, blocks, blocks with
attributes and slides. It is also required to learn external computational programs in
programming languages such as Visual Fortran, C, Visual Basic.
The most important achievement that is the base of this article is the development
of the parameterization methodology towards the complete integration of informatics
approaches used in this area. The presented integrative parameterization methodology
has been successfully implemented in technical projects in which authors were
involved. This paper is illustrated with documentation being part of these projects.
References
1. Medland AJ (1994) A proposed structure for a rule-based description of parametric forms.
Eng Comput 10:155–161
2. Sokaz A (2017) Graphical methods for designing bolted joints in engineering drawings.
Procedia Eng 172:1044–1052
3. Chang K-H, Joo S-H (2006) Design parameterization and tool integration for CAD-based
mechanism optimization. Adv Eng Softw 37(12):779–796
4. Gendarz P (2010) The parametric record ordered families of machine design. Monograph,
Gliwice (in Polish)
5. Rossia M, Kerga E, Taisch M, Terzi S (2014) Engineering and design best practices in new
product development: an empirical research. Procedia CIRP 21:455–460
6. Heidrich R (1990) Ein Beitrag zur Konzeption und Anwendung parametrisierter, integrierter
Produktmodelle in CAD- Systemen. Fortschritt - Berichte VDI Reihe 20, Nr 27, VDI- Verlag
1990
7. Gendarz P (1998) Applications of graphic programs in structured construction families.
Wydawnictwo Politechniki Śląskiej Gliwice (in Polish)
8. Gwiazda A (2014) Construction development using virtual analysis on the example of a roof
support. Appl Mech Mater 474:1–7
9. Winkler T, Tokarczyk J, Michalak D (2013) Virtual working environment. Handbook of Loss
Prevention Engineering 1:393–421. Edited by Haight JM, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
KGaA, Weinheim 2013
Spatial Reduced Dynamic Model of a Bucket
Wheel Excavator with Two Masts
Nebojša Gnjatović(&), Srđan Bošnjak, and Nenad Zrnić
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Kraljice Marije 16,

11120 Belgrade, Serbia
{ngnjatovic,sbosnjak,nzrnic}@mas.bg.ac.rs
Abstract. A holistic approach to analyzing the dynamic behaviour of a bucket

wheel excavator (BWE) superstructure, which is practically neglected by tech-
nical regulations but nowadays widely used during their design and redesign, is
presented in the paper. The procedure for determining the potential and kinetic
energy and the vector of generalized non-potential forces of the system, leading
to the development of a reduced spatial dynamic (RD) model of the BWE with
two masts is presented in detail. Direct validation of the established model has
been performed by comparing the values obtained for the first ten natural fre-
quencies (NFs) of the finite element (FE) model to those obtained by the RD
model. Percent deviations of values of the NFs obtained for the RD model are
very low compared to those obtained by the FE model (*1% for three fun-
damental NFs). Indirect validation of the RD model used in this research i.e.
validation of values of the NFs which have been obtained by calculation and the
respective modal deflection shapes has been achieved by comparing them to the
studies containing the results of numerical-experimental research on the
dynamic characteristics of BWEs of the same design concept. The values of NFs
are of the same order of magnitude and the corresponding deflection shapes are
in full compliance with those of the experimentally-analyzed BWEs.
Keywords: Bucket wheel excavator Dynamic behavior

Reduced spatial dynamic model Modal analysis Validation
1 Introduction
Bucket wheel excavators (BWEs), which are dominantly used for continuous coal and
overburden excavation, are machines opperating under pronounced dynamic loading.
With that in mind, dynamic behaviour analysis should be one of the decisive parameters
in their design. Nonetheless, when analyzing the standards [1, 2], by which the majority
of the BWEs are designed, a conclusion may be drawn that the vibrational behaviour of
the machine is practically neglected. However, during the inevitable reconstructions of
vital elements of the BWEs [3], frequently motivated by the need to avoid potential
failures, dynamic behaviour analysis plays an important role. This can be observed in
numerous investigations conducted in recent years, which deal with the challenges of
reconstructing the vital subsystems of BWEs, such as the BWE discharge boom [4], the
counterweight boom (CWB) structure [5], the bucket wheel (BW) structure [6, 7], or the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_26
216 N. Gnjatović et al.
BW drivetrain [8] or its components [9]. The application of the dynamic behaviour
analysis is not limited to the challenges of ensuring safer working conditions for BWEs,
as demonstated by the cases in which there is a need to better adapt the machine to the
exploitation conditions, such as installing a frequency regulated BW drive [10], or adding
a crusher to the bucket wheel boom (BWB) head [11]. Listed investigations are heavily
relying on the experimental-numerical analysis of the machines’ modal characteristics.
Quality of the redesign solutions is validated by comparing the experimentally-obtained
values of referent points’ accelerations before and after the reconstruction.
Major obstacles in the dynamic behaviour analysis of the BWEs, which are a
consequence of the extreme complexity of the corresponding dynamic systems, are
reflected on forming of the dynamic model of the bearing structure and belonging
mechanisms and the approximation of the external excitation loads caused by the
resistance to excavation [12].
Basic principles of modeling of the bearing structures, mechanisms and excitation
loads, presented in [13], were used to analyze the influence of vertical vibrations of the
machine on the digging force [14, 15] and, coupled with the experimentally-obtained
data, to analyze the dynamic stability of the excavator superstructure [16, 17].
A common denominator of the methods used to model the bearing structures of the
excavators, presented in said investigations, is resolving the oscillatory motion of the
structure into torsional vibrations of the BWB and bending vibrations of the BWE
superstructure in two orthogonal planes (horizontal and vertical). Fundamental struc-
tural elements of the BWE superstructure are modelled as cantilever or overhanging
beams with a finite number of degrees of freedom and axial moments of inertia
obtained for the equivalent beams calculated on the basis of equivalency of deflections
of the characteristic cross sections. The shape of the dynamic deflection line is assumed
regardless of the constructional solution and the actual supporting method.
Another approach in dynamic modeling of the BWE superstructure and its sub-
structures is treating them as elastic bodies with the infinite number of degrees of
freedom [18, 19]. However, a limitation of such approach is also the presumption of
constantity of the prismatic cross section of the equivalent beam.
Approach to the dynamic behaviour analysis of the BWEs should be of a holistic
nature [20] and should be implemented into the design process [21]. A modeling
method, which preserves the spatial character of the problem, takes into account the
actual constructional parameters of the dynamic system and enables modal analysis and
the analysis of the dynamic response, presented in [12], served as the foundation for the
development of the reduced spatial dynamic model of a BWE with two masts. Said
method has already been used to develop a spatial dynamic model of the BWE SchRs
1760, an excavator of a different design conception [22]. A model formed by reducing
the spatial model to a planar level was used to perform an analysis of the influence of
the BWB inclination angle [23] and the constructive parameters [24] on the response of
the superstructure in the out-of-resonance region.
Spatial Reduced Dynamic Model of a Bucket Wheel 217
2 Development of the Dynamic Model
A method presented in [12, 23, 25] was used to develop a reduced spatial (3D) dynamic
model of a BWE with two masts. This method allows development of dynamic models
of asymmetric systems with non-coinciding referent planes, while preserving the
spatial character of the problem. Dynamic models, developed using the said method,
may be used for modal analysis, analysis of dynamic loading of the structure, as well as
analysis of the system response over a continuous domain of variation of both the
constructional parameters and the parameters of excitation.
Due to the extreme complexity of the analyzed system, differential equations of
motion for the reduced dynamic model of a BWE with two masts, have been formed
applying the Lagrange’s second order equations. Under the assumptions that: (a) the
oscillations of the system belong to a class of small vibrations, (b) all of the system
constraints are ideal, holonomic, stationary, and retaining, (c) the system oscillates
about a stable equilibrium position and (d) the influence of the structural damping may
be neglected in the out-of-resonance region [24], the system of differential equations of
motion can be expressed as

d @T @P
þ ¼ QXj ðtÞ; ðj ¼ 1; 2; . . .; sÞ; ð1Þ
dt @ q_ j @qj
or in a matrix form
A€q þ Cq ¼ QX ðtÞ: ð2Þ
The initial problem of dynamic behavior analysis of a complex structure such as a

BWE with two masts is manifested in the selection of generalized coordinates. An
adequate selection of generalized coordinates allows fulfilment of the requirements that
the model is expected to meet. In the presented case, the model is required to be able to
provide: (a) vibration analysis of spatial deformable truss structures, (b) correct cou-
pling of the oscillations of the superstructure substructures, (c) adequate loading of the
superstructure by the external (excitation) loads, caused by the resistance to excavation
and (d) a possibility to conduct an analysis of the influence of constructional parameters
and the parameters of excitation on the dynamic behavior of the system.
The process of developing a reduced spatial dynamic model of the SchRs 1600, Fig. 1,
a representative example of a BWE with two masts, whose motion is described with 64
generalized coordinates, Fig. 2, was conducted in four stages. In the first stage, a spatial
truss finite element (FE) model of the superstructure has been created on the basis of the
experimentally-validated ‘a posteriori’ model [26] which provides sufficient accuracy in
determining the position of the superstructure center of gravity over the entire span of the
BWB inclination angle [27]. In the second stage, the coefficients of flexibility matrix were
determined in accordance with the Clapeyron’s theorem, stiffness matrix was formed and
the expression for determining the potential energy of the system has been set. In the third
stage, expressions for the calculation of kinetic energy of all superstructure subsystems
have been established. In the fourth stage, external loads due to the resistance to excavation
have been determined and expanded up to the fifth member of the Fourier series. The
expression for virtual work of the non-potential active loads has been established providing
a way to obtain the generalized non-potential forces of the system.
Fig. 1. Bucket wheel excavator SchRs 1600
Fig. 2. A reduced spatial dynamic model of the BWE SchRs 1600
2.1 Finite Element Model of the Superstructure

The spatial truss FE model, Fig. 3 was developed on the basis of the ‘corrected’ 3D
model [27]. During the development of the FE model, the adequate coupling of sub-
structures belonging to the superstructure was the highest priority. Connections
between the BWB and the CWB, the BWB and the mast 1, and the CWB and the mast
2 were modelled as cylindrical joints with a single degree of freedom – rotation around
the y axis, Fig. 2.
Fig. 3. FE model of the superstructure
A BWB hanging system enables equalization of forces in the two belonging parallel
ropes. In order to maintain the potential energy of the rope system (ПRS), which is
calculated according to the equation

1 2 ER AR
P RS
¼ 2 cR ðiL DLR Þ ¼ ðiP DLR Þ2 ; ð3Þ
2 lR
where: cR is the rope stiffness, ER is the rope modulus of elasticity, AR is the rope cross
section area, lR is the rope length, iL = 12 is the number of rope legs, DLR is the
extension of the rope leg, the rope system is approximated with a system of 12
equivalent parallel springs. The stiffness of a single belonging spring (cS) is calculated
on the basis of the equivalency of potential energies,

1 cR i2L
PSS ¼ 12 cS D2LR ¼ PRS ) cS ¼ : ð4Þ
2 6
The springs defined in this manner are connected with rigid cylindrically joined
beams, Fig. 3, which enables equalization of the forces in the ropes.
According to the relevant literature from the field of BWE dynamics [13], there are
two dominant approaches to modelling the substructure: (1) the substructure is treated
as a rigid body or, alternatively (2) the substructure is treated as an elastic body while
accounting for a much higher stiffness in comparison to the superstructure. The slewing
platform and the crawler travelling mechanism are always treated as absolutely rigid
structures. With these assumptions in mind, the slewing platform and the entire
undercarriage with a crawler travelling mechanism were treated as rigid bodies, which
makes it possible to simulate the supporting of the superstructure through the
introduction of four spherical supports, positioned at the zones of connection between

the slewing platform and the CWB.
The BWB and the CWB, as well as the masts 1 and 2, were discretized using beam
FEs, while the BWB and CWB stays were discretized applying truss FEs. In this
manner, a FE model of the superstructure containing 6612 elements and 18735 nodes
has been formed, Fig. 3.
2.2 Potential Energy of the Reduced Dynamic Model

Flexibility matrix of the reduced dynamic model of the superstructure was determined
in accordance with the Clapeyron’s theorem. Flexibility matrix coefficients were
determined based on the response of the FE model to a unit force applied on referent
nodes in the directions of the generalized coordinates.
Potential energy of the superstructure was calculated according to the expression
1 1 T
PBWE ¼ qT a1
BWE q ¼ q CBWE q; ð5Þ
2 2
where: q is the vector of generalized displacements, aBWE is the flexibility matrix and
CBWE is the stiffness matrix of the system.
2.3 Kinetic Energy of the Reduced Dynamic Model

Kinetic energy of the superstructure is calculated as the sum of kinetic energies of the
belonging substructures. The procedure for calculation of the substructure kinetic
energy will be presented on the example of the BWB, since this is the most complex
segment of the bearing superstructure.
Dynamic model of the BWB consists of four substructures: (1) the BWB span,
(2) the overhang of the BWB, (3) the BW shaft with bearings and (4) the bearing
structure of the operator cabin (OC), Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Dynamic model of the BWB

Cords of the BWB span were considered as girders with a continuous mass dis-
tribution, while the masses of the bracing members were reduced to the appropriate
nodes of the cords. The equation of the cord deflection line was formed based on
displacements of the cord nodes, obtained using the FE method by introducing unit
displacements in the directions of generalized coordinates used to describe the motion
of cords. A local linearization method was used to approximate the shape of the
deflection line between the cord nodes.
The method of local linearization of the deflection line will be demonstrated on the
segment 5 of cord 1 of the BWB, Fig. 5.
Displacements of the nodes 5 and 6 in the direction of the z axis (m5 and m6) were
obtained using the FE method. The segment of the deflection line between the nodes 5
and 6 is approximated as a straight line. Displacement of the segment 5’s belonging
node n, which is a consequence of a unit displacement in the direction of the gener-
alized coordinate qc,2 has been calculated according to the expression
ð l n l 6 Þ ð v5 v6 Þ
vn ¼ v6 þ : ð6Þ
l5 l6
Fig. 5. Deflection line of the cord 1 of the BWB
By further transformation, expression (6) yields to the form
ð v5 v6 Þ v6 l 5 v5 l 6
vn ¼ ln þ ¼ kv;5 ln þ bv;5 ; ð7Þ
l5 l6 l5 l6
where: km,5 is the gradient of the fifth segment and bm,5 is z-intercept. By generalizing
the expression (7) and multiplying it with the displacement in the direction of the
generalized coordinate qc,2, the following expression for linearized function of the cord
c on the analyzed segment is obtained

vs vs þ 1 vs þ 1 ls vs ls þ 1
vc;s ¼ kv;s l þ bv;s qc;2 ¼ lþ qc;2 ; ð8Þ
ls ls þ 1 ls ls þ 1
where: m is the displacement in the direction of z axis, c is cord denotation and s is

segment denotation.
If the square of the absolute velocity of the unit mass of the s-th segment is
calculated as follows
2
Vs2 ðlÞ ¼ Vu;s
2
ðlÞ þ Vv;s
2
ðlÞ þ Vw;s
2
ðlÞ ¼ ku;s l bu;s q_ 2c;1 þ
2 2 ð9Þ
þ kv;s l bv;s q_ 2c;2 þ kw;s l bw;s q_ 2c;3 ;
then the kinetic energy of the s-th segment of the BWB cord is calculated according to
the expression,
Zls Zls
1 1 muni
Ts ¼ Vs2 ðlÞdms ¼ Vs2 ðlÞ s
dl; ð10Þ
2 2 cosðbs Þ
ls þ 1 ls þ 1
where: ms is the mass of the segment, munis is mass per unit length of the s-th segment
and bs is the inclination angle of the s-th segment in relation to the x axis.
Kinetic energy of the BWB cord is obtained by summing the kinetic energies of its
segments,
2 3
Xr Zls
61 7
Tc ¼ 4 Vs2 ðlÞdms5 ¼
s¼1
2
ls þ 1
2 3
Zls
1 6Xr
ms 2 7
¼ 4 seg ku;s l bu;s dl5q_ 2c;1 þ
2 s¼1 ls cosðbs Þ
ls þ 1
2 3 ð11Þ
X Zls
16 r
ms 2 7
þ 4 kv;s l bv;s dl5q_ 2c;2 þ
2 s¼1 lseg
s cosðbs Þ
ls þ 1
2 3
X Zls
16 r
ms 2 7
þ 4 kw;s l bw;s dl5q_ 2c;3 ;
2 s¼1 lseg
s cos ð bs Þ
ls þ 1
where: r is the number of cord segments and lseg

s is the length of the s-th segment.
Kinetic energy of the mass lumped in the i-th node of the BWB cord is calculated
according to the expression
1 1
cm
Tc;i ¼ mcm;i Vi2 ¼ mcm;i Vu;i 2
þ Vv;i 2
þ Vw;i
2
¼
2 2 ð12Þ
1
¼ mcm;i u2i q_ 2c;1 þ v2i q_ 2c;2 þ w2i q_ 2c;3 ;
2
where: V2i is the square of the absolute velocity of the i-th node of the cord, mcm,i is the
mass lumped in the i-th node. Accordingly, kinetic energy of the masses lumped in
nodes of the cord is
X
rþ1
1 1Xrþ1
Tccm ¼ mcm;i Vi2 ¼ mcm;i u2i q_ 2c;1 þ v2i q_ 2c;2 þ w2i q_ 2c;3 : ð13Þ
i¼1
2 2 i¼1
The procedure for calculating the kinetic energy of the masses which are lumped in
the truss nodes not belonging to the cords of the BWB will be demonstrated using the
BWB conveyor bearing structure as an example, Fig. 6. In the considered node, apart
from the belonging mass of the bracing, the mass obtained by reducing the masses of
conveyor components, the excavated material and the walkways are also reduced.
Fig. 6. A node of the conveyor bearing structure
Kinetic energy of the node n not belonging to the cords of the BWB is calculated
according to the expression

Tn ¼ 1
kh kb un q_ c;1 þ vn q_ c;2 þ wn q_ c;3
2 mn
2 2 2 2 2 2
þ
cord 1

þ ð1 kh Þkb u2n q_ 2c;1 þ v2n q_ 2c;2 þ w2n q_ 2c;3
þ
cord 2

ð14Þ
þ kh ð1 kb Þ u2n q_ 2c;1 þ v2n q_ 2c;2 þ w2n q_ 2c;3
þ
cord 3

þ ð1 kh Þð1 kb Þ u2n q_ 2c;1 þ v2n q_ 2c;2 þ w2n q_ 2c;3
;
cord 4
where: kh = hn/h and kb = bn/b are the coefficients of the position of the lumped mass in
relation to cord 4 of the BWB.
Partial coefficients of the mass matrix are obtained by partial differentiation of the
expressions (11), (13) and (14) with respect to generalized velocities and then their total
differentiation with respect to time. By summing the partial coefficients of the mass
matrix obtained through reduction of the continuously distributed mass of the cords, the
masses lumped in the cord nodes and the masses lumped in nodes not belonging to the
cords, coefficients of the mass matrix for the generalized coordinates which describe
the motion of the BWB span are obtained, expressions (15)–(17). In the Eqs. (15)–(17),
khb denotes the combination of position coefficients kh and kb with respect to the
observed lumped mass (see Eq. (14)).
X
ac;1c;1 ¼ acc;1c;1 þ acm
c;1c;1 þ anc;1c;1 ¼
n
X Zls
r
ms 2
¼ ku;s l bu;s dlþ ð15Þ
s¼1 lseg
s cos bðuÞ
s l sþ1
X
rþ1 X
þ mcm;i u2i þ khb mn u2n
i¼1 n
X
c;2c;2 þ anc;2c;2 ¼
n
X Zls
r
ms 2
¼ km;s l bm;s dlþ ð16Þ
s¼1 ls cos bðmÞ
seg
s l sþ1
X
rþ1 X
þ mcm;i m2i þ khb mn m2n
i¼1 n
X
c;3c;3 þ anc;3c;3 ¼
n
X Zls
r
ms 2
¼ kw;s l bw;s dlþ ð17Þ
s¼1 ls cos bðwÞ
seg
s l sþ1
X
rþ1 X
þ mcm;i w2i þ khb mn w2n
i¼1 n
Table 1. Generalized coordinates describing the motion of the BWB span.

Cord qc,1 qc,2 qc,3
1 q16 q14 q15
2 q13 q11 q12
3 q19 q17 q18
4 q22 q20 q21
Based on the presented procedure and the data enclosed in Table 1, kinetic energy
of the BWB span can be determined, which leads to the determination of the mass
matrix coefficients with respect to the generalized coordinates of the reduced dynamic
model.
Due to its relatively small length and relatively high stiffness, a dynamic model of
the BWB overhang was obtained by reducing the masses of the structural elements to
its belonging nodes, which were also treated as the carriers of constructions which the
overhang bears. Motion of the overhang was described with three generalized coor-
dinates (q4, q5 and q6). Kinetic energy of the overhang is obtained as the sum of the
kinetic energies of the masses lumped in its nodes,
X
n
1X n
T oh ¼ Tioh ¼ moh;i u2i q_ 26 þ v2i q_ 24 þ w2i q_ 25 ; ð18Þ
i¼1
2 i¼1
where: Tohi is the kinetic energy of the mass lumped in the i-th node of the overhang,
moh,i is the mass lumped in the i-th node, n is the number of nodes of the overhang and
ui, vi and wi are displacements of the i-th node in the directions of the generalized
coordinates q6, q4 and q5 respectively, obtained as a consequence of unit
displacements.
Vibrations of the BW shaft, a carrier of the two dominant masses of the system –
the BW with buckets and the bucket wheel drive (BWD), are described with 12
generalized coordinates. Radial-axial bearing of the BW shaft is positioned on the
structure of the BWB overhang, meaning that the mass of the bearing and a portion of
the shaft mass are reduced to a node whose lumped mass kinetic energy is already
calculated in the expression (18). Motion of the BW mass and the portion of the BW
shaft mass is described with the generalized coordinates q1, q2 and q3, while the motion
of the BWD mass is described with the coordinates q9, q10 and q63. Mass of the bearing
and a portion of the girder mass are reduced to the node (with the belonging gener-
alized coordinates q7, q8 and q64) positioned on the tip of the girder of the BW shaft
radial bearing. Since the axial motion of the shaft is not constrained in the zone of the
radial bearing, the belonging portion of the BW shaft mass is reduced to the nodes
whose motion is described by the generalized coordinates q7, q8 and q2. If the
belonging portion of the overhang kinetic energy is eliminated from the expression for
the calculation of kinetic energy of the BW shaft with bearings, the following equation
is obtained,
1 2
T BWSH ¼ mBW þ mBW q_ 3 þ q_ 21 þ q_ 22 þ ðmRB þ mRBG Þ q_ 28 þ q_ 27 þ q_ 264 þ
2 2
SH
2 ð19Þ
þ mRB _ 8 þ q_ 27 þ w2RB q_ 22 þ mBWD þ mBWD
SH q SH q_ 63 þ q_ 29 þ q_ 210 ;
where: mBW is the mass of the BW, mRB is the mass of the radial bearing,
mRBG is a portion of the radial bearing girder mass, mBWD is the mass of BWD,
mBW RB
SH , mSH and mSH
BWD
are portions of the BW shaft mass, wRB is displacement of the
shaft in the zone of the radial bearing obtained due to the unit displacement of the shaft
in the zone of the BW in the direction of the generalized coordinate q2.
Bearing structure of the OC was modeled in the same manner as the BWB over-
hang. Masses of the OC, moving parts of the lift and the lift drive were reduced to the
node with generalized coordinates used to describe the motion of the entire OC bearing
structure (q62, q23 and q24). Kinetic energy of the analyzed bearing structure is cal-
culated as follows:
X
n
1X n
T oc ¼ Tioc ¼ moc;i u2i q_ 262 þ v2i q_ 223 þ w2i q_ 224 : ð20Þ
i¼1
2 i¼1
CWB is a spatial truss structure with a vertical plane of symmetry. The motion of
the structure along with the belonging external structural elements is described with 3
generalized coordinates (q55, q56 and q57) attached to the node which represents the
centre of gravity of the CWB. The presented modelling approach is justifiable due to
the equalization of forces in parallel ropes of the BWB hanging system and the geo-
metric shaping of the construction. Namely, the eccentrically positioned masses on the
BWB inevitably cause torsion of the said structure, but the equalization of forces in the
BWB stays, enabled by the design solution of the mast 1, combined with the equiv-
alency of forces in the ropes leads to a uniform loading of the mast 2, and as a
consequence, the equivalency of forces in the CWB stays. In this manner, the influence
of the BWB torsion is fully compensated.
Kinetic energies of the CWB, as well as masts 1 and 2, are calculated according to
the procedure similar to one used for determining the kinetic energy of the BWB span.
It is important to note that the motion of both masts has been described with six
generalized coordinates attached to two referent nodes positioned on the tips of the
mast cords, Fig. 2.
Kinetic energies of the stays and the ropes of the BWB hanging system have been
taken into account by reducing their masses to the appropriate nodes of analyzed
substructures.
2.4 External Loads Due to Resistance to Excavation

Resistance to excavation has been determined in accordance with the assumptions that:
(a) the excavated material is homogenous, (b) the working device is absolutely rigid,
(c) no material breakage occurs in the bucket exiting zone and (d) tangential and radial
components of the digging resistance lie in the vertical plane of symmetry of the BW
across the buckets, while the lateral component is perpendicular to the said plane [13,
28].
Nominal moment at the BW shaft is calculated according to the expression
PBWD nk 60
ME ¼ ; ð21Þ
2pnd
where: PBWD is the BWD power, nk is the number of buckets, nd is the number of
bucket discharges.
Moment due to overload in operation is:
MAU ¼ ME kp ; ð22Þ
with kp being the overload factor in operation.

Loss moment due to efficiency of the drive is
MVU ¼ ME ð1 gBWD Þ; ð23Þ
where ηBWD is the coefficient of efficiency of the drive.

Maximum calculation moment at the BW shaft is calculated according to the
expression
MS;max ¼ MAU MVU : ð24Þ
Referent chip cross section parameters – the cutting depth (s0) and width (b0), for
the slewing angle equal to uS = 0°, are obtained under the assumption that the exca-
vator is achieving its maximum theoretical capacity. Using the said condition and under
the assumption that the digging angle is wE = p/2, the optimal ratio between the referent
cutting depth and width is obtained (s0/b0 = (DEwE)/(2HE) = p/2), [13]. Cutting width
b0 and cutting depth s0 are calculated according to the expressions,
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Q0
b0 ¼ ; ð25Þ
nd wE HE
p
s 0 ¼ b0 ; ð26Þ
2
where: Q0 is the theoretical capacity, while HE and DE are cutting height and BW
diameter across the bucket lips, respectively.
By equalizing the maximum excavation moment, determined according to the
expression,
DE X
mk;min
ME;max ¼ k F s 0 b0 sinðwE nhk Þ; ð27Þ

2 n¼0
with the maximum calculation moment at the BW shaft, expression (24), a specific
cutting resistance which the analyzed machine can overcome is obtained,
2MS;max
kF ¼ Pmk;min : ð28Þ
DE s0 b0 n¼0 sinðwE nhk Þ
In the expressions (27) and (28) hk = 2p/nk is the angular step of the buckets, while
mk,min = int(wk/hk) is the minimum number of buckets in interaction with the soil.
The intensities of the tangential, radial and lateral components of the digging
resistance, which act upon the bucket with the angular position determined by the angle
wi (wi – angular position of the i-th bucket in the plane of BW revolution), are
calculated on the basis of the expressions [13]:
Rti ¼ kF s0 b0 sin wi ; ð29Þ
Rni ¼ kN Rti ; ð30Þ
Rbi ¼ kB Rti ; ð31Þ
where kF is the specific cutting resistance referred to a chip cross section, kN is the
coefficient of the radial component, kB is the coefficient of the lateral component,
defined by the expression kB = vBW,s/vBW,e, where vBW,s is the circumferential velocity
of the slewing and vBW,e is the circumferential velocity of the BW, both calculated for
the point on the bucket with the greatest distance from the slewing axis. It has been
adopted that the radial component of the digging resistance is oriented towards the BW
shaft.
By reducing the components of the digging resistance to the center of the BW (a
point where the BW vertical plane of symmetry across the buckets is intersected by the
axis of the BW shaft), apart from the maximum excavation moment (expression (27)),
the following maximum loads are obtained:
X
m k;min
FV;max ¼ kF s0 b0 fsinðwE nhk Þ

n¼0 ð32Þ
½sinðwE nhk Þ kN cosðwE nhk Þg
X
m k;min
FV;max ¼ kF s0 b0 fsinðwE nhk Þ

n¼0 ð33Þ
½cosðwE nhk Þ þ kN sinðwE nhk Þg
X
m k;min
FL;max ¼ kB kF s0 b0 sinðwE nhk Þ ð34Þ

n¼0
Dk X
m k;min
MV;max ¼ k B k F s 0 b0 sin2 ðwE nhk Þ ð35Þ

2 n¼0
DE X
mk;min
MH;max ¼ k B k F s 0 b0 ½sinðwE nhk ÞcosðwE nhk Þ ð36Þ

2 n¼0
Maximum loads on the BW shaft due to digging resistance, expressions (27) and
(32)–(36), are determined for the moment right before the last bucket ceases to be in
interaction with the soil. Expressions for the minimum values of the used variables,
determined for the moment right after the last bucket ends its interaction with the soil,
are derived by substituting the value of n = 0 with n = 1 in the expressions (27), (32)–
(36).
By developing the functions of the vertical (FV), horizontal (FH) and lateral (FL)
loads, and the moments of bending (MV and MH) and torsion (moment of excavation -
ME), acting on the BW shaft of the analyzed structure, into a Fourier series up to their
fifth member, harmonic functions of the said loads and moments are determined (FV(t),
FH(t), FL(t), MV(t), MH(t) and ME(t)).
Work of all active non-potential forces, acting on the virtual displacements of the
system, is determined using the expression
dA ¼ ðFV ðtÞz FL ðtÞz Þdq1 þ ðFV ðtÞy FH ðtÞy FL ðtÞy Þdq2 þ

x x x ME ðtÞ x
þ ðFV ðtÞ FH ðtÞ FL ðtÞ Þdq3 þ ðdq63 dq13 Þ þ
lTA

ME ðtÞ y ME ðtÞ z MV ðtÞ x
þ ðdq10 dq12 Þ þ ðdq9 dq11 Þ þ ðdq8 dq6 Þ þ
lTA lTA lS
x
MH ðtÞ MH ðtÞ z
þ ðdq6 dq8 Þ þ ðdq4 dq7 Þ:
lS lS
ð37Þ
where: lTA is length of the torque arm, lS is length of the span of the BW shaft. The
exponents x, y and z in the expression (37) denote the projections of loads on the axes
of the coordinate system presented in Fig. 2, Tables 2 and 3.
In Tables 2 and 3, u denotes the slope angle of the BW in the horizontal plane; h
denotes the slope angle of the BW in the vertical plane while n denotes the slope angle
of the torque arm in its vertical plane of symmetry.
Table 2. Projections of the excitation forces – part 1

FV(t) FH(t) FL(t)
x −sinusinh cosu sinucosh
y −cosusinh −sinu cosucosh
z −cosh 0 −sinh
Table 3. Projections of the excitation forces – part 2

ME(t)/lTA MV(t)/lS MH(t)/lS
x sinusinhcosn + cosusinn cosu −sinusinh
y cosusinhcosn − sinusinn −sinu −cosusinh
z coshcosn 0 −cosh
A vector of generalized non-potential forces of the system is derived from the

expression (37).
3 Validation of the Dynamic Model
3.1 Direct Validation of the Dynamic Model

Direct validation of the established model has been performed by comparing the values
obtained for the first ten natural frequencies of the FE model to those obtained with the
reduced spatial dynamic model, Table 4. This process is justified by the impossibility
to obtain an analytical solution for a structure of this level of complexity, as well as
lack of experimental data. Normalized eigenvectors for the first 10 natural frequencies
were determined in order to allow easier identification of the modal deflection shapes.
Obtained values of the modal coefficients were implemented into the reduced dynamic
model as the displacements in directions of the generalized coordinates, Fig. 7.
Based on the modal deflection shapes, Fig. 7, it can be observed that all of the
analyzed modes represent spatial motion of the BWE superstructure, which means that
any simplification by reducing the dynamic system to planar levels would lead to
oversights and, consequently, misjudgments in estimation.
Vertical oscillations of the system are dominantly manifested in the first mode,
while horizontal oscillations are dominant in the second and third mode. Deviations of
the first three natural frequencies (*1%) can be deemed insignificant, especially when
considering the fact that the cords of the BWB and the CWB as well as of both masts
have been treated as girders with a continuous mass distribution. The software for FE
analysis reduces the masses of beam elements to the appropriate nodes, so a conclusion
Fig. 7. Modal deflection shapes (FE – finite element model; RD – reduced dynamic model)
Table 4. Comparison of natural frequencies obtained by the FE and the reduced dynamic model

fi FE model RD model
fRD fFE
100[%]
fRD
fFE [Hz] fRD [Hz]
f1 0.701 0.709 1.13
f2 0.862 0.871 1.03
f3 0.971 0.980 0.92
f4 1.604 1.562 2.69
f5 1.888 1.847 2.22
f6 2.657 2.586 2.75
f7 2.919 2.954 1.18
f8 2.921 3.039 3.88
f9 3.159 3.254 2.92
f10 3.536 3.730 5.20
can be drawn that the values of the system’s natural frequencies are somewhere
between those obtained using the two presented methods.
Fourth and fifth vibration modes represent a combination of vertical oscillations of
the system and torsional oscillations of the BWB. Their deviations by *2.7% and
2.2%, respectively, can be deemed acceptable from the aspect of engineering accuracy.
Somewhat higher deviations (*3.9% and 5.2%) are observed in the eight and tenth
modes of oscillations, respectively. These deviations are a consequence of the way in
which the reduced spatial model was formed –the motions of both the overhanging
portion of the BWB and the girder of the OC are represented with three generalized
coordinates, each constrained to one node on their corresponding substructures on the
BWB. That way, it was not possible to analyze torsional behavior, which represents a
dominant deflection shape of these substructures in the eight and tenth modes of
oscillation.
3.2 Indirect Validation of the Dynamic Model

Indirect validation of the reduced spatial dynamic model used in this research, Fig. 2,
i.e. validation of values of the natural frequencies which have been obtained by cal-
culation and the respective modal deflection shapes, Fig. 7, was achieved by comparing
them with the studies presented in [11, 29–32], which contain the results of numerical-
experimental research on the dynamic characteristics of BWEs of the same design
concept (two masts).
First vibration mode, Fig. 7(a) and (b), which represents oscillations of the entire
dynamic system in a vertical plane, fully complies with the experimentally and
numerically obtained modal deflection shapes of the BWEs SchRs 1320 (Figs. 12 and
13 in [11]) and SchRs 4600.50 (Fig. 51.2(a) in [32]). Second and third natural modes
are dominantly characterized by horizontal oscillations of the system Fig. 7(c), (d),
(e) and (f), as is the case with the BWEs used for comparison (see Figs. 12 and 13 in
[11] and Fig. 51.2(b), (c) and 51.5 in [32]). A combination of vertical oscillations of the
system and torsional oscillations of the BWB is manifested in the fourth vibration mode
Fig. 7(g) and (h), which is in compliance with the experimentally obtained results for
the BWE SchRs 4600.50 (Fig. 51.11 in [32]). Values of the natural frequencies
obtained by calculation for the analyzed BWE are of the same order of magnitude as
those used for comparison, but higher, which was to be expected due to greater masses
of the latter [11, 32] than that of the analyzed BWE, Fig. 1.
4 Conclusion
The presented method provides a holistic approach to analyzing the dynamic behavior
of a bucket wheel excavator superstructure over a continuous domain of variation of
both the constructional and the excitation parameters.
Having in mind the facts that:
• percent deviations of values of the natural frequencies obtained for the reduced
dynamic model are very low compared to those obtained by the finite element
model, as well as the fact that its modal deflection shapes are in full compliance
with those obtained using the finite element method;
• the values of natural frequencies are of the same order of magnitude (lower values
of natural frequencies of the experimentally-analyzed models are a consequence of
bigger masses of the respective superstructures) and the corresponding deflection
shapes are in full compliance in comparison with the experimentally-analyzed
bucket wheel excavators of the same conceptual design;
it is concluded that the developed reduced spatial dynamic model of the bucket wheel
excavator with two masts describes the dynamic character of the superstructure with
sufficient accuracy.
Dynamic models, developed according to the presented method, which supple-
ments the finite element method in its application in the dynamic behavior analysis of
the bucket wheel excavator spatial truss structures, may be used not only during the
design of new, but also during the inevitable reconstructions of the old and obsolete
constructions, intended for perennial exploitation in extremely harsh working
conditions.
Acknowledgment. This work is a contribution to the Ministry of Education, Science and

Technological Development of Serbia funded project TR 35006.
References
1. DIN 22261-2 (2016) Excavators, Stackers and Auxiliary Equipment in Brown Coal Open
Cut Mines Part 2 Calculation Principals, German Institute for Standardization, Berlin
2. AS4324.1 (1995) Mobile equipment for continuous handling of bulk materials Part 1 -
General requirements for the design of steel structures, Standards Australia, Homebush
3. Młyńczak M (2014) Bucket wheel excavators: past to present experiences in safety
operation. In: Proceedings of the probabilistic safety assessment and management PSAM 12,
Honolulu, 22–27 June 2014
4. Brkić A, Maneski T, Ignjatović D, Jovančić P, Spasojević Brkić V (2014) Diagnostics of

bucket wheel excavator discharge boom dynamic performance and its reconstruction.
Eksploat Niezawodn 16(2):188–197
5. Rusiński E, Moczko P, Odyjas P, Pietrusiak D (2013) Investigations of structural vibrations
problems of high performance machines. FME Trans 41(4):305–310
6. Rusiński E, Dragan S, Moczko P, Pietrusiak D (2012) Implementation of experimental
method of determining modal characteristics of surface mining machinery in the
modernization of the excavating unit. Arch Civ Mech Eng 12(4):471–476
7. Vîlceanu Fl, Iancu C (2016) Bucket wheel rehabilitation of ERC 1400-30/7 high-capacity
excavators from lignite quarries. In: IOP conference series: materials science and
engineering, vol 161(1), pp 1–11
8. Jovančić P, Tanasijević M, Ignjatović D (2010) Relation between numerical model and
vibration: behaviour diagnosis for bucket wheel drive assembly at the bucket wheel
excavator. J VibroEng 12(4):500–513
9. Damnjanović V, Jovančić P (2014) Validation of bucket wheel drive component model
through vibration monitoring: a torque arm key study. J VibroEng 16(3):1192–1198
10. Bošković S, Jovančić P, Ignjatović D, Rakićević B, Maneski T (2015) Vibration as deciding
parameter during revitalization process for replacing the bucket wheel drive. J VibroEng 17
(1):24–32
11. Gottvald J (2010) The calculation and measurement of the natural frequencies of the bucket
wheel excavator SchRs 1320/4x30. Transport 25(3):269–277
12. Bošnjak S, Oguamanam D, Zrnić N (2006) On the dynamic modelling of bucket wheel
excavators. FME Trans 34(4):221–226
13. Volkov DP, Cherkasov VA (1969) Dynamics and strength of multi-bucket excavators and
stackers, Mašinostroenie, Moscow. (in Russian)
14. Golubović Z, Lekić Z, Jović S (2012) Influence of bucket wheel vertical vibration on bucket-
wheel excavator (BWE) digging force. Teh Vjesn 19(4):807–812
15. Debelac C (2013) On dynamics of bucket wheel excavators with radial digging. The Annals
of “Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati Fascicle XIV Mechanical Engineering, vol 2,
pp 45–48
16. Cireş I, Nani VM (2016) Stability control for a huge excavator for surface excavation. Appl
Math Model 40(1):388–397
17. Cioara TG, Cires I, Nicolae I, Cristea D, Tirdea A, Timar L (2009) A simplified dynamic
model for a surface mining excavator using design and experimental data. In: Proceedings of
the IMAC – XXVII, Orlando, 09–12 February 2009
18. Luu QK (2014) Stability-oriented dynamics and control of complex rigid-flexible
mechanical systems using the example of a bucket-wheel excavator. PhD thesis, University
of Duisburg-Essen, Essen
19. Obradović A, Bošnjak S, Zrnić N, Gašić V (2009) Analysis of dynamic behavior of the
bucket wheel excavator boom modeled as an elastic body. In: Proceedings of the 2nd
international congress of serbian society of mechanics, Palić, 01–05 June 2009
20. Schlecht B (2014) Investigation and optimization of the dynamic behavior of bucket wheel
drives, Final report of the research project 16575 BR funded by the Federal Ministry for
Economic Affairs and Energy of Germany. (in German)
21. Pietrusiak D (2017) Evaluation of large-scale load-carrying structures of machines with the
application of the dynamic effects factor. Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc – Maintenance and
Reliability 19(4):542–551. http://dx.doi.org/10.17531/ein.2017.4.7
22. Bošnjak S, Zrnić N (2012) Dynamics, failures, redesigning and environmentally friendly
technologies in surface mining systems. Arch Civ Mech Eng 12(3):348–359
23. Bošnjak S, Gnjatović N (2016) The influence of geometric configuration on response of the
bucket wheel excavator superstructure. FME Trans 44(3):313–323
24. Bošnjak SM, Oguamanam DCD, Zrnić NĐ (2015) The influence of constructive parameters
on response of bucket wheel excavator superstructure in the out-of-resonance region. Arch
Civ Mech Eng 15(4):977–985
25. Gnjatović N (2016) Influence of constructional parameters and parameters of excitation on
response of the bucket wheel excavator with two masts in the out-of-resonance region. PhD
thesis, Faculty of mechanical engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade. (in Serbian)
26. Bošnjak S, Gnjatović N, Milenović I (2018) From ‘a priori’ to ‘a posteriori’ static stability of
the slewing superstructure of a bucket wheel excavator. Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc –
Maintenance and Reliability 20(2):190–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.17531/ein.2018.2.04
27. Bošnjak S, Gnjatović N, Savićević S, Pantelić M, Milenović I (2016) Basic parameters of the
static stability, loads and strength of the vital parts of the bucket wheel excavator’s slewing
superstructure. J Zhejiang Univ Sci A 17(5):353–365
28. Rasper L (1975) The bucket wheel excavator. Trans Tech Publications, Clausthal
29. Gottvald J (2011) Measuring and comparison of natural frequencies of bucket wheel
excavators SchRs 1320 and K 2000. In: Proceedings of the 4th WSEAS international
conference on energy and development - environment - biomedicine, Corfu Island, 14–16
July 2011
30. Gottvald J (2012) Analysis of vibrations of bucket wheel excavator SchRs 1320 during
mining process. FME Trans 40(4):165–170
31. Rusiński E, Czmochowski J, Moczko P, Pietrusiak D (2017) Surface mining machines -
problems of maintenance and modernization. Springer International Publishing AG, Cham
32. Pietrusiak D, Moczko P, Czmochowski J (2014) Field and numerical testing of the BWE
SchRs 4600.50 dynamic behaviour. In: Allemang R et al (eds) Topics in modal analysis, vol
7. Springer, New York, pp 525–532
Innovative Rotor of Water Turbine Save
for River Ecosystem
Aleksander Górniak, Anna Janicka, Joanna Mikołajczak,

Maria Skrętowicz, Dariusz Piętas, Radosław Włostowski,
and Maciej Zawiślak(&)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Wyb, Wroclaw University of Science and

Technology, Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
maciej.zawislak@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The paper presents the results of numerical simulations which aim
was to develop a new construction of a water turbine dedicated to the production
of electricity in small hydropower plants (SHPP) on watercourses with very low
water falls and natural dams (<1 m). Preliminary studies show that thanks to
CFD method it is possible to enhance the protection of migratory fish and
significantly reduce noise and vibration during water turbine operation.
Keywords: Small hydropower plants CFD simulation Fish protection
1 Introduction
The EU Directives impose an obligation on individual countries to increase the share of

renewable energy sources in the energy balance (including Directive 2009/28/EC and
2001/77/EC). In line with the European Energy Policy assumptions in 2020, the EU is
to achieve a 20% share of RES in final energy consumption. For Poland, this limit has
been set at 15% [1]. Hydro energy, compared to other renewable energy sources, is
characterized by very high productivity. In many countries (e.g. Norway, Switzerland,
Brazil) it is the basic source of supplying cheap and ecological energy, which almost
completely covers the demand for electricity in the country. In 2014, the installed
capacity in the global hydropower sector amounted to over 1120 GW and allowed for
the production of electricity equal to 16% of global supply.
In Europe, hydropower has achieved a leading position in the production of green
electricity, and the constant trend is the development of so-called small hydropower
plants (SHPP) with a capacity of <5 MW. It is estimated that there is about 17,000 of
this type of installations. Countries with the largest number of SHPPs are Italy, France
and Spain. According to the European SHPP Association (ESHA), in 2012 the largest
number of hydropower plants with a capacity <10 MW had: Austria (2,871 units), Italy
(2,667 units of which 1,886 units with a capacity <1 MW), Sweden (1,869 of which
1,617 units with a capacity <1 MW), Czechia (1,510 units of which 1,451 units with a
capacity <1 MW), Poland (761 items, of which 691 items with a capacity <1 MW).
According to the European Renewable Energy Center, Poland uses the gravity potential
of watercourses in only 11% (the last place in Europe). Currently, there are 125

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_27
Innovative Rotor of Water Turbine Save for River Ecosystem 237
professional hydroelectric power plants and 646 SHPPs in Poland, whose power do not
exceed 5 MW. Despite the small number of places adequate for large hydropower
plants investments, it is estimated that there are nearly 6,000 locations with a high
potential for the construction of SHPP. With the exception of the foothill areas, the vast
majority of heaps possible to develop (or build) in Europe is low-lying (fall below
20 m), with the largest share of ultra-low-fall objects (fall below 2.5 m).
In Poland, in recent years, situation in the hydropower sector has stabilized. In
2010, installed capacity in this area amounted to 945.20 MW, in 2011-937.04 MW,
and in 2012-951.39 MW. The share of hydropower in 2010 was 47.4%, in 2011
36.65% in 2012. 30.87%. Despite the decreasing share in the installed capacity in the
renewable energy sector, hydropower is the second-half in the production of “clean”
electricity, supplying in 2011 2080.3 GWh, or approximately 1.4% of Poland’s annual
energy demand. According to current estimates, there are approximately 7.5 thousand
of hydrotechnical facilities in Poland that are not used for energy purposes. Therefore,
Poland has favorable conditions for the hydropower development, especially in the area
of SHPP, although the pace of launching new capacities is still low.
The vast majority of current SHPP installations is outdated (they have been
working for several decades), has low efficiency and do not take into account eco-
logical aspects of the watercourses use (e.g. migrating fish protection). In addition, they
are not adapted to work on watercourses with low, medium flows and small falls (and
such conditions prevail in Poland and Europe). Moreover, most of currently operated
turbines will have to be replaced with the new ones within a few years, which opens up
possibilities for implementing new solutions in the area of water turbines.
Currently, the most important parameter enabling obtaining water permits for
turbine operation is not its efficiency but other ecological parameters as migrating fish
protection, minimization or reduction of harmful emissions to the environment, noise
and vibration reduction generated by the device and minimal interference in the water
threshold (including natural accumulation). Such a device is the subject of a project
currently being implemented by the team of Wrocław University of Science and
Technology and Global Technik Company.
2 Concept of Innovative Water Turbine
The study is a part of the project which aim is development within the R&D works of
the innovative, highly effective water turbine (ECOTURBINE) dedicated to the pro-
duction of electricity in small hydropower plants (SHP) on watercourses with very low
water falls and natural dams (<1 m). A new water turbine (which is planned to be
developed within project) will be breakthrough in the market of SHP (available on the
world market water turbines work for min. water threshold of 2 m). The new turbine
will have a significant competitive advantages comparing to the best (currently avail-
able) on the global markets solutions at key technical parameters:
– Adaptation to work at very low water falls from 1 m which will significantly
increase the number of potential sites that can be adapted to produce cheap and
clean electricity
238 A. Górniak et al.
– Efficiency: 80% (worm turbine ST3000: 75%)

– Capital expenditures for 1 kW of power installed: 4 000 PLN/1 kW
– Payback period of 4 years
It is planned to develop within R&D works a new construction of the water turbine,
wherein bearings will not be submerged in the water, thereby eliminating the escape of
the lubricant into the water. Preliminary studies show that it is possible to significantly
reduce noise and vibration during operation of the water turbine (modification of
construction and sound insulation of the turbine) and enhancing the protection of
migratory fish [2–5]. A new mechanism for collection and processing of in-situ waste
flowing through river surface will be developed and it is planned to achieve a high
durability of the new turbine thanks to innovative anti-cavitation coating.
The goal of presented research work is, using CFD method, choice of proper
surfaces for protective coating.
3 Research Method
CFD methods, with appropriate scientific approach and user experience, are an ideal tool
for improving the classical methods used in the design offlow-through devices. Commonly
used classical methods have been developed over the years on the basis of designers’
experience, mathematical relationships and experimental research. However, they have
some limitations, as not all the phenomena occurring can be predicted (especially in terms
of the functioning of the whole flow-through system) and observed. Only CFD methods
make it possible to observe the whole flow in virtual space and improve flow
elements/systems in areas that could not be identified with classical methods [6].
In this research, for computational simulations the ANSYS-FLUENT software was
applied. RANS method of double-equitation of turbulence k-e model was used for
calculation. The calculations was provide in stationary conditions with Moving
Referance Frame method.
Fig. 1. View on the turbine geometry

I Fig. 1 the view of the innovative turbine is shown. A design of the turbine is
based on lever concept. The details of the rotor geometry and shape of blades are
restricted by the Global Technik company. The concept of the device is focused on
environment protection (especially for fish protection).
The mesh, presented in Fig. 2, was based on tetra elements with inflation applied
on the walls.
Fig. 2. View on mesh applied for the CFD calculations
4 Results
The results of the simulations, flow through the turbine, are presented in Figs. 3 (stream
lines based on velocity) and 4 (velocity vectors).
Fig. 3. View of the flow through the turbine - stream lines based on velocity, m/s (CFD,
ANSYS-FLUENT)
240 A. Górniak et al.
Fig. 4. View of the flow through the turbine – velocity vectors, m/s (CFD, ANSYS-FLUENT)
In the figures water flow and swirl axial velocity is visible in rotor area. Obser-
vation the flow based on simulation and results of the calculations indicates on
accordance to the assumptions.
As a result of the research work:

1. the basic concept of an innovative water turbine was developed, for which the
safety of river ecosystem is an important feature
2. the numerical simulation was made to verify the safety turbine assumptions for
migrating fish
3. flow observation, possible thanks to the results of numerical simulations using the
CFD method, allowed to choose a geometrical variant of the turbine, which will be
made as a real model (prototype)
Acknowledgements. The article was developed as part of project POIR.01.01.01-00-0839/16-

00 “R&D works on developing environment-friendly water microturbines (ECOTURBINE)
intended for watercourses with low water falls and natural dams” funded by the National Centre
for Research and Development.
References
1. (2014) Hydropower Market Report, U.S. Departament of Energy Available electronically at
osti.gov/bridge
2. Razurel P, Gorla L, Tron S, Niayifar A, Crouzy B, Perona P (2018) Improving the
ecohydrological and economic efficiency of Small Hydropower Plants with water diversion.
Adv Water Resour 113:249–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2018.01.029
3. Grigoriu M, Bica RD, Popescu MC (2018) Small hydropower plants optimization for
equipping and exploitation software application. Procedia Manuf 22:796–802. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.promfg.2018.03.113
4. Breeze P (2018) Chapter 6 - small hydropower. In: Hydropower. Academic Press, pp 53–62.
ISBN 9780128129067. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812906-7.00006-5
5. Kollek W, Kudźma Z, Stosiak M (2007) Possibilities of diagnosing cavitation in hydraulic
systems. Arch Civ Mech Eng VII(2):61–73
6. Zawiślak M (2017) Method of designing and modernising machines and flow systems using
Computational Fluid Mechanics. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Poznańskiej, Poznań
Analysis of Composite Structure Effect
on Radio-Frequency Characteristics
of the RFID Tag
Piotr Górski1, Jacek Lewandowski2, Paweł Krowicki1,

and Tadeusz Lewandowski1(&)
1
{piotr.gorski,pawel.krowicki,tadeusz.lewandowski}
@pwr.edu.pl
2
Faculty of Biology and Animal Science, Department of Genetics,
Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, C.K. Norwida 25,
jacek.lewandowski@upwr.edu.pl
Abstract. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the wireless use of electro-

magnetic fields to transfer data, for the purposes of automatically identifying and
tracking tags attached to objects. Depending on the type of the material being
tracked, the radio-frequency characteristics of the RFID tag may be very different.
This paper aims to investigate how the RFID tag readability changes, when tags are
attached to the composite structures. For this purpose, a number of different com-
posite materials – based on carbon fibres, linen fibres and fibreglass, were selected
and tested, in order to investigate their effect on radio-frequency characteristics of
the RFID tag. For the purpose of this experiment passive tags have been used, which
works by reflecting the RFID signal sent by the antenna. Such measurement settings
allow us to assess the RF attenuation/amplification characteristics of tested materials
and eliminate any other measurement errors such as those associated with the power
and battery capacity of an active tag. The experimental results show that depending
on the types of fibres used, the composite materials can either be used to attenuate or
strengthen tag’s radio signal reflection characteristic measured by received signal
strength indicator (RSSI) on the RFID reader.
1 Introduction
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the wireless use of electromagnetic fields to

transfer data, for the purposes of automatically identifying and tracking tags attached to
objects. The standard RFID system consists of the RFID tags attached to objects and
the RFID reader equipped with the antenna. The RFID reader uses an antenna which
radiates a circularly polarized signal in a directional pattern to send and receive signals
to and from the RFID tags. The antenna can be either built into the reader or externally
connected for better performance Since tags have individual serial numbers, the RFID
system design can discriminate among several tags that might be within the range of
the RFID reader and read them simultaneously. Objects identification based on RFID

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_28
Analysis of Composite Structure Effect on Radio-Frequency 243
technology allows simultaneous reading of multiple tags without an optical contact

between the tag and the receiver. True physical tag maximum reading distance is
determined by the individual RFID reader and antenna power, the actual RFID tag, the
material and thickness of material the tag is coated or covered with, the type of antenna
the tag uses as well as the material the tag is attached to. In general passive RFID tags
reading distance varies from few centimetres to few metres from the antenna [1, 2].
This paper aims to investigate how the RFID tag readability changes, when tags are
attached to the composite structures. For this purpose, a number of different composite
materials – based on carbon fibres, linen fibres and fibreglass, were selected and tested, in
order to investigate their effect on radio-frequency characteristics of the RFID tag. For the
purpose of this experiment passive tags have been used, which works by reflecting the
RFID signal sent by the antenna. Such measurement settings allow us to assess the RF
attenuation/amplification characteristics of tested materials and eliminate any other mea-
surement errors such as those associated with the power and battery capacity of an active
tag. The experimental results show that depending on the types offibres used, the composite
materials can either be used to attenuate or strengthen tag’s radio signal reflection char-
acteristic measured by received signal strength indicator (RSSI) on the RFID reader.
2 Tested Composite Materials
In order to investigate the effect of composite materials on radio-frequency charac-

teristics of the RFID tag the following composite structures based on 1) linen fibres, 2)
fibreglass and 3) carbon fibres were prepared. Test samples in form of boxes, were
Fig. 1. Tested composite elements (from left): 1 - based on linen fibres; 2 – based on fibreglass;
3 – based on carbon fibres.
244 P. Górski et al.
moulded in Resin Powder Moulding (RPM) technology [3], where multiple layers of a
given material are coated with synthetic resin. The RFID tags have been attached to the
internal surface of the moulded composite elements as illustrated in Fig. 1 (Fig. 2).
3 Measurement System
A measurement system used in this experiment, consists of the RFID Ultra High
Frequency reader LinkSprite Cottonwood Long Range UHF RFID [4] with the 8 dB
circularly polarized directional antenna, working in the European frequency band
Fig. 2. The RFID UHF measurement system – UHF RFID reader with 8dBi antenna.
Fig. 3. LinkSprite Cottonwood Long Range UHF RFID reader [7].

865–868 MHz [5] Fig. 3 presents the complete measurement system with a detailed
picture of a LinkSprite Cottonwood Long Range UHF RFID reader presented in Fig. 4.
During testing the measurement system was connected to the PC with the LinkSprite
software for information processing and presentation as illustrated in Fig. 5. The RFID
reader output signal level was set to −6 dB with reader sensitivity to −71dBm. Each
measurement took 20 s and for each position a total of 200 measurements of RSSI were
taken during this time. The experiment was performed in controlled environment using
temperature and humidity measurement device LB-522 from LAB-EL [6]. Table 1
presents detailed specification of the reader.
Table 1. Technical specification of the LinkSprite Cottonwood Long Range UHF RFID.
Working Frequency 840 MHz * 960 MHz
Protocol ISO18000-6C (EPC GEN2), compatible with ISO18000-6A/B
Antenna gain 5 dBi or 8 dBi directional antenna
RF gain MAX 20 dBm
Card reading distance Passive tags identification distance adjusting range: 1 to 6 m
Card reading time Reading time of multi-tags 64 bit ID < 6 ms
Modulation mode ASK or PR-ASK
Supporting interface High speed USB or TTL UART (RS232) communicate with PC applications
Power supply DC+5 V 2A
Read indicator Can be programmed. GPIO output can be set
Power 1.5 W-2 W
Working temperature −20°C +80°C
Storage temperature −40°C to +125°C
Working humidity 20–95% (No condensation)
Dimensions 90 mm 49 mm 0.51 mm
Antenna interface MMCX
Fig. 4. Complete measurement system.

4 Experiment Design
Two types of experiments were performed in order to measure:

1. The RFID signal strength reflected from tags placed inside the elements (boxes)
made of composite materials.
2. The impact of placing the flat composite material mat behind the tag on the strength
of the RFID signal reflected by the tag.
In the first experiment, the analysis of RFID signal penetrability through composite
materials from Fig. 2 was conducted. The aim of this study was to establish, whether it is
possible to locate the RFID tag placed inside these sample elements made of different
composite materials. In order to answer this question the tags were put inside the sample
composite elements and the attempt to take readings of the RFID tag IDs was performed.
The test was performed at a temperature of 21.6 °C and a relative humidity of 30%.
The second experiment measured the impact of placing the flat composite material
mat behind the tag, on the strength of the RFID signal reflected by the tag. The
composite material mats used in this experiment were made of linen fibres, carbon
fibres and fibreglass. The measurements of received signal strength, expressed in
percent of received signal strength measured in front of an antenna, were taken at
10 cm, 20 cm and 30 cm distance from the mat as illustrated in Fig. 5. In such settings
the distance between the mat and the RFID antenna was 150 cm. In order to establish
the signal gain/loss, the referential measurements for each RFID tag were made without
carbon mat, at the distance adequate to measurements with the mat at 120 cm, 130 cm
and 140 cm from the antenna respectively.
Fig. 5. The diagram showing the measurement station used to analyse the RFID signal strength
as a function of distance from the mat.
In order to analyse the effect of composite materials on radio-frequency character-

istics of the RFID tag, the measurements were performed on the set of specially selected
passive RFID tags, presented in Fig. 6. The passive RFID tag operation relies on RF
energy transferred from the reader to the tag to power the tag, whereas active RFID tag
uses an internal power source (battery) of a tag to continuously power the tag and its RF
communication circuitry. Hence, passive RFID requires stronger signals emitted by the
reader, and the signal strength received by the reader is an actual reflected signal of a very
low amplitude, however not amplified by an active tag of unknown amplification gain.
Such measurement settings allow us to assess the RF attenuation/amplification
characteristics of tested materials and eliminate any other measurement errors such as
those associated with the power and battery capacity of an active tag.
1) 2)
3) 4)
Fig. 6. Selected RFID tags: a) Omni-ID Dura 1500 ATEX [8] – heavy duty long range passive
UHF tag optimized for metal applications; b) Datamars [9] – passive UHF laundry tag; c) Frog
3D Monza – passive RFID sticker [10, 11]; d) Confidex Halo [12, 13] – passive UHF tag
optimized for metal applications.
5 Results
The results obtained in the first experiment allowed to answer, which of the three tested
materials can be used as an complete RFID tags attenuator (insulator). The complete
signal attenuation was obtained with the sample made of composite material based on
carbon fibre, which completely attenuated the signal of RFID tags and made it
impossible to detect any RFID tag placed inside the box even when the box was placed
just on top of the antenna as illustrated in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. The box made of composite materials based on carbon fibres with the RFID tags inside.
In turn, for tags placed inside boxes made of linen fibres and fibreglass composite
materials, the RFID signal could penetrate composite structures, and the RFID tags
could have been read without any impact on the reflected signal strength (Fig. 8).
In the second experiment the measurements were taken to determine, which com-
posite material mat – linen fibres, fibreglass or carbon fibres, enable to reflect and amplify
the signal of a tag when the material is placed behind the tag. Similar to the first exper-
iment, the measurements obtained in this experiment did not show any clear change in the
reflected signal strength for mats made of linen fibres and fibreglass composite materials,
therefore their experiment results were omitted in further considerations of this paper, as
their effect on radio-frequency characteristics of the RFID tag is negligible. In turn, as
presented in Tables 2 and 3 below, the carbon fibre composite material in such config-
uration shows strong radio signal reflection characteristic. Table 2 presents the summary
of the referential readings made for each evaluated RFID tag at various distances from the
antenna without the carbon mat placed behind the tag, while Table 3 presents the RSSI
index for each evaluated RFID tag, placed at different distances from the carbon mat.
Table 2. The measurements of signal strength expressed in [%] at 120 cm, 130 cm and 140 cm
away from the antenna (no mat behind the tag).
Tag RSSI [%]
Distance [cm] 1 2 3 4
140 34,20 ± 3,37 29,60 ± 6,16 29,60 ± 3,33 67,53 ± 2,25
130 55,67 ± 4,87 32,00 ± 3,28 44,07 ± 3,40 60,53 ± 2,45
120 46,27 ± 5,51 40,87 ± 2,25 30,00 ± 3,48 45,00 ± 3,33
Table 3. The measurements of signal strength expressed in [%] at 10 cm, 20 cm and 30 cm

away from the mat.
Tag RSSI [%]
10 47,73 ± 3,38 52,47 ± 2,25 40,27 ± 3,41 80,93 ± 2,85
20 76,80 ± 3,35 40,53 ± 2,05 46,67 ± 1,90 76,80 ± 3,35
30 60,47 ± 3,32 43,33 ± 3,35 46,93 ± 4,63 72,80 ± 4,71
The RFID signal gain resulting from placing the carbon fibre mat behind the tag has
been established for each sensor in Table 4. The average signal gain for a carbon fibre
composite material in the distance range of up to 30 cm from the material, is 1.35 for
all evaluated tags.
Table 4. The RFID signal gain resulting from placing the carbon fibre mat.
Sample number
10 1,40 1,77 1,36 1,20
20 1,38 1,27 1,06 1,27
30 1,31 1,06 1,56 1,62
Mean 1,36 1,37 1,33 1,36
Analysis of Composite Structure Effect on Radio-Frequency
Fig. 8. The differences between the signal power (expressed in %) for all tags (according to numbering in Fig. 2) in settings with and without the mat.
249
The following Fig. 7 graphically depicts the differences between the signal power
for two settings (with and without the mat). The charts in Fig. 7 shows also the impact
of placing tags at different distances from the mat on reflected signal strength.
6 Conclusions and Future Works
Based on the obtained results, the following conclusions can be drawn:

• composite material based on carbon fibres has very strong radio frequency atten-
uation characteristic. Regardless of whether the sensor was coated inside the sample
material or was stuck on the outside, the reflected RF signal strength was zero. This
means that this material is ideal insulator (absorber) for the RF signal used in the
RFID technology.
• on the other hand when placed behind the RFID tag the composite material based
on carbon fibres has very strong radio signal reflection characteristic. Thanks to this
it strengthen the reflected signal of a tag placed between the carbon fibre mat and
the RFID reader’s antenna.
• other tested composite materials may be used for the purpose of the RFID
identification.
• composite materials (other than carbon fibres) present similar radio frequency
characteristics in terms of the RFID signal attenuation/amplification.
Further research in the topic presents very important cognitive and scientific value
for the future application of composite materials in the field of moulded interconnect
devices (MIDs). Out intended future works include:
• analysis of antenna directionality – 3-dimensional analyses of RF signal power,
• analysis of antenna polarization through experiments with different types of antenna
and different reader settings e.g. output level, frequency band, etc.,
• analysis of the RFID signal sensitivity due to physical obstacles as well as inter-
ference with other common wireless radio frequency sources.
References
1. Duroca Y, Tedjini S (2018) RFID: a key technology for Humanity, vol 19, n. 1–2. Comptes
Rendus Physique, pp 64–71
2. Vena A, Perret E (2016) TEDJINI. Coding and Reading System, Chipless RFID based on
RF Encoding Particle. Realization, pp 1–26
3. Matykiewicz D et al (2017) Modification of glass reinforced epoxy composites by
ammonium polyphosphate (APP) and melamine polyphosphate (PNA) during the resin
powder molding process. Compos B Eng 108:224–231
4. PRUDANOV, A. et al. A Trial of Yoking-Proof Protocol in RFID-based Smart-Home
Environment. Communications in Computer and Information Science., 678, 2016.x
5. REGULATORY status for using RFID in the EPC Gen 2 band (860 to 960 MHz) of the
UHF spectrum 31 October 2014
6. HYTHEROGRAPH LB-522 datasheet. http://www.label.pl/en/termohigrometr-lb522.html
7. COTTONWOOD: UHF Long distance RFID reader module datasheed. http://linksprite.com/

wiki/index.php5?title=Cottonwood:_UHF_Long_distance_RFID_reader_module
8. OMNI ID datasheet. https://www.omni-id.com/pdfs/Omni-ID_Dura_1500_datasheet.pdf
9. DATAMARS datasheet. http://www.datamars.com/wp-content/uploads/DATAMARS-
NOVO-FT301-new-template.pdf
10. FROG 3D Monza datasheet. https://www.smartrac-group.com/files/content/Products_
Services/PDF/0011_SMARTRAC_FROG_3D_2in.pdf
11. STAšA, et al. Auto-ID for Automotive Industry. Carpathian Control Conference (ICCC),
2015 16th International, 2015
12. Parreño-Marchante A et al (2014) Advanced traceability system in aquaculture supply chain.
J Food Eng 122:99–109
13. CONFIDEX HALO RFID TAG datasheet. https://www.atlasrfidstore.com/confidex-halo-
rfid-tag/
Design of the Vehicle Frontal Protection
System for Emergency Services
Artur Górski, Tadeusz Lewandowski, Wiktor Słomski,

and Mariusz Ptak(&)
Department of Machine Design and Research, Wrocław University of Science

and Technology, Łukasiewicza 7/9, 50-371 Wroclaw, Poland
{artur.gorski,tadeusz.lewandowski,wiktor.slomski,
mariusz.ptak}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The article presents the development of a frontal protection system for
intervention vehicles that are in use by emergency services in Europe. The design of
the FPS is closely related to the current needs of uniformed services. The constituted
bodies such as police or military services tend to purchase vehicles, which are not
originally equipped with any vehicle frontal protection system. Currently available
systems mounted on emergency services vehicles do not differ significantly from
commercial solutions available on the market. It turns out that in some critical
situations, they do not meet the design requirement as they deform under relative
small force, at the same time creating a threat to occupants and other road users.
Thus, this paper presents an approach for design a new FPS using CAD/CAE
methods. Finally, the physical prototype mounted on a SUV is presented.
1 Introduction
The aim of the article is to present the development of a frontal protection system for
intervention vehicles that are in use by emergency services. Vehicles of this type may
be used as a measure of direct coercion during interventions. Thus, they are exposed to
damages of the front-end – whereas the maximum safety of occupants during collision
must be provided. As part of the product implementation, a statistical analysis of the
data was carried out concerning typical forced collisions involving vehicles operated in
emergency services, also with regard to their effects on the health and life of the
occupants. An analysis and review of the aspects taken into account were as followbase
on currently manufactured vehicles.
The analysis showed that majority of currently produced passenger vehicles, unlike
off-road cars with the frame chassis, have unibody with construction elements dispersing
the crash energy – the so-called crumple zone. Therefore, for using modern vehicles as
direct coercive measures, it was necessary to make special reinforcements to the body
structure. These changes should not affect the passive safety of the vehicle. However,
they can increase the vehicle efficiency when using it as a means of direct coercion.
One of the first stages of the research work was to develop a preliminary concept of
the frontal protection system in the context of legal requirements as well as technical
conditions related to the chosen vehicles. To this end, a wide range of available
analysis has been carried out solutions of geometric protection circuits helpful in
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_29
Design of the Vehicle Frontal Protection System 253
development a modern solution. According to Regulation (EC) 78/2009 currently in

force in the European Union [1] the frontal protection system (FPS) means a separate
structure or structures, such as a bull bar, or a supplementary bumper which is intended
to protect the external surface of the vehicle, from damage in the event of a collision
with an object with the exception of structures having a mass of less than 0.5 kg,
intended to protect only the lights.
Historically, the production of frontal protection systems began in Australia, where
collisions of vehicles with kangaroos and other large animals often occurred in agri-
cultural regions [2–4]. That is why the FPS is also knows as a “roo bar” or “bullbar,”
which means a tube that protects against a kangaroo or a bull [5]. In Polish the FPS is
commonly known as “piping” because most of the FPS structure is made of bent pipes.
2 The Concept of the Safety System
The conceptual design works on the frontal protection system were oriented on a
specific vehicle model. After analyzing the post-crash deformation effects in the
structure of different vehicles classes, used by uniformed services (car segments C, D,
E and SUVs) it was decided to work development of a sport utility vehicle (SUV) –
popular in use by police services. After choosing the base vehicle, which was a Kia
Sportage 2010, the authors develop the concept not only in accordance with technical
feasibility but also with design and stylistic trends. Initial design selection has been
made basing on interviews with future users, suitable materials and its system crash-
worthiness. Based on preliminary material recognition and mechanical requirements
that will have to be subject to the proposed system it was decided that the designed
system would be made of DIN 1.4301 steel (supporting frame construction together
with a crash box) and polyurethane foam as a construction wrap (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Proposed concepts of the frontal protection system mounted on a SUV

254 A. Górski et al.
3 Development of Geometric and Computational Models

of the Protection System
The next stage of research work was to development of the computer-aided design
models (CAD) for the chosen concepts. These works were divided into two stages.
First included the definition of geometry corresponding to the selected layout concept
for dedicated car vehicle. The front part of the vehicle it has been delivered faithfully
reproduced using Reverse Engineering. For this purpose, the GOM 3D ATOS optical
scanner was used [6]. Based on the process the scan, the authors received a cloud of
points from which it was possible to determine the outer contour of the vehicle.
Further, the so-called the point cloud has been converted to NURBS surfaces recog-
nizable by CAD software – here CATIA v5. However, in the model, there are sig-
nificant load-carring elements in the front of the vehicle that could affect the occupant
safety after a collision. The mapping of these structural elements that are located behind
the vehicle bumper was carried out using an optical Leica P20 scanner. The vehicle was
properly prepared for the scanning and set on the ramp to facilitate access to chassis
components. It was also necessary to temporary white-colour some elements with a
high absorption coefficient pf electromagnetic radiation (laser), to reduce measurement
error.
The second stage of the research was to build a finite element (FE) model for the
sake of numerical calculations. Based on the developed geometric model a discrete FE
model was created. Selected elements of geometric and discrete models of the project
conceptual are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The average size of elements overlaid on the
FPS is 10 mm for the tetra4 finite element and 6 mm for the elements used for
modelling the attachment. Due to the fact that during an impactor strike the material of
the FPS and its attachment may undergo partial yielding (material nonlinearity) and a
significant change in configuration may occur as a result of large deflections (geometric
nonlinearity), all of the finite elements used in the model are adjusted for calculations
with both types of non-linearity. The steel FPS was made from DIN 1.4301 steel alloy
(AISI 304). A non-linear model of DIN 1.4301 steel alloy was implemented based on
the 094_Simplified Johnson-Cook material model from the LS-DYNA database [7].
The other material model based on the previous authors’ works described in [8, 9]. The
boundary conditions that define the constraint of the front-end of the vehicle were
considered the worst computational case (the so-called safe side of FEM calculations).
The nodes of surface elements that define the fronts of vehicles are connected to one
master node, from which all six degrees of freedom were removed. The CNRB kine-
matic constraint (Constrained Nodal Rigid Body) was used for this purpose. This
increased the stiffness of the vehicle’s front-end in comparison to the real object. This
method, however, was chosen as the safest method to represent the influence of the
vehicle’s front-end on the behaviour of the FPS, due to the lack of sufficient material
data for structural elements that are behind the visible components of the vehicle (cross
beams, plastic foams behind the bumper, etc.).
Fig. 2. Geometric (left) and FE (right) models of the design FPS
Fig. 3. The analysed fragment of the vehicle’s load-carrying structure of the FPS
4 Simulations and Model Calculations of the Designed

Protective System
The assumed initial vehicle velocity without front the safety system was equal to
40 km/h, at which the Kia Sportage 2010 crumple zone is damaged – as proved in
EuroNCAP tests [10]. Thus, one of the most important parts of the research was the
simulation computer of the designed system tested at 40 km/h. Computer simulations
included both external elements of the protective system and standard and additional
crash boxes, as well as validation by simulations using impactors [11]. Initial simu-
lations included identifying of the stress on the load-bearing structure of the system and
the level of energy absorption through the numerical models of the additional crash
boxes. For this purpose, various variants of models have been subjected to computer
simulations. Figure 4 shows the results of computer simulations for the selected load
cases, whereas Fig. 5 depicts the prototype frame without the polyurethane foam
wrap. In the next stage of model work, computer simulations of a collision were carried
out to front protection of the vehicle with an obstacle. It needs to be added that SUVs,
mainly due their geometry, can pose a great danger to pedestrians [12]. Improperly
Fig. 4. Exemplary results of computer simulations of the FPS: H-M-H stress [MPa]
Fig. 5. Front and side view of the prototype safety system installed on the test vehicle
designed FPS could exacerbate the injuries suffered by a pedestrian during a traffic
accident [13]. Thus, the future test will encompass the pedestrian test on the pedestrian
dummy model [14].
5 Conclusions
It is noteworthy that contrary to popular opinion [15], neither directive 2005/66/EC nor
the regulation (EC) 78/2009 prohibits the use of conventional steel bull bars. The
requirements of type-approval certification also do not indicate the type of material that
should be used in FPS, whereas all structures fitted on a vehicle, technically defined as
frontal protection systems, must undergo appropriate approval testing. It has been
proved that in tests FPS made of plastic, due to lower rigidity of this material, may
demonstrate a higher level of safety than steel bull bars [2, 16–18].
Based on the research carried out, the authors design and created both numerical
and physical prototype of the FSP that was further mounted on the test SUV. The
vehicle was later subjected to field-testing, during which the effectiveness of the
operation was checked the protective system during intentional collision with the
vehicle in motion and with the vehicle immobilized. The tests confirmed the effec-
tiveness of the designed system security. The solution was implemented for production,
and vehicles equipped in the FPS are offered on the European marker.
Acknowledgements. The publication was developed as part of project INNOTECH-

K2/IN2/4/181818/NCBR/12 supported by the National Centre for Research and Development
in Poland.
References
1. European Parliament and Council: Regulation (EC) no 78/2009 of The European Parliament
and of the Council. Off J Eur Union (2009)
2. Anderson RWG, Van Den Berg AL, Ponte G, Streeter LD, Mclean AJ (2006) Performance
of bull bars in pedestrian impact tests Report documentation. University Adelaide
3. Stevenson T (2006) Simulation of vehicle-pedestrian interaction. Dr. thesis
4. Anderson R, Ponte G, Doecke S (2008) A survey of bullbar prevalence at pedestrian crash
sites in Adelaide, South Australia
5. Bignell P (2004) Evaluation of the performance and testing techniques of vehicle frontal
protection systems. http://eprints.qut.edu.au/15894/
6. James DW, Belblidia F, Eckermann JE, Sienz J (2017) An innovative photogrammetry color
segmentation based technique as an alternative approach to 3D scanning for reverse
engineering design. Comput Aided Des Appl 14:1–16
7. Livermore Software Technology Corporation (LSTC): LS-DYNA keyword user’s manual
vol 1, Livermore (2007)
8. Ptak M, Blicharski P, Rusiński E, Karliński J (2017) Numerical simulations of composite
frontal protection system according to EC 78/2009
9. Kopczyński A, Ptak M, Harnatkiewicz P (2011) The influence of frontal protection system
design on pedestrian passive safety. Arch Civ Mech Eng 11:345–364
10. Euro-NCAP: European New Car Assesment Programme (Euro NCAP) – Pedestrian Testin
Protocol. 52 (2015)
11. Ptak M, Konarzewski K (2015) Numerical technologies for vulnerable road user safety
enhancement. In: New contributions in information systems and technologies, pp 355–364
12. Ptak M, Rusiński E, Karliński J, Dragan S (2012) Evaluation of kinematics of SUV to
pedestrian impact—lower leg impactor and dummy approach. Arch Civ Mech Eng 12:68–73
13. Droste A, Naughton P (2002) The virtual stiffness profile – a design methodology for
pedestrian safety. Soc Automot Eng
14. Fernandes F, de Sousa RA, Ptak M (2018) Head injury simulation in road traffic accidents.
Springer International Publishing
15. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: Frontal Protection System. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Frontal_Protection_System. Accessed 22 May 2012
16. Finney I: Bull Bar Arrangement on a Motor Vehicle Front. US Patent App. 12/297,501
(2006)
17. Anderson RWG, Doecke S, Van Den Berg AL, Searson DJ, Ponte G (2009) The effect of
bull bars on head impact kinematics in pedestrian crashes report documentation. University
Adelaide
18. Beevers A (2006) Plastic bull bars: a novel concept. Plast, Rubber Wkly
Application of CFD Methods in Determining
the Implementation Areas of Protective
Coatings Used to Improve a Water Turbine
Lifetime
Dominika Grygier1, Anna Janicka1, Agnieszka Kocikowska2,

Alina Rudiak1, Małgorzata Rutkowska-Gorczyca1,
Krzysztof Sobczak2, and Maciej Zawiślak1(&)
1
and Technology, Wyb.Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
2
Global Technik Sp.k.Sp. z o.o., Sadłogoszcz 63, 88-192 Piechcin, Poland
Abstract. In the paper results of the numerical simulations which aim was
choice of surfaces for protective coating implementation in water turbine rotor.
Numerical analysis was provided in ANSYS FLUENT environment. The
researches are part of project focuses on development innovative, highly
effective water turbine (ECOTURBINE) dedicated to the production of elec-
tricity in small hydropower plants (SHP) on watercourses with very low water
falls and natural dams (<1 m).
Keywords: CFD Flow simulation Protective coating
1 Introduction
Dynamic advances in the field of technical sciences over the past decades have made it
necessary to develop mathematical and numerical tools to help solve a number of
scientific and engineering problems in designing, improving the efficiency and per-
formance of machinery and equipment.
The Computational Fluid Mechanics, with the appropriate scientific approach and
user experience, is an ideal tool for improving the classical methods used in the design
of flow machines [1].
The most important features of Computational Fluid Mechanics in terms of
applying theory and experimentation for engineering design are:
– the complexity of the modelled phenomena
– the ability to eliminate experimentation
– visualisation of phenomena.
It should be emphasized that CFD, due to its specificity, is not a typical engineering
tool (as is often the case with CAE software) but a scientific one. As mentioned, in
order to use it correctly, you need to have knowledge covering several fields of science.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_30
260 D. Grygier et al.
On the basis of CFD programs, however, it is possible to create a typical engineering

tool, the so-called system overlay. It allows you to calculate one industry-specific
technical solution without going further in the flow theory.
The interpretation of simulation results is mainly based on the observation of
modelled flow phenomena. Observation of results can be broken down into:
(1) physicality of the solution
(2) risk analysis
(3) relevance of results to the objective.
CFD methods, with appropriate scientific approach and user experience, are an
ideal tool for improving the classical methods used in the design of flow-through
devices. Commonly used classical methods have been developed over the years on the
basis of designers’ experience, mathematical relationships and experimental research.
However, they have some limitations, as not all the phenomena occurring can be
predicted (especially in terms of the functioning of the whole flow-through system) and
observed. Only CFD methods make it possible to observe the whole flow in virtual
space and improve flow elements/systems in areas that could not be identified with
classical methods. It can be said that all classical methods of designing machines and
industrial equipment (especially whole systems) need to be verified. Above all, this
concerns improving the overall efficiency and energy consumption of high power
equipment and high power flow-through systems. At present, effective design of effi-
cient flow-through industrial equipment without CFD methods seems impossible [1].
2 Concept of an Innovative Water Turbine
The study is a part of the project which aim is development within the R&D works of
the innovative, highly effective water turbine (ECOTURBINE) dedicated to the pro-
duction of electricity in small hydropower plants (SHP) on watercourses with very low
water falls and natural dams (<1 m). A new water turbine (which is planned to be
developed within project) will be breakthrough in the market of SHP (available on the
world market water turbines work for min. water threshold of 2 m).
The new turbine will have a significant competitive advantages comparing to the
best (currently available) on the global markets solutions at key technical parameters:
• Adaptation to work at very low water falls from 1 m which will significantly
increase the number of potential sites that can be adapted to produce cheap and
clean electricity
• Efficiency: 80% (worm turbine ST3000: 75%)
• Capital expenditures for 1 kW of power installed: 4000 PLN/1 kW
• Payback period of 4 years
It is planned to develop within R&D works a new construction of the water turbine,
wherein bearings will not be submerged in the water, thereby eliminating the escape of
the lubricant into the water. Preliminary studies show that it is possible to significantly
Application of CFD Methods in Determining the Implementation 261
reduce noise and vibration during operation of the water turbine (modification of
construction and sound insulation of the turbine) and enhancing the protection of
migratory fish. A new mechanism for collection and processing of in-situ waste flowing
through river surface will be developed and it is planned to achieve a high durability of
the new turbine thanks to innovative anti-cavitation coating.
The goal of presented research work is, using CFD method, choice of proper
surfaces for protective coating.
3 Research Method
In this research, for computational simulations the ANSYS-FLUENT software was

applied. RANS method of double-equitation of turbulence RNG k-e model with swirl
dominated flow was used for calculation. The calculations was provide in stationary
conditions with Moving Reference Frame method.
In Fig. 1 the view of the innovative turbine is shown. A design of the turbine is
based on lever concept. The details of the rotor geometry and shape of blades are
restricted by the Global Technik company. The concept of the device is focused on
environment protection (especially for fish protection).
Fig. 1. View on the turbine geometry
The mesh (volume between rotor blade-top and rotor blade-bottom), presented in
Fig. 2, was based on tetra elements with inflation applied on the walls.
Fig. 2. View on mesh applied for the CFD calculations
Boundary conditions are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Boundary conditions for the CFD simulations

Outflow 1013 hPa
Velocity inlet 1.5 m/s
Rotor RPM 45
Medium water
The results of the simulations are presented in Figs. 3, 4 and 5. In Fig. 3 the stream
lines based on velocity are shown. The main stream of the flow and swirls can be
observed.
For choosing areas for protective coating application the shear stress on the blade
surface was calculated. The results are presented in Figs. 4 (blade-top) and 5 (blade-
bottom).
The protective coating should be applied in areas characterized by highest values of
the shear stress (red and yellow colors in the Figs. 4 and 5).
Fig. 3. View of the flow through the turbine - stream lines based on velocity, m/s (CFD,
ANSYS-FLUENT)
Fig. 4. Contours of the shear stress, Pa, on the blade-top surface (CFD, ANSYS-FLUENT)
5 Coatings Dedicated to Water Turbine Rotor
The development of technology of industrial processes causes that the requirements of

installation in the range of pressure, temperature and flows increase [1, 5, 6]. Tradi-
tional solutions do not fulfill their proper role in conditions of threat of cavitation,
erosion, thermal shocks, supersonic flow or excessive noise. These phenomena are
destructive to turbines and their fittings, they pose a threat to safety and durability of
Fig. 5. Contours of the shear stress, Pa, on the blade-bottom surface (CFD, ANSYS-FLUENT)
installations and require the use of devices that reduce or eliminate these hazards.
Previous technical solutions were aimed at obtaining a pressure drop in the installation
to values below the critical values. The solution proposed in the work assumes
applying anti-cavitation ceramic protective coating on the surfaces most exposed to
cavitation.
Ceramic coatings show high hardness, low value of heat conductivity coefficient,
high resistance to corrosion and oxidation as well as high resistance to abrasion and
erosion [2–4]. At high temperatures, mechanical properties of ceramics are more
advantageous than metallic materials. Coatings made of ceramic materials are also used
for layers’ production resistant to adhesion, cavitation, thermal barrier structures and
electrical insulation. Basic ceramic materials used for spray coatings are:
– carbides, for example: Cr2C3, WC, TiC, Mo2C, SiC;
– oxides - Al2O3, Cr2O3, ZrO2 + 8% mass Y2O3, Al2O3-TiO2;
– nitrides - TiN, Si3N4;
– boides - TiB2, LaB6;
– silicides - TiSi2, MoSi2.
The coating described in this paper is created by particles that are solid when hit by
the substrate. The mechanism of the coating’s adhesion to the substrate is based on a
mechanical connection.
This type of application reduces coating’s cohesion while hardening the substrate.
Next, a laser beam is guided to the prepared substrate, ensuring coating’s melting along
with the top layer of base material.
The impact of the laser beam on the surface of the material being processed causes
absorption of thermal energy and, as a result, melting of the surface layer. Thermal
energy penetrates into the material and causes a large temperature gradient between the
molten material layer and the unmelted substrate [4, 5]. A large temperature gradient
affects quick solidification of the melted and mixed material of the surface layer and
provides the desired properties of the resulting layer.
The material in the modified layer following completion of the laser beam coag-
ulates, and the substrate material in its vicinity undergoes hardening. A structure of this
layer, its chemical composition and physicochemical properties differ from the sub-
strate and the material of the deposited particles, being a specific composite [2, 5].
Thickness of the layers obtained by the proposed method is 20–40 lm, and hardness
reaches up to 64 HRC. The anti-cavitation ceramic coating obtained with the use of this
method ensures that turbine lifetime will be increased even for more than 25 years.
As a result of the research work:

1. by means of CFD numerical simulation, rotor areas exposed to damage caused by
adverse phenomena related to the flow of fluid through the turbine were determined
2. coatings and technology for their application have been proposed, implementation
of which in the strategic areas of the rotor (determined as a result of this work) will
allow for a significant extension of the turbine’s lifetime.
Acknowledgements. The article was developed as part of project POIR.01.01.01-00-0839/

16-00 “R&D works on developing environment-friendly water microturbines (ECOTURBINE)
intended for watercourses with low water falls and natural dams” funded by the National Centre
for Research and Development.
References
1. Zawiślak M (2017) Method of designing and modernising machines and flow systems using
computational fluid mechanics. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Poznańskiej, Poznań
2. Klimpel A (2000) Napawanie i natryskiwanie cieplne, WNT
3. Pawlowski L (2008) The science and engineering of thermal spray coatings. John Wiley &
Sons
4. Klimpel A (1999) Technologie napawania i natryskiwania cieplnego, WPŚ
5. Oksa M, Turunen E, Suhonen T, Varis T, Hannula S-H (2011) Optimization of high velocity
oxy-fuel sprayed coatings: techniques, materials and applications. Coatings 1: 17–52
6. Dobrzański LA, Dobrzańska-Danikiewicz AD, Obróbka powierzchni materiałów
inżynierskich
7. Hejwowski T (2013) Nowoczesne powłoki nakładane cieplnie odporne na zużycie ścierne i
erozyjne, Lublin
Comparison of Stress Distribution Between
Geometrically Corrected Wire-Raceway
Bearings and Non-corrected Wire-Raceway
Bearings
Dominik Gunia(&) and Tadeusz Smolnicki

{dominik.gunia,tadeusz.smolnicki}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. This paper presents the current study of the distribution of stresses
for four-point contact wire-raceway ball bearing. The main aim of this article is
to define differences between geometrically corrected wire-raceway bearings
and non-corrected wire-raceway. Analysis were performed with Finite Elements
Method (FEM) in order to obtain internal stress distribution. The results for
corrected and non-corrected bearings are presented.
Keywords: Wire-raceway bearing Hertz stress Slewing bearing
1 Introduction
Presently it can be observed that wire-raceway bearings become more popular, due to
their advantages, such as: lightweight, lower inertia, backlash free. An example of a
cross section of wire-race slewing bearing is presented below (Fig. 1), general theory
for bearings can be used, but due to additional contact pair wire- ring special care
should be taken, especially in cases with aluminum rings [1, 2].
To predict internal stress in parts either analytical methods and Finite Elements
Analysis (FEA) can be used, however FEA can give much more information with
lower amount of assumptions, such as: bearing stiffness including local carrying
structure stiffness, stress distribution in all components (including Hertz stress) and
geometrical correction influence for stress distribution [3–5].
The aim of this study is to estimate the load distribution, pressure distribution and
stress distribution in particular pairs, and to determine influence of geometrical cor-
rection for stress distribution in internal components of wire-raceway bearings.
2 Bearings Theory- Elastic Contact, Geometrical Correction
The Hertz theory is a classical contact theory used in analysis of elastic bodies. Main
assumptions of this method are presented below [2, 3, 5–7]:

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_31
Comparison of Stress Distribution Between Geometrically Corrected 267
Fig. 1. Section of wire-raceway bearing
(1) The size of contact is small in comparison with the radii of contacting bodies.
(2) The yield limit cannot be exceeded, the bodies can deform only in the elastic
range of material property.
(3) The load is perpendicular to the contact surface and the contact is frictionless.
(4) Geometrical imperfections of surfaces are not taken into account.
In this theory, the contact occurs only between bodies with mathematical contact
(point contact and line contact). The contact changes shape from a point contact to an
ellipse, due to deformation of the bodies. The curvature function of the bodies can be
calculated as follows [2, 3, 5–10]:
ðq11 q12 Þ þ ðq21 q22 Þ

FðqÞ ¼ P ð1Þ
q
X
q ¼ q11 þ q12 þ q21 þ q22 ð2Þ
In these equation, q is principal curvature of the contact object and it is defined as a

reciprocal of each radius in the bodies, respectively, with sign convention - positive for
convex surfaces, negative for concave. Assuming material properties, like Young’s
modulus of the bodies as a E1 and E2, and Poisson’s ratio as µ1 and µ2, one can
calculate the semi-axes of the contact ellipse as follows [2, 3, 5–10]
1
3Q 1 l21 1 l22 3
a¼a P ð3Þ
2 q E1 E2
1
3Q 1 l21 1 l22 3
b ¼ b P ð4Þ
2 q E1 E2
Maximum contact pressure can be calculated as follows [2, 3, 5–11]:

2 313
P 2
1 6 3Qð qÞ 7
pmax ¼ 4 5 ð5Þ
2pa b 1l21 1l22 2
E1 E2
268 D. Gunia and T. Smolnicki
Is these formulas, a* and b* are the coefficients of axes of the contact ellipse [2, 3,
5–11].
Another important parameter connected with bearing construction is ball load (pw)
and it is defined as:
F
pw ¼ ð6Þ
d2
where:
F- force acting for ball,
d- ball diameter.
Next parameter which was used to describe bearing geometry is osculation ratio (s).
It is defined as:
d
s¼ ð7Þ
2rb
where:
d- ball diameter,
rb- wire-raceway radius.
Wire-raceway bearings can be corrected in similar ways like classical bearings,
especially wire correction can give significant results. It can helps to achieve better
stress distribution, smaller stresses and should increase fatigue strength. Wire cor-
rection can be done for following ways [3, 5, 6]:
• edges round off correction

• polynomial correction
• logarithmical correction
Logarithmical correction is described by following formula [6]:
2P 1
hðxÞ¼ 0 ln ð8Þ
pE l 1 ð2xlÞ2
where:
P- load,
l- rolling elements length,
E’- Young modulus equivalent described as [6]:

1 1 1 t21 1 t22
0 ¼ þ ð9Þ
E 2 E1 E2
where:
E1, E2 – Young modules,
t1, t2 – poissons ratios.
From manufacturing point of view the easiest correction to implement is round off
correction, however best effects give logarithmical correction [6].
3 Computational Model
3.1 Finite Element Model

Simulations are done with FEA, three computational models are created, based on real
bearing made by Franke GmbH, LEL2,5-200. Additionally for two simulation models
wire edges are rounded as a geometrical correction (Fig. 2). Details of computational
models are presented below (Table 1). Material properties use in simulations are pre-
sented in Table 2.
Table 1. Geometrical properties

Computational
model
1 2 3
Rolling diameter (mm) 200 200 200
Ball diameter (mm) 8 8 8
Wire diameter (mm) 2.5 2.5 2.5
Osculation ratio 0.96 0.96 0.96
Geometrical correction radius (mm) 0 0.2 0.4
Table 2. Material properties

Young modulus (GPa) Poisson ratio [-]
Ball- steel 200 0.3
Wire- steel 200 0.3
Ring- aluminum 70 0.33
Example model with boundary conditions is presented (Fig. 3). In all contact areas
first order HEXA (C3D8R) is used, additionally in these areas mesh density is much
higher in order to observe hertz phenomena (mesh size- around 0.2% of ball diameter
in ball-wire contact pair and bigger in wire-ring contact pair). In others areas first order
TETRA (C3D4) mesh is used, due to decrease computational time. TETRA elements
are connected to HEXA elements by a linear contact “TIE”. Models usually consist of
700 000-800 000 elements. Frictional contacts between ball-wire and wire-ring are
created with “Surface to surface” method with finite sliding contact formulations. In
tangent direction penalty criterion with value 0.05 is used, in normal direction hard
contact with Augmented Lagrange algorithm is used. Automatic stabilization is used in

order to obtain an easier convergence, dissipated energy fraction method is used,
dissipated energy fraction is equal to 0.0002 and adaptive stabilization ratio is equal
0.05. The initial step size is equal to 0.0001 and could change in the range from
0.00001 to 1. The full Newton method is used in simulations. Displacement extorsion
of central ball point is used in order to model external load [2, 5, 6, 11–14, 16].
Fig. 2. Shape comparison of non-corrected and corrected wire
Fig. 3. Computational model boundary conditions details
3.2 Results and Discussion

Formulas (1)–(5) are used to calculate theoretical value of the hertz stress in bielajew’s
point and pressure, then those values have been compared with results from simulations
(Table 3).
Table 3. Results comparison

Analytical calculations FEA simulations
F (N) Pressure (MPa) Huber-Mises (MPa) Pressure (MPa) Huber-Mises (MPa)
300 1440 893 2034 1218
Significant differences between results can be observed (both cases approximately

30%), however FEA results should be more precise, due to lack of major limitations of
analytical methods.
For bearing model 1 Hzphenomena can be observed, especially for lower values of
ball central point displacement (0.01 [mm]), however for higher values wire’s edge
contact with ball and notch effect can be observed. For stress distribution and fatigue
life this case is highly adverse, because stress rapidly rise and bearing components can
be damaged. It can be assumed that for non-corrected bearings contact between edges
and ball is impermissible, hence bearing should work with smaller values of ball point
factor. For properly working bearing (in bearing 1 limit of maximum central ball point
displacement is 0.01 [mm]) stress in bielajew’s point does not exceed limit values of
material strength and it is equal approximately 1200 (MPa) (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Comparison of equivalent stress distribution for displacement: (a) 0.01 (mm), (b) 0.13
(mm)
For geometrically corrected bearings it can be observed that ball achieve raceway’s
ends for lower values of ball central point displacements than in non-corrected bearing.
For small displacement (approximately 0.01 [mm]) the highest stress is in bielajew’s
point, below central contact area and it is equal for both corrected bearings approxi-
mately 1200 (MPa) (Fig. 5). Stress distribution is similar for both bearings, it means
that correction does not affect for internal stress distribution for lower values of ball
load.
For higher values of displacement, when due to ball deformation, contact between
corrected edges and ball appears, hertz phenomena can be observed in those areas.
Stress occurs below contact surface, moreover three axial compression occurs (Fig. 6),
maximum value of stress for bearing 2 in bielajew’s point is equal approximately 4100
(MPa), for bearing 3 is equal 3700 (MPa). It can be observed that higher values of
correction radius decrease hertz stress. This situation significantly improve fatigue life
and additionally bearing can properly work with higher values of ball load.
Fig. 5. Stress distribution for corrected bearings (radius R = 0.2 [mm] and R = 0.4 [mm]
respectively)
Fig. 6. Hertz stress phenomena on rounded edges of wire (radius R = 0.2 [mm] and R = 0.4
[mm] respectively)
Summaries of results are presented on figures below. Stress in bielajew’s point in

central contact area allows to observe that in every case stress is similar. Maximum ball
load for corrected bearings is equal approximately 2.5 (MPa). For non-corrected
bearing is significantly lower and it is equal 0.3 (MPa), ball load in this case is mainly
limited by notch effect between edges and ball (Fig. 7).
For non-corrected bearing stress on edges is significantly lower, because hertz
phenomena does not occur. Higher correction radius decrease stress in higher range of
ball load, however for lower ball loads is mainly higher. Stress can achieve high levels
due to stress phenomena (Fig. 8).
Fig. 7. Comparison of stress results in central contact point for all models
Fig. 8. Comparison of stress results on wire edges
4 Conclusions
For small loads highest stress occurs in bielajew’s point below contact area, for every
simulated bearings. Stress can reach high values (approximately 1200 [MPa]), because
three axis compression occurs. It is typical for every types of bearings.
For high values of load contact between edges and ball occurs and it is harmful for
bearing, because it lead to high stress due to notch effect and decrease fatigue life.
Additionally it reduce either useful range of ball load and bearing load. It means that
correction of this area is necessary.
Edges round off correction is used in this article, this type of correction is easier to
implement in bearings than other types like logarithmical correction. Results show that
round off correction have beneficial effect for stress distribution, due to correction stress
state change to three axis compression and hertz phenomena occurs. Extension of
useful range of ball load was observed and bearing can properly work for higher loads.
Stress can reach high values in bielajew’s point (4100 [MPa] and 3700 [MPa] for
different values of correction radius).
Higher values of correction radius decrease stress (approximately 10%) in edges
area and in central contact area, however for smaller loads stress increases more rapidly
than in other cases.
Finite elements analysis shows that round off correction gives benefits for wire-
raceway bearings, it helps to increase fatigue life and decrease stress in the most loaded
area. Additionally this variant is easy to implement. Round off correction should be
considered to implement in real wire-raceway bearings, however different types of
methods should be also checked. Additionally tests should be performed and results
should be compared.
References
1. Franke GmbH (2014) Drahtwaelzlager
2. Gunia D, Smolnicki T (2017) The influence of the geometrical parameters on stress
distribution in wire-raceway slewing bearing. Arch Mech Eng 2017(3):315–326
3. Smolnicki T (2003) Large-diameter rolling bearings. Global and local problems. Publishing
House of Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw (in Polish)
4. Rusiński E, Czmochowski J, Smolnicki T (2000) Advanced finite elements method in
carrying structures. Publishing House of Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,
Wroclaw (in Polish)
5. Kania L (2015) Analysis of inner load in slewing bearings. Publishing House of
Czestochowa University of Technology (in Polish)
6. Kania L (2012) Local problems in numerical modeling of slewing bearings. Publishing
House of Czestochowa University of Technology, Czestochowa (in Polish)
7. Hertz H (1896) On the contact of rigid elastic solids and on hardness. Miscellaneous Papers,
MacMillan, London
8. Lundberg G, Sjövall H (1958) Stress and deformation in elastic contacts. Chalmers Inst
Tech. Pub., Gothenburg
9. Palmgren A (1959) Ball and roller bearing engineering, 3rd edn. Burbank, Philadelphia
10. Bielajew NM (1929) Computation of maximal stresses obtained from formulas for pressure
in bodies in contact. Bull Eng Ways Commun, Leningrad
11. Pandiyarajan R, Starvin MS, Ganesh KC (2012) Contact stress distribution of large diameter
ball bearing using hertzian elliptical contact theory. Procedia Eng 38:264–269
12. Göncz P, Ulbin M, Glodež S (2015) Computational assessment of the allowable static
contact loading of a roller slewing bearing’s case-hardened raceway. Int J Mech Sci 94:174–
184
13. Lostado R, Martinez RF, Mac Donald BJ (2011) Determination of the contact stresses in
double-row tapered roller bearings using the finite element method, experimental analysis
and analytical models. J Mech Sci Technol 29(11):4645–4656
14. Hong SW, Tong VC (2016) Rolling-element bearing modeling: A review. Int J Precis Eng
Manuf 17(12):1729–1749
15. Hui-Yuan Y, Chun-Xi Z, Wu-Xing L (2012) Contact analysis on large negative clearance
four-point contact ball bearing. In: The second SREE conference on engineering modelling
and simulation. Procedia Engineering
16. Heras I, Aguirrebeitia J, Abasolo M (2017) Friction torque in four contact point slewing
bearings: Effect of manufacturing errors and ring stiffness. Mech Mach Theory 112:145–154
Modeling of the Constrain of the Foot
with the Bicycle Pedal While Driving
with a Constant Cadence
A. Handke and J. Bałchanowski(&)

{artur.handke,jacek.balchanowski}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. This work was undertaken to create models and conduct numerical
studies on them with different foot-pedal constrain while rotating the crank of
the bicycle. The movement in individual joints was induced based on the
characteristics obtained by the inverse kinematics task. In the studies, the load
characteristics of the main active joints: hip and knee were created, based on the
displacement characteristics obtained through a direct kinematics task. Test
conditions were established according to cycling with a standard cadence of
90 rpm. Numerical experiment was conducted in the ADAMS environment, on
the created spatial model that takes into account human’s lower and upper limbs.
The results obtained from the numerical studies form the basis for the devel-
opment of the full biomechanical model of the human-bicycle system and
represent an introduction to a more complex dynamic analysis and optimization
related to this system.
Keywords: Bicycle Biomechanics Kinematic structure Inverse kinematics
1 Introduction
Foot driven vehicles have been accompanying us for over 200 years. Among many
bicycle solutions differing, e.g. by the shape of the frame or the transmission of motion
from the crank to the driving wheel, one common feature can be distinguished. It is a
way of connecting a human kinematic system with the construction of a bicycle.
Regardless of intention of bicycle use (professional, amateur), the average user
transfers mechanical energy to the bicycle through the steering wheel, saddle and
pedals.
Based on experimental research, it was found that there is no clear difference
between the use of a cleat and without affixing the foot to the pedal [4] in terms of
effectiveness of the generated torque in the joints of the lower limbs, therefore the work
described the pedal-foot relation in order to determine displacement characteristics in
particular joints of the lower limbs for the assumed cadence. These characteristics were
essential to correctly carry out the task of direct kinematics. Because of the simplified
kinematic scheme of the human-bicycle system that can be assumed as a planar system
of a crank-rocker type [3]. It introduces additional passive constraints, which can

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_32
Modeling of the Constrain of the Foot with the Bicycle Pedal 277
significantly influence the values of active torques in the main joints (hip and knee). In
terms of the number of degrees of freedom of the bicycle itself in relation to the human
motion organ is redundant and this applies to both lower and upper limbs. Because the
bike’s propulsion system has only 1 driven link - bike’s crank, it can be put into motion
with one limb [1]. This would require the use of an appropriate method of restraining
the foot relative to the pedal [4]. However, in the case of a bipedal powered bicycle,
restraining the foot is not necessary due to the alternate generation of the driving force
from both limbs and restraining the foot to the pedal significantly changes the kine-
matic structure of the human-bicycle system.
2 Description of the Numerical Model
The author’s numerical model of the human-bicycle system created in the ADAMS
environment presented in paper [3] was used to carry out the simulation studies. Due to
the purpose of the research specified in the article, it was necessary to modify and
further develop the previously designed model [3], to separate the foot from the pedal.
Figure 1 shows a developed model that takes into account the use of upper limbs in
stabilizing the body position relative to the bicycle frame.
Fig. 1. ADAMS model of human-bike system
By analogy to the studies already carried out [3], the created model ensured a
certain transition from the inverse to the direct kinematics task. The number of given
displacements of elements in the inverse kinematics task and the number of active
torques from the joints in the direct task are summarized in Table 1.
278 A. Handke and J. Bałchanowski
The DOF table of the analyzed models presents a comparison between two theo-
retical solutions of the human-bicycle system. The model, which kinematic scheme is
shown in Fig. 2, is a development of the current model of the considered system with 7
DOF lower limbs [5], along with the separated foot from the bicycle pedals. The
relation between the torso and the saddle changed - a planar joint was introduced with
two translations and one rotation. A similar connection was defined between each foot
and the pedals, to obtain a certain number of predicted torques in the joints equal to the
number of displacements measured while performing the inverse kinematics task.
Table 1. Kinematics of developed models

Model Model Displacements (direct Active torques (inverse
name DOF kinematics) kinematics)
7L0U 14 u, H3(L,R), b2(L,R), (H1H3)(L,R),
(TX,TZ,RY)(P1P3) (a1,a3)(L,R), (b1,b2)(L,R)
7L7U 29 u, uh, (H3H6)(L,R), uh, (H1H6)(L,R),
a6(L,R), (b2,b5)(L,R), (a1,a3,a4,a6)(L,R),
(TX,TZ,RY)P1P3 (b1,b2,b4,b5)(L,R)
Fig. 2. Kinematic scheme of human-bike system: 7L0U
Due to the connection of the human kinematic system to the bicycle in the con-
sidered model, it was problematic to perform a direct kinematics task without any
displacements between the foot and the pedal. It was necessary to increase the friction
force in the foot-pedal kinematic pair or to introduce a shape-based contact between the
foot and the pedal. Therefore, the upper limbs with a similar kinematic structure to the
lower limbs (7 degrees of freedom) were introduced to the model. For simplification,
the spherical joint was used as a direct moveable connection of the arm relative to the
torso, thus omitting the mobility of the clavicle and the shoulder blade. Figure 3 shows
a kinematic scheme of the human-bicycle system with both upper and lower limbs,
while maintaining the same foot-pedal and torso-frame connections introduced in the
7L0U model (Table 1).
Fig. 3. Kinematic scheme of human-bike system: 7L7U

3 Modification of Foot-Pedal Constrain
The movement of the foot relative to the pedal in the inverse kinematics task simulation was
based on a planar kinematic pair. This connection was formed from the relation of the link K
situated between the two parallel planes of the link L (Fig. 4). For a direct kinematics task,
however, a modified kinematic pair with 4 degrees of freedom (3 translations and 1 rotation
around an axis normal to the planes of both links) was introduced, in which the upper
surface was replaced by the contact force between the foot and the pedal.
This way, the kinematic pair did not transfer the load during the lifting phase of the
given limb. Then during the lowering of the limb, the contact force enables a constant
distance between the adjacent surfaces of the foot and the pedal. Due to the dual foot-
pedal configuration, the reaction force between the K and L links occurs alternately for
both limbs. This way, the offset of the pedal from the foot was avoided during limb
lifting phase (Fig. 5).
Fig. 4. Joints used for inverse and direct kinematics during studies
Fig. 5. Contact force between foot and pedal during simulation

4 Preliminary Results
The simulations were carried out using the angular displacements in individual joints
(Table 1) based on the inverse kinematics task. The characteristics of measured dis-
placements were introduced directly into drives dedicated mainly in the hip and knee
joints. Due to the assumed dimensions of the lower limb model, individual joints
centers in each of the lower limbs ware placed in one plane. Therefore, the largest
angular displacements were just flexion movements in the hip and knee joints. Fig-
ures 6 and 7 show the characteristics of the active torques in the knee joints in cor-
relation with configurations in which one of the limbs acquire singular position. These
singularities result from the approximate perpendicularity of reaction force vector in the
knee joint and the velocity vector of the center of this joint.
Fig. 6. Knees flexing torque in first mechanical singularity
Fig. 7. Knees flexing torque in second mechanical singularity

Adequately to the presented characteristics of the active torques in the knee joints,
the presence of singularities for the active torques in the hip joints was found (Figs. 8
and 9). In accordance with the assumed number of active torques in the direct kine-
matics task, torques composed of three components were applied in the hip joints.
Therefore, the comparison concerned the components of active torques with the axis
parallel to the axis of flexion torques in the knee joints (H1 angle from Fig. 3).
For both considered joints, the singularity occurs at the same time, however, one
can notice a slight delay in entering the singularity by the right lower limb. It results
directly from the nature of mechanical singularities that a crank-rocker system makes it
impossible to precisely predict the behavior of the links when the excitation is defined
by the rocker link. Therefore, among existing solutions, there can be found a decoupled
crank systems [2], which allows to make the operation of both limbs independent,
thereby changing the position of mechanical singularities.
Fig. 8. Hips flexing torque in first mechanical singularity
Fig. 9. Hips flexing torque in second mechanical singularity

Based on the carried out simulations, it can be assumed that developed model of the
human-bicycle system is functioning correctly. The defined kinematic scheme allowed
for a proper transition from the inverse to the direct task. Since the research problem
related to the constrain between the foot and the pedal, for the inverse kinematics this
relation was assumed as a class III kinematic pair - a planar joint. However, due to the
participation of both lower limbs in driving the same link - crank, the developed form
of this kinematic pair was introduced for the direct kinematics task. In this way, the
relative movement between the foot and the pedal functioned unilaterally. Thanks to
this, there was a non-zero contact force between foot and the pedal only in the descent
phase. As a result, when the pedal was lifted, the limb was unloaded from the crank
torque, which could be observed both at the active torques of the knee joint and the hip
joint of both limbs.
By observing these graphs, the indeterminacy of the values of the active torques
near both singularities can be concluded. The influence of the presence of these sin-
gularities on the characteristics of active torques can be minimized in many ways,
mainly due to the control of the value of these torques with respect to displacements in
each joint by the use of regulator (PID). There is also the possibility of using inertia,
however, this would require to increase the value of the angular velocity of the crank.
There is also the possibility of shifting the singularity by lowering / raising the heel
depending on the crank rotation phase [1], due to the presence of an additional degree
of freedom in the ankle joint.
Ultimately, the results of the simulations will be used to further consider the
possibility of using a more detailed human-bicycle system in optimizing the structure
of the bicycle and its use in the rehabilitation of, among others, defects in the posture of
the lower limbs.
References
1. Bini RR, Diefenthaeler F (2009) Mechanical work and coordinative pattern of cycling: a
literature review, Kinesiology 41(1):25–39
2. Bini RR, Hume P, Croft J, Kilding A (2013) Pedal force effectiveness in cycling: a review of
constraints and training effects. J Sci Cycl 2(1):11–24
3. Handke A, Balchanowski J (2018) Synthesis of human-bike kinematic structures for direct
kinematic analysis, Engineering Mechanics 2018: 24rd international conference : May 14–17,
2018, Svratka, Czech Republic / ed. Vladimír Fuis. Brno: Brno University of Technology,
cop
4. Mornieux G, Stapelfeldt B, Gollhofer A, Belli A (2008) Effects of pedal type and pull-up
action during cycling. Int J Sports Med 10:817–822
5. Olinski M, Gronowicz A, Handke A, Ceccarelli M (2016) Design and characterization of a
novel knee articulation mechanism. Int J Appl Mech Eng 21(3):611–622
Computer Aided Diagnosis and Prediction
of Mechatronic Drive Systems
Mariusz Piotr Hetmańczyk(&) and Jerzy Świder

Konarskiego 18A St, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
{mariusz.hetmanczyk,jerzy.swider}@polsl.pl
Abstract. The article contains approach of diagnosis and prognosis of

mechatronic drive systems and their components, based on operational state
models recorded in the form of digraphs. Assumed approach in the form of the
proposed method containing interrelated groups of failures, effects and their
causes forced the need of changes of structures of applied algorithms and their
adjusting to the adopted diagnostic and prediction models. In addition, the
mathematical notation of directed graph structures dedicated to the transfor-
mation of diagnostic relationships to prediction dependencies was presented.
Keywords: Diagnosis Prediction Mechatronic drives Directed graphs
1 Introduction
Increase of complexity of mechatronic systems causes difficulties in analysis of the

signals flow between their components. This entails problems strictly associated with a
diagnosis and a prediction [1, 2] of system states. An identification of operational states
of described systems determines the correctness of the production cycle, the mainte-
nance of the required level of work quality and indicators (regarding productivity,
failure rate, safety, etc.). A key element is obtaining data related to the dependences
between the development of the failures [3, 9], the time and the possibility of their
propagation [4, 6, 7].
The primary aim of the study is to analyse the possibility of developing a
methodology that allows mapping structural relationships of mechatronic systems (with
a particular focus on mechatronic drives) described on the basis of diagnostic relations
(recorded in the form of directed graphs) and prediction structures using a minimum set
of diagnostic premises, whose cardinality does not lower the quality of diagnosis and
prognosis results [10].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_33
Computer Aided Diagnosis and Prediction of Mechatronic 285
2 The Computer System Supporting the Identification

of the Operational Status of Mechatronic Drives
Mechatronic drives belong to devices with a high reliability of operation. Despite these
features, there are many failures arising from interference with driven equipment.
Failures of electric drives may result from many root causes, which can include
improper installation and exploitation, mechanical or electrical damages, hardware
errors or improper configuration parameters of control subsystems.
The authors used Root Cause Analyses concerning the development and the course
of failures that constitute a coherent set of knowledge allowing diagnostic inference and
prediction of future states. Based on the sequence of failure propagation it is possible to
develop the consistent representation in the form of directed graphs [5, 8]. As basic
representations of graph structures, adjacency or incidence matrixes were adopted.
From the point of view of failure propagation, analyses based on undirected graphs are
not useful. On the other hand, such notation allows for simplification of the definition
and analysis of relationships of the subsystems. A more useful representation is for-
malised notation in the field of directed graphs, because it allows to determine the
direction of propagation of failures between the subsystems and identification of
structural dependencies (in the case of functional structures) [11–13].
The causes-and-effects graphs are defined as a collection of failures related to their
consequences dependent on an individual structure defined by the user of the
mechatronic system. It should be noted that in the scope of the same technical agent
(taking into account the context of diversified applications) defined structure of the
causes and effects graph may not take diverse forms (despite influence of improper
mounting, environmental conditions and other factors).
The used graphs of causes and effects were developed in accordance with the
following assumptions [13]:
• identification of the vertex (the current operational state) is performed on the basis
of the classifiers (set of dependences between identified rules) and expertise
(classification rules),
• simplifying the structure was made within assumption of using the minimum set of
symptoms that identify critical failures or detuning of the electric motor (the
requirement related to the necessity of disturbance prevention of the control unit
which performs also a function of diagnostic data processing system),
• elements required to assessment of conditions are temperature values (spot meter-
ing), vibration monitoring (vibration spectrum analysis) as well as parameters
recorded by the frequency inverter (current intensity values and error codes dis-
tributed from the internal diagnostic subsystem).
During search operations of the graph structure two major activities are carried out:
identification of the current state of diagnosed object (condition classifiers used for the
unambiguous representing the current state of the electric motor in the unique vertex of
the causes-and-effects graph), identification of consecutive vertices (prognosis) to
extract the path of development of most probable failures or damage. The identification
286 M. P. Hetmańczyk and J. Świder
of the successive consequence of failure can be reduced to searching the shortest path in
the graph
In order to quick identification operating states of mechatronic drive systems, the
Computer System for Supporting the Diagnosis and Prediction of States of Drives
Systems was developed. The basic application of the described software is the analysis
of the operational state, as well as the diagnosis and prediction processes of:
• AC electric motors (abnormalities of stators and rotors of a mechanical or electrical
nature, including elementary abnormalities of the foundation of electrical
machines),
• rolling and sliding bearings (including characteristics of operating and assembly
conditions as well as lubrication correctness checking),
• unbalance and misalignment of shafts of coupled machines,
• mechanical belt and gear transmissions,
• machines coupled with electric motors (i.e. pumps, fans),
• power supply networks and damage of an electrical nature (disturbances and
operating abnormalities).
The course of the operational status identification process, along with determining
the propagation paths of emergency states of the selected rolling bearing case, is
presented in the next chapter of the article.
3 Analysis of the Operational Condition of the Rolling

Bearing
As the example of operational state analysis, the single-row cylindrical roller bearing
was selected (NU2230-ECMA-C3 SKF Explorer series), with optimised internal design
and contact of the roller fronts with raceways, made with clearance values greater than
normal and a massive brass cage (made by machining method). The bearing weight
equals 18.5 kg.
Table 1 presents the characteristic frequency markers used in the diagnosis of the
bearing condition. The values of the presented indicators were calculated using the
diagnostic rules, by entering the values of dimensions and rotational speed.
Table 1. Parameters of characteristic frequency markers of the analysed bearing related to the
value of measured speed (nrs = 2000 [rpm])
Parameter Value calculated in the frequency domain
(Hz)
Rotational speed (nrs) 33,33
Ball pass frequency of the inner race (BPFI) 361,467
Ball pass frequency of the outer race 271,867
(BPFO)
Fundamental train frequency (FTF) 14,300
Ball spin frequency (BSF) 230,833
A set of batch files for the diagnosis and prediction processes were defined in the
form of acceleration waveforms registered in time and frequency (Fig. 1) domains,
measured by means of a portable vibration analyser on an industrial facility (the sensor
attached in a vertical direction directly on the machine housing).
The initial diagnosis of the bearing (performed using a diagnostic algorithm)
showed progressive mechanical degradation (Fig. 1). The dominant amplitude value
aBPFO = 1.54 g corresponds to the characteristic frequency of the external race failure
of the analysed bearing.
Fig. 1. Views of imported characteristics of the NU2230-ECMA-C3 bearing in the frequency

domain
In the first stage of the diagnosis, a vertex corresponding to the general condition
was identified in the form of damage of the rolling bearing (Fig. 2, Table 1).
Classification does not define an explicit form of damage corresponding to the
current state. Determination of probable failure propagation paths (based on the general
graph) indicates a wide range of consequences and prevents the implementation of a
unique scope of corrective actions. Due to the numerous set of possible consequences,
it is required to launch the diagnosis and prediction module of states based on the
detailed graph of failures propagation (Fig. 3).
Fig. 2. View of the general graph with identified NU2230-ECMA-C3 bearing failure domain,
where: F21 - Bearing defects, F47 - Concentration of geometric stresses, F48 - Non-metallic
inclusions, F49 - Fatigue spalls, F50 - Surface pitting, F51 - Fracture or fatigue cracks, F52 -
Surface decrements (point micro-pits), F53 - Fatigue wear, F54 - Burning of bearing components,
F55 - False Brinell’s indentations, F56 - Dents with surface decrements, F57 - Plastic
deformation, F63 - Scrap of bearing components, F64 - Bearing wear, F65 - Fretting, F66 -
Corrosive wear of the bearing, F67 - Abrasive bearing wear, F68 - Locking of the bearing, F69 -
Fretting corrosion of bearing, F70 - Discoloration of bearing components, F71 - Seizure of the
bearing, F72 - Scratching of bearing components, F74 - Uniform wear of the bearing (normal
wear and tear), F75 - Bearing wear with the adhesive character
Fig. 3. View of the detailed graph with identified NU2230-ECMA-C3 bearing failure and the
failures path propagation. where: EWP_1 - Visible dents on the raceways, EWP_2 - Visible dents on
the rolling elements, EWP_3, EWL_3 - Lubricant discoloration, EWP_4, EWL_4, EWV_4 -
Temperature increase, EWP_5 - Surface dulling, EWP_6 - Surface worn, EWL_1 - Wear, EWL_2 -
Colour buffing effect, EWL_5 - Surface discoloration (flanges, lateral surfaces of rolling elements),
EWV_1 - Particle separation, EWV_2 - Surface tensions, EWV_3 - Recesses on contact surfaces,
EWV_5 - Lubricant loss due to vibration, EWV_6 - Oxidation, EIF_1 - Visible indentations on rings
and rolling elements (distributed on the mating surfaces), EFA_1 - Path pattern (at one side of
cooperating bearings), EFA_2 - Peeling (at one side of cooperating bearings), EFA_3 - Flaking (at
one side of cooperating bearings), ESD_1 - Craters, ESD_2 - Crystalline fracture surfaces, EFRB_1 -
Visible surface peeling, EFRB_2 - The occurrence of craters, EFRB_3 - Visible light-coloured
grooves, or signs of corrosion, EFRB_4 - Visible grooves of dark colour or signs of burning, ECT_1
- Fractures or cracks, ECT_2 - Furrows, ECD_1 - Loss of adhesion on the inner surface of the inner
bearing ring (between the shaft journal and the inner ring), ECD_2 - Loss of adhesion on the outer
surface of the bearing inner ring (between the housing/bearing housing seat and the outer bearing
ring)
The failure path propagation clearly indicates the damage to the outer race, in
particular: cracks in the outer raceway due to severe operating conditions or exceeding
the permissible values of bearing working parameters, damage of the raceway surface
and wear (caused by abrasive particles of foreign origin or arising as a result of wear
and tear, inadequate lubrication conditions and high vibration level resulting from
dynamic strokes), progressing process of peeling (as a result of compression of the
raceway during work) leading to ovalization, loss of lubricant and subsequent for-
mation of grooves and craters on the surface.
During the diagnosis, the bearing temperature value index was excluded (the
parameter was not required due to the sharp values of the premises identified on the
spectral characteristics).
Figure 4 shows the view of the bearing raceway after disassembly. There are
visible damage to the surface in the form of material losses, peeling and cracks on the
peripheral surface of the raceway (at various stages of development).
Fig. 4. View of the NU2230-ECMA-C3 bearing outer race failures
The presented results confirm defects revealed as a result of the bearing visual
inspection. Minimisation of the number of paths (increasing the diagnosis accuracy)
can be obtained by including in the set of diagnostic parameters the values of measured
bearing temperatures (obtained as a result of point measurements).
Among many methods of the prognosis of states of technical systems the most popular
is a group based on the statistical modelling. Such prediction requires detailed data sets
including information related to the course of work. On the other hand a definition of
the structural reliability model of the machine enables a complex identification of the
internal information fluxes and external ones (a composite flux, corresponding to the
operational state of the system as a whole).
The proposed method influences at a minimisation of the lack of knowledge on the
use of advanced mathematical tools in traditional methods of diagnosis, while reducing
measurement systems complexity and procedures facilitation.
The described representation of the system (the digraph representation) includes the
possibility of: universal application in case of technical devices with the same or similar
structural and functional characteristics, an identification of the current state and the
volatility of the key numerical values (states classification used in a predictive model),
reproduction of the error propagation path (based on the identified key parameters and
their contents), registration of key parameters (the possibility of using database sys-
tems) in order to modify or to develop predictive models of monitored devices based on
historical data.
References
1. Bobrowski S et al (2013) Reliability prediction of Mechatronic drive systems. Innovative
Klein- und Mikroantriebstechnik 19:75–80
2. Martinussen T et al (2006) Dynamic regression models for survivals data. Springer
3. Araujo Ribeiro R-L et al (2004) Fault-tolerant voltage-fed PWM inverter AC motor drive
systems. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 51(2):439–446
4. Welchko B-A (2004) Fault tolerant three-phase ac motor drive topologies: a comparison of
features, cost, and limitations. IEEE Trans Power Electron 19(4):1108–1116
5. Smith D (1984) Graphs with the smallest number of minimum cut-sets. Networks 14:47–62
6. Nandi S et al (1999) Condition monitoring and fault diagnosis of electrical machines - a
review. In: 35th IEEE-IAS annual meeting 1:197–204
7. Zhang Ll et al (1995) A knowledge based system for on-line fault diagnosis of power
inverter circuits for AC machines. Eur Power Electron Conf 3(334-3):339
8. Peuget et al (1997) Fault diagnosis in DC/DC converters using fault tree analysis. In: IEEE
international symposium diagnostics for electrical machines, power electronics and drives,
pp 132–139
9. Fekih A et al (2005) A fault tolerant control design for induction motors. In: Proceedings of
the IEEE international conference on systems, man and cybernetic, pp. 1320–1325
10. Alshandoli A-F (2007) Model-predicted induction motor behavior under different operating
conditions. In: Proceedings international conference on electrical engineering, pp 1–7
11. Hetmanczyk M-P (2013) The multilevel prognosis system based on matrices and digraphs
methods. Mechatron Syst Mater (199):79–84
12. Hetmanczyk M-P (2015) The prediction oriented analysis of mechatronic machine structures
recorded by directed graphs. Solid State Phenom 220–221:429–434
13. Hetmańczyk M (2016) Applicability analysis of directed graphs to diagnosis and prediction
of states of mechatronic drives using minimal set of process data. The Silesian University
Publishing House, Gliwice
Experimental Investigation of Load Carrying
Structure of 155 mm Self-propelled Howitzer
During Test Fire
Artur Iluk and Mariusz Stańco(&)

{artur.iluk,mariusz.stanco}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. One of the most significant load for the support structure of the self-
propelled howitzers is firing. In the paper the experimental investigation of the
dynamic behavior of lightweight, self-propelled howitzer caliber 155 mm dur-
ing test firing was presented. The structure response to the impulse load during
fire were investigated by measurement of the strain, acceleration and displace-
ment at selected point. For assessment of the overall movement of the howitzer
and its components, especially carrier suspension, the photogrammetric method
was used. Examples of measurement results were presented and discussed.
Keywords: 155 mm howitzer Dynamic load Suspension system

Field fire trials
1 Introduction
The 155 mm self-propelled howitzer Kryl is

based on the new lightweight chassis devel-
oped by Jelcz S.A. in cooperation with the
Wrocław University of Science and Technol-
ogy (Fig. 1).
The dynamic behavior of the carrier
structure was investigated with the use of
numerical simulations in the stage of the
vehicle design. One of the most important
load for the carrier support structure of the
howitzers is firing. In order to experimentally Fig. 1. 155 mm self-propelled howitzer
investigate dynamic behavior of self-propelled Kryl
howitzer caliber 155 mm during firing, mea-
surements were carried out during trial firing.
The dynamics of the gun was investigated in existing papers mainly with the use of
numerical simulation tools [1–3]. The simulations with the use of FEM and explicit
approach are very useful tool for investigations of fast processes, especially in military
area [4, 5]. There are very limited number of publications describing methodology used
in military field test [6–8].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_34
294 A. Iluk and M. Stańco
The main object of interest in presented paper was the main frame of the carrier
vehicle and performance of suspension system. To get insight into dynamic response of
the structure, the strain, acceleration and displacement in selected point were measured
in field test.
Due to the aero-mobility requirement, a mass of the carrier was significantly
reduced, increased the risk of instability during fire, especially with larger charges.
Although most loads generated during fire are carried by the howitzer spade, the low
weight of the chassis reduces the stabilizing torque during the shot. This effect is not
significant for the fire precision, but increases the vibrations and shock exerted on the
structure of the carrier vehicle.
At the design stage, a series of
dynamic simulations of shots were
performed in the full azimuth and
elevation range using numerical
methods. A full numerical model of
the howitzer chassis and carrier
with suspension and a part of the
structure of the howitzer was
designed (Fig. 2). All wheels were
supported on the ground, however
the chassis above the rear axles was
raised by the spade supported on Fig. 2. Numerical model of 155 mm self-propelled
the ground at maximum extension. howitzer used in numerical simulations
Fig. 3. Example of numerical simulation results. Equivalent stress distribution in load-carrying

structure of the howitzer carrier, at time 0.6 s after ignition.
The results of dynamic simulations allowed determination of stresses in the how-

itzer carrying structure during shots (Fig. 3) and introduction of appropriate corrections
to the structure.
Due to the complex nature of firing process, the simulation results must be verified
in field tests. In order to analyze the work of the vehicle suspension during the firing, a
series of measurements of dynamic parameters of vehicle frame were made. The
purpose of the work was to assess the behavior of the chassis and vehicle carrying
frame during the firing.
Experimental Investigation of Load Carrying Structure 295
2 Measurement Methods
In order to investigate the dynamic behavior of the structure of howitzer and suspen-
sion, the following measurements were carried out during trial fire:
• measurement of strain of the supporting structure at selected points of support
structure,
• measurement of accelerations at selected points of chassis and suspension,
• measurement of vehicle movement during a firing, based on fast camera and
photogrammetric methods.
Strain Measurements Points

On the basis of strength calculations on the howitzer vehicle frame, the areas of strain
measurement which strain gauges were selected. In order to check the stresses in the
frame during shooting and driving vehicle in off-road conditions, 10 strain gauges
(T1–T10), listed in Table 1, were installed on the chassis.
Fig. 4. Strain gauges locations
Table 1. The strain measurement points location

Point Location
T1 Frame longitudinal member, bottom flange, axle 3, left
T2 Frame longitudinal member, bottom flange, axle 3, right
T3 Frame longitudinal member, bottom flange, middle of vehicle length, left 1
T4 Frame longitudinal member, bottom flange, middle of vehicle length, right 1
T5 Frame longitudinal member, bottom flange, middle of vehicle length, left 2
T6 Frame longitudinal member, bottom flange, middle of vehicle length, right 2
T7 Central cross member of frame, bottom flange, left
T8 Central cross member of frame, bottom flange, right
T9 Central cross member of frame, top flange, left
T10 Central cross member of frame, top flange, right
Fig. 5. Example views of the strain measurement points: T1 - lower flange of the left
longitudinal member at the rear suspension (left), T6 - lower flange of the right longitudinal
member near the central cross member (right)
The strain gauges were installed in stress-free condition, before assembling the
vehicle. The locations of strain gauges were presented in Fig. 4. The example views of
installed strain gauges were shown in Fig. 5.
Acceleration Measurement Points Table 2. The acceleration measurement points
In order to check the acceleration location
level during firing, 10 acceleration Point Location
sensors (A11–A20) were installed on A11 Between axles 2 and 3 - left side
the vehicle. Because the main object A12 Axle 2, next to the left wheel
of interest was the behavior of sus- A13 Axle 3, next to the left wheel
pension system, only vertical accel- A14 Vehicle frame, right side, above front axle
erations were recorded. The locations
A15 Front axle, next to right wheel
of measurement points were listed in
A16 Front axle, next to left wheel
Table 2. Example views of the
A17 Vehicle frame, left side, above front axle
accelerometer location were shown
A18 Roof hatch
in Fig. 6.
A19 Wall of the cabin, left side
A20 Wall of the cabin, right side
Fig. 6. Examples of the accelerometers locations.

Structure Movement During Firing

In order to record the movement trajectory of selected points of the howitzer, the
optical markers were put on the structure. The view of optical markers and its labels
was presented in Fig. 7.
The image acquisition was realized by the Phantom v12.1 fast camera equipped
with zoom lens. Image analysis and measurement of marker displacements were carried
out in the TEMA software. The circular symmetry tracker algorithm was used for
marker tracking. In case of the front bumper, where there was no optical marker,
general purpose digital correlation tracker has been used.
Fig. 7. Location of the optical markers on the structure of the howitzer
3 Results of Measurement
During the field test, six fire trials were made with different charges and directions. The
set of parameters of shots is presented in Table 3. The test were carried out with
increasing charge of propeller, it results in increasing muzzle round velocities measure
with the use of Doppler radar.
Table 3. The parameters of trial shots In Fig. 8, the examples of
Shot I II III IV V VI acceleration measurement results
for selected points of measurement
Elevation [deg] 23 23 16 16 16 9
were shown in graphical form.
Azimuth [deg] −26 −26 −26 −26 −26 −26
The examples of stress measure-
Round velocity 475 475 562 562 562 686
ment results were shown in Fig. 9.
[m/s]
The positive values indicate ten-
sion stress.
Fig. 8. Vertical acceleration history, shot V [g]: A11 - second axle left wheel, A15 - front axle
right wheel, A16 - front axle left wheel, A20 - cab wall, right side
Fig. 9. Stress history for selected points during shot V (MPa)
Strain gauges have been mounted before assembling of the vehicle frame. The
initial value of stress at measurement points before shot are results of assembly of
vehicle, and bending of the carrier caused by lifting of rear axles by spade of gun.
Another important information about dynamics of the vehicle during firing is the
range of stress in the points of measurement. In Fig. 10 the ranges of stress values Ds
during the firing for selected measurement points were presented. The highest
dynamical load was detected in all cases at points T9 and T10.
Fig. 10. The ranges of stress values Ds during the firing trials (I to V) for selected measurement
points
4 Movement of the Howitzer Structure
The results optical tracking of markers are presented in graphical form in the Fig. 11.
The zero time was set to the moment the charge was ignited. In graphs, only vertical
displacements of markers are shown.
Fig. 11. The vertical displacement of markers, fire trial I (left), vertical displacement of the front
axle, shots I-VI (right)
Due to large amount of propellant gases exhausted from muzzle after shot, not all
markers were tracked successfully. On left graph the vertical displacement of optical
markers during shot I were presented. On the second graph, the absolute displacements
of the front axle for all trials were compared. The increased vertical displacement of
front axle due to increacing propellant charge can be observed.
In the paper, the various measurement techniques used in a field test of 155 mm
howitzer were presented. The optical measurement of displacements was difficult due
to the large amount of propellant gases, especially when shot with stronger charges. In
combination with acceleration results in allowed the analysis of dynamical behavior of
the howitzer.
The structure of the chassis during the shooting behaved steadily, no excessive
suspension or the vehicle frame vibrations were observed. In all trials the separation of
the front wheels from the ground was not detected. Displacements of the body structure
during shots were relatively small, the largest recorded displacement of the front
bumper was about 80 mm.
The maximum range of stress was detected in points T9 and T10, on the cross
member of the frame. The maximum acceleration of about 1.8 g was recorded on the
front axle and on the cab wall. In the subsequent shots, as a result of a constant
penetration of the spade into the ground, the wheels of the rear axles were more
frequently in contact with the ground, which has a positive effect for the body (faster
vibration damping, lower vibration amplitude).
The applied research methods allowed for a good insight into the dynamics of the
whole structure of self-propelled howitzer during the shot.
References
1. Štiavnický M, Lisý P (2011) Gunshot effects simulation. Sci Mil, pp 66–74
2. Peng Z, Xiang-yan Z, Jian-guo Z, Yong-feng G (2011) Dynamic simulation of a Naval Gun’s
automatic mechanism based on virtual prototyping technology. J Gun Launch Control, 2
3. Ahmed N, Brown RD, Hameed A (2008) Finite element modelling and simulation of gun
dynamics using ANSYS. In: Tenth international conference on computer modeling and
simulation (uksim 2008), pp 18–22
4. Iluk A (2010) Wybrane aspekty kształtowania odporności przeciwminowej terenowego
pojazdu opancerzonego,” Zesz. Nauk. - Wyższa Szk. Oficer. Wojsk Lądowych im. gen.
T. Kościuszki, no. 4, pp 109–120
5. Iluk A, Lewandowski T, Ptak J, Borowiecki C (2016) Dynamic simulation of internal support
of remote controlled weapon station. 251
6. Iluk A (2012) Selected aspects of the control of the human body motion in the vehicle
subjected to the blast load. In: IRCOBI conference, pp 391–404
7. Iluk A (2014) Estimation of spine injury risk as a function of bulletproof vest mass in case of
Under Body Blast load. In: 2014 IRCOBI conference proceedings - international research
council on the biomechanics of Injury
8. Saska P, Czmochowski J, Iluk A (2010) Przegląd sposobów wyznaczania parametrów fali
uderzeniowej wybuchu. Górnictwo Odkryw. 51(4):187–192
Statistical Evaluation of an Exhaust Gas
Mixture for Photocatalytic Reactor Test-
Station Improvement
Anna Janicka1, Maciej Zawiślak2, Aleksander Górniak1(&),

and Daniel Michniewicz3
1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Vehicle Engineering,
Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Łukasiewicza 5,
{anna.janicka,aleksander.gorniak}@pwr.edu.pl
2
and Research, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,
Łukasiewicza 5, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
3
Dr. Schneider Automotive Polska Sp.z o.o, Radomierz 1D,
58-520 Janowice Wielkie, Poland
daniel.michniewicz@dr-schneider.com
Abstract. The paper contains the description of the statistical analysis per-
formed in order to correlate concentration of hazardous volatile organic com-
pounds from the BTX group with non-hazardous constituents of the gas mixture.
The gas composition and concentration of particular compounds were deter-
mined by numerous test performed in order to evaluate the effectiveness of a
photocatalytic reactor in terms of VOCs reduction. Such a reactor is dedicated to
the automotive industry and is set to be a member of a ventilation system. The
photocatalysis is used to purified polluted air aspirated from the surrounding into
the vehicle cabin. Therefore, the composition of a gas mixture was determined
in various conditions resembling the operation of a standard ventilation system.
The concentration of mixture constituents measure at a particular test condition
was correlated with each other with aid of partial component analysis (PCA) in
order to evaluate the power with which the individual components affect the
model. Subsequently, the partial least squares analysis (PLS) was performed in
order to select the non-hazardous compounds of a gas mixture which can rep-
resent the concentration of hazardous Benzene Toluene and Xylene (BTX).
Lastly a curve fitting analysis was performed in order to find a ready equation
with which the concentration of hazardous compounds can be predicted.
Keywords: Photocatalysis BTX Curve fitting PCA PLS
1 Introduction
The concentration of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) constitutes the toxicity of the
gas mixtures [1, 2]. Most oftenly VOCs considered during the toxicity deliberation, are
benzene toluene and xylene (BTX) [3, 4]. Thus those compounds were specifically
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_35
302 A. Janicka et al.
important in the case of monitoring the air quality of passenger cars [5–7]. The polluted
air, containing the hazardous BTX, are aspirated by the ventilation system and directed
to the cabin. A variety of means was implemented to firstly measure their concentration
and further reduce it [1, 7–9]. It was done for example by photocatalytic reactor installed
as a bypass in the ventilation system of a car. The problem, however, is that volatile
organic compounds from BTX group are difficult to measure, and hazardous to humans.
Hence, the performance of the experiment and data elaboration was time-consuming.
Furthermore, the need to measure its concentration in real time arouse. Direct mea-
surement of BTX requires chromatography tests, therefore it is simply expensive and
time-consuming. For this reason an attempt to correlate the concentration of other, easier
to measure and nontoxic compounds with the concentration of BTX was established.
The tests consisted of measurement the composition of exhaust gases passing through a
photocatalytic reactor under conditions, reflecting the operation of vehicle ventilation
system. The measurement was therefore performed within temperatures range of 17 °C–
28 °C which are the minimum, and maximal temperature existing in standard air con-
dition system of a car. Furthermore, the flow was set in the range between minimal and
maximal velocity provided by a standard ventilation system. Those values were mea-
sured with an anemometer and were set to 2 m/s, and 8 m/s. Furthermore, the samples of
VOCs was taken in order at various times of the test duration was considered. The VOCs
concentration was measured after every 10 min of test which last for 60 min. The in-
depth analysis of the impact of those is published in [2, 4].
2 Partial Component Analysis of the Gas Composition
Firstly the correlation of all compounds was considered. In this case it was possible to
identify an individual significance of a particular compound along with the test con-
ditions as well as to detect abnormalities (outliers) [10, 11]. The significance, which
represents a contribution of a variable to the model is presented by its power. The
power of each variable is shown in Fig. 1. This figure suggests that all volatile organic
Fig. 1. Power of all compounds detected in the gas composition along with the test conditions.
Statistical Evaluation of an Exhaust Gas Mixture 303
compounds have similar power, hence they represent a similar importance. Therefore it
can be concluded that during various conditions of operating (i.e. different temperature,
time of exposition, and flow velocity) the volatile organic compounds are changed in a
similar manner.
Although all variables seem to have similar power and contribute equally in the
model, a partial component analysis (PCA) was performed in order to verify how many
and which variables can be included in the model. However, the subsequently isolated
factors explain less and less variability. The decision on when to interrupt the isolation
of factors depends essentially on whether there is only a small “random” variation. This
is, therefore, an arbitrary decision. Additionally, the Partial Component Analysis was
performed in order to determine the relationship between the original variables. The
way they correlate with each other is shown in Fig. 2. As it can be seen there is a
clustering among the variables loads. Variables placed closed to each other influence
the model in a similar way. The Benzene, Toluene and Xylene are ultimately to be
replaced, thus for easier indication all of them are bolded in the figure. All, BTX are
close to each other in the figure – the load distribution of those compounds is similar,
thus there must be a strong correlation between their concentration which can be
modelled. This was anticipated based on the previous research and by observing they
concentration during various tests. What was not determined yet, however, was the
correlation between BTX and the other compounds existing in the tested gas. Con-
sidering the loading spread, an attempt to replace BTX with other compounds can be
carried out. Seemingly 2-Propanol can be used for this purpose. Its load is placed
almost in between Benzene, Toluene and Xylene and it is not hazardous, nor difficult to
determine. Such model can be supplemented by n-Pentane, which is also non-
hazardous and easy to determine.
Fig. 2. Load distribution
Even though the clustering of variables (shown in Fig. 2) allows in some extent to
select compounds with which the concentration of BTX could be predicted, but it was
farther verified by means of PLS (Partial Least Squares) analysis. It was done mainly to
identify the compounds, which are the most influential to the concentration of BTX and
has the strongest correlation with them. Here, all benzene toluene and xylene was
considered as a dependent variable, hence the analysis revealed major contributors in

modelling all of the three compounds. The major contributors were found by analysis
of Euclidean distances of the predictor variable. In general, the greater distance the
highest contribution in modelling the process (see Fig. 3). As it can be seen Ethyl-
benzene, due to the larger Euclidean distance seems to represent the highest modelling
capabilities. In the other words the modelling of BTX by means of this compounds
seems to be the most accurate. This however was both anticipated and undesirable.
Ethylbenzene originates from benzene therefore usage of this compounds would be
pointless. The same is applied for cumene and propylbenzene. It appears the two
nonhazardous compounds which contribute to the modelling of BTX are n-Pentane and
2-Propanol. For this reason those two compounds were used to correlate their con-
centration with the BTX.
Fig. 3. Euclidean distances of all variables
3 Model Identification
The rate of change in the measured concentration of Benzene Toluene and Xylene with
respect to selected non-hazardous compounds (i.e. n-Pentane and 2-Propanol) is shown
in Fig. 4. Here, the variable experiment conditions are neglected. Only the concen-
tration is shown. Variable test conditions are represented by sampling.
All of the compounds from the figure was measured at the same conditions, in this
case represented by the sampling. Therefore, the figure depicts their rate of change in
relation to one another.
It appears that benzene can be predicted practically by examining the concentration
of 2-Propanol. The line representing the change of benzene almost coalesce with the 2-
Propanol line. This was however anticipated based on the statistical analysis - in
particular clustering analysis, shown in Fig. 2. Prediction of xylene and toluene basing
on 2-Propanol required more significant analysis and can be burden with greater error.
Taking only toluene and xylene under consideration a clear correlation between the
lines representing the concentration of those compounds exists. The lines represent a
similar pattern, therefore it seems to be possible to predict toluene and xylene basing
only on identified benzene, which can be found using 2-propanol. This however would
cause an additive error. The identified concentration of benzene would be subjected to
an error, which then would be inherent by identified toluene and xylene.
Fig. 4. The rate of change in the measured concentration of VOCs
The concentration of benzene along with the identified models is shown in Fig. 5.
In this case, 2-propanol was more accurate in terms of developing the model. The
model predicting benzene by the concentration of n-Pentane represents a larger devi-
ation from original, measured value of benzene (black solid line in the figure). Another
word it is simply less accurate.
Fig. 5. Concentration rate of change for identified models of Benzene

The identification of Toluene was performed by means of both n-Pentane and 2-

Propanol (see Fig. 6). Here, the identified models (expressed with broken lines in the
figure) are distant from the observed value of Toluene (black solid line) hence the
prediction of the compound concentration by means of both of those model represents a
Fig. 6. Concentration rate of change for identified models of Toluene
relatively large error. However, comparing the identified models it seems that the
toluene found based on 2-Propanol represent better fit and, therefore, greater accuracy.
The identification of xylene was performed by means of n-Pentane and 2-Propanol
as well (see Fig. 7). In this case however, in oppose to Toluene, the models developed
with respect to both of the non-hazardous compounds represent relatively good fit. This
means that the concentration of xylene can be almost equally well predicted by
examining either n-Pentane or 2-Propanol.
Fig. 7. Concentration rate of change for identified models of Xylene

3.1 Models Verification

All models presented here were verified in three ways. First of all standard deviation of
residuals - root mean square error (RMSE). Secondly the models were verified by
calculating the value of R square, which essentially is a predictive power of the model.
Another word it explains the percentage of concentration variability explained by the
concentration of n-Pentane and 2-Propanol.
Lastly, the usefulness of the models was determined by means of hypothesis
testing. In such a case always two hypothesis was established. Zeroth hypothesis
claimed that the residuals were originated from the normal distribution. An alternative
hypothesis stated otherwise. The evaluation of that hypothesis was performed by means
of Shapiro Wilk test and Kolmogorov Smirnov test simultaneously. The significance
level was 0.05, therefore the value of p coefficient greater than 0.05 proved that the
residuals of a particular model could originate from the normal distribution and there is
no basis to reject the zeroth hypothesis. Ultimately, the model can be considered as
statistically valid.
The comparison of all models is shown in Fig. 8. As it can be seen the lowest
RMSE was obtained for Benzene predicted by 2-Propanol, which means that there is
the lowest difference between the model and the observed concentration. This is farther
proven by the value of R square - in this case the R square is close to 1. What was
unexpected, however, was the relatively small value of coefficient p = 0.2. It is greater
than established significance level hence there was no reason to reject zero hypothe-
sis. Nevertheless, the greater value of the probability coefficient p, the residuals are
closer to the Gaussian distribution, and thus the stronger model in terms of predicting
the desired compounds.
The larger value of RMSE can be observed for toluene predicted with both n-
Pentane and 2-Propanol. This however could be anticipated after inspection of charts
with fitted curves. In consequence R square has the lowest value. Coefficient p suggest
that those models are much better in terms of predicting then in the case of ben-
zene. Xylene models are burden with a relatively small root mean squared error which
Fig. 8. Models verification

means that they are well fitted. The R square value suggests that the variability of
xylene concentration is represented by the variability of n-Pentane and 2-Propanol with
an accuracy of approximately 80%. The p coefficient indicates that xylene predicted
based on 2-propanol is the strongest model.
4 Conclusion
What was explained here was the possibility to develop predictive models to replace
toxic and hazardous compounds with not hazardous ones. It was statistically proven
that all developed here models can be successfully used in order to predict the con-
centration of hazardous compounds like BTX.
Therefore, experiments performed in order to evaluate the effectiveness of devices
whose operations consist of gas purification properties does not have to be performed
on a toxic gas composition. The toxic gas implemented to the test station in order to
measure its degradation can simply be replaced with safer and easy to measure one.
This non-hazardous composition was selected by means of the statistical computation
and advanced algorithms, therefore it can be stated that those compounds are the most
representative in terms of BTX prediction. In consequence the experiments concerning
on testing the devices of gas purification becomes cheaper and less hazardous.
Determination of BTX concentration requires long-term chromatography test, which is
expensive and of course requires sophisticated equipment. Measurement of n-Pentane
and 2-propanol does not require such a sophisticated apparatus. Because of this, it is
possible to install sensors susceptible for determining both of those compounds and
with aid of identified models predict the toxicity of the atmosphere inside the car cabin.
Acknowledgment. The following research was carried out according to project number
POIG.01.04.00-02-154/13 entitled “Research on innovative ventilation nozzle that improves
indoor air quality in the cabin of the vehicle”, realized under the Operational Programme
Innovative Economy 2007–2013.
References
1. Janicka AB (2013) Ocena toksyczności mikroatmosfery środowiska wnętrza pojazdu
samochodowego. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław
2. Czarny A, Zaczyńska E, Górniak A, Janicka A, Zawiślak M (2015) The cytotoxicity
verification of the VOCs removal by means of photocatalysis. J Polish CIMEEAC
10(1):33–40
3. Górniak A, Janicka A, Zawiślak M, Michniewicz D (2017) Investigation of Titanium
Dioxide effectiveness of BTX photocatalytic oxidation for automotive applications using
advanced optimisation algorithms. In: Rusiński E, Pietrusiak D (eds) Proceedings of the 13th
international scientific conference: computer aided engineering. Springer International
Publishing, Cham, pp 197–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50938-9_21
4. Dudycz A, Górniak A, Janicka A, Rodak M, Skrętowicz MD, Trzmiel K, Włostowski RM,

Woźniak J, Zawiślak M (2015) Numerical analysis of volatile organic compounds
concentration in a C segment vehicle interior - diesel engine exhaust pollution.
J Polish CIMEEAC 10(1):41–48
5. Mills A, LeHunte S (1997) An overview of semiconductor photocatalysis. J Photochem
Photobiol, A 108:1–35
6. Bhatkhande DS, Pangarkar VG, Beenackers AACM (2002) Photocatalytic degradation for
environmental applications – a review. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 77(1):102–116. https://
doi.org/10.1002/jctb.532
7. Peral J, Ollis DF (1992) Heterogeneous photocatalytic oxidation of gas-phase organics for
air purification: Acetone, 1-butanol, butyraldehyde, formaldehyde, and m-xylene oxidation.
J Catal 136(2):554–565. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9517(92)90085-V
8. Lin L, Chai Y, Zhao B, Wei W, He D, He B, Tang Q (2013) Photocatalytic oxidation for
degradation of VOCs. Open J Inorg Chem 03(01):14–25. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojic.2013.
31003
9. Fu X, Zeltner WA, Anderson MA (1997) Applications in photocatalytic purification of air.
In: Prashant VK, Dan M (eds) studies in surface science and catalysis, vol 103. Elsevier,
pp 445–461. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0167-2991(97)81114-7
10. Pająk E, Wieczorowski K (1982) Podstawy optymalizacji operacji technologicznych w
przykładach. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe
11. Mason RL, Gunst RF, Hess JL (2003) Statistical Design and Analysis of Experiments: With
Applications to Engineering and Science. Wiley
Diagnostic Procedure of Bucket Wheel
and Boom Computer Modeling – A Case Study
Revitalization Bucket Wheel and Drive
of BWE SRs2000
Predrag Jovančić1(&), Dragan Ignjatović1, Taško Maneski2,

Dragan Novaković3, and Časlav Slavković3
1
Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Djušina 7,
11000 Belgrade, Serbia
{predrag.jovancic,dragan.ignjatovic}@rgf.bg.ac.rs
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
Kraljice Marije 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
tmaneski@mas.bg.ac.rs
3
Public Company Electric Power Industry of Serbia (Kolubara and Kostolac
Coal Basin), Carice Milice 2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
dragan.novakovic@rbkolubara.rs,
caslav.slavkovic@te-ko.rs
Abstract. This paper provides most significant analytical considerations of the

project related to revitalization and modernization of bucket wheel excavator
SRs2000 + VR. In other words, the application of appropriate technical mea-
sures in the framework of revitalization, must provide sufficient time, safe and
economical work during operation at the surface mine. Main issues in the
revitalization of the bucket wheel excavator are aimed at the new operating
wheel unit, new bucket wheel, buckets and teeth. Computer modelling supports
diagnostic procedures.
Keywords: Bucket wheel excavator Revitalization Computer modelling
1 Introduction
Operation of bucket wheel excavators SRs2000, manufactured by Takraf, showed that

weakest point of these machines are systems for bucket wheel drive, bucket wheel with
cutting elements - the teeth. The basic goal of presented analysis and identifying appropriate
solution is to make adequate and timely preparation for the process of revitalization or
modernization. This would ensure increased reliability and time and capacity utilization, but
also reduced maintenance costs. Takraf company has produced SRs2000 bucket wheel
excavators in several variants: SRs2000.28/3.0(2 630 kW), SRs2000.30/6.0 + VR
(2 500 kW), SRs2000.33/3.0 + VR(2 500 kW), SRs2000.33/6.0 + VR(2 630
kW), SRs(K)2000.28/3.0(2 630 kW) and SRs2000.32/5.0 + VR (2 670 kW).

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_36
Diagnostic Procedure of Bucket Wheel and Boom Computer Modeling 311
There are 56 of these machines, operating in: Kazakhstan 13 pieces, Bulgaria 13

pieces, Greece 6 pieces, Germany 5 pieces, Poland 5 pieces, Serbia 4 pieces, Romania
4 pieces, Hungary 2 pieces, Macedonia 2 pieces, Czech 2 pieces.
After many years of operation, revitalization and modernization will provide to
excavator extension of technical performances due to the realization of the future
balance in production.
After reviewing the overall state and behaviour of all drives and elements including
supporting steel structure, performed measurements and certain parameters recording,
following directions of revitalization are defined: bucket wheel gearbox (drive)
replacement, bucket wheel replacement and reconstruction of the buckets and cutting
elements.
2 Modernization and Revitalization of the Bucket Wheel

Drive
Bucket wheel drive system has been identified as one of the weakest points during the
operation of the excavator, despite the numerous reconstruction attempts. Large
number recorded failures with high duration. In order to bring this system back to its
proper state, large material investments were required.
The primary goal is to define bucket wheel drive revitalization and modernization.
This would ensure increased reliability of the excavator, thereby increasing time and
capacity utilization, but also reducing the maintenance costs.
The chronology of the application of the bucket wheel gearbox ranges from sev-
enties of the last century to the present day.
There are several versions of this gearbox. From the 1970s to the early 1980s,
conical-cylindrical gearboxes with a power of 2 630 kW were used and cylindrical
gearboxes of 2 400 kW. In the mid-1980s, conical-cylindrical gearboxes with a
power of 2 670 kW were produced. Since the late nineties in the application of the
conical-cylindrical planetary gearboxes with a power 1 800 kW and 2 500 kW.
Also, manufactured gearboxes for bucket wheel had power of 500 kW, 710 kW,
800 kW, 2 500 kW, 2 1250 kW and specially should be emphasized,
1 1200 kW.
Table 1 gives a view of the gearboxes unit for bucket wheel drive of excavator
SRs2000 on the surface mines of Serbia.
During the course of their operation life, these excavators mined only the over-
burden at Tamnava West field (basin Kolubara) and Drmno (basin Kostolac). Achieved
results are presented in Table 2.
The basic idea – concept of replacing the conical-cylinder gearbox of the bucket
wheel (excavators under variant number 1, 2 and 3 - Table 1) is a substitution with a
conical-planetary gearbox (excavator under serial variant number 4 - Table 1), which
would have two variants: with two drives (2 670 kW, under variant number 4 -
Table 1) or with one drive (1 1200 kW, under serial variant number 5 - Table 1). In
both variants, the total weight would be reduced. This also means reducing the load of
the counterweight or the upper construction. Figure 1 shows the bucket wheel drives of
SRs2000 excavators.
312 P. Jovančić et al.
Table 1. Basic characteristics of the bucket wheel gearboxes of excavator SRs2000 on the
surface mines of the electric power industry of Serbia
Var. Surface Excavator Beginning Bucket wheel Type of Manufacturer, Pieces
mines designation of work power (kW) gearbox drawings
number
1 Tamnava SRs2000.32/5 + VR 1995 2 670 Conical- Takraf 530 231 1
cylindrical 433:000
2 Drmno SRs2000.28/3 + VR 1985 2 500 Conical- Takraf 530 230 1
cylindrical 588:000
3 SRs2000.32/5 + VR 1996 2 670 Conical- Takraf 530 231 2
cylindrical 433:000
4 SRs2000.32/5 + VR 2009 2 670 Conical- Takraf 420 009 1
planetary 027
5 2016 1 1200 Conical- Takraf 420 200 1
planetary 00
Table 2. Basic production characteristics of SRs2000 excavators on the surface coal mines of
the electric power industry of Serbia ending in 2016
R.n. Surface Excavator designation Beginning Capacity Production Effective
mines of work (m3) achieved (m3) working time
(h)
1 Tamnava SRs2000.32/5 + VR (G2) 1995 6600 197.077.006 89.155
2 Drmno SRs2000.28/3 + VR (I) 1985 6000 201.718.938 99.435
3 Drmno SRs2000.32/5 + VR (II) 1997 6600 153.565.803 71.807
4 Drmno SRs2000.32/5 + VR (III) 2009 6600 87.793.435 27.459
Variant 1 and 3 Variant 4 Variant 5
Fig. 1. Bucket wheel drives on SRs2000 excavators (Table 1)
The reconstruction of bucket wheel’s head is based on the following concept:

replacement of existing old gearboxes types with new conical-planetary gearboxes and
definition of the rear support; production of a new bucket wheel drive shaft adjusted to
the new gearbox; replacement a new bucket wheel gearbox bearings according to the
existing construction. Figure 2 gives the comparative geometric sizes of the existing
and new bucket wheel gearbox (variant 4 – Table 1). The installation directions are
defined via the rear support for the boom structure and the shaft bearings through the
bucket wheel.
Fig. 2. Geometric dimensions defining of the new torque lever – comparing old and new drives
(red - new drive, blue - old drive)
3 Modernization and Revitalization of the Bucket Wheel
Creating a new bucket wheel concept is based on the following: instead of double-wall
bucket wheel, install a new single-wall combined bucket wheel. Increasing bucket
wheel diameter from 11 to 12 m, as well increasing number of buckets from 18 to 20
units (for excavators SRs2000.28/3 + VR), adjusting bucket wheel design to new shaft.
Figure 3 gives a schematic representation of these two different versions and strengths
single-wall bucket wheel compared to double-walled bucket wheel.
Total mass of existing double-wall bucket wheel with axle is about 62.8 tonnes, and
the mass of the proposed single-wall bucket wheel with axle is about 71.2 tonnes. So
the total mass will be increased by about 8.4 tons. Knowing that mass of the drive will
be smaller, it can be concluded that difference in the total mass will be small, which is
insignificant from aspect of entire machine stability. The summary of bucket wheel
revitalization: replacement of existing bucket wheel with new combined single-wall
bucket wheel (making and installing a new bucket wheel); assembly of 20 buckets of
0.9 m3 nominal volume instead of previous 18 buckets – the buckets are of same
geometry; replacement of existing crescent with a new design.
A simplified change in wear plates is available Wear plates difficult to access

from the rear
(reduced time of dismantling activities)
Undesirable accumulation of materials

Indoor space under the cone does not exist - there indoors
is no accumulation of material in the wheel
(increased safety)
Serious problems in the stability of the machine
The wheel hub is designed to be easily adapted

to shift under load, whereby in this area to avoid
cracks and damage
Fig. 3. Basic appearance of single-wall and double-wall bucket wheel – advantages and
disadvantages
4 Modernization and Revitalization of the Cutting Elements
The geometry of bucket cutting elements should satisfy a very wide range of
requirements: cutting process is accomplished with as little energy as possible; elim-
inate appearance of large pieces; that unevenness of external loads as a result of
periodic entry and exit of cutting elements from material is reduced to acceptable
limits; simple manufacturing technology and high reliability; replacement of cutting
elements is simple and quick.
The tooth is a bucket element that has a dual role in the digging process: destruction
of basic material and material excavation. The tooth as a basic cutting element, with its
geometric and mechanical properties, must respond to numerous requirements condi-
tioned by technological process and type of material recovered. The tooth designed for
the cutting/tearing combination has more pronounced massiveness, significantly higher
strength in characteristic cross sections of tooth load, relatively narrow (pronounced
breakage stability), etc. Bucket optimization is achieved by choosing optimal shape of
Fig. 4. Optimized tooth variant of BWE SRs2000 + VR for surface coal mine Tamnava – West
cutting part, as well optimal solution of binding method for bucket wheel and degree of
its openness. Figure 4 provides an optimized prototype two-piece tooth structure,
which was tested in surface coal mine Tamnava – West field.
5 Static and Dynamic Modelling Checking Based on New

Design
New design testing was carried out with computer modelling and calculation. Defor-
mation of bucket wheel structure is shown in Fig. 5 and equivalent stress in Fig. 6. The
load is transmitted only through one bucket which represents a full utilization of the
driving power.
Fig. 5. Structure deformation of a new bucket wheel for BWE SRs2000.28/3 + VR;
fmax = 9.1 mm
Static behavior of bucket wheel structure is advantageous. Deformation of bucket

wheel boom construction is given in Fig. 7.
Dynamic calculation of own oscillations bucket wheel boom is given in Fig. 8.
Initial first 6 oscillations are given, among other things, in order to avoid possible
overlapping with frequency regulation.
[MPa]
Fig. 6. Equivalent stress of a new bucket wheel for BWE SRs2000.28/3 + VR; Emax = 97 MPa
Fig. 7. Deformation of bucket wheel boom structure for BWE SRs2000.28/3 + VR;
fmax = 40 mm
The goal of all these activities would be to restore critical elements in order to improve
their further work and service life extension. The determination of required perfor-
mances is aimed at achieving planned time and capacity utilization of BWE SRs2000.
These excavators will have an increasingly important role in overburden production on
a surface mine. Computer modelling of structures have an essential role in terms of
diagnostic procedures for making the right attitude about further work on revitalization.
fo1 = 0.20 Hz fo2 = 0.29 Hz
f03 = 0.41 Hz f04 = 0.74 Hz
f05 = 0.98 Hz f06 = 1.00 Hz
Fig. 8. Own oscillations of bucket wheel boom for BWE SRs2000.28/3 + VR
Bibliography
1. Project Excavator revitalization (2015) Development of revitalization project BWE
SRs2000.28/3 + VR, Innovation Centre of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in
Belgrade, Faculty of Mining and Geology in Belgrade
2. Novaković D, Jovančić P (2016) Cutting elements of bucket wheel excavators in lignite
opencast mines: methodology and performed solutions. In: Proceedings of the 13th
international symposium continuous surface mining ISCSM 2016. Belgrade, Serbia
3. Jovančić P, Maneski T, Ignjatović D, Slavković Č (2015) Revitalization BWE
SRs2000.28/3 + VR in surface coal mine Drmno. In: Proceedings of the 7th international
conference COAL 2015. Zlatibor, Srbija
4. Gnilke M (2006) Intelligent retrofit solutions for bucket wheel excavators. WISSENSPOR-
TAL Baumaschine.de 1. Germany
5. Rusinski E, Czmochowski J, Moczko P, Pietrusiak D (2017) Surface mining machines –
Problems of maintenance and modernization (Monography). Springer International
Publishing AG 2017, Switzerland, p 169. ISBN 978-3-319-47790-9
6. DIN 22261-2 Bagger, Absetzer und Zusatzgerate in Braunkohlentagebauen
7. Rusinski E, Czmochowski J, Pietrusiak D (2012) Problems of steel construction modal

identification. Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc – Maint Reliab 14(1): 54–61
8. Rusinski E, Cegiel L, Michalczuk A, Moczko P, Olejarz J, Pietrusiak D (2015) Investigation
and modernization of buckets of surface mining machines. Eng Struct 90:29–37. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2015.02.009
9. Maslak P, Smolnicki T, Pietrusiak D (2013) Strain gauges measurements and FEM analysis
of elements of chassis of open cast mining machines. Tehnički vjesnik – Tech Gaz 20(4):
655–658
10. Rusinski E, Moczko P, Pietrusiak D (2014) Low frequency vibrations of the surface mining
machines caused by operational loads and its impact on durability. In: Conference
proceedings, International conference on noise and vibration engineering ISMA 2014, KU
Leuven. Heverlee, Belgium, pp 683–694. ISBN 9789073802919
11. Jovančić P, Ignjatović D, Tanasijević M, Maneski T (2011) Load-bearing steel structure
diagnostics on bucket wheel excavator, for the purpose of failure prevention. J Eng Fail Anal
18:1203–1211
Comparative Analysis of Experimental
and Numerical Evaluation of Strength
of a Boom of the Underground Loader
Jacek Karliński and Paulina Działak(&)
Department of Machine Design and Research, Wroclaw University of Science

and Technology, Lukasiewicza 7/9, 50-371 Wroclaw, Poland
{jacek.karlinski,paulina.dzialak}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The paper presents comparison of the results obtained from the
numerical simulation and the experiment. A research subject was a boom of the
loader designed for the underground mines. Strength analysis of the boom was
carried out in the static range. The numerical calculation was performed using
finite element method (FEM). The experiment was conducted with the use of the
strain gauge half-bridges to validate the computational model. Measurements
were taken during various actions of the loader. This contribution describes one
of the calculated cases. After the results comparison, the appropriateness of the
numerical simulation has been confirmed.
Keywords: Strength analysis Strain gauges measurements

Underground machine
1 Introduction
Computational models and simulations are getting more and more popular. However,
there is a need to validate the obtained results with the experiment to confirm the
accuracy of numerical methods. Therefore, a comparative examination is a very sig-
nificant issue [1].
The authors conducted a strength analysis of the underground loader (Fig. 1) boom
in the static range, taking into consideration the geometric non-linearity [2]. The case of
lifting the loader on the bucket was taken into consideration. A calculation was per-
formed using finite element method [3].
Subsequently, to compare the results obtained from the computer simulation, strain
gauge measurements were conducted [5].
Comparison of the achieved values of the stresses according to H-M-H hypothesis
from the numerical calculation and the experiment allows to verify if the both exam-
inations were performed correctly [6].
The following article describes numerical simulation and experiment [7] of the
loader boom and compare the results values measured in the sample points, placed in
the same way on the virtual and real boom model. The authors presented the results
from one (boom in the transport position) out of seven analysed cases, however the
same procedures were used for all conducted tests.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_37
320 J. Karliński and P. Działak
Fig. 1. General view of the examined underground loader [4]
2 Numerical Simulation
The computational model and simulations were carried out in Abaqus FEA software.
The authors of the paper endeavoured to determine the boundary conditions in the
virtual model very precisely in order to get the results as close as possible to the reality.
The main issue was to simulate the loads arising from the lifting of the front axle of the
loader on the bucket [8]. They were determined by calculating the torque from the mass
inertia forces with respect to the rear axle (when the bucket was empty). The value of
this torque was 814.8 kNm. A basic data necessary for determining the loads is pre-
sented in Figs. 2 and 3. The reaction force F (Fig. 3) is equal 101.85 kN.
Fig. 2. Basic parameters of the geometry and mass intertia of the loader necessary to determine
the loads while lifting on the bucket (mass = 47300 kg, a = 2143.8 mm, b = 1756.2 mm,
c = 4100 mm)
The results obtained from the numerical simulation are presented in Figs. 4, 5, 6
and 7. The stress distributions were obtained according to H-M-H hypothesis. Also
principal stresses were presented.
Comparative Analysis of Experimental and Numerical Evaluation 321
Fig. 3. Boundary conditions of the strength analysis of a loader boom (Q – weight of bucket,
F – reaction force in the support)
Fig. 4. Stress distribution according to H-M-H hypothesis (MPa)

Fig. 5. Stress distribution according to H-M-H hypothesis (MPa)
Fig. 6. Maximal principal stress (MPa)
3 Experimental Test
For the measurements of the stress distribution on the loader boom during the exper-
imental examination, tensometric half-bridges with a resistance of 350 X were used.
The sampling points were chosen basing on the numerical calculation. The strain
gauges were mounted in the places were the highest stress values from numerical
analysis were obtained. Distribution of the sampling points is shown in Figs. 8 and 9.
Registration of the measurements was supported with the 24-channel
LMS SCADAS recorder. It can be used as an autonomous data recording device, a
smart recorder with a wireless smart device or a frontend system for your in-field and
laboratory applications. The integration of data acquisition and analysis improves data
consistency and allows you to reliably compare data sets [9].
Fig. 7. Maximal principal stress (MPa)
Fig. 8. Measuring points T1 and T3
Measuring error has been limited by the use of compensating strain gauges and it is
a total of the extensometer resistance error (0.2%) and sensitivity of the bridge (1%)
and does not exceed 1.25% of the measured value. The inability of unloading the
working unit while gluing the stain gauges has also a significant influence on the
deformation measurements error.
The maximal stress values obtained from the examination of the boom in the
transport position are presented in Figs. 10, 11 and 12.
Fig. 9. Measuring point T2
Fig. 10. Stress curve registered in sampling point T1

4 Results Comparison and Conclusion
The authors performed a comparative analysis of the numerical simulation and

experiment of the boom of an underground loader. Strength analysis carried out with
the use of a finite element method [10] was validated with the strain gauge measure-
ments. The obtained results were read from the same sampling points in case of the
virtual and real model to enable the values comparison. The maximal stresses obtained
from the computational analysis are presented in Table 1.
A comparison of the results indicate that the values obtained from a computer
calculation are largely convergent, taking into account the order of the magnitude of the
achieved outcome. The higher values of the stresses were received in case of a
numerical simulation. This confirms that the computational methods assume the safety
factor during calculations and may be often used interchangeably with the experimental
testing in case of strength assessment of the loader boom.
The values achieved from the experiment measured in the same place on the
underground loader are shown in Table 2.
Table 1. Summarise of the maximal values of the stress obtained from the numerical
calculations
Sampling point rmax (MPa)
T1 31
T2 31
T3 67
Table 2. Summarise of the maximal values of the stress obtained from the experiment
Sampling point rmax (MPa)
T1 25
T2 25
T3 50
References
1. Derlukiewicz D, Dzialak P, Karlinski J (2013) Comparative examination of the mining
machine operator protective structure. In: Proceedings of the 30th Danubia-Adria
symposium on advances in experimental mechanics. Primosten, Croatia
2. Karlinski J, Ptak M, Dzialak P, Rusinski E (2014) Strength analysis of bus superstructure
according to regulation no. 66 of UN/ECE. Arch Civ Mech Eng 14(3): 342–353
3. Maslak P, Smolnicki T, Pietrusiak D (2013) Strain gauges measurements and FEM analysis
of elements of chassis of open cast mining machines. Tehnicki Vjesnik - Tech Gaz 20
(4):655–658
4. http://www.kghmzanam.com/index.php/en/products/mining-machines. Accessed 02 2018
5. Rusinski E, Iluk A, Stanco M (2016) Numerical and experimental analysis of a truck frame.
Innov Simul Syst: 217–230
6. Kosobudzki M, Stanco M (2016) The experimental identification of torsional angle on a
load-carrying truck frame during static and dynamic tests. Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc –
Maint Reliab 18(2): 285–290
7. Stanco M, Kosobudzki M (2017) The analysis of suspension performance of high speed
tracked vehicle. In: Proceedings of the 13th international scientific conference: computer
aided engineering. Polanica, Poland
8. Stanco M, Kosobudzki M (2015) The loads identification acting on the 4 4 truck. In:
Proceedings of the 32th Danubia-Adria symposium on advances in experimental mechanics.
Zilina, Slovakia
9. https://www.plm.automation.siemens.com/pl_pl/products/lms/index.shtml. Accessed 12
2017
10. Rusinski E, Czmochowski J, Smolnicki T (2000) Advanced finite element method in
carrying structures
Sustainable Development Oriented Belt
Conveyors Quality Standards
Witold Kawalec(&) and Robert Król
Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wroclaw University of Science

and Technology, Ul. Na Grobli 13/15, 50–421, Wrocław, Poland
{witold.kawalec,Robert.krol}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. Belt conveyors (BC) due to their unmatched capacity are extensively
used in all industry applications where large volumes of bulk solids need to be
transported. The mining industry is among the greatest BC users that set the new
standards of required reliability, durability and operational safety. In recent years
the sustainable development of the industry with the special focus on its eco-
efficiency, primary energy consumption and GNG emission, is of the growing
public interest. Relatively low raw material prices force competitiveness in the
mining sector. Both issues set the new, higher requirements of BC efficiency as
large BC systems are significant consumers of the expensive electric energy. BC
are designed and built with regard to relatively conservative standards, lagged
behind the already implemented technological development of BC equipment
and maintenance methods. This paper deals with the proposal of the novel
approach to both defining new standards for BC equipment that incorporates
energy labelling, Eco-efficiency Analysis approach and calculating BC resis-
tances to motion and required drive power with object oriented methods. The
approach is illustrated by the analysis of idlers energy consumption and their
fatigue tests.
Keywords: Belt conveyors Idlers Energy efficiency Energy labelling

Operational conditions Calculation of resistances to motion
1 Introduction
Belt conveyors (abbr. as BC) due to their unmatched transportation capacity over short
distances are extensively used in all industry applications where large volumes of bulk
solids need to be moved. High output underground and surface mines are among the
prominent users of BC systems. Due to specific requirements of capacity, reliability,
durability and operational safety of BCs that are demanded by mining companies [1],
the significant technology advances in the field of BC design and analysis mostly
depend on mining applications. However, on a contrary to any compact machine, a BC
can be assembled with components of various origin, design, quality, energy efficiency
and actual technical condition. In the USA, the Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers
Association [5], established in 1933 [21], has developed rigorous industrial standards
that have to matched by any BC equipment supplier providing services for the industry.
In the non-CEMA world BC users follow less detailed international [13] or local [6]

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_38
328 W. Kawalec and R. Król
standards. All these standards refer mostly to dimensions, strength, used material and
operational safety of a BC equipment.
Following the growing awareness of the negative impact of heavy industry pro-
cesses on the environment, mining companies are becoming scrutinized of their energy
consumption, induced pollution and GHG emission across the whole mining value
chain [22]. Moreover relatively low raw material prices force greater competitiveness
in the mining sector which can be only achieved by cutting costs. BCs, though more
effective than any other high capacity transportation system [16], are large energy
consumers, therefore the eco-efficiency of belt conveying is increasingly analyzed and
improved [1, 11, 17, 19].
Such analysis are not supported yet by any dedicated standards that would help to
classify the eco-efficiency of BCs and their components. Commonly used and well
established standards for calculation belt conveyors [6, 13] adapt the concept of rolling
resistance of a conveyor belt on carrying idlers. Determining the coefficient of the main
resistance is based upon indications provided by these standards is more a matter of
experience than of a calculation supported by theoretical and experimental scientific
research. The belt conveyor resistance to motion is calculated from the following
components:
Xn
RTM ¼ f mi ; mu ; LBC ; DHBC ; OCCBC ð1Þ
BC
where: RTM – resistance to motion, mi…n – masses of moving BC components, mu –

material load on the belt, LBC – length of a BC, ΔHBC – material lifting height, OCCBC
– operational condition class of the BC, which is used to assume the artificial (gen-
eralized) coefficient of friction.
This calculations takes into account (by default) conservative standards of testing
BC components like idlers [15] or belt but no explicit parameters (other than mass) are
used. As a result, “traditionally, belt conveyors for both in-plant and overland systems
have been notoriously over-designed. Fifty-year-old engineering design standards and
methods are still being applied today. The use of these standards results in substantially
higher capital (CAPEX) and operating (OPEX) costs when compared with those
incorporating today’s technical advancements.” [18].
Standards that should apply to designing and calculating of BCs need to be adopted
to the modern engineering requirements:
– Avoiding over-designing of BC components by taking into account the actual
operating conditions,
– Improved energy efficiency (EE),
– Audits of conforming the sustainable development criteria,
– Considering the benefits of the technical achievements (new materials, higher
assembling standards, improved quality of BC components).
In this paper the novel approach to BC quality standards is proposed.
Sustainable Development Oriented Belt Conveyors Quality Standards 329
2 Calculating Methods
The designing of a modern BC should be based upon advanced calculation methods of

main RTM rather than simplified standards [5, 6, 13]. The main RTM methods are
developed on the background of theoretical analysis of physical phenomena that occur
in the running belt conveyor backed by detailed investigations of the movement of a
belt supported by idlers carried out during both appropriate laboratory tests and in-situ
measurements. Such approach allows to identify the impact of all important parameters
(like BC route layout, mechanical properties of a belt, idlers and transported material)
on RTM with the use of physical equations of loads, tensions, displacements and
deformations rather than dimensionless, controlled by empirical constants, equations
adopted in simplified standard methods [7, 8]. As a result, the theoretically proven and
verified by experiments calculation methods of belt conveyor RTM are capable to deal
with any BC installation. Moreover, such method is open for the applying an object
modelling approach. Two basic objects can be distinguished: a belt and an object of a
conveyor route, on which - due to the interaction with the running belt – its RTM can
be identified. Thus a BC can be modelled as a system of objects, influencing each other
through the actual belt tension (see Fig. 1). Objects can be individually described,
classified and modelled with the use of object methodology - inheritance of objects and
virtual methods [9].
Fig. 1. The layout of the main conveyor objects: 1: loading point, 2 and 5: top and return belt, 3
and 6: idler sets in top and bottom belt, 4, 7, 8 and 9: tail, drive, take-up and head pulley, section
A: tail head, section B: the route, section C: head station [9]
Taking into account the energy dissipation processes in a conveyor belt and in the
conveyed material the following components of the main RTM force are considered:
idler rotational resistance (Wk), indentation resistance (We), flexure resistance of a belt
(Wb), flexure resistance of bulk material (Wf), sliding resistance of a belt on idlers (Wr).
The components of the main RTM force are determined for each idler set for both
upper and bottom strand. The total RTM consists of main RTM force and a series of
individually calculated RTM generated on pulleys, loading points, belt cleaning
devices and any other additional objects in move on a BC. The object oriented method
of calculating the RTM of a BC can be expressed as follows:
X
RTM ¼ Wk þ We þ Wb þ Wf þ Wr þ Wi ¼ f Oj j ; M; Qm ; RBC ; OCCBC ð2Þ
i
where: Wi – list of all individual resistances to motion, Oj – set of objects representing

BC components (belt, idlers, pulleys, etc.), M – parameters of transported material, Qm
– actual capacity, RBC – conveyor route.
In (2) BC objects, transported material and BC route are represented by a list of
relevant data, characteristics and parameters. Different algorithms of calculating the
RTM of a BC require more or less detailed list of parameters for each analyzed object.
In the case of an idler supporting belt, the basic parameters would be its dimensions
(length, diameter), mass of rotating parts, type of suspension, bearing size, type of
coating and – if known – the specific characteristic to calculate the idler rotational
resistance (see Fig. 4). The laboratory tests of BC components are to provide the
calculations of the RTM with the required input.
The example of such approach are theoretical and experimental investigations
(done both in the laboratory and in-situ) in the field of belt conveyors main RTM that
have been carried out for many year at the Wroclaw University of Technology [7].
Based on the worked-out algorithms, the computer procedures have been developed
and eventually implemented into the comprehensive, specialized program for detailed
belt conveyor modelling and calculation – QNK-TT [14]. Similar advanced calculation
methods were also developed by other BC research & development centers, to name
just Conveyor Dynamics Inc. [18].
3 Classifications of BC Components
3.1 Energy Efficiency Labels

The accurate, main RTM calculation methods of BCs need more precise information
about the parameters of the BC components: idlers, belt, drive, etc. The existing
standards of BC components are outdated and of decreasing utility for the BC designers
and users [15, 18, 20]. The good example of this opinion is the comparison of a
standard and real rotational RTM of idlers used in underground ore mines which was
described in [15] and presented on the cited Fig. 2. Improved technology and com-
ponents (e.g. bearings, sealing) used for manufacturing rolls caused that the actual
value of idlers rotational RTM is almost 10 times smaller than the standard one.
Another significant improvements have been achieved in the field of energy-saving
conveyor belts [1, 17, 18], which has a great impact on the indentation RTM sharing up
to 70% of the total main RTM of a BC [8].
The policy of decreasing the energy consumption (and the corresponding GHG
emission), for more than 20 years energy efficiency labelling (EEL) of household
appliances have been introduced on the European market. The idea of labelling (A, B,
…, G) of machines and other objects that consume energy has been then expanded onto
Fig. 2. The idler rotational RTM measured in tests carried out for modern idlers actually
supplied by various manufacturers compared to the standard value (dashed line) [15]
electric motors, cars and buildings [12]. It seems to be suitable to implement EEL of
machinery equipment for the purpose of improvement of its eco-efficiency.
EEL should be assigned at least to idlers, conveyor belts and drives. New standards
should provide the tables of relevant ranges of values of RTM that apply to A, B or G
EE class. Assigning a given BC element with the EEL will be done as a result of
dedicated tests [4].
3.2 Classification of Operating Conditions

The operating conditions of a BC have a great impact on its efficiency. In the ISO 5048
standard, the artificial friction coefficient f (used for computing the total RTM), varies
from 0.016 for “fixed and properly aligned installations …” up to 0.030 for “poorly
aligned belt conveyors with badly rolling idlers and high internal friction material”
(ISO). The actual operating conditions of a BC have to be taken into account regardless
on the identified EELs of BC components. There are two independent issues that
should be addressed:
1. General operating conditions of a BC that influence its operation – an ambient
temperature, dust, humidity, BC route alignment, available level of maintenance -
e.g. use of any dedicated condition monitoring system [3]. These are represented in
(1) and (2) by the OCCBC component.
2. Individual operating conditions of a BC object: actual level of wear, accuracy of
installation/assembling (see Fig. 3), level of available maintenance.
The general operating condition classification has been used by all valid standards
[5, 6, 13] and by already mentioned authors methods [10]. The common (and widely
adopted) approach to deal with the embedding of a rough assessment identifying the
operating conditions is the use of linguistic variables and fuzzy sets representing
specified operating conditions classes (OCCBC). The standard should, however, define
precisely, what OCCBC should be distinguished and how to assign them properly.
Fig. 3. Results of fatigue tests for idlers produced by various manufactures [15]
Another issue is related to the individual operating conditions. A given BC working

in perfect general conditions (moderate ambient temperature, straight and properly
aligned BC route, careful maintenance) can be equipped with new and identical or
worn-out and of different origin: idlers (see Fig. 3), belt loop segments, drive units, etc.
Therefore there is a new proposal of assigning the main BC objects with their indi-
vidual OCCs. As can be seen on Fig. 3, an OCC “used idlers” has different meaning for
idlers provided by manufacturers A, B, D (because the specific characteristic of the
rotational RTM do not deteriorate with age) and for idlers provided by manufacturers
C, E (as their rotational RTM rises with ageing). There are other investigation results
that could be applied for classification of OCC for conveyor belts and belt splices [2].
3.3 BC Component Description

Summing up the above postulates, each object that represent the BC component should
be assigned with the following information kit:
Oj ðmj ; Dj ; Cj ; EELj ; OCCj Þ ð3Þ
where: mj – mass of the object, Dj – set of design parameters, Cj – characteristics used

for calculation RTM, EELj –energy efficiency label of the object, OCCj – class of
operating conditions of the object.
Depending on the object type, the actual EEL and its OCC have to processed to get
the actual parameters or type of relevant formulas C. Basing upon the experience of the
already developed method of analyzing the impact of belt misalignment onto the
expected increase of RTM [1011], the implementation of fuzzy numbers and fuzzy
operators is proposed. These operators have to be developed for each type of object to
compute the actual values of required variables on the basis of relevant characteristics
with regard to EEL and OCC of the object and the general OCC of the BC. Such object
approach allow the designer or user of a BC to analyze variants of assembling the
conveyor with alternative idlers, belt, pulleys, etc.
Key elements of this approach are reliable testing methods aimed on assigning the
BC components with adequate EELs. Because the energy efficiency of an BC com-
ponent often deteriorates with age, the testing procedure should incorporate the fatigue
tests to give the assessment of the EEL also for used objects [15].
4 Measuring of BC Efficiency
4.1 Loading
Conveyors are designed to their maximum required (planned) instantaneous capacity
but their average efficiency depend rather on the actual distribution of loading with
transported material, length and route profile. Some RTM components depend on the
actual loading as presented in Fig. 4. Therefore the calculations of the RTM of a BC
should be done against the expected range of loading. In the mines usually the division
BCs are underloaded and often work at idle mode on a contrary to the main haulage
conveyors that transport the material supplied by several division conveyors. Even if
the conveyors are built with the same components (a very common situation) their
efficiency will be different, depending on their actual loading. Assuming that the actual
RTM of a BC is a function of its loading, the required drive power of a BC equals:
RTMðQm Þ v
Pe ¼ ð4Þ
g
where: Pe – drive power of a BC, W, RTM(Qm) – actual total RTM force, N, v – belt
speed, m/s, η – drive efficiency.
The total energy Es to run a BC over a given period of time is an integral:
Z
Es ¼ Pe ðtÞdt ð5Þ
where, following (4), Pe(t) is mainly a function of the actual Qm(t).

In the same time the total transported mass M can be calculated as:
Z
M ¼ Qm ðtÞdt ð6Þ
For the design calculations integrals are approximated with integral sums [11].
14,0
idlers standard idlers improved
12,0
y = 4E-08x2 + 0,0008x + 4,67
Rotation resistance Wk , N R2 = 0,9821
10,0
8,0
6,0
4,0
y = 5E-08x2 + 0,0001x + 1,67
R2 = 0,9977
2,0
0,0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Radial force Fr , N
Fig. 4. Idlers’ rotational RTM as a function of actual radial load for high rated idlers used for
overburden BC in lignite surface mines [11]
4.2 Specific Energy Consumption of a BC

The practical measure of a BC efficiency is its specific energy consumption (SEC) - an
amount of energy needed to move 1 kg of conveyed material for a distance of 1 m.
The SEC can be calculated against identified operational conditions of a BC (OCCBC)
and its loadings. Following (5) and (6), SEC is expressed as:
Es
SECBC ¼ ð7Þ
M LBC
For a horizontal BC prevailing are main RTM forces while for ascending BC – the
force required for lifting the material. Each BC has to be analyzed individually with
regard to its own operational capacity, OCC and the route layout.
4.3 Eco-Efficiency Analysis Approach

The proposed BC standards deserve to be treated as “quality” standards. The quality
should be understood in terms of matching the eco-efficiency criteria [19]. Following
the growing concern of environmental impact of industry processes (plus GHG
emission limitations and paid allowances), the companies would need to carefully
monitor and document the actual their eco-efficiency. The proposed BC quality stan-
dards provide the results which can be easily processed to get the LCA - life cycle
assessment [19], volumes of emission of GHG [17], expected effects of the possible
eco-efficiency improvements to the BC assembling (e.g. replacement of idlers to the
ones with better EELs). For each BC installation one can find the most eco-efficient
design and compare its parameters with the actual ones.
5 Conclusions
The new approach of standardization of belt conveyor equipment has been proposed.
These standards should encompass principles of object oriented calculating main RTM
of a BC and comprehensive classification of BC components, including: energy
labelling (EEL), operating conditions classes (OCC) and dedicated, specialized testing
procedures. The object approach allow to implement virtual methods that reflect the
diversity of BC components design, characteristics, EEL and OCC. Fuzzy operators are
proposed to address the problem of representation of energy labels and applied oper-
ating conditions classification.
The general measure of the eco-efficiency of a BC should be expressed as its
specific energy consumption (amount of energy used for conveying a mass unit over a
distance unit of the BC averaged route profile).
The calculation method should enable to compare alternative BC design with
regard to chosen EEL and OCC of the BC equipment. The application of the proposed
classification would enable to make a reliable assessment of the expected eco-efficiency
of the given BC and to identify the possible ways of improvements.
On a contrary to the actual standards, the proposed system of standards for
designing and calculating BC generates the ability of making sustainable development
oriented audits of the existing and planned BC transportation systems.
Acknowledgement. This work was supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher
Education as scientific statutory project No. 0401/0131/17.
References
1. Alspaugh MA (2004) Latest developments in belt conveyor technology. MINExpo
2. Bajda M, Błażej R, Hardygóra M (2016) Impact of selected parameters on the fatigue
strength of splices on multiply textile conveyor belts. In: World multidisciplinary earth
sciences symposium (WMESS 2016). IOP Publishing, Prague, Art. 052021
3. Błażej R, Jurdziak L, Kawalec W (2016) Condition monitoring of conveyor belts as a tool
for proper selection of their replacement time. In: Applied condition monitoring. Springer
4. Bukowski J, Gładysiewicz L, Król R (2011) Tests of belt conveyor resistance to motion.
Eksploatacja i Niezawodność - Maint Reliab: 3
5. CEMA (2009) Belt conveyors for bulk materials, 6th edn. Conveyor Equipment
Manufacturers Association
6. DIN Standard 22101: 2011-12 (2011) Continuous mechanical handling equipment, belt
conveyors for bulk materials, base for calculation and design. Beuth-Vertrieb GmbH, Berlin
7. Gladysiewicz L (2003) Belt conveyors: theory and calculations. Wroclaw University of
Technology Publishing House, Wrocław (in Polish)
8. Gladysiewicz L, Hardygóra M, Kawalec W (2009) Determining belt resistance. Bulk
Handling Today, No. 5
9. Gladysiewicz L, Kawalec W (2000) Object modelling of a belt conveyor. In: Mine planning
& equipment selection. Athens
10. Gladysiewicz L, Kawalec W (2001) Modelling chosen operating conditions of a belt
conveyor. In: Mine planning & equipment selection. New Delhi
11. Gładysiewicz L, Kawalec W, Król R (2016) Selection of carry idlers spacing of belt
conveyor taking into account random stream of transported bulk material. Eksploatacja i
Niezawodność - Maint Reliab 1:32–37
12. Harrington L, Brown J (2014) Energy standards and labelling programs throughout the
world in 2013. Report commissioned by department of industry, Australia
13. ISO Standard 5048 (1989) Continuous mechanical handling equipment – Belt conveyors
with carrying idlers – Calculation of operating power and tensile forces
14. Kawalec W, Kulinowski P (2007) Computations of belt conveyors. Transport Przemyslowy
1(27) (in Polish)
15. Król R, et al (2017) New Quality standards of testing idlers for highly effective belt
conveyors. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 95: 042055
16. Lawrie E, Rasul MG, Gilroy T (2007) Coal land transport economics of options in eastern
Australia. Bulk Solids Handling, vol 27
17. Lodewijks G (2013) Energy saving options for continuous transport systems used in mines,
an exploration. World Mining Congress
18. Nordell LK (2003) Overland conveyors designed for efficient cost & performance,
BELTCON 12. Republic of South Africa
19. Saling P (2002) Eco-efficiency analysis by BASF: the method. Int J Life Cycle Assess
20. Wheeler CA (2016) Rotating resistance of belt conveyor idler rolls. J Manuf Sci Eng 138
21. Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association home page. https://www.cemanet.org/
22. Energy management in mining. Leading practice sustainable development program for the
mining industry (2016)
The Numerical Calculation Module for Piston
Rings & Cylinder of Combustion Engine
Andrzej Kaźmierczak1(&) and Marcin Tkaczyk2

1
Faculty of Technology and Natural Sciences, Wroclaw University of Science
and Technology, Wyb, Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
andrzej.kazmierczak@pwr.edu.pl
2
and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
marcin.tkaczyk@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The piston with piston rings and bearing surface is a self-contained
and highly complex tribological system. One of the most widespread global
friction pairs traversed by reciprocating a pair of ring - cylinder liner piston -
rings - cylinder internal combustion engine. Group PRS combustion engine is
the solution generating considerable friction. Various researchers estimate the
share of friction losses, per node piston rings - cylinder liner, at 19 to 60% of the
total friction losses in the combustion engine. This paper describes part of a
larger program to reduce wear the set working parts (piston, piston ring and
bearing surface). The project is implemented through the development of new
designs of piston rings with anti-wear coating that contains synthetic diamond in
the form of loose embedded in a coating of chromium (PRS). The aim of the
authors was to present the methodology used to compute characterized by a
particular procedure. In practical use FEM software is used and the FVM.
Developed and implemented Piston Rings Calculation Module is compatible
with the idea of numerical computational methods is to say: functionally con-
sists in carrying out a calculation of the desire to achieve the exact solution (the
nearest is real) by conducting and receiving intermediate solutions (the next).
Keywords: Piston ring Cylinder Simulation Combustion engines
1 Introduction
This paper describes part of a larger program to reduce wear the set working parts
(piston, piston ring and bearing surface). The project is implemented through the
development of new designs of piston rings with anti-wear coating that contains
synthetic diamond in the form of loose embedded in a coating of chromium (PRS). The
main purpose of coating is to reduce ring wear while maintaining or reducing wear
cylinder sleeve. Application for said part of the research is EMD 645 engine. The
engine used in this study was manufactured by the Electro-Motive Division of General
Motors Corporation (EMD). This engine is available in both naturally aspirated and
turbocharged configurations, and in V-8, V-12, V-16, and V-20 configurations. It is
popular for locomotive applications in North America, as well as in marine, industrial

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_39
338 A. Kaźmierczak and M. Tkaczyk
and power generation applications. For this program, the EMD 12-645-E engine was
chosen because it is commonly found in switcher and road-switcher locomotive
applications in North America, in power ranges from 750 kW to 1,500 kW. Roughly
3,000 of these switcher locomotives are in operation in North America. Figure 1 shows
an EMD GP38-2 road-switcher locomotive, which is equipped with an engine like the
one tested in this program. Specifications for the EMD 12-645-E engine are given in
Table 1. The EMD 645-E engine is a uniflow-scavenged, two-stroke, direct-injected
diesel. Figure 2 shows a power assembly from the EMD 645-E engine. Figure 2 shows
that the power assembly has four compression rings on the piston crown and two oil
control rings at the piston skirt. Prior to INNOTECH testing at UW, the model engine
was rebuilt, and equipped with a set of commercially available power assemblies, and
broken in for 85 h of operation.
Fig. 1. EMD GP38-2 road-switcher locomotive
2 Finite-Element Simulation
Finite element as such is a simple geometric shape - flat or spatial, for which are set out
special points called nodes, and certain functions of interpolation, called functions
shape. The nodes are located at the vertices of the finite element may also be placed
against its sides, this is called the higher order components. If the nodes are only the
vertices of the finite element is called a linear component or element of the first row.
The Government of the element is always equal to the rank shape function, while the
number of functions in a single component shape corresponds to the number of its
nodes [2,8,9]. All finite elements and nodes must be numbered, usually seeks to ensure
that the numbering will guarantee a minimum bandwidth of non-zero coefficients
matrix of equations [2,8,9]. FEM concept assumes that any quantity, for example,
The Numerical Calculation Module 339
Fig. 2. EMD 645-E power assembly [2]
stress or strain described by a continuous function, approximated discrete model.

Discrete model is composed of a set of continuous functions defined in a finite number
of subdivisions called elements, to which divided the region [2,8,9].
Individual continuous functions of the subdivisions is determined by the value of
the primary functions of a finite number of points called nodes. To obtain a discrete
model should therefore: • distinguish a finite number of nodes, • nodes to determine
physical quantities, subject to approximation - such as stress or displacement, • divide
the area in question on a finite number of elements,
Table 1. EMD 12-645-E engine specifications

Engine Model EMD 12-645-E
Cylinders V-12
Bore 230 mm
Stroke 254 mm
Displacement/cylinder 10.6 dm3
Compression ratio 16:1
Power 1,100 kW
BMEP 5.9 bar @ 900 rpm
BSFC @ rated power 254 g/kW-hr
Air charging Gear driven roots - blower
Fuel injection Cam driven unit - injectors
Crankcase ventilation Crankcase fumes are returned into the blower
Engine condition About 100 h break-in upon complete engine overhaul
Emission certification EPA Tier 0 - switcher Cycle 2
• approximate size of the physical elements using polynomial approximation, for

example, ranks, or strings [1]. Now that the finite element method is used widely,
there are many types and kinds of finite elements. In order to determine the type of
finite element makes the following basic criteria characterizing featured item:
[2,8,9]
• dimension of the element: one-dimensional - 1D, two-dimensional - 2D, three-
dimensional - 3D,
• geometric shape,
• the degree and type of shape function adopted,
• number of nodes in the element,
• constraints imposed on the item [2,8,9].
Due to the size of finite elements can be divided into one-dimensional, two-
dimensional and three-dimensional, exemplary diagrams of data elements are presented
below [2,8,9]. Of the three-dimensional elements, which describe the three-dimensional
space, we can distinguish volume elements such as TETRA, PENTA, HEXA, and
elements axially - symmetrical. Due to the geometrical shape can distinguish the fol-
lowing finite elements [2,8,9].
In some cases, the mapping area of the curved lines use elements with curved
contours - isoparametric elements. For ease of description of the geometry of the
curved elements is transformed to the geometry of the core. We can distinguish 3
classes of curved elements:
• isoparametric,
• superparametric,
• subparametric, [2,8,9]
By constraints imposed on the finite element meant to receive the possibility of
movements in different directions points that belong to this element. The element arises
field strains and stresses. In the space generally occurs 6 degrees of freedom, while the
number of degrees of freedom of the finite element is presented below [2,8,9].
• rod elements 2D and 3D {ux, uy, uz}
• beam elements 2D and 3D {ux, uy, uz, ax, ay, az,},
• membrane elements {ux, uy}
• disc elements {ux, uy, az}
• plate elements {u, ax, ay} or {u, ax, ay, axy}
• coating elements {ux, uy, uz, ax, ay, az,},
• volume elements {ux, uy, uz} [1],
During the execution of the task No. 1 titled Strength calculations band of piston
rings during the period from 01.06.2014 to 31.08.2014 works were carried out in order
to calculate the state of stress in the piston rings whose method of implementation and
the scope can be reduced to:
1. Develop calculation module piston rings (Fig. 3).
2. Carry out calculations for the three engines of the Rings: EMD 645, I0470,
according S359 of Computing Module Piston Rings.
Developed and implemented Piston Rings Calculation Module is compatible with
the idea of numerical computational methods is to say: functionally consists in carrying
out a calculation of the desire to achieve the exact solution (the nearest is real) by
conducting and receiving intermediate solutions (the next). Shown in Fig. 3, a block
diagram of a computing unit piston ring contains the names of the functionality of each
of the stages in the quest to achieve the final effect, which is to define the geometry and
material of piston rings. Presented a block diagram of a computing unit piston rings
(Fig. 4) has a sub-module implemented in the rump. 2: “load calculation in the model
assembly TPC combustion engines using the MES’. Said sub-module is marked in red
and will be described in the task no. 2.
Spreadsheet - Data input at this stage, collected all available data measurement in
the piston ring grooves and measurements of the diameters of cylinders, as well as data
on the materials from which the consortium member FPT “Prima” SA can make piston
rings. Then made estimates based on empirical formulas and pre-defined geometry and
material of piston rings. The preprocessor - Construction geometry at this stage been set
in the previous step geometry w/w rings. The construction geometry was carried out in
the preprocessor to the program Ansys CFD, construction geometry was based on
coordinates of points then combined their curves, which were spread on surfaces which
were then sealed in volume and given boundary condition “solid”. Geometric correct -
at this stage was inspected by checking whether the geometry of the virtual rings are
located in annular grooves of the pistons. Preprocessor - Discretization computing
space, at this stage in the software Ansys CFD made discretization or the distribution of
geometry into a finite number of elements, choosing cubic higher-order elements
(Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. A block diagram of the computing unit of piston rings

Fig. 4. The discreet form a ring geometry of an exemplary EMD 645E - mesh FEM
Fig. 5. View of the state of stress in the compresion ring engine EMD645
Discretization correct - at this stage was made to verify the quality of discrete area
of scanning all the elements of the criterion: volume differences, differences in diag-
onals, differences in lengths of the sides. SOLVER FEM - Abaqus, at this stage, carried
out all the necessary steps to build a numerical model of the above/in the system;
adoption of stiffness matrix, the choice of a computing scheme, specify the parameters
of convergence, the number of steps calculation, selection of sub-model heat transport
etc. One of the most important things was the introduction of boundary conditions
through proper task force vector. Verification solution - at this stage completed the task
of receiving the first targets as a result of stress in the rings under two conditions of
load: compression (Fig. 5) and stretching (Fig. 6) for each of the rings. After the
analysis for each of the rings to give the results. In (Figs. 5 and 6) have been included
distribution of stresses and displacements for the individual rings.
The state in which the rings are shown in the figures k = 1.2 for the material.
Noticeable is the accuracy of the highest stresses experienced during assembly (“ex-
pansion” of the ring) are found in the most remote from the slot assembly, a similar
tendency appears in the case of compression to close the lock.
Fig. 6. View of the state of stress in the tension ring exemplary engine EMD 645E
3 Summary and Conclusion
In conclusion obtained maxima strain ring, which comes to maximum stress. On this
basis it was concluded that the rings meet designed in terms of strength required
Formed during both compression and installation pistons.
Acknowledgements. The article is based on part of the work performed on the project
INNOTECH-K3/IN3/41/228361/NCBR/14.
References
1. Reif K, Dietsche KH (2014) Automotive Handbook, Published by: Robert Bosch GmbH,
Postfach 410960, D-76225 Karlsruhe. Business Division Automotive Aftermarket
2. Froelund K, Fritz S, Smith B (2004) Ranking lubricating oil consumption of different power
assemblies on an EMD16-645-E locomotive diesel. In: CIMAC Congress 2004, Kyoto
3. Corcione FE et al (2001) Temporal and spatial evolution of radical species in the experimental
and numerical characterization of diesel auto-ignition. In: Proceedings of the fifth
international symposium on diagnostics and modeling of combustion in internal combustion
engines (COMODIA 2001), Nagoya, pp 355–363

skończonych w konstrukcjach nośnych. Wydawnictwo, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki
Wrocławskiej; Rok wydania
5. Rusiński E (2002) Zasady projektowania konstrukcji nośnych pojazdów samochodowych,
Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław, p 10
6. http://www.is.pw.edu.pl/plik/293/MES-wyklad.pdf. ostatnia aktualizacja 31.12.2011
Numerical Simulation of Residual Stress
Induced by Welding of Steel-Aluminum
Transition Joint
M. Kowalski(&) and M. Bohm
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Opole University of Technology, ul. St.

Mikołajczyka 5, 45-271 Opole, Poland
m.kowalski@po.opole.pl
Abstract. The paper presents the results of the welding simulation performed
for S235JR-Aluminum A5083 transition joint with the use of finite element
method. Paper presents FEM model properties including nonlinear material data
and heat source parameters. Results of the first calculations were presented in
the form of the residual stresses patterns in and thermal cycles.
Keywords: Residual stress Transition joint Explosive welding
1 Introduction
Joints between materials with different strength and microstructural properties are often
used in modern engineering constructions. An example of this type of material pairs are
steel - aluminum joints, which have been widely used in the shipbuilding and auto-
motive industry [1]. Fusion welding technology makes possible to join steel and alu-
minum alloys using heat generated by an electric arc. However, the heat supplied to the
system may cause formation of the fragile intermetallic structure of FexAly which has a
significant impact on the strength and properties of the obtained joints, e.g. tensile
strength [2]. Screw or rivet connections are an alternative for welding dissimilar
materials nevertheless additional joint elements can significantly affect the mass
properties and economic aspects related to the technical supervision of machines and
devices. Composite transition joints based on explosively welded or hot-rolled multi-
layer materials are alternative welding solution without need for additional techno-
logical operations [3]. The use of welding connectors connects the need to analyze the
structure, among others, in terms of the internal stresses present in the structure.
Application of the finite element method (FEM) in welding simulation is increasing in
last years [4, 5]. Advanced simulation methods used in the design of machines and
devices. The combination of non-linear thermal and mechanical analysis allows, to
determine the temperature distributions, deformations and internal stresses induced by

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_40
Numerical Simulation of Residual Stress 347
welding process. Information obtained allows to optimize technology of materials

joining and take residual stress into consideration during fatigue analysis [6]. The paper
presents the results of welding process welding connector with S235JR-Aluminum
A5083 steel configuration with Grade 1 titanium interlayer and A1050 aluminum
(Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Steel-aluminum transition joint.
2 Mechanical Properties
Transition joint consisted of fallowing materials witch respective thickness: aluminum

A5083 (5 mm), aluminum A1050 (1.5 mm), titanium Grade 1 (1 mm), steel
S235JR + N (5 mm) has been analyzed. Layout and dimensions of the simulated
composite were presented in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Multilayer composite layout
Calculations were performed with nonlinear analysis for temperature dependent

material parameters. Materials data were based on the experimental studies (Table I)
and data available in the literature [7–11]. The basic strength properties of the materials
before the welding process at room temperature were presented in Table 1. Physical
properties used in the simulations were presented on Fig. 3. Properties were shown in
the range from 25 °C to the melting point for individual materials.
348 M. Kowalski and M. Bohm
Table 1. Mechanical properties of the materials in room temperature

Mechanical properties
Material R02 Rm E G m,
[MPa] [MPa] [MPa] MPa -
Steel S235JR + N 235 350–370 220000 84000 0,3
Tytan Grade 1 189–215 308–324 100000 38000 0.37
Aluminium A1050 20 65–95 69000 25900 0.33
Aluminium A5080 125 275–350 71000 26800 0.33
Where: R02 – yield strength at 0.2 plastic strain, Rm – ultimate
strength, E – Young’s modulus, G – Shear modulus,
m – Poisson’s ratio
Fig. 3. Physical properties of the materials
Material properties also included flow curves for respective materials. Depending
on the properties of the material above the 0.7 of the melting point temperature
influence of the hardening effect on the stability of calculations is less significant.
Figure 4 presents example steel flow curves in the function of temperature.
Fig. 4. Steel S235JR flow curves
3 Simulation Model
Calculations were performed with Ansys software (coupled thermo-mechanical anal-

ysis). Simulated transition joint shape and dimensions were presented in the Fig. 5.
Total number of finite elements in the model was 10780, number of nodes 15840. Eight
node brick elements were used in all parts of the assembly. Connections between
individual layers of the composite were defined in a simplified manner. Wavy interface
lines characteristic for explosively welded composites were omitted and modeled as flat
interface surfaces.
Fig. 5. Simulation model, a) shape and dimensions of the simulated transition joint, b) finite
element mesh
The analysis were performed for fillet welds on the steel and aluminum side.
Welding processes were performed in the argon shield gas on the aluminum side and
82% argon and 18% CO2 on the steel side. Technological pause between aluminum
and steel welding was 20 s (consistent with the real welding process). The heights of
welds for steel and aluminum were 3 mm. Weld lengths were also identical. Models of
the weldments were generated respective to the analysis time vector, which allows for
welding speed simulation. Volumetric heat source generated according to the Goldak
distribution (Fig. 6) was applied to the model [12]. Welding and heat source parameters
were presented in Table II. In the all parts of the simulated assembly kinematic
hardening model of the material was used.
Fig. 6. Goldak’s heat source model
Heat source parameters

Material I V v bf br a c
A V cm/min mm mm mm mm
Aluminium 230 22.8 30 2.2 7.2 2.7 3.7
Steel 220 26.5 30 2.5 7.2 2.6 3.5
Where: I – welding current, V – welding voltage, bf, br, a, c – heat source dimensions (Fig. 5)
4 Results
Results were presented in the form temperature and stress patterns. Maximal temper-
atures during welding process exceeded melting points of welded materials. Temper-
ature distribution and peak values in a the multilayer composite can be significant due
to the mechanism of formation of oxides in the steel-titanium joint at elevated tem-
peratures. Thermal cycles for points located under weldment material calculated in the
middle of the joint length were presented in Fig. 7. Due to the relatively small width of
the joint in the multilayer material during welding of aluminum A5083, the separation
of the aluminum layer may occur.
Fig. 7. Thermal cycles under weldment during aluminium welding

Example residual stress fields were presented on Fig. 8. Residual stress state in
transition joint can be described by normal stress in web members calculated along
weld line (Fig. 9b).
Fig. 8. Residual stress distribution (reduced stress)
Normal stress in the web members obtain maximal values near weld face. Maxi-
mum stress values in A5083 web member were 164 MPa. In steel plate normal stress
reached 150 MPa. Stress peak values in multilayer material were in range between 100
and 144 MPa. Stress level exceed yield strength of Grade 1 titanium and A1050
aluminum. Asymmetry of the stress pattern results from the welding sequence. Pause
time between aluminum and steel welding influence transition joint cooling process.
Fig. 9. Normal stress in web members at a distance of 2 mm from weld faces, a) stress pattern
b) normal stress direction
Following conclusions and observations were made on the basis of the conducted
research:
• The maximal normal stress values were 164 MPa in A5083 plate. In the multilayer
material, the stresses were in the range from about 100 to 144 MPa.
• The application of the finite element method alows determination of stresses
induced by the welding process of the Transition joint. The model requires
experimental verification by measuring its own stresses, e.g. with the use of hole
drilling methods.
• Welding process parameters can affect the optimal configuration of the connector
structure (the width of the composite). Increasing the volume of the material will
cause higher heat exchange during welding, preventing, for example, the delami-
nation of the joint.
References
1. Rathod M, Kutsuna M (2004) Joining of aluminum alloy 5052 and low-carbon steel by laser
roll welding. Weld J, 16–26
2. Liu W, Ma J, Mazar Atabaki M, Kovacevic R (2015) Joining of advanced high-strength steel
to AA 6061 alloy by using Fe/Al structural transition joint. Mater Des 68:146–157
3. (2014) ABS guide for fatigue assessment of offshore structures. American Bureau of
Shipping, Huston
4. Eisazadeh H, Aidun DK (2017) Investigation of transient/residual strain and stress in
dissimilar weld. J Manuf Process 26:372–381
5. Krektuleva RA, Cherepanov OI, Cherepanov RO (2017) Numerical investigation of residual
thermal stresses in welded joints of heterogeneous steels with account of technological
features of multi-pass welding. Appl Math Model 42:244–256
6. Kowalski M (2017) Identification of fatigue and mechanical characteristics of explosively
welded steel - titanium composite 1(11):85–92
7. Altenpohl D (1965) Aluminium und Aluminiumlegierungen. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg
8. KumarSingh S, Mohan TR, Kumar A et al (2018) Mechanical properties and micrstructure
of Al-5083 by TIG. Mater Today Proc 5:819–822
9. Purdue University, Thermophysical Properties Research Center, Touloukian YS, Ho CY
(1973) Properties of aluminum and aluminum alloys. Thermophysical Properties Research
Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind
10. Schoer H (2003) Schweißen und Hartlöten von Aluminiumwerkstoffen, 2nd edn. DVS
Media GmbH, Düsseldorf
11. Seyffarth P, Scharff A, Meyer B (1992) Grosser atlas schweiss-ZTU-schaubilder. DVS
Media GmbH, Düsseldorf
12. Goldak J, Chakravarti A, Bibby M (1984) A new finite element model for welding heat
sources. MTB 15:299–305
Designing of the Structure Elements Being
Bent from the Fatigue Life Point of View
Justyna Koziarska, Andrzej Kurek, and Tadeusz Łagoda(&)
Opole University of Technology, ul. Mikołajczyka 5, 45-234 Opole, Poland

justyna.koziarska@wp.pl,
{a.kurek,t.lagoda}@po.opole.pl
Abstract. The study is about the determination of the fatigue life for the shaft
being bent made of the materials of two types. These are 10HNAP steel and
6082-T6 aluminium. The lives have been determined using the stress amplitude
and the nominal strain as well as according to a elasto-plastic model. To find out
the fatigue life both the stress and deformation fatigue characteristics determined
in the tests carried out in tension-compression conditions and cyclic bending
have been used. It has been shown that for the loading of an element with a
bending moment and with the use the tension-compression characteristic in the
calculations the computational fatigue life is definitely underestimated. Partic-
ularly, this can be noticed when the stress characteristics and the minimum stress
are used in calculations. A lower error is obtained when deformation charac-
teristics are used, Besides, higher differences occur in the calculations for steel
elements rather than aluminium ones.
Keywords: Fatigue characteristics Stress model Strain model

Elasto-plastic
1 Introduction
The basic fatigue characteristics are generally determined for simple load states, for the
elements without notches and with zero average value. Those tests are most often carried
out so that no stress and deformation gradients occur, i.e. for the tension-compression of
solid samples, or the both-side torsion of thin-wall samples. The characteristics obtained
through such tests do not take into account gradients. Whereas, in real structures such
deformation and stress distribution occur relatively seldom. Most often we deal with the
elements being bent or the solid elements being torqued where despite the lack of even
geometric notch a stress and deformation gradient comes into being. This problem was
undertaken so far only in few publications. Sometimes that issue is only mentioned,
another time a comparison of the results of the fatigue tests for a concrete material
obtained for the tests in cycling bending and tension-compression conditions, are pre-
sented [1–8]. The analysis of the stress gradient is not used very often and in principle it
concerns the stress gradients in elements with notches only [9–14]. This study is aimed
at the analysis of the fatigue life of a selected structure element subjected to a variable
bending load. The calculation of its fatigue life takes place based on the characteristic
obtained in bending and tension-compression conditions. So obtained fatigue lives will

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_41
354 J. Koziarska et al.
be subject to comparison. That analysis will be carried out based on the example of the
use of two different materials: 10HNAP steel and 6082-T6 aluminium alloy. The fatigue
characteristics for two stress states and two different materials are presented in the study.
Those will be both stress characteristics as well as more seldom used deformation ones.
Then, the fatigue lives based on so determined characteristics will be determined, and
finally the obtained computational lives will be compared.
2 The Fatigue Characteristics at Oscillatory Bending

and Tension-Compression
Analysed has been a shaft made of two completely different materials: 10HNAP steel
and 6082-T6 aluminium alloy. The fatigue characteristics have worked out based on
our own fatigue tests in the cyclical tension-compression conditions [15, 16] and
oscillatory bending [17, 18]. The results of the tests based on:
– tension-compression tests: the Ramberg-Osgood characteristic has been determined
[19]
ra ra n10
ea;t ¼ ea;e þ ea;p ¼ þ 0 ð1Þ
E K
where: ea – stress amplitude, K’ – cyclical life coefficient, n’ – cyclical reinforcement
exponent,
– the Manson-Coffin-Basquin deformation characteristics for tension-compression
and bending with the use of the elasto-plastic body model described, among other
things, in [20–22]
r0f b c
ea;t ¼ ea;e þ ea;p ¼ 2Nf þ e0f 2Nf ð2Þ
E
where: ea,t – the total deformation amplitude as the sum of the ea,e elastic strain and ea,p
plastic one, 2Nf - load return number (half-cycles), E – Young module, r’f, b – the
coefficient and exponent of the fatigue life, c – the coefficient and exponent of the
plastic strain.
– The Basquin stress characteristics for tension-compression and oscillatory bending
according to the nominal stress and the elasto-plastic model
b
ra ¼ r0f 2Nf ð3Þ
i.e.
log Nf ¼ A þ m log ra ð4Þ

Designing of the Structure Elements Being Bent 355
where: ra – the stress amplitude tension-compression or bending. A, m – material

constants.
All the determined constants characterising cycling properties are presented in
Table 1.
Table 1. The cycling properties of the tested materials

10HNAP 6082-T6
Tens.- Nominal Elas.-plas. Tens.- Nominal Elas.-plas.
comp. bending bending comp. bending bending
K’, MPa 853 – – 616 – –
n’ 0.156 – – 0.099 – –
E, GPa 205 – – 77 – –
r’f, 685 – 768 533 – 733
MPa
e’f 0.245 – 0.554 0.185 – 0.188
b −0.063 – −0.062 −0.066 – −0.101
c −0.399 – −0.401 −0.634 – −0.657
A 29.07 35.96 46.64 37.59 23.71 25.17
m 9.57 11.39 16.24 13 7.99 8.70
3 Determination of the Fatigue Life of the Element Being

Bent
The shaft with the diameter of 10 mm loaded with the bending moment with the Ma
amplitude of 39 N*m was analysed. As an effect the ran = 397,45 MPa nominal stress
amplitude has been obtained. Then, that stress has been converted into the stress
amplitude according to the elastic-plastic body model. The model is based on the
fulfilment of three conditions at the same time [23]. The first condition assumes a linear
distribution of strains in the cross-section of the element being bent. This assumption is
appropriate for the occurrence of small strains. The second condition is linking stresses
with the present moment, i.e. the stresses balance the present moment. The last con-
dition to be fulfilled is the Ramberg-Osgood one (1) that links the strain and stress
amplitudes in every point of the cross-section. As an effect the stress amplitude
according the elastic-plastic body model has been obtained for 10HNAP steel
rae-p = 337,35 MPa and for for6082-T6 aluminium alloy rae-p = 300,33 MPa. Based
on the determined both stress and strain amplitudes and both the stress and strain
fatigue characteristics the fatigue lives have been determined. For the stress model, in
the first step the fatigue life has been determined based on the nominal stress amplitude
according to the characteristics determined for oscillatory bending acc. to the N1
nominal stress and then from the tension-compression characteristics after the con-
version of the general formula (4)
m
A2 þ m2 ðlogN1 A1 Þ
N2 ¼ 10 1 ; ð5Þ
where: A1, m1, A2, m2 are the constants in the (4) formula for the oscillatory bending
according to the nominal stress and tension-compression respectively.
A1 A2 m1 logra1
ra2 ¼ 10 m2
ð6Þ
Also in this case the fatigue lives have been determined based on the characteristics
for oscillatory bending according to the elastic-plastic body model for bending and
tension-compression analogically to the (5) formula.
m
A3 þ m3 ðlogN2 A2 Þ
N3 ¼ 10 2 ð7Þ
where: A3, m3, A2, m2 are the constants in the (4) formula for the oscillatory bending
according to the oscillatory bending according to the elastic-plastic body model and
tension-compression respectively.
The diagram of the calculations for the stress model and analysed materials is
presented in Fig. 1. For the strain model, while calculating the stress amplitude the
amplitude of elastic – plastic strain amplitude has also been determined according to
the (1) formula and ea = 4.262‰ and ea = 4.606‰ has been obtained respectively.
Then, based on this amplitude the fatigue lives from the Manson-Coffin-Basquin (2)
strain characteristic have been determined using the model describing both tension-
compression and oscillatory bending. The diagram for this procedure is presented in
Fig. 2.
The fatigue lives determined according to various models for the analysed materials
are presented in Table 2. The analysis shows that definitely higher differences of
fatigue lives have been obtained for the tested 10HNAP steel. If the stress model was
used the use of the nominal stress amplitude and comparing it with the characteristic
obtained for tension-compression is absolutely unacceptable. In this case as high as 144
times underestimation of the life for steel and 16 times for aluminium is obtained. Even
assuming the stress amplitude computed according to the elasto-plastic model for
bending and placing it in the tension-compression characteristics gives an underesti-
mated fatigue life by 17 and 3.8 times respectively. Decidedly, it is better when using
the strain characteristics. In this case the underestimation for steel is by 7.3 times only,
and only 1.3 times for aluminium alloy, i.e. within the error limit. The above analysis
shows that for the analysis of the fatigue life of the element subjected to bending the
fatigue stress characteristics obtained in the tension-compression tests cannot be used.
This applies to both nominal stress amplitudes as well as those obtained according to
the elastic-plastic model. In this case underestimated fatigue lives are obtained.
a)
b)
Fig. 1. The diagram of the determination of the fatigue life according to various models in
accordance with the stress characteristic for a) 6082-T6 b) 10HNAP
Only for the strain characteristics the characteristics obtained in the standard tension-
compression test can be used, but for the tested and analysed 6082-T6 aluminium alloy
only. To better illustrate the differences of the determined fatigue lives the ratio of the
fatigue lives obtained on the histograms according to the stress characteristics and the
strain ones shown in Fig. 3 have been compared. From these figures can be seen even
better how high can be the differences in the obtained lives depending on which
characteristics are taken for the calculation of the fatigue life.
a)
b)
Fig. 2. The diagram of the determination of the fatigue life according to various models in
accordance with the strain characteristic for a) 6082-T6 b) 10HNAP
4 Conclusions
The calculations and analyses carried out have shown that:

1. If both stress fatigue characteristics and those of strain determined based on the
tension-compression tests are used underestimated fatigue lives are obtained when a
structural element is subjected to oscillatory bending.
2. For oscillatory bending the fatigue stress characteristics obtained at the tensile-
compression test cannot be used. This applies to the both nominal stress amplitudes
as well as those obtained according to the elastic-plastic model.
3. Only in the case of a strain characteristic for the aluminium alloy being analysed
(i.e. 6082-T6) the characteristic obtained at the standard tension-compression test
for the determination of the fatigue life of the element being bent can be used.
Table 2. Comparison of the fatigue life according to various models

10HNAP 6082-T6
Model ra N1, cycle 2260332 874
N2, cycle 15,663 56
rae-p, MPa 302.4 358.9
N3, cycle 213 864 227
N1/N2 144 16
N1/N3 17 3.8
Model ea N4, cycle 310000 4100
N5, cycle 42600 3200
N4/N5 7.3 1.3
Fig. 3. The underestimations of fatigue life according to the stress and strain model for the
materials being analysed
Acknowledgements. This work has been carried out under the grant of National Science Centre
(Poland) no. 2015/19/B/ST8/01115.
References
1. Kurek A, Koziarska J, Kluger K, Łagoda T (2017) Fatigue life of 2017-T4 aluminium alloy
under different types of stress. J Mach Constr Maint 107:52–61
2. Troshchenko V (1996) High-cycle fatigue and inelasticity of metals, multiaxial and fatigue
design, ESIS 21, Mechanical Engineering Publications, London, pp 335–358
3. Manson SS, Muralidharan U (1987) Fatigue life prediction in bending from axial fatigue
information. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 9:357–372
4. Hassan T, Liu Z (2001) On the difference of fatigue strengths from rotating bending, four-
point bending, and cantilever bending tests. Int J Press Pip 78:19–30
5. Megahed MM (1990) Prediction of bending fatigue behaviour by the reference stress

approach. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 13:361–374
6. Manson SS (1965) Fatigue: a complex subject – some simple approximations. Exp Mech
193–226
7. Krzyżak D, Kurek M, Łagoda T, Sówka D (2014) Influence of changes of the bending plane
position on the fatigue life. Mat –wiss U Werkstofftech 45:1018–1029
8. Wagner L, Influence of stress gradient on fatigue behavior of shot pending timetal 1100. In:
Champaigne J (ed) Conference proceedings: the sixth international conference on shot
peening: ICSP6: San Francisco, California), pp 223–232
9. Schijve J (1980) Stress gradients around notches. Fatigue Eng Mater Struct 3:325–338
10. Kadi N, Pluvinage G (1999) Effective stress range in fatigue initiation emanating from notch,
Fatigue ’99, Beijing, vol. 2, Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials, 1175–1179
11. Adib R, Schmitt C, Pluvinage G (2006) Application of volumetric method to the assessment
of damage inducted by action of foreign object on gas pipes. Strength Mater 38:409–416
12. Norberg S, Olsson M (2007) The effect of loaded volume and stress gradient on the fatigue
limit. Int J Fatigue 29:2259–2272
13. Gates N, Fatemi A (2016) Notch deformation and stress gradient effects in multiaxial fatigue.
Theor Appl Fract Mech 84:3–25
14. Milosevic I, Gerhard W, Grun F, Kober M (2016) Influence of size effect and stress gradient
on the high-cycle fatigue strength of a 1.4542 steel. Procedia Eng 160:61–68
15. Lachowicz C, Łagoda T, Macha E, Dragon A, Petit J (1996) Selections of algorithms for
fatigue life calculation of elements made of 10HNAP steel under uniaxial random loadings,
Studia Geotechnika et Mechanica, vol. XVIII, No 1-2, 19-43
16. Kulesa A, Kurek A, Łagoda T, Achtelik H, Kluger K (2016) Low cycle fatigue of steel in
strain controlled cyclic bending. Acta Mech Autom 10:62–65
17. Łagoda T, Macha E (1998) Energy approach to fatigue under combined cyclic bending with
torsion of smooth and notched specimens. Mater Sci 34:630–639
18. Niesłony A, Łagoda T, Walat K, Kurek M (2016) Multiaxial fatigue behaviour of AA6068
and AA2017A aluminium alloys under in-phase bending with torsion loading condition.
Mat-wiss U Werkstofftech 45:947–952
19. Ramberg W, Osgood WR (1943) Description of stress-strain curves by three parameters,
Technical Note No. 902, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington DC
20. Basquin OH (1910) The exponential law of endurance tests. Am Soc Test Mater Proc
10:625–630
21. Coffin LF (1954) A study of the effect of cyclic thermal stresses on a ductile metal.
Trans ASME 76:931–950
22. Manson SS (1965) Fatigue: a complex subject - some simple approximation. Exp Mech
5:193–226
23. St Mroziński (2012) Wyznaczanie własności niskocyklowych stopu aluminium PA4 w
temperaturze otoczenia. Raport z badań, UTP w Bydgoszczy
Selection of Geometric Features of V-Belt
Transmission Through Multi-criteria Analysis
Michał Krawiec(&)

Michal.Krawiec@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. A method of selecting geometric features for a V-belt transmission

through a multi-criteria analysis is presented. The application of the method to
the design process is illustrated with a design problem including the selection of
geometric features for a V-belt transmission driving a chain conveyor. The
decision variables, i.e. the quantities sought in the design process, were the
(standard) diameter of the pulleys, the cross section of the belt and the values of
four indices: the cost of the belts, the cost of the pulleys, the belt transmission
volume and the belt cross section load capacity.
The evaluation criteria were: the (minimum) volume and manufacturing cost
of the belt transmission and the (maximum) belt cross section load capacity
index. Three belt cross sections, i.e. A, B and C, and seven standard driving
pulley diameters in the range of 112–224 mm were analysed. The design
computations were performed using the computer program described in [12].
The results of the analysis are presented graphically and conclusions are drawn.
Keywords: V-belt transmission Selection of geometric features
1 Introduction
In belt transmissions torque and motion are transmitted through the frictional contact
between the belt and the pulley. Belt transmissions are the second (after toothed gears)
mechanisms most commonly used to transmit power in both the main drives and the
auxiliary unit drives of machines [1]. They occupy this high position owing to their
merits, such as: motion fluidity, vibration damping, protection of the power trans-
mission unit and the execution unit against overload and damage, and attenuation of
abrupt changes in load. Additional merits include: simple design, easy operation and
freely adjustable axial spacing. The drawbacks are: gear ratio instability, belt stretching
over service time (tightening necessary), heavy loading of the shaft bearings, low
structural compactness and sensitivity to environmental conditions, particularly to the
presence of oils and greases [2–6]. Depending on the belt cross section, belt trans-
missions are divided into two main groups: with a flat belt and with a V-belt. Owing to
the much better contact between the V-belt and the pulley and the resulting benefits,
such as possibility of increasing the gear ratio and reducing the axial spacing and the
pre-load, transmissions with the V-belt are more commonly used in drives [7, 8]. The
designer should select such design features for a belt transmission that the end product

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_42
362 M. Krawiec
is characterized by not only proper strength and durability, but also high reliability,
high efficiency, economicalness, servicing facility, etc. [9]. In order to achieve the
above characteristics one must select proper free parameters and design concepts. The
simplest way to obtain a solution close to the ideal design is to repeatedly calculate the
effect of changes in free parameters on the quantities which verify the given design and
choose the solution which is the best (optimal) one according to the adopted criterion(a)
[10]. As a rule, in the design of a belt transmission the free parameters are: the pulley
diameter and the belt cross section, whereas the verifying quantities are: the coefficient
of the power transmitted by the assembly of belts, the number of belts and the belt
transmission’s efficiency and indices, i.e. the cost of the belts, the cost of the pulleys,
the belt cross section load capacity and the belt transmission volume. Because of the
lower expenditure of work, in engineering practice the selection of design features for
belt transmissions is usually made using a single criterion – most often the coefficient
of the transmitted power. This paper presents a solution of a design problem com-
prising the selection of geometric features for a V-belt transmission, made according to
several criteria.
2 Solution Algorithm
The algorithm presented below was developed on the basis of [11, 13–16].
The effective diameter of the smaller pulley is:
pffiffiffiffiffi
D1 ¼ 30:3 3 M for M 245 Nm ½mm; ð1Þ
pffiffiffiffiffi
D1 ¼ 12:1 M for M 245 Nm ½mm:
where:
M – the driving pulley torque.
The equivalent diameter of the belt transmission is:
D e ¼ k1 D 1 ; ð2Þ
where:
k1 – a coefficient dependent on the gear ratio.
The power transmitted by the assembly of belts (Pz) is:
kL ku
Pz ¼ zPi ½kW; ð3Þ
kT
where:
z – the number of V-belts concurrently working in the belt transmission,
Pi – the power transmitted by a single V-belt in kW,
kL – the belt length coefficient,
Selection of Geometric Features of V-Belt Transmission 363
k/ – the wrapping angle coefficient,

kT – the coefficient of the belt transmission operating conditions.
The coefficient of the power transmitted by the belt transmission (U) is:
Pz
U¼ ð4Þ
P
where:
P – the set power in kW.
The operational belt cross section unit load in the given operating conditions is
defined by a belt cross section load capacity index, which is calculated from the
relation:
F
Wob ¼ ¼ k0 Ck C0 ½MPa; ð5Þ
Ap
where:
F – the circumferential force,
Ap – the belt’s cross section,
k0 – the allowable operational belt cross section unit load in standard conditions,
Ck = Ca Cv/L – the structural factor,
Ca – the wrapping angle coefficient,
Cv/L – the belt utilization coefficient,
C0 = C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 – the coefficient of the external belt transmission operating
conditions,
C1 – the load stability coefficient,
C2 – the operating environment coefficient,
C3 – the belt tension adjustment coefficient,
C4 – the smaller pulley diameter coefficient,
C5 – the coefficient of the number of V-belts.
Belts cost index Wkp is expressed by the formula:
Mb 1 k0 Dmin
Wkp ¼ ¼ CLp C0 10 ½ Nm=PLN ; ð6Þ
Kp 2P c D1
where:
Mb – the driven pulley torque;
Kp = Vp c – the cost of the belts, in PLN;
Vp – the belt volume in dm3;
c – the price of 1 dm3 of belt in PLN/dm3;
k0/c – the belt cross section coefficient in the belts cost index;
Dmin – the smallest pulley diameter recommended for the given belt cross section;
D1 – the diameter of the smaller pulley,
364 M. Krawiec
CLp – the coefficient of belts’ length in their cost index.

Pulleys cost index Wkk is expressed by the formula:
Mb Ap
Wkk ¼ ¼ ðk0 ÞCk C0 10 ½ Nm=PLN ; ð7Þ
Kk t
When deriving the above relation for Wkk it was assumed that the pulleys cost was
proportional to the product j·t·D1, i.e. the number of belts in the belt transmission (j),
the belt axial spacing (t) and the diameter of the driving pulley (D).
The belt transmission volume index Wv can be calculated from the relation:
Mb 2 Dmin 1
Wv ¼ ¼ CAV ð Þ CLV C0 101 Nmm=mm3 ; ð8Þ
V P D1 i
where:
V – the belt transmission outline volume in mm3,
CAV – the V-belts cross section coefficient in the volume index,
CLV – the V-belts length coefficient in the volume index.
The power transmitted by one V-belt of average length at pulley wrapping angle
a = 180° during belt transmission overload-free operation for standard belt cross
sections amounts to:
• Z; P1 = (0.36 v−0,09 – 15.93 / De - 0.62· 10−4 v2) v,
• A; P1 = (0.61 v−0,09 –215.68 / De – 1.04· 10−4 v2) v,
• B; P1 = (1.08 v−0,09 – 69.8 / De – 1.78· 10−4 v2) v,
• C; P1 = (2.01 v−0,09 – 194.8 / De – 3.18· 10−4 v2) v,
• D; P1 = (4.29 v−0,09 – 690 / De - 6.48· 10−4 v2) v,
• E; P1 = (6.22 v−0,09 – 1294 / De – 9.59· 10−4 v2) v.
3 Research Method
The method of applying multi-criteria analysis in the design process is demonstrated

using a design problem which includes the selection of geometric features for a V-belt
transmission driving a chain conveyor. The design sketch of this drive is presented in
Fig. 1.
The belt transmission was assumed to be driven by an electric motor with power
P = 10 kW and rotational speed n = 1410 rpm and its gear ratio amounted to 2.0.
Those were the parameters of the problem to be solved. Moreover, the belt transmission
was required to transmit the nominal power with an excess of less than 15%, i.e. the
ratio of the power transmitted by the assembly of belts (Pz – the design power) to the
set power (P) should be in an interval of 1–1.15. The decision variables, i.e. the
quantities sought in the design process, were: the diameters of the pulleys (standard
values), the cross section of the belt and the values of the four indices – the cost of the
Fig. 1. Design sketch of V-belt transmission
belts, the cost of the pulleys, the belt transmission volume and the belt cross section
load capacity.
The evaluation criteria were:
• the belt transmission volume, manufacture cost and the belt cross section load
capacity index – the minimum values,
The other constant quantities were as follows:
• the axial spacing of the pulleys – aw = 800 mm,
• the load stability coefficient – C1 = 0.7 (the starting load up to 150%, the working
load with a slight overload),
• the operating environment coefficient – C2 = 0.9 (polluted humid air, elevated
temperature),
• the belt tension adjustment coefficient – C3 = 1.0 (periodic adjustment of the belt by
means of a roll),
• work hours per day – 16 h.
The belt was to be tensioned by means of a tension roll.
The values of the other coefficients needed to calculate the indices were determined
from the diagrams presented in [11, 16].
The optimal solution was sought within the range of driving pulley diameter D1 of
112–224 mm for three belt cross sections denoted A, B and C. Other cross sections
could not be included in the analysis because the PN/M- 85203 [16] standard does not
specify the value of coefficient kL representing the number of periods of belt load
changes per unit time. The results of the analysis are presented in Table 1 and in
Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5.
4 Results
Table 1 shows the number of belts of type A, B and C needed to transmit the required
power depending on the driving pulley diameter. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.The digits
above the posts are the required number of belts of a given type. The next Figs. 3, 4
and 5 show graphically the effect of the smaller pulley diameter on the calculated
366 M. Krawiec
indices, i.e. the cost of the belts, the cost of the pulleys, the belt cross section load and
the belt transmission volume, for the considered belt types. As regards the number of
belts satisfying the requirement of rated power transmission with an excess below 15%
(Pz/P = 1–1.15), it should be explained that in five cases the threshold of 15% was
exceeded since when the number of belts was reduced by one unit this resulted in a
considerable transmitted power shortage. The obtained numbers of belts show that
within the range of the considered pulley diameters the minimum number of belts is 2
and the maximum – 19. This indicates that the type of belt (A, B, C) and the diameter
of the driving pulley have a very strong effect on the number of the drive’s belts.
Table 1. Number of belts needed to transmit required power depending on pulley diameter D1.
D1 112 125 140 160
D2 224 250 280 315
Ap A B C A B C A B C A B C
z 8 7 19 7 5 9 6 4 5 6 4 4
Pz/P 1.02 1.15 1.06 1.1 1.04 1.15 1.02 1.02 1.04 1.13 1.24 1.25
D1 180 200 224
D2 355 400 450
Ap A B C A B C A B C
z 6 3 3 5 3 2 5 3 2
Pz/P 1.21 1.01 1.22 1.06 1.05 1.0 1.12 1.12 1.18
Fig. 2. Number of belts versus pulley diameter D1 for belts type A, B, C

20
18
index: Wkp, Wkk [Nm/PLN ] 16

Wkp - belt A
14
12 Wkp - belt B
10
Wkp - belt C
8
6
4
2
0
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
pulley diameter D1 [mm]
Fig. 3. Belts cost index Wkp and pulleys cost index Wkk versus pulley diameter D1 for belts type
A, B, C
0.5
0.4
index Wob [MPa]
0.3
Wob - belt A
0.2
Wob - belt B
0.1
0
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
Fig. 4. Belt cross section load capacity index Wob versus pulley diameter D1 for belts type A, B, C
An analysis of the diagrams shown in Figs. 3, 4 and 5 indicates that the value of the
four indices (Wkp, Wkk Wob and Wv) is a monotone function for all the three considered
types of belt (A, B, C), increasing for belts A, B and decreasing for belt C. Assuming
the values of the indices at D1 = 112 mm as the reference, i.e. 100%, the values
368 M. Krawiec
0.7
0.6
0.5
indeks Wv [Nmm/mm3]
0.4
Wv - belt A
0.3
Wv - belt B
0.2
0.1
0
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
Fig. 5. Belt transmission volume index Wv versus pulley diameter D1 for belts type A, B, C
calculated at maximum pulley diameter D1 = 224 mm show the percentage increase

(belts A, B) or decrease (belt C). As regards belts cost index Wkp, its increase for belts
A and B is very similar, amounting to 32%. Pulleys cost index Wkk for belt A increases
by 26%, whereas for belt B only by 15%. In the case of belt C, index Wkp decreases by
36% and index Wkk by 31%. Figure 4 shows that the increase in belt cross section load
capacity index Wob is similar for belts A and B, amounting to about 25%, whereas in
the case of belt C, it decreases by 31%. When one compares the values of volume index
Wv shown in Fig. 5, it becomes apparent that its increase for belts A and B relative to
the other three indices is the smallest, amounting to about 10%, whereas its decrease is
the largest for belt C, amounting to 41%.
5 Conclusion
1. A change in smaller pulley diameter D1 has a significant effect on the values of the
considered indices, i.e. the cost of the belts, the cost of the pulleys, the belt cross
section load capacity and the belt transmission volume. As a result of a change in
diameters D1 in the interval of 112–224 mm the values of the indices changed from
10 to 41%. The dependences illustrating the effect of this diameter on the indices are
monotone functions, increasing for belts of type A and B and decreasing for belt
type C.
2. The choice of a belt cross section type greatly affects the number of belts ensuring
the transmission of 100% of the rated power through frictional contact. In the
analysed design problem the minimum number of two belts and the maximum
number of as many as 19 belts were considered.
3. In comparison with the single-criterion method, the advantage of the use of the
multi-criteria method in the design of a V-belt transmission is that it enables the
designer to select more optimal (according to the adopted criteria) geometric fea-
tures for the belt transmission. In the considered case, the most optimal solution is a
belt transmission with pulley diameter D1 = 180 mm and three V-belts of type C.
References
1. Almeida A, Greenberg S (1995) Technology assessment: energy-efficient belt transmissions.
Energy Build 22(3):245–253
2. Balta B, Sonmez FO, Cengiz A (2015) Speed losses in V-ribbed belt drives. Mech Mach
Theor V 86:1–14
3. Kong L, Parker RG (2005) Mechanics and sliding friction in belt drives with pulley grooves.
J Mech Design 128(2):494–502
4. Čepon G, Boltezar M (2009) Dynamics of a belt-drive system using a linear complemen-
tarily problem for the belt-pulley contact description. J Sound Vib 319:1019–1035
5. Čepon G, Manin L, Boltežar M (2011) Validation of a flexible multibody belt-drive model.
J Mech Eng 57:539–546
6. Matek R (1995) Maschinenelemente Normung Berechnung Gestaltung. Vieweg,
Braunschweig
7. Dietrich M, Kacperski T, Krukowski A, Ozimowski W (1991) Foundations of machines
design, part IV (in Polish) PWN, Warszawa
8. Osiński Z (2010) Foundations of machines design. PWN, Warszawa
9. Pronin BA, Shmelov AN (2007) Losses in a wide belt variable speed drive Russian. Eng J L
(9)
10. Raji NA, Erameh AA, Yussouff AA, Durojaye RO (2016) Response surface methodology
approach for transmission optimization of V-Belt drive. Modern Mech Eng 6:32–43
11. Dietrych J, Korewa W, Zygmunt K (1971) Foundations of machines design, part III (in
Polish). WNT, Warsaw
12. Krawiec S (1991) Microcomputer-aided design computations of belt transmissions and
toothed gears (in Polish). Wrocław University of Science and Technology course book,
Wrocław
13. Krzyształowicz W, Zintel Z (1978) V-belt drive. Comput Design Appl (in Polish). PWT,
Warsaw
14. Niemann G, Winter H (1983) Maschinenelemente. B. III. Springer-Verlag, Berlin
15. Pronin BA (1980) Klinoremennye frikcionnye peredači i variatory. Mašgiz, Moscow
16. Polish Standard PN/M-M-85203 Belt transmission with V-belts. Principles of computing. (in
Polish)
Design, Strength Analysis and Destructive
Testing Rotating Discs
Kamil Krot and Piotr Górski(&)

{kamil.krot,piotr.gorski}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The article presents design and construction process of rotating

discs. For the analysis, models of a disc of uniform strength and a disc of
constant thickness with a center hole were used. The next stage consisted in
creating geometric disc models. Based on the analyzes made, a decision was
made to build two discs: with straight and curved radial channels. The aim of the
analysis was to learn the mechanism of disc destruction and to determine the
speed at which the discs will be destroyed. It was particularly important from the
research point of view to compare the results obtained for discs with straight and
curved channels. After the numerical analyzes, disc-destroying tests were carried
out on a special strength test machine that would enable destruction of the tested
parts by rotating them at high speeds.
Keywords: Design Rotating disc Uniform strength
1 Introduction
The crushing of mineral and metallic materials to sub-micron and nanometer sizes is an
important issue in various kind of industry. These processes carried out by traditional
methods in ball mills are time-consuming and expensive due to the wear of grinding
devices and high energy consumption of the process. Having regard to the above
issues, work was undertaken to design, calculations and design studies crushing device
operating on the principle of rotating disc for crushing. The most important element
next to the drive system of the device is the working part - a disc with radially hollow
channels, Fig. 1.
Due to the rotational movement of the disc at high speeds, approximately
40,000 rpm., the disintegrated medium will be delivered to the center of the disc, and
then by centrifugal force ejected through radial internal channels.
Consequently, the particles which flow through the channels will be crushed by the
action of shear forces at the edges of the holes as well as by the mutual collision of the
particles. The strength tests of discs on a special strength test machine, allowing for the
destruction of the tested parts by rotating them at high speeds was carried out.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_43
Design, Strength Analysis and Destructive Testing 371
Fig. 1. The main parts of the material crushing machine
2 Variants of Disc Design
A key element in the development of geometric disc models was the choice of the
design variant, which would then be checked in terms of ensuring strength require-
ments. Two calculation models were used to determine the shape of discs and their
dimensions [1–6]:
• rotating disc of equal strength and
• disc of constant thickness with a hole.
Fig. 2. Rotating disc of uniform strength [3]
Figure 2 shows an example of a disc of uniform strength.

In order to achieve the objective of uniform strength throughout, thickness of the
disc is varied along the radius.
372 K. Krot and P. Górski
The following formula describes the thickness “z” of a rotating disc of equal
strength [3].
cx2 r 2
z ¼ z 0 e 2r ð1Þ
z - the thickness of the disc

z0 - thickness of the disc at radius r = 0,
c - density,
x - angular velocity,
r - disc radius,
r - stresses (assumption that radial and circumferential stresses are equal)
The calculations will allow determining the shape of the disc contour, at which
radial and peripheral stresses will be equal and constant at each point of the disc.
The presented equation makes it possible to calculate the thickness of the disc at
different distances from the axis of rotation. However, this model does not include the
inside hole, which is a necessary element of the designed discs. Due to this, another
model was considered for a constant thickness disc with an inside hole.
Figure 3 shows the distribution of peripheral and tangential stresses in a disc of
equal thickness with the hole.
Fig. 3. Distribution of radial stresses rr and circumferential stresses rt in a disc of constant

thickness with a hole [3, 5]
The highest circumferential stresses rt, in the case of a disc with a constant
thickness with a hole, occur at the edge of the hole. The radial stresses rr reach the
maximum size in the middle of the distance (R1 - R0). Bearing in mind the above
issues, design and construction works related to the development of a material
shredding tool were started - a rotating disc with a central hole and four radial channels
inside.
The specificity of using the disc imposed certain limitations on the designer, which
were related to the creation of internal channels. Limitations come from the strength of
the disc, the shape of the channels and the technological machining process. Based on
theoretical analysis, several variants of disc geometry with hollow internal channels
have been proposed. Figure 4 shows selected six variants of the discs.
Variants “a” and “b” were preliminary variants which were initially rejected,
because it was necessary to design part, with which it would be possible to mount
directly on the spindle. Variants “c”, “d”, “e” and “f” have been designed with this
mount element in mind - a cylindrical threaded piece of geometry screwed into the
spindle axis.
Fig. 4. Considered variants of disc
Bearing in mind the uniform strength of the disc, the initial shape of the disc was
assumed and the way the channels inside the discs would be located. The preliminary
strength analyzes carried out for the discs “c”, “d”, “e” and “f” from Fig. 4 caused the
disc “d” to be discarded due to uneven material distribution and stress distribution far
from the uniform in the entire disc volume. Solution “e” was discarded due to too large
disc volume - large rotating mass. It was decided to carry out detailed strength analyzes
for variants “c” and “f” – Fig. 4. Due to the strength-to-density ratio and the possibility
of machining, a decision was made to manufacture discs of EN AW 7022
[AlZn5Mg3Cu] - CERTAL aluminum alloy.
3 Strength Analyzes
On the basis of previously developed discs geometry, a models for strength analyzes
was developed using the finite element method - FEM. Models for FEM analyzes were
discretized by the use of four-node spatial elements with additional nodes. Due to the
symmetry of parts, the numerical model has been simplified to one quarter of the whole
part volume. Two models were prepared for calculations: a disc with straight channels
and with curved channels. Figure 5a, b shows the finite element mesh views.
Fig. 5. Finite elements mesh: a) disc straight channels b) and curved channels
Figure 6 illustrate the views of the discrete model with the degrees of freedom
received (fixing, and received degrees of freedom resulting from the symmetry of part).
Fig. 6. Discrete model with the degrees of freedom received: a) disc straight channels b) and
curved channels
The load for simulation was rotational speed of disc. The analyzes carried out were
aimed at determining the critical value of the rotational speed at which the disc would
be destroyed. The material data of the aluminum alloy EN AW 7022 was used for the
analyzes.
Figure 7 shows the maximum radial stresses (620 MPa), which were obtained at
simulations with a speed of 60 000 rpm - for a disc with curved channels and 50
000 rpm for a disc with straight channels.
Fig. 7. Maximum radial stresses for a: a) disc straight channels, b) curved channels
Figure 8 illustrated displacements in the analyzed parts. The maximum displace-

ments occur on the perimeter of both discs. For a disc with curved channels and a
rotational speed of 60,000 rpm - 0.16 mm (Fig. 6) and for a disc with straight channels
and a rotational speed of 50,000 rpm–0.07 mm (Fig. 7).
The finite element analysis allowed to indicate important places of the analyzed
parts from the strength point of view. The results indicated the locations of maximum
stresses and displacements in the analyzed discs.
Fig. 8. Maximum displacements for a: a) disc straight channels, b) curved channels
4 Destructive Testing
The next stage of the analysis was to carry out destructive tests of the discs in order to
verify the calculations performed using the finite element method. It was decided to
build physical parts of discs in the same two variants, which were analyzed during the
simulation – Fig. 9.
Disc-destroying tests were carried out on a special strength test machine that would
enable destruction of the tested parts by rotating them at high speeds. The test machine
is coupled with a fast camera, performing up to 190 000 photos per second and
recording the moment of destruction of the tested element. Discs have been pre-
balanced, which ensured the proper conduct of strength tests, and the reduction of the
impact of vibrations on the results of the experiment.
During the tests the following results were obtained, destruction of the disc with
straight channels took place at the speed of 83 486 rpm. For the disc with curved
channels, the destruction occurred at the speed of 89 377 rpm.
Fig. 9. Discs a), c) with straight radial channels and b), d) curved channels.
Next figures show photos from a fast camera that recorded the moment of
destruction of the discs (straight channels – Fig. 10, curved channels – Fig. 11).
Fig. 10. Photos from a fast camera - the moment of disintegration a disc with straight channels
Fig. 11. Photos from a fast camera - the moment of disintegration a disc with curved channels
Figure 12 contains fragments of discs after destructive tests, with straight channels
- “a” and curved channels - “b”
Fig. 12. Fragments of discs after tests: a) straight channels, b) curved channels
As a result of strength analyzes, stress concentration was obtained at the places

where the channels in the discs were made. It can be noticed that both discs were
broken down by material separation along these channels.
Strength calculations carried out using the finite element method allowed to determine
the maximum speed at which the disc can rotate. Analysis of the results allowed to
determine the places in the discs from which the destruction process begins, after
exceeding the critical speed. Discrepancies between the results obtained from the FEM
analyzes and the tests on the real objects result from the differences between the
material data that the manufacturer guaranteed with those that actually had the material.
Another reason is the imperfections of the discrete model in FEM simulations and the
anisotropy of the mechanical properties of the CERTAL aluminum alloy.
References
1. Behrooz F, Hamid J, Abdolhossein M (2004) Optimum design of inhomogeneous non-
uniform rotating discs. Comput Struct 82:773–779
2. Çallıoğlu H, Sayer M, Demir E (2015) Elastic–plastic stress analysis of rotating functionally
graded discs. Thin-Walled Struct 94:38–44
3. Vullo V, Vivio F (2013) Rotors: stress analysis and design ISBN 978-88-470-2562-2
Springer-Verlag Mailand, Mechanical Engineering Series
4. Mahdavi E, Ghasemib A, Alashtic RA (2016) Elastic–plastic analysis of functionally graded
rotating disks with variable thickness and temperature-dependent material properties under
mechanical loading and unloading. Aerosp Sci Technol 59:57–68
5. Jafari S, Hojjati MH, Fathi A (2012) Classical and modern optimization methods in minimum
weight design of elastic rotating disk with variable thickness and density. Int J Press Vessel
Pip 92:41–47
6. Belyaev VM, Zurilin AA, Cherkasov SO (2014) On the strength calculation of the rotating
parts. Procedia Chem 10:151–157
Methodology for Assessing Blast Threat
of EOD Personnel
Edyta Krzystała(&), Krzysztof Kawlewski, Sławomir Kciuk,

Grzegorz Bienioszek, and Tomasz Machoczek

Konarskiego 18A, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
Edyta.Krzystala@polsl.pl
Abstract. In the article, a methodology for assessing blast threat of Explosive

Ordnance Disposal (EOD) technicians was presented. During the research tests
of controlled explosion were performed with the dummy mounted to simulate
standing position. The response of the dummy against different improvised
explosive materials with the charge of 75 g to 1000 g was performed. During
the research an acceleration of the particular body part (head, pelvis, upper and
lower limb) as well as pressure acting on the dummy was measured. The article
deals with the protection of EOD technicians against such threats as an over-
pressure, a heat and shock wave. Results of the experimental research will be
used to design and improve better personnel blast protection suits as well as
educational materials for the future EOD technicians. Even when using a well
characterized, widely available explosive, a mine explosion still exhibits an
element of variability from one test to the next.
Keywords: Blast threat Human surrogate Bomb suit Blast protection
1 Introduction
After a decade of war in Iraq and Afghanistan, it is clear that the improvised explosive
device (IED) had produced the same level of casualties as artillery did in the previous
century. Reducing the threat of improvised explosive device attacks is one of the
priorities in the global security of citizens. Increasingly common events translate into a
greater need for explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) technicians and a greater risk
incurred by the many EOD technicians employed by the military and law enforcement
agencies. The job of the EOD technician is to assist in identifying explosive ordnance
and its destruction at the place of finding.
To reduce the risk of blast injuries the protective bomb suits are used by the
technicians. Bomb suits are designed to protect against the characteristics of an
explosive event that could result in human injury. The most commonly used are EOD
bomb suit [1–7, 13]. Bomb suits should provide protection against four main factors:
fragments, overpressure, heat as well as shock wave. In order to achieve a sufficient
level of protection, the suits produced are invariably heavy and bulky, causing
restricted body movement, fatigue, heat stress, and potentially reduced operational
performance of the user [8]. Most suits are designed without protection for the user’s

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_44
380 E. Krzystała et al.
hands because the technicians need them to have maximum dexterity and maneuver-
ability in order to defuse a bomb [12].
In publications and normative documents [8, 9, 14], information regarding pro-
tection and the degree of life threat of explosive technicians is related to TNT. In the
study, the problem of impact load from other kind of explosive materials is analysed as
well. This issue is very important due to the current global situation and improvised
explosives used by terrorists.
2 Methodology for Assessing Blast Threat
2.1 Aim of a Study

In the study an innovative method for analyzing the threat of improvised explosives
and their impact on human was presented.
The aim of a research was an identification of explosive technicians’ threat working
with explosives materials. During the research tests of controlled explosion were
performed with the dummy mounted to simulate standing position. During the research
a dummy was evaluated against 75 g, 200 g, 400 g, 1000 g and 2000 g of TNT. The
tests were conducted in open air conditions. The research involved detonation of
several different kinds of explosive materials including: TNT, pmw-8, compound of
nitromethane (20%) with saltpeter, compound of nitromethane (20%) with hardener.
During the research an acceleration of the particular body part (head, pelvis, upper and
lower limb) as well as pressure acting on the dummy was measured.
2.2 Experimental Setup

Essential elements in the development of procedure for evaluating the risk of injury are
proper dummy positioned in a realistic manner and robust instrumentation. During the
study, a dummy was mounted in a standing position with arms outstretched. The aim of
selecting such a configuration was to reflect the situation, in which an explosive
technician carries an explosive charge using a special explosive detector. Dummy with
the weight of 75 kg has been used during research. The charge was placed at a height
of approximately 1.5 m in the air at a distance of 3.5 m from the dummy (Fig. 1).
The research involved detonation of several kind of explosive charges including
1 kg of TNT, pmw-8, compound of nitromethane (20%) with saltpeter and compound
of nitromethane (20%) with hardener as well.
During tests, the prototype of autonomous measurement system was used. The
system was developed in Institute of Applied and Theoretical Mechanics [10, 11].
Thanks to this device, acceleration measurements acting on a dummy were conducted.
The measurement path consisted of 5 acceleration sensors ADXL in the measuring
range ±500 g and the maximum sampling frequency of 100 kHz (Fig. 2).
The measurement of pressure in an ear of the dummy was possible thanks to using
a Kulite HKS – 375 M sensor with 100 kHz sampling frequency.
Methodology for Assessing Blast Threat 381
Fig. 1. Scheme of experimental setup
Fig. 2. Experimental stand for acceleration and pressure measurement
3.1 Assessing Blast Threat of EOD Technicians

In this section, comparison between acceleration signals measured on the dummy head,
pelvis, lower and upper limb could be observed. The comparison of acceleration sig-
nals results for 1 kg, 400 g, 200 g and 75 g of TNT are presented in Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6.
The acceleration signals presented in Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6 were filtered with SAE
1000 Hz filter according to NATO AEP-55 Vol. 2 (2011).
It should be noted that according to the chosen methodology, the distance of 3, 5
meters between dummy and explosive charge was not considered to be a non-
destructive distance.
Fig. 3. Comparison of head acceleration signals for explosion of 1 kg, 400 g, 200 g and 75 g of
TNT
Fig. 4. Comparison of pelvis acceleration signals for explosion of 1 kg, 400 g, 200 g and 75 g
of TNT
3.2 Analysis of Acceleration Signals for 1 Kg of Improvised Explosives

In this section, an analysis of the acceleration signals measured on the dummy head,
lower and upper limb in case of explosion of different materials is shown. All mea-
surements were made for a dummy without a blast protective suit. Figure 7 shows
comparison of head acceleration for 1 kg of TNT, PMW – 8, nitromethane (20%) with
saltpeter and nitromethane (20%) with hardener. It can be observed that the highest
peak value of head acceleration was recorded for 1 kg of PMW-8. Unfortunately, not
all measurements have been registered, which is related to the nature of the conducted
research. Comparison of upper and lower limb acceleration signals for 1 kg of TNT,
PMW – 8, nitromethane (20%) with saltpeter is shown in Figs. 8 and 9. In these cases,
the highest peak value of acceleration for PMW - 8 explosive materials is observed as
Fig. 5. Comparison of upper limb acceleration signals for explosion of 1 kg, 400 g, 200 g and
75 g of TNT
Fig. 6. Comparison of lower limb acceleration signals for explosion of 1 kg, 400 g, 200 g and
75 g of TNT
well. What is more, different time for occurrence of acceleration peak value for
compound of nitromethane (20%) with saltpeter was observed as well.
3.3 Comparison of Pressure History for 1 Kg of Improvised Explosives

Figure 10 shows pressure history recorded at the pressure sensor in the ear of the
dummy. All measurements in this section were made for a dummy without a blast
protection. The overpressure for 1 kg of TNT, PMW – 8, nitromethane (20%) with
saltpeter and nitromethane (20%) with hardener is analyzed. It can be observed that the
highest value of overpressure was recorded for 1 kg of PMW-8. This is similar to what
was obtained when analyzing acceleration signals. Figure 11 compares reference value
of pressure histories for 1 and 2 kg of TNT. Figures 10 and 11 show a qualitative
Fig. 7. Comparison of head acceleration signals for 1 kg of improvised explosives
Fig. 8. Comparison of upper limb acceleration signals for 1 kg of improvised explosives
Fig. 9. Comparison of lower limb acceleration signals for 1 kg of improvised explosives

comparison. The goal was to show the difference in values between different materials
with the indication of the most dangerous without analyzing the value.
Fig. 10. Reference pressure value registered in an ear for 1 kg of different explosives
Fig. 11. Reference pressure value register in an ear for 1 kg and 2 kg of TNT
3.4 Comparison of Head Injury Criterion (HIC) Values for Different

Explosives
A commonly used quantity to indicate injuries to the head is the head injury criterion
(HIC) [15]. The head injury criterion coefficient (HIC15) was calculated for time
duration of 15 ms with the use of following equation:
8 " #2;5 9
< 1 Zt2 =
HIC15 ¼ max ðt2 t1 Þ aðtÞdt ð1Þ
: t2 t1 t1 ;
where:
t1 ; t2 – initial and final times of the interval during which HIC attains a maximum
value [s],
a – recorded acceleration signal [g],
Table 1 shows the comparison of HIC value measured for all head acceleration
signals during the research. All results presented in this section were measured for a
dummy without a blast protection.
Table 1. Comparison of HIC value

Explosive material HIC15 (Eq. 1)
0,075 kg 0,2 kg 0,4 kg 1 kg
TNT 2 5 21 50
PMW-8 – – – 122
Nitromethane (20%) with saltpeter – – – 22
Nitromethane (20%) with hardener – – – 101
The obtained values of HIC15 were at an acceptable level according to NATO AEP-
55 Vol. 2 (2011), where the values higher than 1000 are considered to be life threat-
ening. Conducted studies showed that close proximity explosions of charges smaller
than 1, 0 kg of TNT were dangerous but not lethal to human. It was noticed that even
for very high values of maximum accelerations, the HIC15 coefficient did not exceed
the allowable limit, thanks to extremely short impulse duration. The issues with rapidly
changing signal processing and interpretation were solved by providing filtered records
using SAE 1000 Hz filter
The primary role of explosive technicians is to protect life. Results of the experimental
research will be used to develop and improve educational and practical training for the
future pyrotechnics. The performed study contributed to better understanding of blast
wave impact onto human body.
This study confirms the effectiveness of protection offered to the head and thorax by
the protective equipment. There is no established standard for testing demining per-
sonal protective equipment (PPE). Without some objective procedure to evaluate the
risk of injury while wearing protective gear, the design of such demining equipment is
guesswork and may produce additional risk of unforeseen injury.
The current situation forces us to consider and analyze the threat resulting from the
use of TNT, but also other improvised explosive materials. Even when using a well
characterized, widely available explosive, a mine explosion still exhibits an element of
variability from one test to the next. There is a need to update the training program of
present about future pyrotechnics. In operation, it is important to meet the occupational
safety rules and use personal protective equipment. Thanks to this research, it is able to
look more broadly at the threat of improvised explosive with particular emphasis on
their impact on humans and the safety of explosive technician.
References
1. Bowen IG, Fletcher ER, Richmond DR (1968) Estimate of Man’s tolerance to the direct
effects of air blast, Technical Progress Report, DASA-2113, Defense Atomic Support
Agency, Department of Defense, Washington, DC, October 1968
2. Bass C, Davis M, Rafaels K, “Steve” Rountree M, Harris RM, Sanderson E, Andrefsky W,
DiMarco G, Zielinski M (2005) A methodology for assessing blast protection in explosive
ordnance disposal bomb suits, Int J Occup Saf Ergon 11:347–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10803548.2005.11076655
3. Chichester C, Bass C, Boggess B, Davis M, Sanderson E, Di Marco G (2001) A test
methodology for assessing demining personal protective equipment (PPE). Army Commun
Command Fort Belvoir Va
4. Kirkman E, Watts S, Cooper G (2011) Blast injury research models. Philos Trans R Soc
Lond B Biol Sci 366:144–159. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0240
5. Explosive Ordnance Disposal operations, Headquarters Department of the Army, December
2011, This publication is available at Army Knowledge Online (www.us.army.mil) and
General Dennis J. Reimer Training and Doctrine Digital Library at www.train.army.mil
6. Improvised Explosive Device (IED) monitor 2017. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/
files/resources/IED-Monitor-Report-for-web-final.pdf
7. Eiband M (1959) Human Tolerance to Rapidly Applied Accelerations: A Summary of the
Literature, NASA Memo. 5-19-59E, pp 1–57
8. MIL-STD-662F 18 December 1997 Superseding, Department of Defense Test Method
Standard, V50 Ballistic Test For Armor
9. NATO STANAG 2920, Edition 7, Ballistic Test Method for Personal Armour Materials and
Combat Clothing. 31 July 2003. Annex B
10. Patent PL 219525 (2015)
11. Patent PL 221705 (2016)
12. Public Safety Personal Protective Equipment for Disposal of Explosive Devices System
Assessment and Validation for Emergency Responders (SAVER) TechNote, April 2014
13. Pandelani T, Sono TJ, Reinecke JD, Nurick GN (2016) Impact loading response of the MiL-
Lx leg fitted with combat boots. Int J Impact Eng 92:26–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijimpeng.2015.03.007
14. Test Methodologies for Personal Protective Equipment Against Anti-Personnel Mine
Blast RTO TECHNICAL REPORT TR-HFM-089, Final Report of the RTO Human Factors
and Medicine Panel (HFM) Task Group TG-024, 2004
15. Yang Y, Liou WW, Sheng J, Gorsich D, Arepally S (2013) Shock wave impact simulation of
a vehicle occupant using fluid/structure/dynamics interactions. Int J Impact Eng 52:11–22.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2012.09.002
Numerical Modelling of Cylindrical Test
for Determining Jones – Wilkins - Lee
Equation Parameters
Michał Kucewicz1, Paweł Baranowski1(&), Jerzy Małachowski1,

Waldemar Trzciński2, and Leszek Szymańczyk2
1
Department of Mechanics and Applied Computer Science, Military University
of Technology, 2 Gen. W. Urbanowicza Street, 00908 Warsaw, Poland
pawel.baranowski@wat.edu.pl
2
Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of
Technology, 2 Gen. W. Urbanowicza Street, 00908 Warsaw, Poland
Abstract. This paper deals with a problem of validation of parameters of the

most popular equation of state describing the function of pressure during
explosion - JWL (Jones – Wilkins – Lee). For this purpose, the cylindrical test
was conducted experimentally and was modelled using three different methods:
arbitrary Lagrangian -Eulerian (ALE), smoothed particle hydrodynamics
(SPH) and pure Eulerian approach. The cylindrical test was simulated using
three methods mentioned above with 2D axisymmetric model and quarter of 3D
model. Finally, different types of elements for the discrete models of copper pipe
were investigated. The comparison of the outcomes from experiment and
numerical simulations showed acceptable similarity.
Keywords: JWL Blast Explosive LS-Dyna ALE SPH Cylindrical test
1 Introduction
Computational codes, which use Finite Element Method (FEM) allows the user for
simulation of different impacts on the structure, including an effect of pressure wave
loading induced by detonation of explosive materials [1–3]. The main problem, that
every user faces during modelling and simulation of such a phenomenon is determi-
nation of the parameters of the JWL equation of state (EOS) describing thermody-
namics of both detonation products (DP) and unreacted high explosives (HE) [4].
A series of constants are obtained through cylindrical test developed by Lavrence
Livemore Laboratory and characterizing adiabatic expansion of products of detonation
inside a pipe made of steel or copper with specified length and diameter [4, 5].
Cylindrical test is based on registration of acceleration of the copper shell by the
products of detonation which are sliding on its inner surface. Such tests of various
commercial HE were successfully investigated using analytical approach and numerical
simulations [6, 7].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_45
Numerical Modelling of Cylindrical Test 389
The main aim of the paper is to present different methods of modelling the
cylindrical test where the parameters of an emulsive HE used in mining industry were
determined. More details of the experimental investigations can be found in the report
[8]. Validation process was performed using numerical simulation with LS-Dyna
commercial code. The main aspect which were analyzed during finite element analyses
(FEA) were: comparison of experimental and numerical deformation of copper pipe
and the time in which a face of pressure wave reaches a sensor responsible for image
registration.
2 Cylindrical Test Description
In order to determine EOS and its explosive parameters, cylindrical test was performed.
Dimensions, sensor distribution and the way of fixing of copper pipe annealed in
temperature 500 °C are presented in Fig. 1. The pipe was entirely filled with HE, and
the expansion of the pipe was measured using impulse roentgenography with
SCANDIFLASH XR 450 device. Obtained pictures were scanned and scaled propor-
tionally to measure profile of deformation.
10 4 4 1
150
25
30
3
300
5 2
Fig. 1. Scheme of cylindrical test: 1 – copper pipe, 2 – explosive, 3 – detonator, 4 – sensor to

measurement of detonation velocity, 5 – sensor to trigger a radiation X beam [8]
JWL EOS which is the main point of interest is given as [4]:

x R1 V x xEo
p¼A 1 e þB 1 eR2 V þ ð1Þ
R1 V R2 V V
where: V ¼ q0 =q; q0 and q is initial and actual density of material, respectively;

A; B; R1 ; R2 ; x – are constants determined from experiments using Gurney energy,
detonation pressure and explosion heat [4]; E0 – specific internal energy of material.
Parameters used in numerical simulations are listed on Table 1.
390 M. Kucewicz et al.
Table 1. Constants for JWL EOS and material properties of tested emulsive HE [8]
q Da pCJ b A B R1 R2 x E0
h i m
kg [GPa] [GPa] [–] [–] [–] [–] [GPa]
s
m3
1.13 4805.00 7.40 252.2 15.57 6.08 2.05 0.25 3.7
a
Detonation velocity
b
Chapman – Jouget Pressure
3 Description of Discrete Model
The purpose of numerical simulations is to compare different methods of modelling the

interaction between HE and cylindrical pipe. Three different methods were proposed:
• Euler method – in this domain there is no physical deformation of mesh elements,
but the movement of structure is registered as a flow of medium through the
elements. This method is very sufficient for large deformation. In this case it is
necessary to model a volume representing vacuum or air around analyzed
structures.
• ALE (Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian) – this method couples Lagrange’s deformable
mesh and Euler’s medium described above. The pressure of detonation moves
through fixed mesh and interacts with the pipe resulting in its movement and
deformation. It is worth noticing that elements of each medium cannot be con-
nected. Moreover, identically as in Eulerian approach the medium around the
structure is needed.
• SPH – Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics – in this method there is no physical
representation of explosive using elements, which are replaced by a number of
particles interacting with each other using Kernel interpolation functions.
Each of mentioned methods are characterized by a different way of interaction
between copper pipe and explosive, and each of them requires separate models. In
order to find the most efficient method for modelling the cylindrical test authors per-
formed two types of numerical simulations: using axisymmetric model and using ¼
model. In each case three approaches were adopted: pure Eulerian, ALE and SPH.
Moreover, different types of elements (shell and brick) for the discrete models of
copper pipe were investigated. It is worth noticing that in the case of Eulerian approach
shell representation is inadmissible.
For the simulation of explosion, except JWL equation, a constitutive model for
blast material is required. In this case authors used MAT_HIGH_EXPLOSIVE which
contains parameters listed in Table 1. In the presented studies, the copper pipe deforms
under dynamic conditions where strain rate plays a significant role (the viscous effects
are initiated in the material). Thus, in all cases of copper pipe modelling the Johnson-
Cook constitutive material model was utilized (Table 2). It provides a prediction of
flow stress rflow for large strains and high strain rates, where its dependence on strain
rate is linear in a semi logarithmic scale [9]:

n e_ p T Troom m
rflow ¼ A þ B ep 1 þ C ln 1 ð2Þ
e_ 0 Tmelt Troom
where: rflow – yield stress, A; B; C; n; m constants determined from experiment, ep –

plastic strain, e_ p plastic strain rate, e_ 0 reference strain rate T temperature, Troom
reference temperature, Tmelt melting temperature,
Table 2. Properties of copper for the J-C constitutive material model used in analyses [10]
q [kg/m3] E [MPa] t [-] A [MPa] B [MPa] C [–] n [–] m [–]
1.09 115000.0 0.33 92.0 292.0 0.025 0.310 1.09
4 Results
From the numerical simulations deformation (radius) change of the pipe as a function
of its length (y-coordinate) was obtained, which was compared with measurements
obtained using X-ray images during actual tests.
In all cases mesh sensitivity study was performed to assess the influence of the
mesh size on the obtained results. It was found the adopted mesh size influences the
results observed for each method of modelling, however in pure Eulerian approach this
influence was negligible. The following results are presented for the meshes for which
there was no influence on the outcomes.
In the case of Euler method (Fig. 2) it can be seen that results from both models
(2D and 3D) show very good correlation with experimental outcomes. Computational
time for 2D model with the same number of elements as in 3D model was 3 x shorter
which means, that using a simplified axisymmetric method is more efficient with no
visible impact on the accuracy of the results.
For ALE method of modeling the results of copper pipe deformation are presented
in Fig. 3. The behavior of the pipe is reproduced in a satisfactory manner for 2D and
3D modelling: with a difference of 5% and 4%, respectively. The discrepancies are due
to a slight leakage between Eulerian and Lagrangian domains. It resulted in a decrease
of contact pressure acting on the faces of pipe elements resulting in a decrease of
acceleration of those elements, and finally in their deformation. Another reason of the
observed differences can be the implementation of the literature data for the copper
constitutive material. There is small difference equals to *3% between shell and solid
representation of geometry, which is related with the leaking phenomenon. The
problem can be more easily avoided or limited with the shell elements. As expected,
computational time for 2D case was 4 x smaller than in the case of 3D model.
For the last method of modelling(SPH) the copper pipe profile is shown in Fig. 4. It
can be seen that 2D axisymmetric SPH - SPH model fits ideally with experimental data.
There is some penetration of explosive particles through the wall of cylinder which
40
35
Radius [mm]
30
25
Experiment
20 EULER 2D
Euler 3D
15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
X - Coordinate [mm]
Fig. 2. Profile of deformation of copper pipe obtained from pure Eulerian approach
40
35
Radius [mm]
30
25
Experiment
ALE 2D
20
ALE 3D SOLID
ALE 3D SHELL
15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
X - Coordinate [mm]
Fig. 3. Profile of deformation of copper pipe obtained from ALE modelling
locally loses continuity as it can be also seen in X-ray photographs with bright spots
(Fig. 5). There is no visible difference between solid and shell representation of the
pipe, but both models underestimated the deformation by approximately 6%. This is
due penetration of some particles through the walls, which consequently results in a
smaller amount of blast energy (pressure) acting on the pipe structure. This type of
interaction is very sensitive for total number of particles – insufficient quantity of them
leads to unphysical deformation, caused by an early contact of some particles on the
boundary of explosive with Lagrange elements, and irregular accelerating of the
cylindrical pipe.
In Fig. 5 the deformation of cylindrical pipe compared to experimental results is
presented. Due to similar results of all numerical simulations the 2D axisymmetric
Eulerian model was selected as a representative case.
40
35
Radius [mm]
30
25 Experiment
SPH - SPH 2D
20 SPH - SOLID 3D
SPH - SHELL 3D
15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
X - Coordinate [mm]
Fig. 4. Profile of deformation of copper pipe obtained from SPH modelling
Fig. 5. Comparison of deformation from experiment and numerical simulations for ALE model
The following work covers the validation method for JWL EOS describing behavior of
pressure wave caused by detonation of explosive. Different methods of modelling were
proposed. All methods were found to be adequate for the presented cylindrical test
simulations but simultaneously they have some advantages and disadvantages. The
most popular ALE method which connects traditional representation of structure
known from FEM with Euler representation of medium have shown the best correlation
with experiment and thus it is recommended by authors.
Acknowledgement. This research was carried out with the support of the Interdisciplinary
Centre for Mathematical and Computational Modeling (ICM) University of Warsaw under grant
no GB65-19. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
References
1. Baranowski P, Małachowski J, Janiszewski J, Wekezer J (2016) Detailed tyre FE modelling
with multistage validation for dynamic analysis. Mater Design, 68–79
2. Baranowski P, Małachowski J, Mazurkiewicz Ł (2016) Numerical and experimental testing
of vehicle tire under impulse loading conditions. Int J Mech Sci 346–356, January 2016
3. Sławiński G, Świerczewski M, Tadeusz N, Piotr M (2017) Explosive charge impact on dual-
layer aluminium-steel shield. In: Proceedings of the 13th international scientific conference,
pp 537–541
4. Lee EL, Horing HC, Kury JW (1968) Adiabatic expansion of high explosive detonation
products. Livermore Lawrence Laboratory, Livermore
5. Souers PC, Wu B, Haselman LC Jr (1996) Detonation equation of state at LLNL. Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore
6. Sanchidrian JA, Castedo R, Lopez LM, Segarra P, Santos A (2015) Determination of the
JWL Constants for ANFO and emulsion explosives from cylinder test data. Central Eur J
Energ Mater 12(2):177–194
7. Elek PM, Dzingalasevic VV, Jaramaz SS, Micković DM (2013) Determination of detonation
products equation of state from cylinder test: analytical model and numerical analysis.
Thermal Sci, 1–17
8. Trzciński W, Szymańczyk L, Paszula J, Marchwicki D, Granecki J (2016) Wyznaczenie
równania stanu produktów detonacji dla trzech materiałów wybuchowych do użytku
cywilnego. Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna, Warszawa
9. Holmquist JO (2007) LS - Dyna, Theory Manual. Livemore Publishing House, California
10. Johnson GR, Cook WH (1983) A constitutive model and data for metals subjected to large
strains, high strain rated and high temperatures. In: Proceedings in 7th international
symposium on Ballistics
Strain-Life Fatigue Curves on the Basis
of Shear Strains from Torsion
Andrzej Kurek, Marta Kurek, and Tadeusz Łagoda(&)

{a.kurek,ma.kurek,t.lagoda}@po.opole.pl
Abstract. The study is about the determination of the fatigue life curves for
strain-controlled torsional loads on the basis of 6082-T6 aluminium alloy
experimental data. ‘Diabolo’ type full specimens have been tested on newly
designed test stand. Tree models and two fitting methods were used to determine
strain-life curve constraints. The models used in this paper were: Kandil, Langer
and recently proposed Kurek-Łagoda. And the methods were standard least
squares approach and bisquare waged approach. MATLAB software was used
for curve fitting for this article.
Keywords: Fatigue characteristics Strain-life curve Torsion Shear strain
1 Introduction
The subject of material fatigue is an important issue in our economy every day. The
effects of torsion, tension and bending are known virtually in each branch of industry
[5], therefore it is not a surprise that these three loading states are also considered with
reference to material fatigue [3, 6, 12]. This paper will cover experimental data from
torsional fatigue tests on 6082-T6 aluminium alloy and three strain-life fatigue curves
that don’t need the Ramberg-Osgood equation constants to properly describe experi-
mental data for full specimens. These models are Langer, Kandil and Kurek-Łagoda.
Regardless of whether the strain comes from tension-compression or torsional loads
when analysing the issue of strain-controlled fatigue we can’t forget to mention the
Manson-Coffin-Basquin model (MCB) [1, 2, 7]:
0
sf b 0 c
ca;t ¼ ca;e þ ca;p ¼ 2Nf 0 þ cf 2Nf 0 ; ð1Þ
G
where:
ca,t – total shear strain amplitude expressed as the sum of the amplitudes of elastic
shear strain ca,e and plastic shear strain ca,p,
2Nf – the number of loading recurrences (reversals),
This work has been carried out under the grant of National Science Centre (Poland) no.
2015/19/B/ST8/01115.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_46
396 A. Kurek et al.
G – the Shear modulus,

s’f, b0 – fatigue life coefficient and exponent for shear strain,
c’f, c0 – coefficient and exponent of fatigue plastic shear strain.
The original MCB characteristic has been developed for tension-compression while
analysing the strain, stress and the number of cycles until destruction.
Model (1) is used only in the case, when it is possible to determine separately both
elastic ca,e and plastic ca,p component of total strain ca,t [8, 9]. Due to the character of
the test carried on the newly designed strain-controlled machine and the lack of
Ramberg-Osgood stress-strain curve (2) for shear loading, it was impossible to use the
most commonly used MCB model.
This relation is defined by the Ramberg-Osgood equation [13]:
sa sa n10
ca;t ¼ ca;e þ ca;p ¼ þ 0 ð2Þ
G H0
where:
0
sa – shear stress amplitude, H’ – cyclic strength coefficient, n0 – cyclic strength-
ening exponent for shear strain.
Another issue has been shown in the study [11], where it is pointed out that the
sense of plastic strain amplitude in the expression (1) depends on fatigue life, and thus
c is not a constant value.
Moreover, various authors proposed other empirical model making total strain
amplitude dependent on the number of cycles. Among these models there is the Langer
[14] proposal, which is used in numerous studies and promoted e.g. by Manson [7, 15]
and Chrop [16].

logNf ¼ A B log ca;t C ; ð3Þ
where: A, B, C – constants to select special form of the characteristic for a given

material.
Another characteristic is proposed by Kandil [17] and Gorash [18], in the following
form:

logca;t ¼ A B log Nf þ Clog2 ðNf Þ; ð4Þ
where: A, B, C – constants to select special form of the characteristic for a given

material.
Since in case of bending it is not possible to separate elastic and plastic component,
then characteristic (1) cannot be used but it is possible to use characteristics (7) or (8),
or other empirical form of a strain characteristic. For example, this may be a combi-
nation of characteristics (7) and (8) in the following form:

log ca;t D ¼ A B log Nf þ Clog2 ðNf Þ; ð5Þ
Strain-Life Fatigue Curves on the Basis of Shear Strains 397
where: A, B, C, D - constants to select special form of the characteristic for a given

material.
An extensive review of fatigue characteristics can be found e.g. in the study [10].
The new form, which is proposed there, requires 4 material constants to be determined,
same as for the popular characteristic MCB (1).
2 Experiment
Our studies were performed on the newly constructed machine [4], as shown on Fig. 1,
where Df – total deflection, l – arm of the lever and F – force, where moment M ¼ F l.
The idea behind this machine is that using the screw on the eccentric we can set the
deflection of machine arm acting on the specimen, that deflection is set as constant and
controlled by the linear displacement sensor. The strain amplitude on specimen is
correlated with the arm displacement. The machine was calibrated using specimen with
strain gauges, the correlation between displacement and strain is linear. This way we
obtain a constant strain amplitude on specimen. The specimen geometry is shown on
Fig. 2.
Additionally, during the test, torsional moment is monitored. At the time, when this
moment drops significantly (by 15%), the initiation of fatigue crack occurs but further
tests allow us to obtain total fatigue life of the tested specimen.
Fig. 1. Strain controlled stand for bending loading
Fig. 2. ‘Diabolo’ type specimen geometry

398 A. Kurek et al.
The 6082-T6 aluminium alloy subjected to torsional loads experimental data form
this new machine (Fig. 1) was then used to calculate fatigue curves according to three
different models: Kandil (4), Langer (3), and Kurek-Łagoda (5). Those models were
used because the most common MCB (1) model for strain-life curve could not be
implemented here.
On Figs. 3, 4 and 5 the data is described by those three models where fitting was
done according to least squares method [20, 19]. The method relies on fitting the curve
to the experimental points by searching the minimum of the sum of distances between
the curve described by (4–5) and the experimental points in direction of the inde-
pendent variable. All material constraints obtained for those three models are gathered
in Table 1.
Fig. 3. Shear strain-life curve for 6082-T6 aluminium alloy according to Langer model fitted
using least squares method
Fig. 4. Shear strain-life curve for 6082-T6 aluminium alloy according to Kandil model fitted
using least squares method
After finding model constraints according to ASTM standards [20] it became clear
that one of the models (Langer) describes the data much better than the other two.
Fig. 5. Shear strain-life curve for 6082-T6 aluminium alloy according to Kurek-Łagoda model
fitted using least squares method
Table 1. Material constrains and fitting parameters obtained using least squares fitting method
6082-T6 – least squares
a b c d R2
Kandil −0.575 0.7101 0.05978 – 0.892
Langer −1.609 0.2088 −1.81 – 0.9529
Kurek - Łagoda −0.7078 0.6386 0.05608 −0.000797 0.8895
Fig. 6. Shear strain-life curve for 6082-T6 aluminium alloy according to Kandil model fitted
using weighted least squares method (Bisquare)
400 A. Kurek et al.
It was due to unusual, for strain-controlled tests, scatter of experimental data. In this
case few points, that couldn’t be considered as false, determined the curve course.
Because of this we decided to use different fitting algorithm – bisquare waged method.
This method minimizes a weighted sum of squares, where the weight given to each
data point depends on how far the point is from the fitted line. Points near the line get
full weight. Points farther from the line get reduced weight. Points that are farther from
the line than would be expected by random chance get zero weight. For most cases, the
bisquare weight method is preferred because it simultaneously seeks to find a curve that
fits the bulk of the data using the usual least-squares approach, and it minimizes the
effect of outliers. The experimental data and material constraints and fitting parameters
are shown on Figs. 6, 7, 8 and in Table 2.
Fig. 7. Shear strain-life curve for 6082-T6 aluminium alloy according to Langer model fitted
using weighted least squares method (Bisquare)
Fig. 8. Shear strain-life curve for 6082-T6 aluminium alloy according to Kurek-Łagoda model
fitted using weighted least squares method (Bisquare)
Table 2. Material constrains and fitting parameters obtained using weighted least squares fitting
method (bisquare)
6082-T6 - bisquare
a b c d R2
Kandil −2.788 −0.362 −0.06826 – 0.9502
Langer −1.617 0.2069 −1.99 – 0.9374
Kurek - Łagoda −4.274 −1.123 −0.176 0.00121 0.9757

1. The new test stand is capable of conducting strain-controlled cyclic torsional fatigue
tests on full specimens.
2. Taking both fitting methods into account the Kurek-Łagoda model gives best results
with R2 = 0.9757.
3. The test stand allows not only for torsional tests but also bending and proportional
bending and torsion combinations. Although in the last case it is recommended to
use some kind of external 3d extensometer based on digital image correlation
(DIC) like Aramis from GOM.
References
1. Basquin OH (1910) The exponential law of endurance tests. Am Soc Test Mater Proc
10:625–630
2. Coffin LF (1954) A study of the effect of cyclic thermal stresses on a ductile metal.
Trans ASME 76:931–950
3. Kulesa A, Kurek A, Łagoda T, Achtelik H, Kluger K (2016) Low cycle fatigue of steel in
strain controlled cyclic bending. Acta Mechanica et Automatica 10(1):62–65
4. Kulesa A, Kurek A, Łagoda T, Achtelik H, Kluger K (2016) Comparison of 15Mo3 strain
curves obtained for strain-controlled cyclic bending and tension-compression tests. Solid
State Phenom 250:85–93
5. Kurek A, Koziarska J, Łagoda T, (2016) Zastosowanie teorii dużych odkształceń w
jednoosiowym rozciąganiu-ściskaniu wybranych metali (EN Application of the theory of
large deformation in uniaxial tension compression of selected metals), Energetyka, Tom 11,
ss. 673–675
6. Kurek M, Łagoda T, Katzy D (2014) Comparison of fatigue characteristics of some selected
materials. Mater Test 56(2):92–95
7. Manson SS (1965) Fatigue: a complex subject - some simple approximation. Exp Mech
5:193–226
8. Marcisz E, Niesłony A, Łagoda T (2012) Concept of fatigue for determining characteristics
of materials with strengthening. Mater Sci Forum 726:43–48
9. Niesłony A, Kurek A (2012) Influence of the selected fatigue characteristics of the material
on calculated fatigue life under variable amplitude loading. Appl Mech Mater Trans Tech
Publ 104:197–205
402 A. Kurek et al.
10. Niesłony A, Kurek A, EL Dsoki Ch, Kaufmann H (2012) A study of compatibility between
two classical fatigue curve models based on some selected structural materials. Int J Fatigue
39:88–94
11. Radhakrishnan VM (1992) On bilinearity of Manson-Coffin low-cycle-fatigue relationship,
NASA Technical Memorandum 105840, NASA-TM-105840, E-7283, NAS 1.15:105840,11
12. Walat K, Łagoda T, Kurek M (2015) Life time assessment of an aluminum alloy under
complex low cycle fatigue loading. Mater Test 57(2):160–164
13. Ramberg W, Osgood WR, (1943) Description of stress-strain curves by three parameters,
Technical Note No. 902, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington DC
14. Langer BF (1962) Design of pressure vessels for low-cycle fatigue, ASME. J Basic Eng
84:389–402
15. Manson SS (1979) Inversion of the strain-life and strain-stress relationships for use in metal
fatigue analysis. Fatigue Eng Mater Struct 1:37–57
16. Chopra OK (1999) Effects of LWR coolant environments of fatigue design curves of
austenitic stainless steels, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
17. Kandil FA (2000) The Determination of Uncertainties in Low Cycle Fatigue Testing,
Standards Measurement & Testing Project No. SMT4-CT97-2165, Issue 1, pp. 1-26
18. Gorash Y, Chen H (2013) On creep-fatigue endurance of TIG-dressed weldments using the
linear matching method. Eng Fail Anal 34:308–323
19. Bronstein IN, Semendjajew KA (2004) Handbook of mathematics, Springer, Berlin, 1157 ps
20. ASTM Standard E606-92: Standard practice for strain-controlled fatigue testing. In: Annual
book of ASTM standards, Vol. 03.01. ASTM; 1997, pp 523–537
The Use of Selective Laser Melting as a Method
of New Materials Development
Tomasz Kurzynowski(&), Konrad Gruber, and Edward Chlebus

tomasz.kurzynowski@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. Selective laser melting (SLM) is a fast growing, Additive Manu-

facturing (AM) technology, that creates opportunities for manufacturing com-
plex geometries (both monolithic volumes and spatial structures) directly from
metal powders and CAD 3D computer model. Therefore, the SLM technology is
recognized as a manufacturing technology of the future. Many industry leaders
are implementing selective laser melting into their production standards, e.g.:
automotive, aviation, space and medicine companies. SLM technology can also
be used for the development of new materials, through the possibility of man-
ufacturing elements from various mixtures of metal powders. The methodology
presented in this article allows to expand the use of SLM in a wide range of
industries and test the properties of new materials on functional parts and 3D
specimens. This methodology has been illustrated by an example of Inconel
718-Rhenium alloy. The following path of new materials development will be
described: Development of material requirements ! Powder material charac-
teristics and powder preparation ! Development of laser melting processing
parameters ! Microscopic observations and mechanical testing ! Post-
process development (HT, HIP, CNC) ! Production of a demonstrator parts.
Keywords: Selective laser melting Additive manufacturing

Material development
1 Introduction
Current trends in manufacturing, as well as growing requirements on the consumer

market sets new challenges for designers and manufacturers. It results in the need for
new materials, modern designs of structural components or new manufacturing tech-
nologies. Application of additive manufacturing (AM) for production of prototype
models, pre-production, production series and final products is a popular patch to fulfill
those needs. Additive manufacturing gives, among others, the possibly to design and
produce complex, internal spatial structures, affect material tribological properties,
materials mechanical properties, operational durability or resistance to unfavorable and
hard-working conditions. Additionally, AM technology is recognized as the future-
oriented and worth of developing because of its low costs at certain applications,
elasticity and a carbon footprint.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_47
404 T. Kurzynowski et al.
Selective laser melting technology is an example of AM technology, which is

developing very fast. SLM technology is recognized as one of manufacturing tech-
nologies of the future, as it can produce complex, high-strength components directly
from metal powder, with the use of CAD 3D computer models. Many high-demanding
industries are implementing SLM into their production standards, For example space
exploration industry, aerospace/aviation industry or power generation industry. The
world leaders and their suppliers (e.g. GE Aviation, GE Electric, MTU Aero, Siemens,
NASA, etc.) [1–4] are testing, developing and implementing selective laser melting into
their production chains. One of the extremely developmental research direction is the use
of SLM-ed nickel superalloy parts. The SLM technology can be implemented also in
material development region, both for materials intended to use for SLM processing and
intended for conventional use. New alloys can be created by mixing metal powders of
new alloy components with each other, using for example mechanical alloying method
and melting them into one material during the selective laser melting process.
2 Material
This article presents materials preparation and testing methodology as well as a case
study results for an alloy created with the use of presented methodology. To introduce a
possibility of new materials development, an example of Inconel 718-Rhenium alloy
was chosen.
Most of nickel superalloys has been invented for die casting technology. Current
applications of nickel alloys are much more extensive, and the demands placed on
materials are higher and higher. To produce nickel alloy parts, various technologies are
used, such as: casting, plastic working, machining, welding or additive manufacturing.
Unfortunately, the technological susceptibility of nickel alloys are low. Alloys com-
ponents, like aluminum and titanium cause creation of microcracks during hot pro-
cessing, through segregation to grain boundaries and creation of brittle intermetallic
phases. At the same time, alloys with higher content of Al and Ti are more resistant to
elevated temperatures and creep, as these are the elements responsible for the creation
of precipitation strengthening phases. As a result, an increase in the creep-resistance of
a nickel alloy leads to a decrease of its susceptibility to hot processing. A proposal to
solve these processing issues, are presented in this article. It assumes, that hot pro-
cessing requires a new set of alloys, especially designed for the hot process, rather than
searching for ways to process already known alloys.
Inconel 718, used as a base alloy is a weldable, popular nickel alloy. If consider its
properties, however, it is not as resistant to elevated temperatures as other nickel alloys.
The positive impact of rhenium is widely observed among nickel alloys, also in the case
of Inconel 718 [5]. The addition of rhenium increases the resistance of nickel alloys at
elevated temperatures, without increasing the vulnerability to microcracking. However,
rhenium is used in rather small number of alloys (mostly in second and third generation
nickel superalloys) due to technological difficulties with its alloying (gravitational sed-
imentation). The use of this alloying element in selective laser melting technology, solves
this problem. Fast, layered melting and solidification of the material during the process,
does not lead to rhenium gravitational sedimentation. Therefore, Inconel 718-Rhenium
The Use of Selective Laser Melting 405
alloy can be successfully process with the use of SLM technology, and it should perform
better in elevated temperatures, in comparison with standard Inconel 718.
3 Methodology
A comprehensive and planned approach to the development of new materials can

accelerate and compare obtained results. The four-step methodology, presented at
Fig. 1, allows to achieve a stable SLM manufacturing technology for a wide range of
materials, including steels, aluminum alloys, nickel alloys, titanium alloys, refractory
alloys and specialty alloys. At the same time, described methodology maintains its
universal nature. If necessary, it can be expanded and completed with more detailed
examinations. The four-step methodology is described in detail in [6].
Fig. 1. Research methodology of new materials for the selective laser melting technology [6]
First step is focused on characterization and preparation of metal powder, which is an

input material for the SLM process. The main criterion of powder usability is shape, size
and distribution of its individual particles. Powder particles should be spherical, fraction
distribution of the applied powder should include different particles size, with diameters
both larger and smaller than chosen layer thickness. For example, with layer thickness of
50 µm, powder fraction distribution should be included in between 20 µm and 63 µm. If
mixtures of different powders are intended to be processed, powders should be mixed
uniformly. In addition, powders with a higher melting point and lower absorption of the
laser beam should be smaller in size, than other particles of powder mixture.
Second step is intended to select SLM process parameters (e.g. laser speed, laser
power, hatching dimensions, temperatures, etc.) allowing for a production of fully
dense elements. At this step, tests are carried-out on specially designed specimens,
allowing to investigate a limited number of process parameters at each experiment.
Every next test (single scans, thin wall, cubic specimens, etc.) adds another variable
parameter to the experiment. The method of verification is surface quality of the
elements (single scans, thin walls) and percentage of porosity (cubic specimens).
Correctly developed parameters should allow production of specimens with densities
above 99% and surface roughness (Rz) lower than the size of powder particles.
Third step, according to Fig. 1 is a microscopic observation and mechanical testing.
It includes basic examinations, e.g. light microscopy, hardness measurements or static
tensile testing. Depending on specific material requirements and designed working
conditions of final parts, this step can also include other, more specialized examina-
tions: electron microscopy, fatigue testing, high temperature tensile testing or deter-
mination of corrosive characteristics.
The last, fourth step, is a production of demonstrator parts. This step, in addition to
producing of an example 3D geometry, includes also demonstrator testing. To tests
subjected are dimensional accuracy (using e.g. computer tomography - CT) and fulfill-
ment of functional requirements (e.g. strength, abrasion resistance, resistance to vibra-
tions, etc.). The demonstrator research program depends on the designed part application.
4 Experimental Results and Discussion
Inconel 718-Rhenium alloy was created by mixing powders of alloy components with
each other, using mechanical alloying method and melting them into one material
during the SLM process. Chemical composition of Inconel 718 powder and prepared
IN718-Re powder mixtures are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition of prepared alloys (by weight in % - computed)

Alloy Ni Fe Cr Nb Mo Ti Mn Al Re
IN718 51.7 19.8 18.6 5.5 3.3 0.9 0.1 <0.1 0
IN718 + 2%Re wt. 50.6 19.4 18.2 5.4 3.2 0.9 0.1 <0.1 2
IN718 + 4%Re wt. 49.6 19.0 17.9 5.3 3.1 0.9 0.1 <0.1 4
IN718 + 6%Re wt. 48.7 18.6 17.5 5.2 3.1 0.9 0.1 <0.1 6
Mechanical alloying method, is a method for powder preparation, that uses strong
vibrations and centrifugal forces to crush and crumble different powder particles into
one powder material. With the use of appropriate mechanical alloying parameters, in
this case: 200 rpm, 2 h of mixing and a 500 g of powder mixture for one batch, evenly
distributed powder mixtures can be achieved. At Fig. 2, a mixture of mechanically
alloyed Inconel 718 powder (dark particles) and rhenium powder (light particles) is
presented.
Fig. 2. IN718-6%Re mixture after second step of powder preparation, SEM

MPC-HEK SLM Realizer II 250 machine was used to produce specimens. Machine
is equipped with continuous wavelength (CW) Ytterbium fiber laser with maximum
power of 400 W and laser spot size of 200 µm. Specimens were built with controlled
protective atmosphere of high purity argon. SLM processing parameters (laser beam
speed and power, layer height, working platform temperature, distance between
scanning lines, etc.) were selected in accordance with the methodology presented in the
article. Although material density of 99.95% was obtained, rhenium particles where not
fully dissolved in the alloys matrix. To fully dissolute rhenium, special laser hatching
strategies were applied. Standard laser hatching is presented at Fig. 3a.
Fig. 3. Laser scan strategies used in this study
It consists of alternate scanning lines in the x or y direction, depending on the

current layer (n or n + 1). Special laser hatching strategies used in the study, are
presented at Fig. 3b and c. After standard hatching, at the same layer, re-melting is
applied in the form of line scan in a perpendicular direction to the first scan (Fig. 3b) or
is done concentrically from outside to inside (Fig. 3c). This kind of strategy accu-
mulates the temperature inside the samples and allows a nearly full dissolution of
rhenium powder particles. Measured rhenium dissolution rate were between 90% and
92%. More importantly, the actual density of specimens, were still measured above
99.5%.
The next step of the research was microscopic and mechanical examination of
obtained material. Microscopic observation and mechanical testing were carried out on
specimens both in as SLM-ed and heat-treated conditions, as heat treatment is required
for demanding applications of Inconel 718. HT parameters are: solution treatment at
1100 °C/1 h (water cooled) and 2-step age hardening for 720 °C/8 h (with furnace
cooling 100 °C/h) and 620 °C/10 h (air cooling to room temperature) [7].
As for standard SLM-ed Inconel 718, see Fig. 4, IN718-Re alloy in as SLM-ed
conditions consists of heterogenous, saturated solid solution of c phase (Fig. 4a).
Visible columnar grains are a result of epitaxial dendritic grain growth. Grain growth is
determined mainly by heat flux during the SLM process, but also crystallographically
favored orientation <001>. Additionally, microsegregation occurs between dendrites
and laser tracks overlaps. After heat treatment, alloys microstructure was homogenized,
and grain growth occurred (Fig. 4b). IN718-Re alloys microstructure in heat treated
conditions is similar to conventional Inconel 718, but grains are slightly elongated in
build direction (perpendicular to the layers).
Fig. 4. Inconel 718 alloy microstructure after SLM processing: a) as SLM-ed, b) Heat Treated
Inconel 718 is an alloy designed to work at elevated temperatures up to 700 °C. For
this reason, among others, tensile test at 650 °C temperatures were performed. Tensile
specimens were prepared according to ASTM E8-04 standard. The results are sum-
marized in Table 2. The positive effect of rhenium on high temperature tensile prop-
erties of the alloy is visible. Increase of YS and UTS appears with an increase of
rhenium content, in all sample series. Elongation at break also increases within 2%Re
and 4%Re samples. Positive effect of rhenium addition on alloy’s high temperature
properties is confirmed [8].
Table 2. Summary of static tensile test results at 650 °C, HT specimens

Rhenium content YS [MPa] UTS [MPa] eR [%]
IN718 (SLM) 914 ± 76 1055 ± 5 9±1
IN718 + 2%Re wt. 907 ± 34 1080 ± 30 10 ± 1
IN718 + 4%Re wt. 945 ± 16 1125 ± 5 14 ± 2
IN718 + 6%Re wt. 1051 ± 139 1135 ± 55 7±5
Literature reports that presence of rhenium in c-phase nickel alloy matrix increases
size and amount of c’ and c’’ precipitation strengthening phases, which are formed
during ageing [5]. Rhenium is also responsible for an increased phases transformation.
A 6% wt. rhenium content increases transformation temperature by about 30 °C [9].
According to the methodology, the last step is a production of demonstrator part. In
this step it is determined whether the technology can produce a complex geometry with
a newly developed material. As a demonstrator, a jet turbine blade was produced. The
completed element is presented at Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Demonstrator part produced with the use of SLM technology and developed material
Selective laser melting, an additive manufacturing technology capable of processing

metal alloys, has been described in terms of application for the development of new
materials. Based on the described methodology, an example of a new alloy develop-
ment was presented. As SLM technology is based on powder material, new alloys can
be easily created by powder mixing, and melted into one material during the SLM
process. Alloying additions can improve different material properties, depending on the
specific requirements. The main conclusions can be summarized as follows:
• Proposed four-step methodology allows to use selective laser melting technology in
new materials development region.
• Creation of a new alloys are possible with the use of powder mixing and SLM
processing methods.
• It is possible to produce Inconel 718-Rhenium alloy with the use of described four-
step methodology.
• Microstructure of achieved alloy is similar to standard Inconel 718 after Heat
Treatment.
• Rhenium addition to Inconel 718 increases alloy’s high temperature tensile
properties.
Acknowledgements. Work supported by the Polish National Centre for Research and Devel-
opment (NCBiR) within the projects: PBS1/A5/12/2012 - RenMaTecH “Development and
application of laser powder micrometallurgy for manufacture of materials with special properties
modified with rhenium”.
References
1. Sears J (2015) Metal additive manufacturing at GE GE-GR?: market focused R&D. In: 1st
international symposium on additive manufacturing, Dresden, 25–26 Feb 2015
2. Dusel K-H (2016) Additive manufacturing of aero engine parts – process Chain optimization
and quality assurance. In: 3rd direct digital manufacturing conference, Berlin, 16–17 Mar 2016
3. Fu W, Haberland C, Klapdor EV, Rule D, Piegert S (2017) AM framework & applications for
gas turbine technologies. In: 2nd international symposium on additive manufacturing,
Dresden, 8–9 Feb 2017
4. Clinton RG (2017) NASA marshall space flight center additive manufacturing: rocket engines
and in space manufacturing. In: 2nd international symposium on additive manufacturing,
Dresden, 8–9 Feb 2017
5. El-Bagoury N, Omar AA, Ogi K (2012) Role of rhenium on solidification, microstructure, and
mechanical properties of standard alloy 718. Metallogr Microstruct Anal 1(1):35–44
6. Kurzynowski T (2018) Selective laser melting for materials development. In: Fraunhofer
direct digital manufacturing conference, Berlin 14–15 Mar 2018
7. Chlebus E, Gruber K, Kuźnicka B, Kurzac J, Kurzynowski T (2015) Effect of heat treatment
on microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 processed by selective laser
melting. Mater Sci Eng A 639:647–655
8. Gruber K, Kurzynowski T, Stopyra W, Kuźnicka B, Chlebus E (2018) Selective laser melting
of Inconel 718 alloyed with rhenium. In: Fraunhofer direct digital manufacturing conference,
Berlin 14–15 Mar 2018
9. Wang Z, Guan K, Gao M, Li X, Chen X, Zeng X (2012) The microstructure and mechanical
properties of deposited-IN718 by selective laser melting. J Alloys Compd 513:518–523
Processing of Magnesium Alloy by Selective
Laser Melting
Tomasz Kurzynowski, Andrzej Pawlak(&), and Edward Chlebus

andrzej.p.pawlak@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. This paper presents results on processing AZ31 magnesium alloy

with Selective Laser Melting technology. The process optimization was per-
formed according to the Design of Experiments methods. The porosity analysis
shown that fully dense specimens were achieved. Thanks to the Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA), the impact of changed parameters on the porosity was
characterized. The paper also presents results of material characterisation.
Microstructure evaluation shown fine, equiaxial grains, which could be respon-
sible for uniform mechanical properties and good elongation. Carried out
mechanical tests proves, that the properties of AZ31 material obtained in additive
process are correspond for conventional cast alloy.
Keywords: Selective laser melting Magnesium alloy

Design of experiments Additive manufacturing Mechanical properties
1 Introduction
Because of very low density and high specific strength [2], Magnesium have been
drawing attention since century as a prospective engineering material.
It is commonly known, that the rapid oxidation is the biggest disadvantage for
magnesium based materials for industrial applications. But this feature thanks to fast
resorption of oxidation products and a non-invasive excretion from organisms make
magnesium as an attractive biomaterial. Hitherto resorption rate of magnesium was too
rapid compared to the growth of bone tissue and impossible to control. Because of that,
magnesium alloys was not adopted into common use in medicine [3, 5, 10, 14, 15].
SLM process seems to be very interesting for processing magnesium based
materials, because of the protective atmosphere and additionally high temperature
gradient between the melted pool, the surrounding non-melted powder and solidified
material, may bring promising results as a new properties of processed materials,
because of microstructure refinement.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_48
2 Materials and Methods
In this research an AZ31 alloy was used, provided by TLS Technik GmbH. Powder
granules have good spherical shape, what was confirmed during conducted powder
characterization including chemical composition, which complies the ASTM standard
[16]. The Selective Laser Melting process of investigated magnesium alloy were
performed using ReaLizer SLM50 device, equipped with 100 W laser power, focused
on process platform to 100 µm. All specimens investigated in this research were made
with 50 µm layer thickness, Argon was used as a shielding gas.
Laser micrometalurgy process was optimized in order to minimize material
porosity, according to experiments plans based on Design of Experiments
(DoE) methodology. The range of used energy densities needed to melt analysed
material, were analytically calculated, using heat transfer model for laser beam metal
welding [6, 11],
2
Ak P r
ðD T Þ ¼ exp ; ð1Þ
2pkV 4at
Taking into account an absorptivity of analysed powder material for laser wave-
length used in SLM50 device, and bulk density which influences on material con-
ductivity, an initial process parameters values range were defined. This process
parameters values were then used during planned full factorial design at 3 levels and
central rotatable composite experiment [10]. In performed experiments an impact of
change the basic process parameters on resulting material porosity was evaluated.
During designed experiments, the laser power (P), distance between each scanning
point (ptdist), and exposure time in single point (texpo), were analysed, which are with
other unchanged parameters, the components of linear energy density (Line
energydensity),
P
Line energydensity ¼ ; ½J mm2 ð2Þ
Vscan spotsize
ptdist
Vscan ¼ ; ½mm s1 ð3Þ
texpo
Process parameter sets used during experiments are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. Defined values used during 3 level full factorial design for three factors.
Factors Values
Laser beam power – P (W) 1 60 75 90
Point distance – ptdist (µm) 2 10 15 20
Time exposure in single point – texpo (µs) 3 40 80 120
Processing of Magnesium Alloy by Selective Laser Melting 413
Table 2. Defined values used during central rotatable composite design.

Factors Values
−√2 −1 0 1 √2
−1
Vscan (mm*s ) 90 100 125 150 160
Laser beam power – P (W) 60 65 75 85 90
For the SLM process optimization, cuboid specimens (3 4 5 mm) were made.
The porosity of manufactured specimens was examined on 3 perpendicular cross-
sections. Prepared specimens were grinded and polished, and then monochromatic
microscopic picture were evaluated, where porosity was the ratio of dark pixels (pores),
in entire specimen picture pixel amount.
Prepared cross-sections were used during micro-hardness tests using Zwick/Roell
ZHV JS-2000 device. Specimens with minimal porosity were etched with acetic-picral
and analysed in order to reveal material microstructure using Zeiss EVO MA25. An
chemical composition of processed material was also measured.
Optimized process parameters set, which allows to obtain minimal porosity, were
used to manufacture specimens for mechanical testing (static tensile and compression
tests). Mechanical tests were performed on Instron 3384 and MTS 370 Bionix.
Specimens for tensile testing were designed with comply to dimensional ratio
according to polish standard [12]. During tensile tests specimens built in two orien-
tations were analysed in order to evaluate mechanical properties anisotropy (horizontal
and inclined to process platform) – Fig. 1. Because of pro-cessing volume limitation,
vertical specimens could not be manufactured. Specimens for compression tests were
designed according to standard [13], and were manufactured in 3 orientations (hori-
zontal, vertical and inclined).
Fig. 1. Tensile test specimens, made from AZ31 with SLM technology.
3 Results
Performed optimization procedure and manufactured specimens allows to set pro-

cessing window, and obtain satisfactory porosity in melted material less than 0.5%.
With all analysed process parameters set during experiment based on central rotatable
plan, material porosity was below 1%, and the minimum porosity in the material was
0.3% with the deviation of 0.17% (determined according to assumptions for repetition
of experiments in central point of experiment). An example of specimen cross-sections
is presented Fig. 2a.
Process parameters values set have no influence on hardness of obtained material in
analysed range of volume energy density (Volume Energydensity),
P
Volume energydensity ¼ ; ½J mm3 ð4Þ
Vscan layerthickness linedist
The measured hardness of processed material was from 64 to 71 HV0.1, and for
specimens with minimal porosity reached 69 ± 1 HV0.1.
Microstructural analysis revealed very uniform microstructure on all analysed
specimens surfaces, consisting of equiaxed grains – Fig. 2b. The grain size in the
comparison to cast alloy is much finer, which is common for all materials after SLM
process – Fig. 3 [8].
Fig. 2. Example of specimen with one of the lowest porosity in the material, made from AZ31
with SLM. (a) microscopic picture, (b) microstructure obtained with SEM (Specimen no. 9 –
laser power: 75 W, scan velocity: 125 mm*s−1, Line energy density: 6.00 J*mm−2)
Analysis of microstructure depending on specimen planes, shows that some lon-

gitudal grains oriented in z-axis could be observed, but they are not so big as like for
other materials processed by SLM, especially titanium or nickel based alloys [4].
The chemical composition of powder material used in research corresponds to
ASTM Standard, but during the SLM process the composition of processed material
slightly differs – Fig. 4. Performed measurements, revealed higher content of Al
and Zn.
Mechanical properties of AZ31 alloy processed in SLM technology are presented in
Table 3. Yield strength values reached 187 ± 11 MPa, and Ultimate Tensile Strength
Fig. 3. Microstructure of referenced cast AZ31 alloy.
Fig. 4. Microstructure of referenced cast AZ31 alloy.
was 212 ± 34 MPa. Compressive strength and elongation during compression is

dependent on specimens orientation during the build, and maximal measured values
reached 387 ± 29 MPa of Rs and 19.8 ± 0.7% of elongation for specimens manu-
factured in vertical orientation.
Table 3. Mechanical properties of AZ31 alloy made with SLM, obtained during tests.
Tensile strength test Compressive strength test
Specimen YS (MPa) UTS Strain at damage - Compressive Strain at
(MPa) Δl (%) strength – Rs damage - Δl
(MPa) (%)
SLM 183 ± 8 212 ± 34 7.9 ± 2.9 377 ± 29 17.3 ± 1.2
horizontal
Inclined 187 ± 11 207 ± 54 7.7 ± 6.0 355 ± 46 16.2 ± 2.5
SLM – – – 387 ± 29 19.8 ± 0.7
vertical
Ref. 153 ± 48 248 ± 28 8.0 ± 4.0 [16]; 145 ± 35 [12]; 19.7 ± 7.2
[1, 12, 16] [1, 12, 16] 14.0 ± 2.0 [1, 12] 486 ± 4 [7] [7]
4 Discussion
During the SLM process of magnesium alloy, significant soot emission was observed.
It is common problem, described also by [13]. The evaporation products deposits on
the whole process chamber surfaces (Fig. 5). Analysis of the evaporation products,
shows that no contamination in the material appears.
Fig. 5. Cauliflower like products of magnesium evaporation.
Performed analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the described experiment, based on

p-value (0.303) shown that for the assumed level of confidence a = 0.05, the impact of
factors on the results was not significant. P-value was lower (0.055) for hardness but it
was not low enough to indicate that the factors change had significant influence on the
results (>0.05). Among all factors under analysis, the greatest impact on the material
porosity was exerted by scan velocity, but still it did not reach the level that would be
significant as regards impact on changes (p-value = 0.084). In the case of hardness, the
laser power had significant impact on the results (p-value = 0.005) [9].
The reason of an increase in Aluminum and Zinc content in processed material is
magnesium evaporation. Chemical composition of the as-built material became more
near AZ61 than AZ31. This fact could lead to higher strength and hardness of the
processed material, due to higher Al and Zn content.
Both, the Yield Strength and Ultimate Tensile Strength are satisfactory for obtained
material by SLM. Obtained tensile properties values, slightly differs from values for
reference cast material, but the yield strength exceeds values for cast alloy by 20%.
Values of compression strength are lower than for ref cast alloy. Especially for
biomedical applications as a metallic implants, compression strength is important
property, and special attention should be paid to improve this characteristics.
There is no significant anisotropy of mechanical properties dependent on build
orientation, which is surprisingly result for SLM processed material, but could be
explained by equiaxial and uniform microstructure without columnar grains.
Surprisingly the elongation values for material obtained in SLM technology, both
during tensile like compression tests are comparable to cast alloy, which is not common
for materials processed in SLM. After SLM process, most materials are brittle, and their
values increase after additional HT.
The studies presented in this paper show that magnesium based alloy powders can be
processed by SLM technology. The obtained results of material porosity and micro-
hardness are satisfactory. Therefore, further research is needed to explore application
areas for Selectively Laser Melted magnesium alloy powders. The obtained good
values of the mechanical properties indicate the wide spectrum of applications of SLM
technology for processing magnesium based alloys.
In the nearest future the authors are planning to conduct a research on other
magnesium alloys and some investigations on influence of used process parameters
values on microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.
Acknowledgements. Work supported by the Polish National Centre for Research and Devel-
opment within the project “Magnesium-based alloys processed with selective laser melting
technology for aeronautical applications” (No. LIDER/8/0109/L-7/15/NCBR/2016).
References
1. Agarwal S, Curtin J, Duffy B, Jaiswal S (2016) Biodegradable magnesium alloys for
orthopaedic applications: a review on corrosion, biocompatibility and surface modifications.
Mater Sci Eng C 68:948–963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2016.06.020
2. Białobrzeski A, Saja K, Hubner K (2007) Ultralight magnesium-lithium alloys. Arch

Foundry Eng 7:11–16
3. Bobe K, Willbold E, Morgenthal I, Andersen O, Studnitzky T, Nellesen J, Tillmann W,
Vogt C, Vano K, Witte F (2013) In vitro and in vivo evaluation of biodegradable, open-
porous scaffolds made of sintered magnesium W4 short fibres. Acta Biomater 9:8611–8623.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2013.03.035
4. Chlebus E, Gruber K, Kuznicka B, Kurzac J, Kurzynowski T (2015) Effect of heat treatment
on microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 processed by selective laser
melting. Mater Sci Eng A 639:647–655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2015.05.035
5. Denkena B, Lucas A (2007) Biocompatible magnesium alloys as absorbable implant
materials adjusted surface and subsurface properties by machining processes. CIRP Ann
Manuf Technol 56:113–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2007.05.029
6. Ion JC (2005) Laser processing of engineering materials, principles, procedure and industrial
application. Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford
7. Paramsothy M, Hassan SF, Srikanth N, Gupta M (2009) Enhancement of compressive
strength and failure strain in AZ31 magnesium alloy. J Alloys Compd 482:73–80. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2009.03.181
8. Pawlak A, Przybylski M, Szymczyk P, Kurzynowski T, Chlebus E (2018) Characterization
of AZ31 alloy processed by selective laser melting. In: Fraunhofer W (ed) Direct digital
manufacturing conference, DDMC2018. Berlin, pp 1–5
9. Pawlak A, Rosienkiewicz M, Chlebus E (2017) Design of experiments approach in AZ31
powder selective laser melting process optimization. Arch Civ Mech Eng 17:9–18. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2016.07.007
10. Peuster M, Beerbaum P, Bach F-W, Hauser H (2006) Are resorbable implants about to
become a reality? Cardiol Young 16:107–116. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1047951106000011
11. Rosenthal D (1946) The theory of moving sources of heat and its application to metal
treatments. Trans Am Soc Mech Eng 43:849–866
12. Tan L, Yu X, Wan P, Yang K (2013) Biodegradable materials for bone repairs: a review.
J Mater Sci Technol 29:503–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2013.03.002
13. Wei K, Gao M, Wang Z, Zeng X (2014) Effect of energy input on formability,
microstructure and mechanical properties of selective laser melted AZ91D magnesium alloy.
Mater Sci Eng A 611:212–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2014.05.092
14. Witte F (2015) Reprint of: the history of biodegradable magnesium implants: a review. Acta
Biomater 23:S28–S40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2015.07.017
15. Zhang S, Zhang X, Zhao C, Li J, Song Y, Xie C, Tao H, Zhang Y, He Y, Jiang Y, Bian Y
(2010) Research on an Mg-Zn alloy as a degradable biomaterial. Acta Biomater 6:626–640.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2009.06.028
16. ASTM B90/B90 M − 15 (2015) Standard specification for magnesium-alloy sheet and plate
Strength Analysis of the Multi-tasking Car
Trailer
Piotr Ladra and Bogdan Posiadała(&)

Czestochowa University of Technology, Ul. J.H. Dąbrowskiego 69,
42-201 Częstochowa, Poland
kolar17@interia.pl, bogdan.p@imipkm.pcz.pl
Abstract. This work concerns the strength analysis of a multi-tasking car trailer
prototype, combining the ability to carry loads of several types of specialized
single-purpose trailers in applications such as: kayaks, motorcycles, garage gates
and self-propelled vehicles, such as lawn mowers or quads. The analysis was
carried out on the basis of a computational model developed by using the
SolidWorks program and its Simulation module. The results presented in the
study include analysis of selected construction nodes, i.e.: assembly sockets -
superstructures, platform lifting unit and frame of the gantry structure. After
accepting the results of the simulation tests the real object have been made and
innovative solutions have been reported to the Patent Office of the Republic of
Poland. The proposed car trailer is an alternative to many specialized single-
purpose trailers.
Keywords: Multi-tasking car trailer Strength analysis
1 Introduction
Problems of transport realized be car trailers are described in the literature e.g. [1, 2].
The problems of this transport consists in a very narrow scope of application of this
type of transport means currently are available on the market. Many solutions, mainly
for specialist transport, limit the construction of trailers to specific types of transport,
very often they are simply single-purpose trailers, intended for the conduit of specific
materials. Here are a few examples:
– a trailer for transporting motorcycles,
– a trailer for transporting Quad,
– a trailer for transporting canoes,
– box body trailers,
– a trailer for transporting gates and windows, etc.
Knowing the problems accompanying the transport of various types of materials on
the car’s attachment, a prototype design of a car trailer has been developed, which,
while maintaining the standards of general-purpose trailers, extends its capabilities to
several specialist options.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_49
420 P. Ladra and B. Posiadała
In the work [3] the prototype model of a multi-purpose car trailer have been
described. The model combines the possibilities of transporting loads of several types
of specialized single-purpose trailers in applications for transporting: kayaks, moto-
cycles, garage doors and self-propelled vehicles, e.g. mowers or Quads. In addition, in
this work the results of trailer simulation tests with selected trailer load configurations
have been presented, including the cases of continuous load on the whole floor surface
and point pressure in the most loaded places of the site.
In the paper [4] the results of further strength simulation tests of the trailer prototype
have been presented, including the tests of its two main components: the external and
internal frameworks. The analysis of the test results made it possible to recognize that
the adopted structural solutions of the trailer elements were designed in accordance
with the assumptions and the object meets the strength requirements.
The research described in this work was carried out on the basis of a computational
model developed using the SolidWorks package and the Simulation module and other
works, including [5–8] covering the implementation of related tasks to the research
methodology applied here. On the basis of the developed design and after analysis of
simulation results of strength tests, a prototype of the trailer was made, the photographs
of which are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. In Fig. 3 the trailer calculation model developed
with the help of the SolidWorks package is presented.
Fig. 3. Prototype - calculation

Fig. 1. Prototype – complex Fig. 2. Prototype – tilting model
In Fig. 2 the prototype with a tilted platform enabling entry to the platform is
presented and strength tests were carried out for this application. This is one of the
critical cases where, at the time of maximum lifting due to a significant shift of the
center of gravity, there is a justified concern about the durability of some components.
Strength analysis was performed for a tilting unit, which was described in the further
part of the work.
2 Strength Analysis of Selected Construction Nodes
The trailer frame allows the attachment of various types of bodies in the inter-
changeable system. It is about using one frame for transporting various types of other
bodies and superstructures, including, among others:
Strength Analysis of the Multi-tasking Car Trailer 421
• box van,
• superstructure for transporting horses,
• superstructure as a specialist frame (cage) used in animal husbandry (rabbits,
pigeons),
• specialist superstructure - transport of electrical coils,
• specialized superstructure - a mobile apiary.
The assembly sockets play a key role for the interchange system, which due to the
nature of the protection of the superstructure are exposed to various types of defor-
mation and damage. The cooperating parts during the exchange of superstructures must
maintain mutual relations and dimensions, this is a very important condition whose
conduct guarantees an efficient exchange. For this reason, the extreme mounting
positions subjected to strength tests are analyzed and the model is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Front periphery model with marked mounting sockets
The element that guides and sets the superstructure in the right place are the
assembly sockets located, among others in the periphery of the trailer.
In Fig. 5 the periphery model with established boundary conditions and with a
specific load after the finite element meshing is shown. Since the maximum total
weight of the superstructure can amount to 800 kg, 100 kg per seat was assumed for
the analysis. The accepted load is 50% of the total load. Typically, the ratio of 30%
(horizontal) to 70% vertical is used to calculate the offsets and horizontal stresses.
Fig. 5. The periphery calculation model

Simulation tests of this part of the trailer, despite large fears at the construction
stage, showed slight deformation (at an acceptable level) with low stresses and very
small displacements. The results in relation to the nest area are shown graphically in
Figs. 6, 7 and 8.
Fig. 6. Distribution of stresses reduced in the socket
Fig. 7. Strain distribution
Fig. 8. Distribution of displacements

The other case which has been analyzed concerns the situation when the trailer
platform is raised. Due to the innovative construction solution, it is necessary to test the
assembly that performs the lifting process. This is one of the important points of the
project because as the platform is raised, the center of gravity shifts, which increases
the stress of the entire assembly. In Fig. 9 the location of the discussed group is shown.
Fig. 10. Computational model of the

Fig. 9. Model of the frame section assembly
Because the tilting platform with one end is permanently attached to the outer frame
of the trailer, half of the maximum total weight of the tilting part of 400 kg was assumed
for the calculation. In Fig. 10 the calculation model, and in Figs. 11, 12 and 13 the
results in graphical form are shown.
Fig. 11. Distribution of reduced stresses

Fig. 13. Displacement distribution
The presented trailer has one more important and functional advantage, it has a
fold-out frame, which can be set in several ways. One of them is the gates configuration
of the frame that allows the carriage of bulky loads in a vertical arrangement, referred
to here, among others on the transport of garage doors and large panels. In the further
part of the work, examples of test results are provided in relation to such a case. In
Fig. 14 the trailer model with the frame set in the gates system is shown.
Fig. 14. Model of the trailer - setting the frame - gate system
The analysis has been made of the case occurring during the carriage of bulky loads
(e.g. garage door) where the load is based on the frame structure. For analysis, a load of
400 N was assumed at the highest point directed in the horizontal system.
In Fig. 15 the computational model with boundary conditions and load after finite
element meshing, and in Figs. 16, 17 and 18 the results of the analysis in graphical
form are presented.
Fig. 15. Frame model - gate system
Fig. 16. Distribution of reduced stresses
Fig. 18. Displacement distribution

In the paper the prototype of a multi-tasking car trailer, which was designed on the
basis of a standard general-purpose trailer and which through modifications became a
modern structure capable of carrying cargo in the field of specialist transport is
described. The project was developed and made in the SolidWorks program, and all
strength analyzes in the Simulation module on the developed computational models.
The results of strength tests presented in the work constitute an extension of the
research presented in [3, 4]. The tests have been made with reference to selected
construction elements of the designed prototype of a multi-purpose trailer. The results
of the research provided answers to specific questions about the strength of the entire
framework that already appeared at the construction stage. The results of the analysis in
each case examined do not go beyond the dangerous area, which confirms the cor-
rectness of the prototype and the validity of the materials used. The maximum values
that occurred during the analysis can be read from the graphic form of the results and
indicate the place of their occurrence. Static analysis confirms the validity of theoretical
construction assumptions during prototype design.
Also, experimental research is planned on the real object, particularly important in
the context of dynamic loads that will appear during the use of the trailer with particular
types of its use.
References
1. Bentkowska-Senator K, Kordel Z, Waśkiewicz J (2009) Transport samochodowy ładunków,
Wyd. ITS
2. Nowackiego G (2008) Problematyka transportu drogowego, Praca zbiorowa pod red, Wyd.
ITS
3. Ladra P, Posiadała B (2017) Modeling and strength analysis of the specialized car trailer. In:
13th international scientific conference: computer aided engineering, Rusiński Eugeniusz,
Pietrusiak Damian. Springer, Cham, pp 313–321
4. Ladra P, Posiadała B (2018) Modeling and strength analysis of the prototype of the multi-
tasking car trailer. In: MATEC web of conferences, vol 15, Machine modelling and
simulations 2017 (MMS 2017), Article number 01014
5. Domański J (2014) SolidWorks. Projektowanie maszyn i konstrukcji. Praktyczne przykłady.
Wydawnictwo Helion
6. Kęska P (2013) SolidWorks. Konstrukcje spawane. Arkusze blach. Projektowanie w
kontekście złożenia, Wyd. CADvantage
7. Posiadała B (1999) Modelowanie i analiza zjawisk dynamicznych maszyn roboczych i ich
elementów jako dyskretno-ciągłych układów mechanicznych, Wydawnictwo Politechniki
Częstochowskiej, Częstochowa
skończonych w konstrukcjach nośnych, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej
Correlation of Wear and Time in Research
Conducted at Concentrated Point Contact
Tadeusz Leśniewski(&)

tadeusz.lesniewski@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The way to determine suitability e.g. friction node for use in
machines working in the mixed friction area are tribological tests. The main
disadvantage of tribological tests is the long time needed to complete them,
which directly translates into the cost of these works. An attempt to reduce
research time (their acceleration) is the use of a planned experiment, but it does
not necessarily affect the time of conducting a single measurement at each point
of the planned experiment. Therefore, an attempt was made to verify the
influence of the time of a single measurement on the test result. The paper
presents the results of research on the impact on lubrication efficiency at con-
centrated point contact of Transol 150 oil. Grease evaluation was made on the
basis of tests performed on a standard four-ball tester produced by the Institute
for Sustainable Technologies in Radom. The research was carried out using the
planned experiment in two variants: on the constant friction distance s = 33.4 m
and in the time resulting from the adopted road and speed and at a constant time
of 10 s, i.e. corresponding to the guidelines of standards PN-76/C-04147. The
results of the experiment were statistically developed at 95% confidence level,
using Student’s t-test. The results are presented in graphical form. The tests were
conducted only with one type of contact (point) and they are a prelude to further
analyzes.
Keywords: Tribology Lubrication efficiency Planned experiment

Time of tests
1 Introduction
Devices currently being built must have higher efficiencies than those previously
produced. So the machines are working at higher speeds, and carry heavier loads.
These requirements give the constructors of modern machines higher demands and
force them to use better and more expensive materials. Strength analysis of individual
elements, carried out, for example, using the Finite Element Method, is just one of the
stages of work. The requirements of durability and safety also force the analysis of
phenomena that have a significant impact on the destruction of machine components
and generate costs associated with the repair and maintenance of full functionality of
the devices. This is especially important in all rotating machine nodes.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_50
428 T. Leśniewski
The friction is the ubiquitous phenomenon, which occurs as a result of the

movement of elements. Also most of the sliding nodes of working machines (i.e.
bearings, joints, guides etc.) work in the field of mixed friction, which causes their
builders and operators problems [1–3]. Friction is a negative process here, increases the
forces in the system and leads to the wear of elements, which results in the need for
faster replacement. We can counteract this negative process in a variety of ways trying
to bring it to a minimum, thanks to which it increased efficiency, durability and reli-
ability is obtained. Typical methods for preventing the negative effects of mixed
friction are the use of suitable materials or a modification of the state of their surface
layer and the use of a suitable lubricant. An important role is played by the knowledge
of the properties of materials, which is necessary for the optimal, according to the
criterion of durability, the performance of machine elements. In the case of elements
used in tribological nodes, it is necessary to know their characteristics and tribological
properties, especially wear resistance, depending on the properties of the material from
which they are made. Unfortunately, forecasting durability of friction nodes is
impossible because with the current state of tribological knowledge, despite many years
of experience and analysis, so far there is no general mathematical model that would
allow to determine the tribological characteristics of materials. Tribological tests are the
only way to determine the usefulness of a friction node for use in machines working in
the mixed friction area. The requirement to perform them is justified by the large
number of values affecting the tribological characteristics and the lack of a general
mixed friction model allowing for the correct design of the node (determining its
structural features) taking into account extortion parameters. The main disadvantage of
tribological tests is the long time needed to complete them, which directly translates
into the cost of these works. An attempt to limit the research time (acceleration of the
receipt of results) is the use of the planned experiment, which allows to reduce the
number of necessary measurements without limiting the scope of their application.
Application of the planned experiment technique does not necessarily affect the time of
conducting a single measurement at each point of the planned experiment. Therefore,
an attempt was made to verify the impact of the time of a single measurement on the
test result to reduce their duration and costs incurred.
2 Test Method and Conditions
The research was carried out on using a four-ball tester, produced by the Institute for
Sustainable Technologies in Radom (Fig. 1). The tester allows to analyze the wear of
the elements of machines working at concentrated contact, i.e. rolling bearings, gears.
The work was carried out with the planned experiment according to the assumed
rotatable test plan, already tested in tribological tests [4, 5], and which parameters are
presented in Table 1. Parameters given in Table 1, such as pressure, sliding velocity
and hardness of balls were included in previous analyzes [6], where the effect of the test
time was not taken into account.
In order to determine the impact of the experiment time on the obtained tribological
characteristics of lubricants, research was carried out in two variants:
Correlation of Wear and Time in Research Conducted 429
Fig. 1. Friction node of four-ball tester [6]: 1-grip immobilizing down balls, 2-grip rotating with
upper ball, 3-lubricant
Table 1. Rotatable research plan

Lp. Pressure Sliding Balls Time of research Scar Scar
ph [MPa] velocity hardness for friction diameter diameter
v [m/s] [HRC] distance 33,4 m for 10 s for 33,4 m
[s] [mm] [mm]
1 2883,78 0,2335 32 143 5,14 5,19
2 3716,22 0,2335 32 143 5,43 5,34
3 2883,78 0,5665 32 59 3,98 3,93
4 3716,22 0,5665 32 59 4,10 4,10
5 2883,78 0,2335 54 143 1,39 1,39
6 3716,22 0,2335 54 143 2,36 2,47
7 2883,78 0,5665 54 59 1,4 1,50
8 3716,22 0,5665 54 59 2,78 2,85
9 2600,00 0,4000 43 83,5 1,50 1,83
10 4000,00 0,4000 43 83,5 3,81 3,79
11 3300,00 0,1200 43 278,3 1,78 2,34
12 3300,00 0,6800 43 49,1 3,44 3,26
13 3300,00 0,4000 24 83,5 5,60 5,43
14 3300,00 0,4000 62 83,5 1,47 1,58
15 3300,00 0,4000 43 83,5 3,45 3,43
16 3300,00 0,4000 43 83,5 3,64 3,56
17 3300,00 0,4000 43 83,5 3,67 3,59
18 3300,00 0,4000 43 83,5 3,52 3,48
19 3300,00 0,4000 43 83,5 3,58 3,54
20 3300,00 0,4000 43 83,5 3,45 3,46
430 T. Leśniewski
– assuming constant friction distance s = 33.4 m and in time resulting from the
adopted road and speed,
– at a constant time of 10 s, which is equivalent to the guideline of PN-76/C-04147.
Because the tests were repeated five times for each measurement point, the time
needed to carry out the tests (without preparatory time) was respectively: 9852 s for the
first variant and 1000 s for the second variant. It can observe a 10-fold difference in the
time of research in individual variants, which even now with the short distance, such as
33.4 m, is already a significant difference.
The results were statistically developed at a 95% confidence level using Student’s t-
test.
The wear of the balls (scar diameters) was measured in a direction parallel and
perpendicular to the trace of wear. Traces smaller than 1 mm were measured under a
microscope with an accuracy of 0.01 mm, and the remaining ones with a magnifier
with accuracy of 0,1 mm.
3 Materials and Their Characteristics
Materials used for the tests were:

1. Transol 150 oil, usually used as a lubricant for medium- and highly-loaded gears,
often carrying impact loads, obtained from selectively refined mineral oils, and
contains a number of additives improving lubricating, anti-corrosion, oxidation
resistance, anti-foam and demulsifying properties.
2. Bearing balls - diameter 12.7 mm, made of bearing steel 100Cr6 in 16th grade and
dimension group S = 0 lm. The balls were tempered at the required hardness from
24 to 62 HRC.
4 Test Results
Figure 2 shows the obtained diameters of scar of the balls (wear) in individual points of
the test plan. In order to improve the readability of the chart, the relevant points of the
chart for the results of research conducted during 10 s, were moved by 0.5, thanks to
which it is possible to compare the tests carried out with the same extortions of the
experiment plan, e.g. for values 1 and 1.5, we can analyze data for both assumed times
of research.
The graph shows a large convergence of obtained dependencies, despite significant
differences in the time of the experiment - for example, in the worst case, in point 11
we see the wear of balls about value 1.34 mm in 278,3 s, and in point 11.5 corre-
sponding wear in 10 s, which is 0.78 mm. The difference is therefore 58%, but it is
only apparent - the presented confidence intervals show at the same time that there is a
small repeatability of the results obtained in a longer time of research, hence such a
difference in the obtained average values. This is due to the higher temperature gen-
erated at the friction node in nearly 30 times longer testing time.
Correlation of Wear and Time in Research Conducted 431
Fig. 2. Relationship of scar diameter vs point of the research plan
Preliminary research results are presented aimed at linking the results of tribological
tests with concentrated contacts with time of research. It was found that:
– time does not significantly affect the results, due to the fact that in the initial time
(less than 10 s) a sufficient friction surface is created, which is no longer a contact
point but spreaded (elliptical surface) able to transfer the load and create a lubri-
cating layer;
– in the central point of the research plan, the convergence of the obtained results is
noticeable (points 15–20), and the largest discrepancies are visible at the longest
research time (278 s), almost 30 times longer than in the second variant of the
research. Extending the time of research results here not so much increasing the
wear of balls, which causes the edges of traces of wear to be smoothed out. In this
case, the scatter of obtained results is caused by clearly showing defects of the
elements used (balls), which are not perfect, but have scratches, shape deviations
and other defects.
The obtained results were supposed to shorten the time of the experiment, and thus
reduce the costs of experimental research. It has been observed that tests carried out in
the case of point contact provide such a possibility, because the work carried out in the
second variant (in 10 s, according to the standard) give convergent results and save
time (total profit is as much as 1000%). To generalize this case, similar tests should be
carried out with other types of contact, e.g. linear. In addition, the goal of the planned
432 T. Leśniewski
experiment is the possibility of generalizing the results obtained for the entire range of
input quantities. For this purpose, regression functions are built. It is therefore nec-
essary to verify the correctness and convergence of regression functions for both
variants of the study.
References
1. Stosiak M (2012) The modelling of hydraulic distributor slide–sleeve interaction. Arch Civ
Mech Eng 12:192–197
2. Sokolski P (2017) On wear processes in pin joints in caterpillars of large-size working
machines. In: Fuis V (ed) W: Engineering Mechanics 2017: 23rd international conference:
book of full texts, May 15–18, 2017, Svratka, Czech Republic, Brno University of
Technology, Brno, cop. 2017 s. 910–913
3. Gunia D, Smolnicki T (2017) The analysis of the stress distribution in contact pairs ball-wire
and wire-ring in wire raceway slewing bearing. In: Rusiński E, Pietrusiak D (eds) Proceedings
of the 13th international scientific conference. RESRB 2016. Lecture Notes in Mechanical
Engineering. Springer, Cham
4. Krawiec S (1998) Wpływ synergizmu wybranych napełniaczy w smarze na zwiększenie
trwałości ślizgowych węzłów maszyn. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej,
Wrocław
5. Mańczak K (1976) Technika planowania eksperymentu. WNT Warszawa
6. Leśniewski T, Krawiec S (2008) The effect of ball hardness on four-ball wear test results.
Wear 264:662–670
Feasibility Study on Location Monitoring
of Technical Objects During Operational Phase
Jacek Lewandowski1, Piotr Górski2, Tadeusz Lewandowski2,

Paweł Krowicki2(&), and Maciej Merek3
1
Faculty of Biology and Animal Science, Department of Genetics,
Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, C.K. Norwida 25,
jacek.lewandowski@upwr.edu.pl
2
{piotr.gorski,tadeusz.lewandowski,
pawel.krowicki}@pwr.edu.pl
3
PHOENIX CONTACT Sp. z o.o. ul, Bierutowska 57-59,
mmerek@phoenixcontact.pl
Abstract. Remote tracking and monitoring of different objects becomes the

everyday life need in various aspects of human life. Nowadays, it concerns not
only the strategic areas such as security, defence or life threatening parameters
such as human vital signs, but due to the wide availability of technologies and
techniques, the remote objects monitoring is applied also to industrial or busi-
ness applications such as logistics, monitoring of high value objects or others, as
well as monitoring of all sorts of general use objects such as vehicles, equipment
or others. This paper propose the concept of Smart Tools Monitoring system
designed and prototyped to monitor the location and status of hand tools during
the operation phase in the factory. As part of the project the analysis and tests of
the applicability of available techniques and technologies have been performed
in factory settings in order to find out the specifics of such environments in
terms of distance, interferences and electromagnetic noise generated by
machines. This paper presents the system concept as well as design and oper-
ational findings from the feasibility study.
1 Introduction
Remote tracking and monitoring of different objects becomes the everyday life need in
various aspects of human life. Nowadays, it concerns not only the strategic areas (such
as security or defence) or life threatening parameters (such as human vital signs), but
due to the wide availability of technologies and techniques, the remote objects mon-
itoring is applied also to industrial or business applications (such as logistics, moni-
toring of high value objects or others), as well as monitoring of all sorts of general use
objects (such as vehicles, equipment or others). Such industrial remote tracking and
monitoring can be used, for example, to locate the object in space and time (e.g. to
specify the location of people, vehicles, aircrafts or other items in order to control
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_51
434 J. Lewandowski et al.
them) as well as to determine essential characteristics of objects (e.g. important

parameters of human life, physical characteristics of objects which are important from
the health and safety or from the operational point of view, or to determine the suit-
ability of objects or facilities e.g. tools).
This paper propose the concept of Smart Tools Monitoring system design and
prototyped in order to monitor the location and status of hand tools during the operation
phase in the factory. As part of the project the analysis and tests of the applicability of
available techniques and technologies have been performed in factory settings in order
to find out the specifics of such environments in terms of distance, interferences and
electromagnetic noise generated by machines. This paper presents the system concept
as well as finding from the feasibility study.
2 Smart Tools Monitoring Concept
The aim of smart tools monitoring project is to enhance the experience of hand tools’
users by enabling them to gain important and practical real-time information about
different states and features of utilized tools.
The scope of the monitoring, and thus the type and number of the necessary
information to collect, arise from the tool exploitation pattern and may be the user
individual case. As part of this project, the whole spectrum of essential functionalities
for hand tools monitoring system will be identified and described, to correspond to
potential user needs (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. The proposed complete set of system functionalities with integrations.

Feasibility Study on Location Monitoring of Technical 435
Four primary sets of tools’ information were identified and grouped:

1. User identification and control service–“WHO”
2. Tools identification and location service–“WHERE”
3. Toolbox (toolkit) completeness control service–“WHAT”
4. Tool’s health monitoring service–“HOW”
User identification service aims to answer who has taken/returned a tool and when,
while control service ensures that only authorised users can take tools from the
warehouse. According to user requirements which anticipate changing environmental
conditions, available infrastructure and different working environments this function-
ality can be performed either: (a) manually (alternative option)–using dedicated mobile
app/website or simple spreadsheet controlled by the operator, or (b) automatically
(recommended option) through a dedicated tools recognition system using e.g. RFID
that assigns the tool to the user for the time of use.
Automated tool’s recognition system not only allows for tools warehouse man-
agement system which controls who takes what and when from the warehouse but also
for toolbox content control service which aims to provide and answer of what has been
taken and whether the content of the toolbox is appropriate for the planned task. In such
system, toolbox can be either assigned to the user in which case toolbox completeness
is controlled before and after work or the toolbox can be assigned to the specific task in
which case the task-centered toolbox completion check is performed based on
scheduled works.
Tool’s identification and location service aims to provide the information where the
tool is. It can work as simple tool location tracker or as the protection zone service
(deployed either in the warehouse or in the field) which indicates the tool’s status as IN
or OUT based on the tool’s predefined zone of operation.
Finally, tool’s health monitoring service aims to control whether the tool is
available for operation (within the range), if it is working or broken as well as monitors
tool’s use condition and wear level measured by the total use time or use intensity.
Additional optional feature of the system is the maintenance control and decision
service, which based on the above information will make the decision regarding tool’s
calibration as well as what periodic tests to perform and when to schedule them in order
to maxime tool’s operational availability.
3 Identification of Techniques and Technologies for Remote

Objects Monitoring
There are multiple technologies, which can be used for the purpose of objects identi-
fication and implementation of described system functionalities. This technologies can
be classified according to their principles of operation. As such the available identifi-
cation and monitoring technologies are:
• optical,
• mechanical,
• ultrasound,
• electromagnetic.
All these solutions have their own limitations, what make these technologies
application specific. Most important features and characteristics of those systems are
discussed below, using medical applications of surgical equipment tracking as the use
case example.
Monitoring in medicine is used for example to navigate surgical equipment and as
such requires the equipment tracking system [1]. An example of such system is the
NDI POLARIS which is commonly used during orthopaedic surgeries. In such system
the stereoscopic vision system allows the orthopaedist to locate markers stuck to the
body of a patient. The system allows for the orientation in space of surgical instruments
equipped with a set of three markers. The user can track the translation and rotation of
each tool relative to the specific reference point. The prerequisite for the proper
operation of the system is the need to provide the line-of-sight between the tool and the
camera. In addition, systems operating in infrared light are often disturbed by the
sunlight. The advantage of the optical location system is its accuracy, which, depending
on the system, may be under 1 mm.
While the application of mechanical positioning system for tracking surgical
instruments is successful due to the short range of monitoring, its application to tools
location tracking within the premise or production hall over the long range would not
be possible. Mechanical systems relay on a moving arm with mounted encoders for
determining the position of the end of the arm. Another disadvantage of the mechanical
system is its inability to track multiple objects simultaneously.
Such restrictions do not apply however to the optical or an ultrasound systems. The
second one, the same as the optical system, requires to ensure the line-of-sight between
the transmitter and the receiver. The ultrasound system, unlike the optical system does
not record picture, but, in turn, the times between transmitting and receiving the
ultrasound. This system is susceptible to temperature changes, what can interfere its
operation. The change in the temperature of the environment (in this case the air),
which propagates ultrasounds, changes the speed of ultrasound propagation. Moreover,
ultrasound sensors itself require AC power source, what is also a limitation of such
system.
The last solution is the electromagnetic tracking system. In such system an
induction coil is used as a positioning sensor, which is placed in a variable or constant
electromagnetic field. On the basis of the induced current in the coil the system
determines the position of an object and two out of three possible to obtain rotations.
Currently, these types of systems are widely used in medicine in craniofacial surgeries
and in virtual reality systems to track object over the short distance. The induction coil
may be of small factor, however the system requires fairly strong antenna and the
power source, in order to read tags. Table 1 below presents detailed comparison and
specification of tracking systems discussed above.
Available commercial monitoring systems have a wide range of applications, but
certainly not suited for the long-term tools tracking and monitoring applications.
Table 1. Comparison of different tracking techniques.

Optical Mechanical Ultrasound Electromagnetic
Sensor The end of
the arm is a
sensor
Wireless Yes No Yes Yes
connectivity
Degrees of 3–6 3 3–6 5
freedom
Range 1,5–15 [m] 1,2–3,7 [m] 2–7 [m] <1 [m]
Advantages ✓ Lightweight ✓ Device ✓ Lightweight ✓ Small and
sensors price sensors lightweight sensors
✓ Two types of ✓ Relatively cheap ✓ No need for line-
location technologies of-sight
(active and passive)
Disadvantages ■ Possibility of ■ Limited ■ Requires the ■ Surrounding
interference with range of line-of-sight metal elements may
external infrared operation between sensor and interfere with the
sources ■ An ability receiver system
■ Requires the line- to track only ■ Sensors require ■ Sensors require
of-sight between one object power source power source
sensor and receiver ■ Short range
The human motion detection system was developed by Krahnstoever [2]. The
system consist of two vision cameras and a RFID reader. Such combination of RFID
and optical systems, enabled accurate objects identification and location in observable
space as well as recognition of its movements and actions (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Detection of rotational movements using the vision system supported by the RFID
reader [2].
It should be mentioned that the range of work of such system is quite limited and
depends on the resolution of cameras and the type of RFID tags used. However, by
increasing the camera resolution we also increase the time required by the system to
analyse the image.
The system presented by Krahnstoever used cameras with resolution of half VGA.
While in Krahnstoever’s application such resolution was acceptable, so the monitoring
of tens of tools with several measurement stations installed in different places, will
require high resolution cameras as well as high computation power to process collected
images. Furthermore, it requires a big financial effort, the system must be located at a
short distance from the RFID sensors and cameras what is turn force the company to
have a dedicated infrastructure and place to host the entire installation. This analysis
suggests the direction of further research, which should focus on the use of wireless,
miniaturized tracking and monitoring techniques.
There are few wireless communication technologies and standards such as WiFi,
Bluetooth, RFID, Radio Communication (in 433 MHz band) or Xbee. All of these
technologies have well known data transmission protocols, which customised, could
potentially be applied to remote objects tracking and monitoring. In further analysis the
focus is on four standards: Bluetooth, RFID, RC and Xbee. The WiFi has been
excluded from this analysis due to its well-known high energy consumption
characteristic.
The first Bluetooth specification was announced in 1999 [3]. Three years later the
IEEE has approved the new communication standard 802.15.1 and works on the
communication quality and range extensions have commenced. Bluetooth has gone
through number of modifications and improvements from version 1.0 through 1.1, 1.2,
2.0, 3.0, 3.1, until the most up to date version 4.0. Depending on the version of the
protocol, most of the improvements have focused on transfer rate and range extension.
The first version of Bluetooth allowed for the transmission speed of 21 kb/s. 2 Mb/s
was achieved with version 2.0. Bluetooth 3.0 and 3.1 allowed for the transmission rate
of 24 Mb/s and 40 Mb/s respectively. What is interesting, the version 4.0 has a
decreased transmission rate to 1 Mb/s but an increased transmission range of up to
100 m. What is more important in version 4.0 is the energy consumption, which has
been significantly decreased. The use of the latest communication protocol allows for
the use of Bluetooth modules on a single cell battery from several months to several
years, for example, to measure the temperature. In order to work the Bluetooth tech-
nology requires two active devices, which will communicate with each other (such as
two smartphones). Research on the application of Bluetooth 2.1 has shown the pos-
sibility of Bluetooth location service development for indoor tracking purposes [4].
Similar system has been presented in 2012 by the Koki Morii company and has been
used to locate and control children [5]. Similar application of Bluetooth has been used
to track students’ attendance [6] or to control elderly people at home [7, 8].
Alternative communication technology, focusing mainly of on identification
aspects is the Radio-frequency identification (RFID). The first RFID identification
prototype was created in early 60ties. The standard RFID system consists of RFID tags
attached to objects and the RFID reader equipped with the antenna. The RFID reader
uses an antenna which radiates a circularly polarized signal in a directional pattern to
send and receive signals to and from RFID tags. The RFID tag can be either active or
passive. The second group does not require the power source in order to operate, but
instead the tag must be within the of electromagnetic field of the transmitter. The
electromagnetic field interrogates the induction coil in order to supply the energy to the
built-in capacitor, which after saturation enables the RFID tag to reflect the signal and
respond. Literature review on the use of RFID technology presents many different
application from real-time monitoring of the water system pipes alignment, together
with its spatial visualization [9], monitoring tools position on the construction site [10]
or to time competing runners. The literature review on RFID applications allows to
formulate the following observations:
• the number of antennas needed depends on the area that needs to be covered as well
as on the arrangement of pieces of equipment and facilities.
• it has been demonstrated that a change in the temperature has an impact on the
reading distance [10],
• many applications require task dedicated custom-built RFID tag.
Another well-known communication standard is Xbee/ZigBee announced in the
year 2000. Objectives, which guided the development of this standard and the device
itself, was to achieve the low power consumption and simple design of the device. As a
result, in mid- December of 2004 the first ZigBee specification has been issued.
Nowadays, XBee modules can be found in systems used to e.g. monitor the movement
of the vehicle [11], identification and localization of students on campus [12], or to
monitor athletes performance [13].
The last of the reviewed communication technologies is the Radio Frequency
Communication in the 433 MHz frequency band which is widely used in electronic
design. There are two types of RF modules used in this technology: transmitters and
receivers. An RF transmitter module is typically a small PCB sub-assembly capable of
transmitting a radio wave and modulating that wave to carry data. Transmitter modules
are usually implemented alongside a micro controller, which provides the transmission
data to the module. RF transmitters are usually subject to regulatory requirements,
which dictate the maximum allowable transmitter power output, harmonics, and band
edge requirements. An RF receiver module receives the modulated RF signal, and
demodulates it. There are plenty of different applications of this fairly inexpensive
modules starting from wireless meter reading through vehicle monitoring, remote
control, telemetry, wireless home security systems, to industrial data acquisition sys-
tems [14] and access control systems [15].
In conclusion, the common solution is to use two or more types of communication
protocols in one system [11, 12, 14]. In the literature no information was found
regarding tools tracking applications. It should be emphasized that most of the
examples cited here concerns different types of tracking devices, but none of this
solutions have similar requirements to the functional, technical and organizational
requirements for the tools monitoring system presented in Sect. 2.
4 Result of In-Field Tests of Selected Wireless Identification

and Monitoring Technologies
In order to identify which of the selected technologies will be suitable for development
of smart tools monitoring system for Phoenix Contact, a number of experiments have
been performed to establish the reading range and interference sources in factory
settings – the most natural tools operation environment. Based on the results of wireless
technologies review presented in Sect. 3 four potential and feasible wireless monitoring
solutions have been disclosed for application to smart tools identification and moni-
toring. For the purpose of carrying out measurements, four measurement systems have
been prototyped to test the following wireless technologies:
• Bluetooth
• XBee
• RFID
• RF 433 MHz.
Figure 3 presents transmitters and receivers used to transmit custom built identi-
fication frame and record the radio signal strength indicator (RSSI). After the system
boot, the BLE and Zbee transmitter presented in Fig. 3a, switch to transmission mode
and continuously transmits the identification frame at regular time intervals. Signal
generation as well as its reception (Fig. 3b) in a remote location is managed by the
custom built application running on the Raspberry Pi. To read data from UHF RFID
tags, a computer application and the RFID LinkSprite communication module with
external antenna is used (Fig. 3c). Signal received by the receiver module allows to
identify a specific tag as well as measure the RSSI for each received identification
frame. Transmitter and receivers operating at 433 MHz frequency band were connected
to the AVR microcontroller. In such circuit settings a signal is generated when the
Fig. 3. Bluetooth and XBee transmitting circuit; (b) Bluetooth, Xbee and RFID receiving
circuit; (c) complete signal strength measurement system
transmit button on the transmitter module is pressed. When such signal reaches the
receiver its LED lights up, what indicates the success of the identification over the
given distance.
The measurements of signal interference and effective transmission range in the
field were taken at the Phoenix Contact factory in Nowy Tomysl, Poland. These
Measurements were taken in four halls, which layout and arrangement is shown in
Fig. 4. In Hall 1 where metal parts production line is located, the measurements were
take near the machine for metal parts cutting, which characterise by strong electro-
magnetic field. In Hall 2 where the injection moulding machines are located, the
measurements station was located in the aisle between those machines. In Hall 3 and
Hall 4, where manual assembly and automatic production machines are located, the
measurements station was located in the main aisle near the centre of each hall.
Measurements were taken over a certain time period to obtain at least 100 readings in
each location and at a certain distances with intension to measure the maximum signal
transmission distance in each location.
Fig. 4. Locations of measurement stations and transmitters in each hall
Results presented in Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5 are the mean signal strength indicators for
each measured transmitter location. Selected measurement locations are marked on the
factory plan presented in Fig. 4. The plan presents also estimated locations of trans-
mitters in each hall.
Table 2. Results summary for measurements performed in Hall 1.

HALL 1
Distance [m] Obstacles Bluetooth [dBm] Xbee [dBm]
4,00 No −60,54 ± 5,90 −62,91 ± 4,11
4,00 Yes −66,57 ± 4,26 −64,28 ± 3,95
22,80 Yes −72,26 ± 4,09 −77,63 ± 5,13
33,11 Yes −75,50 ± 1,84 −77,78 ± 2,99

HALL 2
38,50 No −74,04 ± 3,51 −76,61 ± 3,87
24,37 Yes −76,45 ± 3,31 −79,48 ± 3,46

HALL 3
42,00 No −75,66 ± 2,91 –

HALL 4
40,00 No −73,00 ± 4,02 −80,27 ± 3,97
31,62 Yes −77,39 ± 3,35 −80,15 ± 4,44
Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5 show the results for the two technologies: Bluetooth and XBee.
Interference generated by machines and assembly devices in individual halls effectively
eliminated the possibility of conducting measurements with the RFID and RF
433 MHz. These results are also presented in Fig. 5 below, which displays the signal
strength depending on the distance.
Obtained results shows that these two technologies have appropriate signal char-
acteristic so that they can be used for the identification and monitoring of tools in
highly interfered environment such as production factory. It should be noted that
Bluetooth performed in general better compared to XBee. As far as Bluetooth worked
well in all tested locations, there was one location in hall 3 where XBee failed to
operate due to strong electromagnetic field interference.
Fig. 5. Bluetooth and Xbee signal strenght depending on the distance from the transmitter.
5 Conclusions and Recommendations
Monitoring of tools that are in constant use in the production or assembly line can be
achieved by implementing the system based on Bluetooth Low Energy wireless
transmission. Such application will require that all tools, toolboxes or tools cabinets
that require monitoring are equipped with tiny, low-energy Bluetooth enabled system-
on-chips, programmed to periodically advertise (in low-energy mode) their presence to
the nearby receivers.
Implementation of such system requires to relocate number of Bluetooth
transmitter/receiver terminals around premises, which require monitoring. Those ter-
minals, connected to the main control system, equipped with the touch screen and the
RFID reader, will enable users to check their tools account, search the tool in the
databases as well as reserve it. The system will also allow the user to check who is
currently in the possession of the tool he needs. Using the signal that is periodically
sent from the transmitter located on the tool to several nearby receivers, the system will
be able to monitor tools. Based on the recorded signal strength (RSSI) it is possible to
determine the approximate tool location on the warehouse floor and present this
information graphically on the terminal or the web site to the user.
The work presented in this report, aimed to examine the possibility of using any
available techniques and technologies for implementation of remote hand tools mon-
itoring system. The objective of such system is to provide the answer to the following
questions:
• Who has taken/returned a tool?
• What has been taken?
• Where the tool is?
• What is the tool’s health?
As part of this project an extensive review of tools identification and monitoring
solutions has been conducted and presented in [16]. Based on the literature review, the
analysis of remote objects monitoring techniques and technologies has been conducted
in order to assess their suitability for smart tools identification and monitoring. The
analysis took into account tools working conditions (e.g. the tool use locations, which
are close to heavy production machines, which generate a strong electromagnetic field).
In order to identify which of the selected technologies are suitable for development
of smart tools monitoring system, a number of experiments have been conducted to
establish the reading range and interference sources in factory settings–the most natural
tools operation environment. Interference generated by machines and assembly devices
in individual halls effectively eliminated the possibility of conducting measurements in
RFID and RF 433 MHz. Obtained results shows that both Bluetooth 4.0 and XBee
have appropriate signal characteristics so that they can be used for tools identification
and monitoring in highly interfered environments such as production factory. It should
be noted that Bluetooth performed in general better compared to XBee. Furthermore
due to the high price of XBee modules and worse than Bluetooth performance, this
technology has been omitted in further considerations. In contrast, comparable in
quality and much cheaper Bluetooth 4.0 technology is proposed as a main wireless
communication technology for remote tools identification and monitoring, which can
be applied to those tools where both identification and real-time monitoring is required
(e.g. due to the tools’ high value).
References
1. Keppler P, Krysztoforski K, Świątek E, Krowicki P, Kozak J, Gebhard F, Pinzuti J (2007) A
new experimental measurement and planning tool for sonographic-assisted navigation.
Orthopedics, Thorofare, NJ)
2. Krahnstoever N, Rittscher J, Tu P, Chean K, Tomlinson T (2005) Activity recognition using
visual tracking and RFID. In: Proceedings of the Seventh IEEE Workshop on Applications
of Computer Vision, pp 494–500
3. Bluetooth System Specification version 1.O (1999) IEEE, December
4. Alhamoud A, Nair A, Gottron C, Bohnstedt D (2014) Presence detection, identification and
tracking in smart homes utilizing bluetooth enabled smartphones. In: 13th Annual IEEE
Workshop on Wireless Local Networks
5. Morii K, Taketa K, Mori Y (2012) A new generation children tracking system using
bluetooth MANET composed of android mobile terminals. In: 9th International Conference
on Ubiquitous Intelligence and Computing and 9th International Conference on Autonomic
and Trusted Computing
6. Lewandowski J, Arochena HE (2011) Mobile attendance and time monitoring for m-learning
applications: design and pilot results. In: IADIS International Conference Mobile Learning
2011, Avila, Spain, March 10–12
7. Lin YJ, Chen HS, Su MJ (2015) A cloud based bluetooth low energy tracking system for
dementia patients. In: Mobile Computing and Ubiquitous Networking (ICMU), 2015 Eighth
International Conference, pp 88–89
8. Lewandowski J, Arochena HE, Naguib RNG (2009) Attendance and time monitoring of day-
clinic patients using wireless communication. In: 4th International Conference Humanoid,
Nanotechnology, Information Technology Communication and Control, Environment and
Management (HNICEM) 2009 IEEE Conference. Manila, Philippines, March 12–15
9. Kim CH, Kwon S, Cho C (2012) Development of automated pipe spool monitoring system
using rfid and 3d model for plant construction project. KSCE J Civ Eng 866–876
10. Goodrum P, McLaren M, Durfee A (2006) The application of active radio frequency
identification technology for tool tracking on construction job sites. Autom Constr 292–302
11. Angel G, Brindha A (2011) Real-Time monitoring of gps-tracking multifunctional vehicle
path control and data acquisition based on ZigBee multi-hop mesh network. In: International
Conference on Recent Advancements in Electrical, Electronics and Control Engineering
12. Chen Y, Wang Y, Li X, Gao L (2011) The Design and Implementation of Intelligent
Campus Security Tracking System Based on RFID and ZigBee. In: Mechanic Automation
and Control Engineering, pp 1749–1752
13. Wang Y, Chang S, Shan G (2014) A wireless sensor system for the training of hammer
throwers. In: 10th International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Security
14. Wang M, Dai Q, Zhang X, Luo X, Zhong R (2010) A RFID-enabled MES for real-time
pharmaceutical manufacturing supervision. In: Proceeding of the IEEE International
Conference on RFID-Technology and Applications, pp 49–53
15. Dai Q, Liu Y, Jiang Z, Liu Z, Zhou K, Wang J (2008) MES wireless communication
networking technology based on 433 MHz. In: 2nd International Conference on Anti-
counterfeiting, Security and Identification, pp 110–113
16. Górski P, Krowicki P, Lewandowski J, Lewandowski T (2015) The feasibility study on
remote smart tools monitoring feasibility study report. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Łukasiewicza 5, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland,
Wroclaw
Bending Strength of a Thick-Walled
Composite in a Thermoplastic Matrix
Karolina Łagoda1, Andrzej Kurek2, Anna Kulesa2,

Wojciech Błażejewski1, and Tadeusz Łagoda2(&)
1
Wrocław University of Science and Technology, ul. Łukasiewicza 5, 50-371
Wrocław, Poland
{karolina.lagoda,wojciech.blazejewski}@pwr.edu.pl
2
{a.kurek,a.kulesa,t.lagoda}@po.opole.pl
Abstract. The research was carried on specimens made of composite laminate

with thermoplastic matrix PA6 reinforced with continuous glass fiber. Speci-
mens were subjected to a static three- and four – point bending tests at different
spacings of the supports, resulting in different values of the ratio between normal
and shear stresses. Both distribution of normal stress that comes from bending
and distribution of shear stress, according to transverse shear stress in beams,
coming from shear were considered. In the case of analyzing composite mate-
rials, shear stress is significant and considered cases have to be treated as
stressed in complex stress condition. The results of the analysis were as follows:
variation in cross-section of shear stresses according to the transverse shear
stress in beams equation and distribution of bending stresses on the triangle. It
was proposed to calculate the equivalent stress according to an equation
obtained basing on the Azzi-Tsai-Hill criterion at a coefficient being a ratio of
tensile strength to transverse shear strength determined experimentally.
Depending on the combination of shear and normal stresses, cracking is initiated
either by shear or normal stress.
Keywords: Complex stress state Normal and shear stress Composite
1 Introduction
When formulating the fracture criteria for isotropic materials, the microstructure is not
much significant. It is different for the fiber composites where not only the materials
used but also their arrangement is important [1–4]. The purpose of the tests is to
analyze the complex state of stress that occurs during three- and four-point static
bending of thick-walled composite within a thermoplastic matrix. As part of the
analysis, it is considered that the stress distribution is normal as in bending, and the
shear stress distribution is according to the Żurawski formula.
There are few criteria for checking which equivalent stresses occur in the material
at a given load. However, the proper criterion should be chosen considering particularly
the type of material. For composite materials, some criteria are similar to the standard
ones, i.e. the maximum stress criterion or the maximum strain criterion [5]. Among the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_52
Bending Strength of a Thick-Walled Composite 447
other most popular are Tsai-Wu [6], Puck [7], Hashin [8], Hoffman [9] and Azzi – Tsai
– Hill criteria [10]. The tests were made according to the instructions of the German
standard DIN EN ISO 14125 describing the method of bending tests of composites
with the polymeric matrix. As part of the tests, the bending strength of thermoplastic
PA6 reinforced with glass fiber was tested. All fibers were integral, arranged to one
direction across the specimen. The work modifies the Azzi – Tsai – Hill criterion so to
determine the equivalent stresses and enable to imagine the total stresses occurring in
the material. One of the tasks is also to determine the X/S characteristic being the ratio
of the layer tensile strength towards the fibers to the shear stress perpendicularly to the
fibers.
The tested material was polyamide PA6 reinforced with E glass fiber. Polyamide PA6
was used as a matrix in the material. It is a thermoplastic whose basic characteristics are
as follows: Young Module E = 3.3 GPa, shear strength smax = 75.8 MPa. The glass
fiber used as reinforcement was arranged one-directionally as an integral fiber. The
basic E fiber was used to produce a composite, with the following characteristics:
Young’s modulus E = 73 GPa, tensile strength rmax = 3500 MPa. Relying on the
mixture rule, a part of resulting characteristics of the whole composite could have been
determined. Using the linear method, the real fiber percentage share was calculated and
depending on the given measurement area, the results between 38% and 40% were
obtained. In this case, relying on the theory of mixtures, the Young’s modulus of the
composite is E = 32 GPa Tensile strength rmax = 705 MPa.
The dimensions of specimens used to test the material bending strength were based
on several aspects. The instructions included in the German standard DIN, the char-
acteristics of the device used for tests and the thickness of obtained material were all
considered.
The length, width and height of the specimen were l = 250 mm, b = 16.4 mm and
h = 13 mm, respectively. The length was chosen considering the suggestions in the
standard to be high but still fit to the strength testing machine. The width was taken
directly from the standard and the height of the specimen that determined the other
dimensions needs to be discussed in particular. In the literature there is hardly any
condition or definition of thin walls of composite elements. However, in this case it is a
thick-walled element. It is an important thing since usually the elements with much
smaller thickness are tested – the standard indicates 2 mm.
Tests were performed on the universal strength machine WPM ZDM 10/91. The
load rate was 2 mm/min, environment temperature was 23 °C, and humidity was 69%.
Tests were made both in three- and four-point system. Specimens were arranged
symmetrically on the station. Specimen’s length was constant and amounted 250 mm.
Spacing of external supports for four-point bending was constant as well.
For the three-point bending, the spacing was being changed. For the four-point
bending, the external spacing was constant and amounted to 240 mm. Spacing between
internal supports was being changed. Tables 1 and 2 show the results of tests for
different spacing of supports. The following designations are assumed: L – spacing of
448 K. Łagoda et al.
supports, smax – maximum shear stress, rmax – maximum normal stress, h1 - maximum
distance of the specimen’s surface from the neutral plane; primary stress – shear or
normal stress.
Table 1. Maximum shear and normal stresses for different spacing of supports in case of the
three-point bending
L mm Actual fracture Fracture by criterion rmax MPa smax MPa h1 mm
225 normal normal 464 12 6.68
102 normal normal + shear 586 26 8.76
70 normal + shear shear 495 36 7.56
50 normal + shear shear 374 47 6.25
Table 2. Maximum shear and normal stresses at different support spacings for the four-point
bending
L mm Actual fracture Fracture by criterion rmax MPa smax MPa h1 mm
160 shear shear 545 35 7.91
130 shear normal + shear 510 27 6.98
120 normal + shear normal + shear 698 22 8.82
110 normal + shear normal + shear 502 18 6.31
100 normal + shear normal 600 17 7.44
80 normal + shear normal 485 28 6.59
Tables 1 and 2 also show which stresses determined the damage of material during
the bending test. When the primary stress was normal, a specimen fractured crosswise
the material. When the primary stress was shear, a specimen fractured lengthwise. It
shows that the fracture allowed the layers to move against each other. The last pos-
sibility was to combine the shear and normal stresses. In this situation, a specimen
fractured crosswise but there were visible signs of a lengthwise fracture.
3 Analysis of Results
Assuming that the specimen’s section was rectangular, the distribution of stresses on
the section should be even.
However, the breakthroughs imply that the neutral plane was not necessarily at the
center of the specimen section. Because of that, the stress distribution was as in Fig. 1
and the normal tensile and compression stresses are not the same. Even though the
specimen’s cross section is rectangular, it was treated, as if it was not symetric, in order
to model a situation, when the center of mass is not in the middle.
a)
Section’s
center of mass
b)
Fig. 1. Different areas of extension – compression when the neutral plan is not at the specimen
center: (a) sample photo, (b) normal stress distribution
Tables 1 and 2 show also the maximum distance of the specimen’s surface from the
neutral plane h1. The value of h1 was measured, and then averaged, basing on actual
fracture.
4 Complex Strain Analysis - Azzi-Tsai-Hill Criterion
The basic form of Azzi – Tsai – Hill criterion is:

r 2 r 2 r r r 2
1 2 1 2 6
þ 2 þ ¼1 ð1Þ
X Y X S
Given that the stresses occurred only in two directions, it can be assumed that
r2 ¼ 0. By conversion and substitution: req ¼ X; rxx ¼ r1 ; sxy ¼ r6 the following
form for the equivalent stress is obtained:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
X
req ¼ rxx þ
2 sxy : ð2Þ
S
The final formula for equivalent stresses in case of the modified Azzi– Tsai – Hill
criterion is very similar to the equivalent stress formula based on Huber – Mises –
Hencky criterion. In case of isotropic materials where the HMH criterion is used, the
pffiffiffi
ratio for shear stress is constant and amounts to 3, whereas when testing composite
laminates, the ratio is not constant and depends on the material.
On the basis of observation of specimen fracture, the X/S ratio was determined,
necessary to calculate the equivalent stresses according to the formula (2).
Given that the fracture was on the interface and not on the matrix or a fiber, the data
could not have been substituted knowing only the characteristics of individual mate-
rials. The literature data [11] advises that in case of joints of glass fibers with an
epoxide resin matrix as the most commonly tested fiber polymer composite, the ratio
X 1062
¼ ¼ 14:75 ð3Þ
S 72
Knowing this, the X/S ratio, which was predicted to be similar was determined.
After analysis of decisive type of stress in different cases, it was found that the value for
the tested composite is 19.4.
5 Interpretation
Basing on the formula (2), equivalent stresses were calculated for all sample spacing
both for the three- and four-point bending. Calculations were made for the data con-
sistent with the original assumptions, i.e. with the neutral layer placed at the center of
the specimen’s cross-section and for the data obtained when taking into account the
actual position of the layer. In Fig. 2 there are shown values of normal, shear and
equivalent stresses for exemplary spacings for both types of bending. The z/h value
represents the distance to the neutral plane. 1 corresponds to the specimens surface and
0 reflects the neutral plane.
The calculated equivalent stresses for three- and four-point bending are shown in
the diagrams in Fig. 3 for two cases. One assumes an equal extended section and
compressed section. The other assumes a different area of the extended section and the
compressed section. In both cases, the results for theoretical position of the neutral
layer are marked in blue and the equivalent stresses for actual position are marked in
red. The relatively high discrepancies between the resulting stresses can be noted which
theoretically should be comparable.
Fig. 2. Normal stresses, shear stresses, complex stresses (A-T-H criterion) – (a) three-point
bending, 50 mm spacing, (b) four-point bending, 80 mm spacing
1000
800
stress [MPa]
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
L [mm]
a)
800
700
600
stress [MPa]
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200
L [mm]
b)
Fig. 3. Comparing equivalent stresses with theoretical (circles) and actual (crosses) position of
the neutral layer for different support spacings (a) for three-point bending (b) for four-point
bending
6 Conclusions
• When the damage was caused by normal stresses, it started from the specimen’s
surface and if the shear stress was primary, the fracture occurred in the neutral plane
between the extended section and the compressed section.
• The ratio of fiber tensile strength against the shear stress of the fiber and matrix joint
(X/S) is 19.4 for the given material.
• The Azzi – Tsai – Hill criterion was applied so to achieve the value of equivalent
tensile stresses of the composite fibers.
• There is a difference in obtained stresses when assuming the symmetrical fracture

(assuming a position of the neutral plane at the center of the specimen’s section) and
the real surface fracture (different share of the compressed section and the extended
section)
• The third component occurring while bending should be noted. These are the
pressures from the supporting and loading pins, which locally compress the material
and should be considered in the future.
References
1. Kroll L, Lepper M, Grüber B, Kostka P, Yhou B (2004) Analytical model for stress and
failure analysis of notched hybrid composites. In: Warszawa: 21st international congress on
theoretical and applied mechanics (ICTAM-21), s 298
2. Kroll L, Hufenbach W (1995) New proof of laminate design by a physically based failure
criterion. In: Canada: proceedings of the tenth international conference on composite
materials (ICCM 10), s 715–722
3. Kroll L, Hufenbach W (1999) Physically based failure criterion for laminated composites.
Mech Compos Mater 35(4):413–422
4. Kroll L (2005) Berechnung und technische Nutzung von anisotropiebedingten Werkstoff -
und Struktureffekten für multifunktionale Leichtbauanwendungen. Habilitationsschrift. TU
Dresden
5. Tsai SW, Wu EM (1971) A general theory of strength for anisotropic materials. J Compos
Mater 5:58–80
6. Puck A, Schurmann H (1998) Failure analysis of FRP laminates by means of physically
based phenomenological models. Compos Sci Technol 58:1045–1067
7. Hashin Z (1980) Failure criteria for unidirectional fiber composites. J Appl Mech 47:329–
334
8. Hoffman O (1967) The brittle strength of orthotropic materials. J Compos Mater 1:200–206
9. Azzi VD, Tsai SW (1965) Anisotropic strength of composities, experimental mechanics,
vol 5
10. Cuntze R, Deska R, Jeltsch-Fricker R, Meckbach S, Huybrechts D, Kopp J, Kroll L,
Gollwitzer S, Rackwitz R (1997) Neue Bruchkriterien und Festigkeitsnachweise für
unidirektionalen Faserkunststoffverbund unter mehrachsiger Beanspruchung – Modellbil-
dung und Experimente -.VDI, Reihe 5: Grund- und Werkstoffe Nr. 506
11. German J (2001) Podstawy mechaniki kompozytów wlóknistych, Politechnika Krakowska,
Cracow, Poland (in polish)
Computer Aided Design of Wood Pellet
Machines
Marek Macko1(&) and Adam Mroziński2

1
Kazimierz Wielki University, Institute of Mechanics and Applied Computer
Sciences, Kopernika 1, 85-074 Bydgoszcz, Poland
mackomar@ukw.edu.pl
2
University of Technology and Life Sciences, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Al. Kaliskiego 7, 85-791 Bydgoszcz, Poland
Abstract. The work presents the construction solution of a wood pellet

machines according to the original concept. In order to determine the con-
struction features of the machine, the SolidWorks application with simulation
modules was used. The effect of these simulations was to determine the range of
constructional features of the pellet machine working system. The usefulness of
the CAD/CAE application in the scope of determining the acceptable range of
construction features of the pellet machine was indicated.
Keywords: Wood-Pellets Energy biomass Fuel Pellet machines CAD

CAE
1 Introduction
Currently, many research centres are searching for new materials for energy purposes
and research on their properties, including of biomass energy. The stage of preparation
for further operations is usually grinding [1–6]. In this area, numerous works are
carried out to estimate the energy demand for the process. In the area of energy and
material recycling, work is underway to develop polymer and wood materials [7–9].
The European Union produces about 50% of the world’s production of wood
pellets. However, the demand for pellets in the EU alone accounts for 75% of the entire
wood pellet market in the world. Therefore, the EU is the largest wood pellet market in
the world, with around 20.5 million tonnes of pellets consumed in 2015. In all con-
sumption from 2015, approx. 65% of the volume of all pellets was used for heat
production and 35% for energy production. Currently, the demand for wood pellets is
expected to increase to 22.5 million tonnes in 2017. When it comes to heating homes,
the market looks quite stable compared to the industrial use of pellets. About 60% of
the pellets used to produce heat were burned by households. However, recent rather
mild winters, as well as lower prices of fossil fuels, have reduced pellet consumption by
households. It should be noted, however, that when heating industrial or public
buildings such as hospitals and swimming pools, the impact of weather conditions is
less important to the amount of burning pellets. The main consumers of wood pellets in
the EU are: Great Britain, Italy, Denmark, Germany, Sweden, Belgium, France as well
as Austria [10]. Currently, pellets are produced by several dozen manufacturers and
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_53
Computer Aided Design of Wood Pellet Machines 455
several more production lines are under construction. The largest Polish producers have
production capacities at the level of 60,000. −90,000 tons/year. Over half of producers
produce less than 30,000 tons/year. The largest number of companies producing pellets
is located in wooded areas, in particular in the north-western part of the country [11–
13]. Pellets compete with fossil fuels, thanks to a competitive price in relation to the
calorific value, low ash content, moisture and toxic substances. The production of
pellets is a complex issue and requires a precisely designed technological line as well as
high quality raw material [11, 12].
Pellets are granules with a diameter of 6–25 mm and a length of several dozen mm
made of compressed sawdust, without the use of any additives. The biggest advantages
are the low ash content (below 1.5%), moisture (<8%) and toxic substances. It is an
ecological fuel because the amount of CO2 it emits during combustion is balanced by
the amount absorbed by plants during photosynthesis [13–16].
2 Methods of Pellet’s Production Technology
The scheme of the granulation process is shown in Fig. 1. The raw material layer is
supplied under the roll, which presses the material into the matrix. When the roll moves
further along the surface, the raw material is delivered again, which causes the granules
to be formed. The principle of rotary pelletizers is cyclic pressing, pressing rolls,
shredded material through a series of cylindrical holes made in the matrix. During the
formation of pellets, the material hits the resistance, which causes friction and heat and
pressure that is crucial in the formation of pellets. At the exit it is broken by the
breaking element [13–15].
Fig. 1. Scheme of the granulation process [11].
The pellet production process is complex and requires a carefully designed pro-
duction line as well as a high-quality raw material. The raw material must be pre-
prepared before it is granulated, it should have a defined fraction, low humidity and it
must be free from contaminants that may cause damage to the die or pressing rolls. To
compress straw or sawdust, a high compression matrix is required. Such a matrix is
characterized by a greater thickness of the layer and also has funnels compressing on
456 M. Macko and A. Mroziński
the rake face and stress relief funnels at the outlet. The dimensions of the matrix and
rolls for hard materials are different, as well as others for soft materials.
An annular or flat matrix can be used for granulation. In both cases, the biomass is
fed into the drum, where one or more press rollers compress it into the cylindrical die
holes. The dies in both cases can of course be replaced, which allows for changing the
diameter of the cylindrical holes, and thus the production of pellets of various sizes.
Biomass pressing increases its temperature. The pressure level in the matrix should be
adjusted, among other things, to the type of granulated biomass.
Pellet machines with a ring matrix, most often work in a centrifugal system by
means of one, two or three rotating rollers pressing the wood pulp to the inside surface
of the die. The pellets are pressed outside the die and cut there to the right length. This
is the most popular variety of devices for producing wood pellets. The efficiency of this
type of equipment, with a given raw material, depends directly on the working surface
of the die and is a derivative of its circumference and width. It also depends on the
surface pressure of the rollers to the die, and this is determined by the width of the
rollers and their number. In addition, the speed of the die and the pressure rollers, as
well as the thickness of the pressed layer, determines the efficiency.
3 Methodology
Designed by the Alchemik company (in cooperation with WIM UTP in Bydgoszcz),
the JP series pelleting machine is used for the production of sawdust pellets as well as
straw. As part of cooperation with the Alchemik company and implementation of the
so-called the research voucher was carried out optimization work on the pellet plant
construction. As part of the work, the SolidWorks program was used (optimization of
components’ strength and kinematics of their movement). Finally, a pellet machine
with low efficiency (one of the design assumptions) was obtained, which is up to
100 kg/h (Fig. 2.). The dimensions of the pellet machine are 1846.5 mm 1835.9 mm
880 mm. The course of pellet formation in the Alchemik ring pellet machine is as
follows: Properly crushed and dried material goes to the conditioner, which, by sub-
jecting it to steam, causes its softening. Then the snail in the conditioner delivers the
raw material to the drum. Then the material is pressed through the holes in the rotary
die by means of two rollers. Finally, the finished granulate falls through the hole in the
hatch and is subjected to cooling [8, 9].
4 Results
Computer-aided design methods aimed at finding optimal machine construction vari-

ants are widely known [19–21]. CAD/CAE tools were used in the design and con-
struction process, including the SolidWorks application. It is a program for parametric
three-dimensional modeling (3D CAD). It allows to design solid models, as well as
sheet metal, welded structures, molds, surface models. In addition, it allows to
assemble all elements into one project and to prepare production documentation.
Additionally, for many years there are add-ons available to perform computer
Fig. 2. Design of pellet machine by the company Alchemik from the JP series: 1 - hatch, 2 -
base, 3 - main drive motor, 4 - screw drive motor, 5 - gear transmission I, 6 - worm system, 7 -
matrix, 8 - mechanism working with a set of rollers, 9 - housing, 10 - shaft I, 11 - gear II, 12 - nut
I, 13 - cover, 14 - screw I, 15 - cap II, 16, 17 - screws II and III, 18, 19 - hubs, 20 - grooves I, 21,
22 - shafts II and III, 23 - housing, 24, 25 - screws II and III, 26 - ring, 27 - overlay, 28, 29 - nuts
III and IV, 30 - shaft II, 31 - groove II [18].
simulations, such as SolidWorks Simulation, Motion, Flow Simulation and environ-

mental analysis.
The SolidWorks Simulation solution provides the following options:
– virtual simulation of many different physical environments as part of an intuitive,
efficient interface,
– conducting a number of structural simulations, such as static linear and nonlinear
simulations, vibrational simulations, material fatigue, thermal, optimization and
non-linear dynamic simulations,
– performing simulations of rigid bodies taking into account time and events,
– comparing the parameters of products made of different materials,
– streamlining the projects of products affected by liquids or gases: simulation of
liquid flow and heat transfer (CFD analysis),
– detection and elimination of manufacturing defects at the earliest stages of
designing plastic parts and injection molds,
– conducting simulations of the environmental impact on the developed products.
All components were designed as parts, and then the complete machine was
assembled. The strength calculations have been used. With the addition of SolidWorks
Motion, it is possible to carry out a number of kinematic and dynamic simulations. The
attention was paid to the working part of the pellet machine (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. A view of the SolidWorks application screen with the pellet machine’s working
chamber.
In the first part of the investigation, the kinematic and dynamic dependencies
between the moving part of the drum and the inner disk were estimated. The purpose of
these tests was to determine the permissible range of angular displacements and,
consequently, high stresses in order to force the material into the canal in the drums.
The range of angular displacement of the moving drum is shown in Fig. 4a, while the
range of changes in the kinetic energy of the drum being started is shown in Fig. 4b.
whereas Fig. 5a, b show the momentary relations of the torque of the shaft and drive
plate as well as the drum reaction force during loading. A characteristic feature is the
non-linear range of displacement changes between the selected edges of the openings
and the fixed part of the housing, especially in the initial part of each cycle (each new
rotation). The measurement time was set at 3,8 s. In terms of changes in the total
kinetic energy of the inner drum after disconnecting the drive, a non-linear decrease in
the value in the range of 4,5 to 0,8 J can be observed. The purpose of this test was to
check the range of inertia of the drum after moving it.
The pellet machine working system was tested in order to determine the structural
features. The simulation part contains the results of the temporary angular displacement
of the moving drum. Additionally, the results are also attached to the results of
momentary relations. Although the simulation results are cognitive and approximate,
there are some regularities that are used in the final parameter selection. The pellet
drying machine designed by SolidWorks application is the most important element of
the pellet production process. The quality of the final product depends directly on its
work. In the pellet range, the quality of pellets depends on the following factors:
177
89
-87
-175
0.00 0.38 0.76 1.14 1.52 1.90 2.28 2.66 3.04 3.42 3.80
Czas (sec)
4.5
3.5
Ca≥kowita energia kinetyczna1 (døul)
2.6
1.7
0.8
0.00 0.38 0.76 1.14 1.52 1.90 2.28 2.66 3.04 3.42 3.80
Czas (sec)
Fig. 4. The range of angular displacement of the moving drum – a, the range of changes in the
kinetic energy of the drum being started – b.
3966
Moment obrotowy napÍ du1 (newton-mm)
2974
1983
991
0
0.00 0.23 0.46 0.68 0.91 1.14 1.37 1.60 1.82 2.05 2.28
Czas (sec)
4.4
3.8
Si≥a reakcji1 (newton)
3.2
2.5
1.9
0.00 0.23 0.46 0.68 0.91 1.14 1.37 1.60 1.82 2.05 2.28
Czas (sec)
Fig. 5. The momentary relations of the torque of the shaft and drive plate – a, the drum reaction
force during loading – b.
(a) mechanics of pressure - the force of pressing the rolls against the die,
(b) process kinematics - the mutual speed of the rolls that determines the thickness of
the pressed layer,
(c) geometrical features of the die with holes - the shape of the so-called grooves
in pressure rollers, height and diameter of holes (die thickness), shape of funnel
openings from the inside and outside of the die,
(d) the characteristics of the matrix must be adapted to the type of wood - various
dependencies arise in the course of work, and changing even one characteristic
may lead to unexpected consequences,
(e) way of feeding wood pulp - speed and uniformity of feeding and spreading wood
pulp on the entire width of the matrix.
The shape of the die and the pressure system basically determine the type of pellet
machine. There are two types of matrices on the wood pellet market: flat (circular) and
spatial (annular). The process of pelleting is a high-energy process (energy con-
sumption of the process depending on the material processed can range from approx.
10–15 to approx. 80–100 kWh/t.) Working systems “matrix-compacting rollers” pel-
leting equipment wear out after a short period of work (about 1/10-1/15 of the lifetime
of the whole device).
There are factors, which are important for the successful course of granulation in
pellets - and thus for obtaining a high quality of the final product: the quality of the raw
material used for production, performance of the granulating machine and the course of
the granulation process, friction in the matrix, surface and material from which the
matrix has been are done, length and diameter of holes in the matrix, the thickness of
the biomass material that is subjected to the pressure of the rollers on the surface of the
die - the thickness of the material layer reaching the die holes, compression frequency -
the speed at which the press roll moves.
Undoubtedly, research on the structural development of pelleting machines should
be carried out. The use of advanced CAD/CAE simulations can contribute to the
improvement of structural parameters thanks to strength, kinematic and flow analyzes.
References
1. www.forest-monitor.com/pl/ue-rynek-pellet-drzewnych, maj 2017
2. Flizikowski J, Topoliński T, Opielak M, Tomporowski A, Mroziński A (2014) Research and
analysis of operating characteristics of energetic biomass micronizer. Eksploatacja i
Niezawodność 17(1):19–26
3. Zastempowski M, Borowski S, Kaszkowiak J (2013) New solutions in harvesting plants for
power purposes. In: 2013 Conference proceeding - 5th international conference, TAE 2013,
Trends in agricultural engineering 2013, pp 673-676
4. Macko M, Tyszczuk K, Śmigielski G, Flizikowski J, Mroziński A (2018) Utility of an
unitary-shredding method to evaluate the conditions and selection of constructional features
during grinding. In: 2018 MATEC web of conferences
5. Flizikowski J, Macko M (2001) Method of estimation of efficiency of quasi-cutting of
recycled opto-telecommunication pipes. In: 2001 polimery/polymers
6. Tomporowski A, Flizikowski J, Kruszelnicka W (2017) A new concept of roller-plate mills.

Przemysł Chemiczny 96(8):1750–1755
7. Michalska-Pożoga I, Tomkowski R, Rydzkowski T (2016) Towards the usage of image
analysis technique to measure particles size and composition in wood-polymer composites
(Article). vol 92, pp 149–156, 15 December 2016
8. Rydzkowski T, Michalska-Pozoga I (2014) A study on polymer particle flow in a disk zone
of a screw-disk Extruder (Article), Chemical and Process Engineering - Inzynieria
Chemiczna i Procesowa 35(1):121–135
9. Wróblewska-Krepsztul J, Rydzkowski T, Borowski G, Klepka T, Thakur VK (2018) Recent
progress in biodegradable polymers and nanocomposite-based packaging materials for
sustainable environment. Int J Polym Anal Charact 23(4):383–395
10. USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (2016) EU-28: Biofuels Annual. EU Biofuel Annual
11. Jakś J, Piotrowski A, Piotrowski P (2012) Instalacje do wytwarzania brykietu i pelletu.
Rozdział w monografii pt. V Eko-Euro-Energia Inżynieria Odnawialnych Źródeł Energii pod
redakcją A. Mrozińskiego, Wydawnictwo Fundacji Rozwoju Mechatroniki, ISBN 978-83-
932977-6-4, Bydgoszcz, str. 55–71
12. Hejft R (2002) Ciśnieniowa aglomeracja materiałów roślinnych. Politechnika Białostocka,
Białystok
13. HejftT R (2008) Pelletowanie i brykietowanie w urządzeniach o niewielkiej wydajności.
Czysta energia
14. Demaniuk L, Hejft R (2002) Nowe rozwiązania konstrukcyjne brykieciarek do trocin.
Zeszyty naukowe Politechniki Białostockiej nr
15. Fiszer A, Dworecki Z (2005) Analiza technologii brykietowania trocin. J Res Appl Agric
Eng 51(3)
16. Hejft R, Obidziński S (2012) Konstrukcje matryc w granulatorach z układem roboczym
„płaska matryca - rolki zagęszczające” Chemik 66(5):479–484
17. Jakś J, Piotrowski A, Piotrowski P (2012) Instalacje do wytwarzania brykietu i pelletu.
Rozdział w monografii pt. V Eko-Euro-Energia Inżynieria Odnawialnych Źródeł Energii pod
redakcją A. Mrozińskiego, Wydawnictwo Fundacji Rozwoju Mechatroniki, ISBN 978-83-
932977-6-4, Bydgoszcz, str. 55–71
18. BZ - 96/2012/WIM „Prace rozwojowe w zakresie opracowania i optymalizacji konstrukcji
pelleciarki do wytwarzania pelletu (Realizowany w ramach „Programu pilotażowego w
województwie kujawsko-pomorskim Voucher badawczy” - VB/02/2012/25)
19. Handrik M, Vasko M, Kopas P, Saga M (2014) Effective finite element solution and post-
processing for wide load spectrum. Commun-Sci Lett Univ Zilina 16(3a):19–26
20. Macko M, Flizikowski J, Szczepański Z, Tyszczuk K, Śmigielski G, Mroziński A,
Czerniak J, Tomporowski A (2017) CAD/CAE applications in mill’s design and
investigation. In: Proceedings of the 13th international scientific conference on computer
aided engineering. Lecture notes in mechanical engineering, Chapter 35, Springer
International Publishing AG, pp 343–351
21. Rusiński E, Pietrusiak D (2017) Proceedings of the 13th international scientific conference:
computer aided engineering. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, Part F10
CAE/FDM Methods for Design
and Manufacture Artificial Organs
for Exercises Purposes
Marek Macko1(&), Zbigniew Szczepański1, Dariusz Mikołajewski1,

Joanna Nowak1, Emilia Mikołajewska2, and Jacek Furtak3
1
Kazimierz Wielki University, Institute of Mechanics and Applied Computer
Sciences, Kopernika 1, 85-074 Bydgoszcz, Poland
mackomar@ukw.edu.pl
2
Department of Physiotherapy, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum
in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
3
Department of Neurosurgery, The 10-th Military Research Hospital,
Bydgoszcz, Poland
Abstract. New technologies such as three-dimensional (3D) printing and

reverse engineering can contribute to increasing the level of medical training of
specialists in their daily clinical practice. The aim of the article is to present the
original concepts of designing, editing and producing organs for educational
and training purposes. The presented concepts are relatively new solutions, but
their further development may lead to the extension of the area of use of these
techniques in medicine, among other things in relation to other specialties.
Keywords: 3D imaging techniques 3D printing Anatomy education

Medical data base Reverse engineering Rapid prototyping
1 Introduction
Applications of traditional design and production for the purposes of daily clinical
practice have limitations, e.g. slow preparation and personalization of products. Tra-
ditional education based on the anatomy of human corpses depicting the natural
variability of the anatomy has limitations due to the ubiquitous education of medical
specialists. The above problems can be solved with new technologies: three-
dimensional (3D) printing and reverse engineering [1–6]. New technologies can
increase the level of traditional teaching due to lower costs, scalability, diagnostics and
object-based learning, covering the entire age range, gender and can be used worldwide
[7–13].
These technologies can be considered new and complementary, but they can also
support current applications of medicine in everyday clinical practice. They can also
give rise to a new family of commercial techniques that optimize 3D-based

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_54
CAE/FDM Methods for Design and Manufacture Artificial Organs 463
technologies for 3D printing in a fully functional clinical solution. This article aims to
present the original concepts of design and manufacture of artificial organs in the field
of urology and dentistry and neurology.
2 Methodology
Data for work (MRI and CT) have been transferred as files in the Dicom standard.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses electromagnetic radiation produced by radio
waves harmless to the body, while in computed tomography (CT), the energy carrier is
X waves or X-rays, which too often or too high doses can lead to DNA damage. For the
processing of data (raster graphic images), and then creating 3D objects and their
editing, several applications were used and proprietary sub-applications were imple-
mented. One of the programs used during the project implementation was the Sim-
pleware ScanIP application. It is a software for visualization and 3D image processing.
ScanIP provides a programming environment for comprehensive 3D image data pro-
cessing (MRI, CT, micro-CT, FIB-SEM, etc.…). The software offers powerful tools for
visualization, analysis, segmentation and image quantification. The ScanIP application
includes a number of video recording functions and options for exporting surface/mesh
models from data segments for CAD and 3D printing. Additional modules were used to
export CAE mesh, integrating image and CAD data, exporting NURBS and calculating
effective material properties during scanning. A number of works have been carried out
to improve the manual segmentation of low-contrast medical data using a multi-layered
surface grid and then to generate STL files.
In order to assess the suitability of available 3D applications for the needs of the
project, *.stl models were imported and edited in following applications: InVesalius
3.1, ScanIP, MeshLab, Netfabb Basic, Blender and SolidWorksFast, layered melting
and solidification of the material during the process, does not lead to rhenium gravi-
tational sedimentation. Therefore, Inconel 718-Rhenium alloy can be successfully
process with the use of SLM technology, and it should perform better in elevated
temperatures, in comparison with standard Inconel 718.
For the needs of the work, patient’s data were obtained according to two methods:
Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). After ana-
lyzing the data obtained from scans, the (MRI) method proved to be more useful. The
method (CT) is focused on precise tissue analysis with regard to higher density than
bone tissue. This is due to the use of X-rays. X-rays represent a larger spectrum of
densities, although smaller densities are more difficult to reproduce and are much closer
to each other in e.g. the 8-bit data structure obtained from the scan. The method (MRI),
because of magnetic resonance imaging, better illustrates soft tissues containing more
atoms such as iron, etc., whose aggregations (agglomerations) are very well recognized
in this method. The method (MRI) thanks to this, has a much larger spectrum of
selection of the density threshold during soft tissue scan, in this case the threshold is
much easier. The data obtained in this way was processed in the InVesalius 3.1
application to form solid objects, and then edited (Fig. 1).
464 M. Macko et al.
Fig. 1. InVesalius screen view with an enlarged patient prostate gland
During the tests, data obtained from both patients with contrast and without contrast
were used. The contrast proved to be very useful from the point of view of 3D analysis
provided it was applied directly to the organ to be analyzed in the case of 3D scanning.
The process of 3D scanning is not understood in this case, as a direct recognition of the
structure, and is a series of treatments that allow obtaining data analogous to the 3D
scan, which are the basis for creating a stereophotographic structure, which is the basic
standard of 3D geometry in further procedures allowing the creation of an organ
replica. To obtain and correctly interpret data, consultations with CT and MRI scanners
were necessary on average once every two weeks.
The main standard used during work with medical installations was the DICOM
standard. It is treated as a medical standard and contains a number of additional
information about the patient’s condition, however, for the purposes of the project, the
focus was only on geometric data obtained in the form of cross-sections, which were
later changed into three-dimensional matrices. Data obtained in other standards,
including JPG, BMP and STL directly from the scanning machine software, or indi-
rectly, can also be used in the implementation of the project. Data from the above-
mentioned standards must be interpreted as 3D matrix data. The effect of these works
are spatial objects presented in various applications.
The Mimics application was also used, which enabled importing from DICOM and
other files (JPEG, TIFF, BMP, x-ray) graphics necessary for creating and editing files
in the 3D standard and for creating necessary FEM simulations and preparing for
printing in 3D printing standard.
In the environment of 3D application users, the Blender application is very often
used. There are free and open software for modeling and rendering images and three-
dimensional animations with an unconventional user interface. In own work, an

application was used to create and later edit various 3D graphic standards, such as:
meshes, NURBS surfaces, Bézier curves, meta objects, vector fonts (TrueType, Post
Script, OpenType). The application was also used for “net sculpting”, catmull-clark
division of grids, Boolean functions for grids, mesh editing based on vertices, edges
and polygons (polygons), Python scripts support, with which you can add new editing
tools, BMesh - a system that allows you to create and edit walls with a very compli-
cated structure - for example, about a dozen or so edges. Implementation of the
mentioned applications and own modifications led to the creation of files that are
directly sent to the 3D printer. Prints were made, successfully completed, selected
organ geometries that will be used to make the mold for a model made of material
resembling the structure and properties of the source organs.
On the basis of the conducted research, the application’s usefulness in the field of
creating and editing 3D objects for the purpose of creating artificial organs was eval-
uated. The Table 1 presents the results of the analysis on a scale of 1–10.
Table 1 Results of the analysis

No. Application Ease of Dicom - Compilation Friendly Overall
name use Dicom point cloud time interface rating
1 InVesalius 7 10 5 8 30
3.1
2 ScanIP 4 8 6 7 25
3 MeshLab 5 5 6 6 22
4 Blender 4 3 4 4 15
5 SolidWorks 8 – 7 7 22
Taking into account the conclusions of the work carried out and the overall
assessment, it can be concluded that for an efficient process of editing and preparing the
object for 3D printing, it is necessary to use several applications, but the application of
InVesalius 3.1 is the most important. The next step was to adapt the 3D printing
technology to ensure the expected geometric accuracy. For economic reasons, the use
of FDM and SLA printing technologies has been proposed. The FDM technology uses
thermoplastic material, which is brought to the plastic state is applied with a thin stream
on subsequent layers of the object. The project uses a Gaja 3D Multitool printer
(Fig. 2). The SLA technology uses acrylic resin, point hardening laser beam. The
project uses a Nobel 1.0 printer (Fig. 3). PolyJet 3D printing technology (OBJET 30
pro printer) was not used due to the high cost of the material (acrylic resin). All
mentioned 3D printing technologies (FDM, SLA, PolyJet) are in possession of the
Laboratory of Technical and Medical Prototyping located at the Institute of Applied
Mechanics and Computer Science of the Casimir the Great University in Bydgoszcz.
466 M. Macko et al.
Fig. 2. Printer Gaja 3D Multitool Fig. 3. Printer 3D – Nobel 1.0
The next stage was the preparation of specific models for printing, which required
generation of the print head/path in both FDM and SLA technology. The user interface
of an application that supports FDM - Kisslicer printing is presented below (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Kisslicer application interface for setting a 3D printer working in FDM technology for
printing (solid model inserted in the virtual printer chamber).
3 Experimental Results and Discussion
The process of preparing this type of medical organs is complicated and it is carried out
in several steps, and the final result depends on the software used and the user’s skills.
The MeshLab and GOM Inspect application analyzed the deviations of the STL file for
3D printing from the mesh model with DICOM. Flat masks have been identified that
allow the separation of zones that mark bones from soft tissues. This was accomplished
by designating a range of gray threshold values. After applying the masks and
extracting specific areas and creating a three-dimensional surface model, it was
exported to the STL file. At this stage, it was possible to further process the obtained
net form, which still contained many errors and could not be the basis for the 3D
printing. In order to clean and repair the mesh model, applications were used: MeshLab
and GOM Inspect. Based on them, errors in the structure of the mesh geometry were
removed: artefacts and errors created during the conversion of a series of DICOM
images into a spatial mesh model. Fragments of the grid lost at the stage of converting
DICOM images into a mesh model and during its correction were supplemented with
the use of the free version of the GOM Inspect program. It turned out that the repair of
the mesh of triangles is necessary, because
the removal of its fragment causes a dis-
continuity of the surface. This type of errors
in the grid made it impossible to print
directly on a 3D printer. Then an analysis of
deviations - a ready-to-print stl file (a sep-
arated prostate organ) was made from the
model directly obtained in InVesalius.
The DICOM models provided by the client
contained a number of measurement errors
made by means of computed tomography.
The influence of volumetric geometry
modeling in MeshLab and GOM Inspect on
the degree of its mapping was also checked.
As a reference model for the analysis of
deviations in GOM Inspect, the model from
Fig. 5. Prostate gland model prepared for
DICOM from the InVesalius program was
3D printing
selected, and the STL file (Fig. 5) was
indicated as a test object.
The aim of the work was to create training organs for surgeons of urologists, so that
on their basis it was possible to conduct the training of connecting the ureter with the
bladder after removal of the prostate gland. The manufactured organs were evaluated
by specialists. The figure shows the components that were used to conduct the trial
training and the view of the training station (Fig. 6). From among 50 samples made,
according to specialists of urologists, 41 samples met expectations. The reason for the
non-qualification of the samples was inadequate resistance during joining (stitching) of
organs. When material modifications were made, all samples met expectations.
468 M. Macko et al.
Fig. 6. The view of artificial organs – a), the view of training station – b)
It seems that the impact of the work carried out in the field of producing artificial 3D
organs for training purposes ultimately leads to an increase in the quality of actual
surgical operations and results in an increase in the quality of manufactured models.
The current concept of manufacturing 3D medical organs offers many opportunities for
both scientists and physicians and can be easily developed towards standard solutions.
Furthermore, the development of the concept of producing personalized anatomical
models can be one of the milestones in the direction of on-demand printing of the
individualized biological organ.
Further research into the production of artificial organs is aimed at the development of
technologies ensuring remote access, file exchange and processing with the required level
of data security, simultaneously printed from various materials, shaping the properties of
new technologies useful in everyday clinical practice, awareness and education of medical
staff and patients, cooperation in interdisciplinary treatment by the team, new models of
rehabilitation and care with patients, implants, 3D printing. The presented concept of
producing 3D models is a relatively new solution, but its further development may lead to a
new family of commercial initiatives aimed at combining joint efforts to optimize based on
3D technology in everyday clinical practice. The aforementioned concept of 3D printing
adapted to the patient’s needs is only the first of a wide spectrum of possible applications.
Currently, such studies are considered to be complementary, but they can fill the existing
gap between the approach and traditional and modern technologies.
References
1. Copes LE, Lucas LM, Thostenson JO, Hoekstra HE, Boyer DM (2016) A collection of non-
human primate computed tomography scans housed in MorphoSource, a repository for 3D
data. Sci Data 3:160001
2. Choonara YE, du Toit LC, Kumar P, Kondiah PP, Pillay V (2016) 3D-printing and the effect
on medical costs: a new era? Expert Rev Pharmacoecon Outcomes Res 16:23–32
3. Macko M, Szczepański Z, Mikołajewski D, Mikołajewska E, Listopadzki S (2017) The

method of artificial organs fabrication based on reverse engineering in medicine. In:
Rusinski E, Pietrusiak D (eds) Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Springer
International Publishing AG. Book ID: 419988_1_En
4. Macko M, Szczepanski Z, Mikolajewska E, Nowak J, Mikolajewski D (2017) Repository of
3D images for education and everyday clinical practice purposes. Bio-Algorithms Med Syst
13(2):111–116
5. Mikołajewska E, Macko M, Mikołajewski D, Ziarnecki Ł, Stańczak S, Kawalec P (2016)
Medical and military applications of 3D printing. J Sci Gen 179:128–41. Tadeusz
Kosciuszko Military Academy of Land Forces
6. Macko M, Mikołajewska E, Szczepański Z, Augustyńska B, Mikołajewski D (2016)
Repository of images for reverse engineering and medical simulation purposes. Med Biol Sci
30:23–29
7. Pepliński K, Czyżewski P, Górecki D, Sykutera D, Bieliński M (2017) Selected geometrical
features and strength indicators of elements manufactured by fused deposition modeling
technology, Jan 2017 Polymers
8. Radenkovic D, Solouk A, Seifalian A (2016) Personalized development of human organs
using 3D printing technology. Med Hypotheses 87:30–33
9. Shui W, Zhou M, Chen S, Pan Z, Deng Q, Yao Y et al (2016) The production of digital and
printed resources from multiple modalities using visualization and three-dimensional
printing techniques. Int J Comput Assist Radiol Surg. [Epub ahead of print]
10. Gür Y (2014) Additive manufacturing of anatomical models from computed tomography
scan data. Mol Cell Biomech 11:249–258
11. He Y, Xue GH, Fu JZ (2014) Fabrication of low cost soft tissue prostheses with the desktop
3D printer. Sci Rep 4:6973
12. Gu Q, Hao J, Lu Y, Wang L, Wallace GG, Zhou Q (2015) Three-dimensional bio-printing.
Sci China Life Sci 58:411–419
13. Schubert C, van Langeveld MC, Donoso LA (2014) Innovations in 3D printing: a 3D
overview from optics to organs. Br J Ophthalmol 98:159–161
Parameter Selection Rules for Energy-
Absorbing Element of the Spring Type Based
on Numerical Analysis
Adrian Małczuk(&)
Automotive Industry Institute, Jagiellonska 55, 03-301 Warsaw, Poland

a.malczuk@pimot.eu
Abstract. The article presents numerical analysis, which allows the selection of
parameters of the energy-absorbing element. It is a double torsion spring.
A CAD and CAE software was used to carry out the simulation. The first part of
the article presents the method of preparing a 3D CAD model for analysis.
Additionally, this section presents the material and the boundary conditions.
From the results obtained, we can read curves, which shows the spring char-
acteristic during unroll. The data shows force, which is needed for spring unroll.
In addition to force, the curves show the time, that informs, how much it takes to
reach maximum force. In next part the spring was verified on testing machine.
For this purpose, several samples of double torsion spring were made and then
these springs were unrolled on testing machine. The boundary conditions were
the same as in numerical analysis. The curves obtained illustrate the dependence
between force and time. Next, the results of the numerical analysis were com-
pared with the results from the testing on the testing machine.
Keywords: Double torsion spring Testing machine FEM Numerical

analysis
1 Introduction
The subject of this article is the element which, thanks to its properties, acts as an
absorber of kinetic energy. This element can limit the maximum values of negative
acceleration. It is a double torsion spring. The energy absorption take place by dis-
placement of the “ear” of the spring relative to the fixed shaft. This operation is
disposable. In this solution, energy is absorbed by straightening the wire. This method
allows to hold a constant value of force until the spring is fully unrolled. This article
shows how to prepare the process of numerical analysis and parameters selection of the
spring. The finite element method has become an important practical tool for numerical
analysis of the structure. Thanks to the finite element method (FEM), it is possible to
check and adjust the parameters of the specific spring.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_55
Parameter Selection Rules for Energy-Absorbing Element 471
2 Research Assumptions
Based on the assumptions, the spring parameters were selected. One of the factors is the
mass of braking object. According to this information, you can choose the right amount of
force that will be needed to unroll the spring. It should be taken into consideration where
and how this spring will work. The spring parameters mainly depends on what acceleration
will be influenced on object. Theoretically, when acceleration influencing the object is
greater, the weight of the object increases. Therefore, it is necessary to modify the
parameters of the spring, so that the value of the force needed to unroll is so large that it will
be able to stop the object. Another important factor is to get a constant delay. The purpose of
this criterion is to compensate for negative effects affecting the object during a dynamic
situation. The rapid change in speed causes the object to be influenced by huge negative
acceleration. It is also important that the object stays as short as possible under the influence
of dangerous acceleration [2]. Thanks to simulation of unrolling the spring it will be
possible to read at what time the amount of force reaches its maximum.
3 Preparation of the 3D CAD Model
Before starting a specific analysis, it was first necessary to create a 3D CAD model (Fig. 2),
which was subsequently discretized. Based on the preliminary calculations, a double tor-
sion spring has been created with parameters as in the table below (Table 1, Fig. 1).
Table 1. Parameters of double torsion spring (Dw – inner diameter, d- diameter of wire, z –
number of coils, a – gap between the coils).
SPRING
MATERIAL Steel S235
Dw [mm] 16
d [mm] 6
z 5
a[mm[ 0,5
Fig. 1. Technical documentation of double torsion spring

472 A. Małczuk
4 Preparation 3D CAD Model in HyperMesh Preprocessor
A properly exported model from CAD software was prepared in the HyperMesh
preprocessor. The size of the mesh element is important, because it affects the accuracy
of results. In addition, it also affects the time in which the analysis will be calculated. In
this case a mesh with tetrahedral elements with a maximum size of 1 mm was used.
Thanks to this size of mesh, the geometry has been created in detail. In this analysis, a
lower-order mesh was used. The shaft was simplified. For this purpose, the function of
the HyperMesh software was used to create a RigidWall element. It consists in creating
a cylindrical surface element, which is undeformable (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Left: Discretized model of spring in HyperMesh; Right: 3D CAD model
In this analysis was used an elastic-plastic material model with properties as for S235
steel. The S235 steel was selected for test, because it is easy to process [7]. The S235 steel
is easily available in various variants of wire diameter. Additionally due to the large
number of ordered springs, the economic factor influenced the choice of this kind of steel.
The material curve was developed based on the curve shows below (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Left: Graph of material curve for S235 steel [3]; Right: Material curve entered into the
preprocessor HyperMesh based on left graph
The unroll process was carried out using the displacement function. For research
purposes, the spring will expend to a length of 150 mm.
5 Conducting the FEM Simulation
Prepared model in the HyperMesh preprocessor was calculated using the Radioss
Solver. The following results were obtained using this solver (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Unrolled spring
Spring - Ø6mm
6000
5000
Force [N]
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Time [s]
Fig. 5. Spring characteristic
The double torsion spring with a 6 mm diameter of wire has reached the maximum
value of force from 4950 N to 5100 N and oscillates around these values. The graph
(Fig. 5) shows that the value of force is maintained throughout the entire length of the
474 A. Małczuk
analysis. In addition, we can see that the force increases in very short time and it needs
about 45 ms to reach the maximum value of force (Fig. 5).
The characteristic obtained using the finite element method allows to determine the
maximum force needed to unroll the double torsion spring and at what time this force
value will be reached. Thanks to this, changing the geometrical properties of the spring,
including wire diameter or material, numerical analysis in a simple way gives the
opportunity to check what force value is needed to unroll the spring.
6 Carrying Out the Test on a Testing Machine
To verify the extent to which the results from the numerical analysis coincide with
reality, the tests were carried out on real double torsion springs.
For this purpose, springs were ordered in accordance with the parameters set out in
Chap. 3 (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Double torsion spring
The test consisted in placing the spring in a special holder and then fastening and
unrolling it on a testing machine (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Left: spring before unrolled, right: unrolled spring

Spring characteris c
6000
5000
Force [N]
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Time [s]
Fig. 8. Spring characteristic
The tests obtained a characteristic that can be compared with FEM (Fig. 8).
From the above graph it can be read that the force value reached 5,000 N and then
oscillates around this value and it is maintained throughout the entire length of the
analysis. The time required to reach the maximum value is about 50 ms.
7 Comparison of Results
It can be concluded that the numerical analysis coincides with the results from the
testing machine (Fig. 9).
6000
5000
4000
Force [N]
3000 MESFEM
2000
Testing
Maszyny
1000 machine
wytrzymałościowa
0
0 0.05 0.1
Time [s]
Fig. 9. Comparison of spring characteristic
The graph above shows that there is a convergence between the results obtained by
numerical analysis and the test on the testing machine. At the same time, the com-
parison also shows that the mapping material curve from Chap. 4 coincides with the
476 A. Małczuk
real test. The value of the force that was obtained during test on the testing machine
increases linearly in contrast to the FEM analysis. However, as a last resort they reach
their maximum in a similar time, i.e. in about 50 ms. Differences that are visible in the
graph may primarily result from the adopted material curve, which is not a perfect
representation of the material curve of the material from which the spring was made. To
check what effect the material has on the unroll of the spring, the material curve
(Fig. 3) has been experimental modified, which has assumed the shape according to the
curve as in the figure below (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10. Experimental modified material curve
6000
5000
Force [N]
4000
Testing
3000 Maszyna
machine
wytrzymałościowa
2000
1000 MES FEM
0
0 0.05 0.1
Time [s]
Fig. 11. Comparison of spring characteristic
The obtained results showed that the experimental modification had a positive
effect on the spring properties, as shown in the chart below. Figure 11 the modified
curve coincides significantly with the curve from the test on the testing machine.
However, there is still a difference in the increase of force to maximum values.
The presented work managed to develop a methodology that shows how to choose a
double torsion spring. The assumed research has shown that there is a convergence
between the numerical analysis and the real test. Factors that affect the value of the
obtained force are: wire diameter and type of material. The tested double torsion spring
with 6 mm diameter of wire made of S235 steel reached about 5000 N maximal force.
The maximal value was reached in about 50 ms, what is a good result. The reason for
such fluctuations may be primarily the stability of the material. The material that comes
out of the mill is not always characterized by the same properties. Another factor that
has a significant impact on the results of the analysis is the detailed mapping of the
material curve. Small changes entered to the curve has a visible effect on the received
values of forces during the unrolling of the spring, what you can see based on an
experimental modified material curve. Additionally, it can be seen from the research
that the diameter of the spring wire and the material from which the spring is made are
of great importance to the value of the force. The larger the diameter of the wire, the
more energy it needs to unroll the spring. Such a spring work characteristic allows a
simple way of choosing the value of force to the design needs. And most importantly,
the value of force is maintained throughout the duration of the unroll of the spring.
Further development of the work will aim to change the type of mesh into a higher-
order Hexahedron and then compare with current simulation. In addition, it is assumed
to compare the same diameters of double spring wire, but made of a different material:
S235 steel and spring steel.
References
1. Rusiński E (2002) Zasady projektowania konstrukcji nośnych pojazdów samochodowych,
Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław
2. Regulation No 44 of the Economic Commission for Europe of the United Nations (UN/ECE)
—Uniform provisions concerning the approval of restraining devices for child occupants of
powerdriven vehicles (‘Child Restraint Systems’)
3. Rasmussen AN (2011) Steel tower for a wind turbine, EP Patent App. EP 2385245 A1
4. Bąk R, Burczyński T (2001) Wytrzymałość materiałów z elementami ujęcia komputerowego,
WNT, Warszawa
5. Rusiński E, Czmochowski J, Smolnicki T (2000) Zaawansowane metoda elemenów
skończonych w konstrukcjach nośnych, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej,
Wrocław
6. Ashby MF, Jones DRH (1995) Materiały inżynierskie: właściwości i zastosowanie, WNT.
Warszawa
7. Ashby MF, Jones DRH (1996) Materiały inżynierskie: kształtowanie struktury i właściwości,
dobór materiałów, WNT. Warszawa
8. Dyląg Z, Jakubowicz A, Orłoś Z (2003) Wytrzymałość materiałów”, WNT, Warszawa
Strength and Fatigue Analysis of the Welding
Connection on the Compressed Air Tank
Paweł Maślak(&) and Tadeusz Smolnicki
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Machine Design and

Research, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Łukasiewicza 5,
{pawel.maslak,tadeusz.smolnicki}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The subject of the study is the FEM analysis, which consists in
checking the connection of welding the threaded sleeve with the tank mounted
in the vehicle. The purpose of the analysis is to check the fatigue strength of
such a connection, as well as to check the deformation and strength of the
bottom. The subject of the analysis is also the determination and calculation of
the correct bottom thickness by the FEM method.
Keywords: Finite element method Pressure tank Fatigue analysis
1 Introduction
The aim of the analysis is the compressed air tank manufactured in accordance with
PN EN 286-2: 2001. That kind of tank is used in the automotive industry for stable
control of the components of the braking system. The biggest problem is to predict any
of crack, that can observed after hours of usage of car. The biggest problem is to
construct the welding joint to fore stand over 1 000 000 cycles of changing acceler-
ation in longitudinal and transverse direction and over 100 000 cycles of changing
working pressure.
2 Geometrical and FEM Model of the Compressed Air Tank
The geometrical 3D model was prepared based on the 2D documentation. The view of
the tank is shown on the Fig. 1. The FEM model was constructed of surface and
volume elements that fully reflect the geometry of the test object and are sufficient to
obtain reliable calculation results [5]. Figures 2 and 3 show the views of the finite
elements used. The surface elements with a thickness of 3.1 mm are shown in green,
the surface elements 2.8 mm thick in white, the volume elements in red.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_56
Strength and Fatigue Analysis of the Welding Connection 479
Fig. 1. Geometrical model
Fig. 2. FEM model

480 P. Maślak and T. Smolnicki
Fig. 3. Details of FEM model
3 Strength Analysis
The boundary conditions were considered on the basis of guidelines from automotive
industry. The strength analysis were performed for the 3 sets of load:
Set I - working pressure 8.5–12.5 bar
Set II - acceleration ±7.5 g along longitudinal direction
Set III - acceleration ±7.5 g along transverse direction.
The calculation were performed to achieve values of the stress, the reduced stress
and the range stress.
The results were shown in the Figs. 4, 5 and 6.
The results from the strength analysis were used to determine the life cycle of the
welding joint (Table 1).
4 Fatigue Analysis
The admissible values of the stress range Dr for the weld were adopted [1, 4]. The
category of fillet weld with incomplete remelting using the hot spot method is deter-
mined in Annex B of Table B.1 and is 90, which means the lifetime of 2 106 cycles at
a stress range of 90 MPa.
Next, the required number of cycles was taken into account taking the exponential
relationship with the exponent m = 3 [1, 3]
logN ¼ logC m logDr ð1Þ

Fig. 4. Stress along radius direction– pressure 8.5–12.5 bar (geometric non-linear elastic-plastic
model) [MPa] view Top
Fig. 5. Reduced stress HM – acceleration ±7.5 g longitudinal direction (geometric non-linear

elastic-plastic model) [MPa]
Fig. 6. Reduced stress HM – acceleration ±7.5 g transverse direction (geometric non-linear

elastic-plastic model) [MPa]
Table 1. List of calculation results

Set no. Stress [MPa] Reduced stress HM [MPa] Stress range Dr [MPa]
I −186.4 280.9 243.43 92.3 (weld)
141.8 (material)
II −55.7 51.7 48.7 89.3
III −52.0 58.2 51.1 94.5 (outside the weld)
where:
N - number of cycles,
C - constant,
m - exponent of dependence,
Dr - range of stresses.
Due to the asymmetry of pressure cycles, Gerber’s correction was adopted due to
the value of average stresses [1, 2], which is most suitable for plastic materials.
Stress range values were read from the stress contours according to the hot spot
procedure at a distance of 0.4t and t from the weld edge, where t is the thickness of the
element and using the formula (2):
Drhs ¼ 1:67Dr0;4t 0:67Dr1;0t ð2Þ
Permissible stresses for fatigue calculations are presented in the Table 2.

On the basis of the analysis and formula 1 it is possible to estimate the number of
cycles that the weld and the tank should withstand. The results are presented in
Table 3.
Table 2. Permissible stresses for fatigue calculations at zero medium stress (for non-zero after
correction by Gerber method)
No. Material 100 000 cycles [MPa] 1 000 000 cycles [MPa]
1 Steel P275SL 218 (168) 160 (123)
2 Steel S235JR S235J5 211 (163) 155 (119)
3 Filled weld 122 (94) 90 (69)
Table 3. Estimated number of cycles

No. Load set Estimated number of cycles
1 Set I -working pressure 8.5–12.5 bar 105 627
2 Set II - acceleration ±7.5 g along longitudinal direction 2 047 402
3 Set III - acceleration ±7.5 g along transverse direction 1 727 675
The tank can withstand a pressure of 12.5 bar. At this load value, the bottom with the
bushes becomes plasticized. The values of equivalent plastic strain amounted to a
maximum of 3.38% and are concentrated at the welds of the connectors. The values of
reduced stresses which have been recorded are 243 MPa. Almost the whole bottom
area is strenuous in the 180–243 MPa range except for small areas around the sleeves
and small zones between the embossments. In the field of ad hoc strength, the tank
meets the strength requirements at a pressure of 12.5 bar.
After the fem analysis and analytical calculations it can be concluded the com-
pressed air tank will withstand:
• the load of range pressure 8.5–12.5 bar for over 100,000 cycles,
• the load of ±7.5 g in longitudinal direction for over 1,000,000 cycles,
• the load of ±7.5 g in the transverse direction for over 1,000,000 cycles.
References
1. Hobbacher AF (2016) Recommendations for fatigue design of welded joints and components
(IIW collection), Springer
2. Schijve J (2009) Fatigue of structures and materials, 2nd edn. Springer
3. EN 1993-1-9: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-9: Fatigue
4. Karliński J, Stańco M, Działak P (2017) Determination of the dynamic overloads in the loader
structure. Mater Today Proc 4:5785–5790
5. Maślak P, Przybyłek G, Smolnicki T (2017) Comparison of selected methods for the
determination of the center of gravity in surface mining machines. Mater Today Proc 4:5877–
5882
Welding Procedure in Designing Carrying
Structures of Machines
Robert Misiewicz(&), Grzegorz Przybyłek, and Jędrzej Więckowski

robert.misiewicz@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The article describes the necessity of taking into account the welding
procedure used in the process of designing carrying structures. It also presents
the most common errors which the constructor might make during the process of
designing welded joints. What is more, the mistakes discovered during instal-
lation works carried out on a real object are presented. The article also informs
how to avoid such errors in the process of designing.
Keywords: Designing carrying structures of machines Non-destructive

testing Welding procedure
1 Introduction
Designing is an important stage of choosing the geometry of emergent machines and

devices. These days, the designer responsible for the project of a carrying structure has
to have considerable knowledge of the structure under design, i.e. the way it is used, its
operating conditions, and the method of manufacturing (welding) individual elements.
If the designer is not competent enough, an engineering technologist should be engaged
in the designing process.
Designing, due to being a relatively long process, is divided into several equally
important phases.
The first phase involves recognizing the problem [1], in which the purposes and
limitations the emergent device is going to face are determined. Then, the parameters
and design criteria are laid down and the criteria for evaluating the proposed solutions
are defined.
The purpose of the second phase, called the outline of an idea, is to choose the best
design created in the previous one and describe it in a comprehensible way, e.g. an
initial outline of the structure or a description of how the machine works. The chosen
solution is then optimized for usability.
All the functional elements necessary for the proper operation of the
device/machine are then added to the outline in the next, third phase.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_57
486 R. Misiewicz et al.
The fourth phase is about the input data necessary for designing individual ele-
ments. Not only the impact of the boundary conditions and their cross-correlation on
the structure is defined, but also the criteria for choosing the potential materials that are
going to be used in the process of assembling the carrying structure are evaluated [2].
The process of constructing is the last, fifth phase [3]. Based on the conducted
strength calculations, the suitable materials are selected for individual elements of the
structure [4]. Then, the final dimensions of elements are determined and their cross
tolerance, accuracy of manufacturing, and necessary characteristics (roughness of the
surface, shape deviations, etc.) are evaluated. The technical documentation containing
sketches, transportation manual, and installation of individual elements of the carrying
structure, as well as substantial criteria for the contractor, are the outcome of this phase.
This article presents the mistakes made during the process of designing and for-
mulating the technology of installation and implementation of the device’s steel
structure, the effects of which (welding imperfections and structural notches [a place of
a sudden change in the structure’s shape, usually in a place where individual elements
are connected]) were discovered during an as-built evaluation of the machine’s tech-
nical state.
2 Carrying Structures – Welding Procedures
Bucket-wheel excavators, bucket-chain excavators, and spreaders, also called basic

surface mining machines, are the most common machines utilized in surface mines
(Figs. 1, 2).
Due to their size, these vehicles are also described as large heavy equipment
machines. Exceeding 100 m in length and being nearly as high as 60 m, the curb
weight of such vehicles often amounts to over several thousand tons. Difficult operating
conditions, which cause the effort of the whole carrying structure due to additional
harmonic loads and frequent overloads, often cause the carrying structures of these
machines to work on the verge of the material’s strength [5–8]. On this account, it is
vital to properly design such a structure, so that it meets the strict safety standards of
exploitation [9–11]. It should also be noted that due to the character of the place of
work, these machines are usually exploited for decades. All these facts show that, in
terms of basic surface mining machines, it is extremely important to properly design
such objects – not only for performance, but also for the technology of implementation,
so that the machine does not have to be withdrawn from work due to errors made at the
stage of designing that might be discovered during the necessary, periodic control of
the vehicle.
Welding Procedure in Designing Carrying Structures 487
Fig. 1. Bucket-chain excavator
Fig. 2. Spreader
Many methods of joining elements and components of machines and devices

together were invented in the last few decades, which can be divided into two most
important groups: separable and non-separable.
Due to simplicity and economy, non-separable methods are the ones most com-
monly used in building new carrying structures of machines exploited in surface
mining – the individual elements of the structure are joined together through welding.
On the other hand, when it comes to repairing or renovating older vehicles, the ele-
ments are usually connected in then-used separable ways, e.g. with the use of riveted
and/or bolted joints (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Riveted, bolted, and welded joints.
Welded joints come into existence in a physical process of connecting two elements
together, usually made of the same material, by locally melting weld metal, and then by
cooling again the connection. The methods most commonly used while building and
renovating excavators include oxy fuel, shielded metal arc, and electrogas welding.
Each of these techniques alters the parent material as a consequence of heating, which
creates a hardened (brittle) area at a distance from the weld, the length of which [the
distance] depends on the amount of heat conveyed in the process of welding. This area
is called the heat-affected zone and is detrimental to the strength of the weld. Therefore,
if it is possible, the heat-affected zone should be as small as possible. Figure 4 presents
a diagram of two sheet metals butt welded through a complete joint penetration. The
areas composed of different structures of the material are marked.
Fig. 4. Location of the heat-affected zone in the material [4].
It is necessary to properly choose the measuring and testing technique in case of

evaluating the quality of a welded joint.
If the elements of a machine are made of carbon steel, the fundamental methods of
evaluating the quality of a welded joint and the surface of sheet metals are: visual
evaluation method, magnetic-particle evaluation method, and ultrasonic evaluation
method, which is used for measuring the thickness of a sheet metal in its simplest form
in order to confirm the accordance of the manufacturing of the product with the
specification [12–16].
3 Irregularities in Designing Welded Joints
In general, design mistakes indicate any design solutions causing an increased stress
concentration capable of damaging or destroying the machine. They can be global in
character, e.g. excessive yielding of tie-rods, or local, e.g. stress concentration in
notches resulting from neglectful welding of structure’s elements [17–19]. What is
more, stress concentrations are detrimental due to lowering the limit of fatigue strength
of the product, which manifests itself through fatigue cracks forming during the long-
standing exploitation of the machine.
While designing, the designer must consider the technology that is going to be used
to connect individual elements of the structure.
In case of applying welding procedures, it is necessary to exercise extreme care to
proper placement of welds, because it greatly affects the ultimate tensile and fatigue
strength. Figure 5 shows the influence of the placement of welds on the strength of I-
beam cross-section girder.
The figure above shows that the fatigue strength of the I-beam is the lowest in
Fig. 5a and c solutions, in which the welds joining two parts of the ring girder are
placed in one plane. To increase the load capacity of the I - beam girder, the welds
connecting the I-beams should be arranged with a displacement – Fig. 5b, d. The
Fig. 5. The influence of weld placement on the strength of an I-bar ring girder (R = 0 N = 2
106) [20]
constructional error discussed here is the lack of displacement between the welds
joining the sheet metals of the top and the bottom chords of the ring girder presented in
Figs. 6 and 7. Additionally, the following mistakes can be seen on the pictures: the
joint of the segments designed in a place of sudden change of the ring girder’s cross-
section – the occurrence of a structural notch, multiple weld joints intersecting, and the
parallel placement of several joints.
Placing several beads next to each other provides considerable amounts of heat to
the material, which changes its structure to a brittle one during the process of cooling,
significantly lowering the limit of strength.
While designing corner joints, it is necessary to put the information about the
method of connecting sheet metals into the Welding Procedure Specification (WPS).
Due to the process of manufacturing flat elements (rolling), the material becomes
anisotropic, which might have a significant influence on the potential occurrence of
material discontinuities in the form of delamination and a simultaneous lack of the
complete joint penetration of the welded material (Fig. 8) [20–22]. If it is possible, this
type of joints should be eschewed due to their low ultimate tensile and fatigue strength.
Fig. 6. Design mistakes – connecting two segments of the machine in the same plane of the
cross-section. Parallel welds placed too close to each other.
Fig. 7. The connection of elements in a structural notch. Welds intersecting.

Fig. 8. The influence of the type of a joint and the quality of a weld on the delamination of sheet
metals [20]
Not including a collar in the design might serve as an example of an adversely

applied corner joint. Figures 9 and 10 present an already built structure of a ring girder,
which does not have a shelf in both the top and the bottom chord. In this case, during
the process of connecting together the bottom chord with the outer ring of the girder,
the accumulated heat was not dispersed properly due to the lack of a collar. What is
more, the process of quick cooling of the joint causes a portion of the hydrogen located
in the filler material and the parent material not being able to diffuse, initiating the
development of lamellar tears.
Fig. 9. No collar in the bottom chord of the ring girder

Fig. 10. No collar neither in the top nor the bottom chord of the support
The design solutions proposed by the designer have to take into account the
minimally acceptable distances between welds, the dimensions are provided in [mm]
(Fig. 11).
Placing joints too close to each other creates a broad heat-affected zone lowering
the fatigue strength of a structural node. The material has heterogeneous mechanical
characteristics in the heat-affected zone. In the overheated zone, the grains grow
detrimentally and the ultimate tensile strength is lowered, while in the overhardened
zone, the material is characterized by a significant increase of hardness, which also
increases the brittleness. What is more, a structural node with numerous welds
develops a complex state of welding stresses, which also significantly lowers the limit
of the material’s fatigue strength. An example of an improperly designed node of a
boom with welds visibly touching each other is presented in Fig. 12.
Fig. 11. Recommended distances between welds [20]

Fig. 12. An improperly designed node of a boom’s carrying structure with abutting welds of a
knee brace and of a fin sheet metal (a sheet metal in the shape of a fin) [4]
While designing any structures, one of the most important things is to avoid any
kinds of structural notches. However, it is sometimes unavoidable, because the way of
operation of the device imposes on the designer the necessity of designing a structure in
which a sudden change of stiffness or the direction of the structure takes place. In such
Fig. 13. No arc between the sheet metals of the bottom chord of the ring girder’s support.
case, the designer has to mitigate the negative effects of the imposed introduction of the
structural notch by, for example, applying arcs. Figure 13 presents a constructional
mistake discovered during an expertise of the ring girder of a support. The lack of a
gentle transition is going to cause a high stress concentration, which is going to
initialize the development of fatigue cracks. In this case, it would be the most
advantageous to design a sheet metal with an arc similar to the one marked with a green
dashed line.
4 Summary
The process of designing, consisting of creating the form and dimensions of the
structure and choosing the material, is based on some principles that should be fol-
lowed while creating the final shape of the object. Some of these rules have been
formulated based on previous experiences from designing similar structures while
others have been adapted from various norms and standards. Modern approaches using
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) and Finite Method Analysis (FEA) are highly
advisable as well.
For the design process to be faultless, the designer has to have proper knowledge of
the problem. Not only in terms of the general basics of designing, but also in the field
of manufacturing technology and installation of the finished product. A statistical
designer does not possess any welding knowledge, which is commonly used in
building basic surface mining machines. Therefore, it is important to teach the skill of
choosing the proper method of welding together elements of carrying structures of
machines in the education process.
Possessing the skill mentioned above would greatly eliminate the mistakes pre-
sented in this article, which are impossible to eliminate when the machine is already in
the hands of the end-user due to its size [23]. Thereby, these irregularities might cause
the manufacturer to bear unnecessary costs and render the machine useless for the user.
References
1. Osiński Z, Wróbel J (1982) Teoria konstrukcji maszyn, PWN Warszawa
2. Morgan RC (2011) Design of materials handling machines to AS4324.1-1995. In:
Australasian structural engineering conference, Perth 2012
3. Dietrich M (1986) i inni: Podstawy konstrukcji maszyn t. I,PWN Warszawa
4. EN 10025. Hot-rolled products of non-alloy structural steels and their technical delivery
conditions. European Committee Standardization; 1990 + A1; 1993
5. Rusinski E, Czmochowski J, Moczko P, Pietrusiak D (2017) Surface mining machines:
problems of maintenance and modernization. Springer, Cham
6. Arsić M, Bošnjak S, Zrnić N, Sedmak A, Gnjatović N (2011) Bucket wheel failure caused
by residual stresses in welded joints. Eng Fail Anal 18(2):700–712
7. Bošnjak S, Zrnic´ N, Simonovic´ A, Momcˇilovic´ D (2009) Failure analysis of the end eye
connection of the bucket wheel excavator portal tie-rod support. Eng Fail Anal 16:740–50
8. Araujo LS, de Almeida LH, Batista EM (2009) Analysis of a bucket wheel stacker declaimer
structural failure. In: Proceedings of the conference ‘‘materials science & technology 2009’’,
Charles R. Morin memorial symposium on failure analysis and prevention. Pittsburgh:
Proceedings on CD. http://www.matscitech.org
9. DIN 22261-2 (2015) Excavators, stackers and auxillary equipment in brown coal open cut
mines part 2 calculation principals. German Institute for Standardization
10. DIN 22261-2 (2016) Excavators, stackers and auxillary equipment in brown coal open cut
mines part 2 calculation principals. German Institute for Standardization
11. EN 1993-1-9 (2005) (English): Eurocode 3: design of steel structures - Part 1-9: Fatigue
12. Lewińska-Romicka A (2001) Badania nieniszczące. Podstawy defektoskopii. Wydawnictwo
Naukowo-Techniczne, Warszawa
13. PN-EN 13018-Badania wizualne. Zasady ogólne
14. PN-EN ISO 6520-1-Klasyfikacja geometrycznych niezgodności spawalniczych w metalach.
Spawanie
15. PN-EN ISO 5817- Spawanie-złącza spawane ze stali, niklu, tytanu i ich stopów. Poziomy
jakości według niezgodności spawalniczych
16. PN-EN ISO 9934-1-Badania magnetyczno proszkowe. Zasady ogólne
17. de Castro PMST, Fernandes AA (2005) Methodologies for failure analysis: a critical survey.
Mater Des 25(2):117–123
18. Niemi E, Fricke W, Maddox SJ (2006) Fatigue analysis of welded components - designer’s
guide to the structural hot-spot stress approach. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge
19. Bošnjak S, Petkovic´ Z, Zrnic´ N, Simic´ G, Simonovic´ A (2009) Cracks, repair and
reconstruction of bucket wheel excavator slewing platform. Eng Fail Anal 16:1631–42
20. Ferenc K, Ferenc J (1999) Konstrukcje spawane projektowanie połączeń, WNT Warszawa
21. Hobbacher AF (2016) Recommendations for fatigue design of welded joints and
components, Springer International Publishing Switzerland
22. Hrivnák I (1992) Theory of weldability of metals and alloys. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam
23. Gagg CR (2005) Failure of components and products by ‘engineered-in’ defects: case
studies. Eng Fail Anal 12:1000–1026
Numerical and Experimental Testing
of the WLS Series Axial Fans Used for Local
Ventilation of Underground Excavations
Przemysław Moczko(&), Jędrzej Więckowski, and Piotr Odyjas

przemyslaw.moczko@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The testing and inspection of fans is a crucial task at the stages of
designing and prototyping as well as in terms of future exploitation. In case of
machines performing rotational movement, the scope of research is very broad
and concerns strength tests, vibration diagnostics, acoustic test, and flow tests.
The article presents the issue of studying vibrations of chosen elements of a fan
with special regard to the casing and flow tests of the fan itself. The tests were
carried out both on the actual object and numerically.
Keywords: Axial fans Flow measurements Modal analysis

Numerical simulations
1 Introduction
The verification of the performance of an actual object is a very important step in the
process of introducing new machines to the market. Theoretical calculations can be
verified by testing the prototypes of designed machines at test sites before they go into
series production. Thereafter, the measurements obtained at a test site are confronted
with the ones collected in actual operating conditions. The article presents various
methods of testing, both numerical and experimental, and describes the consistency of
results gathered in both ways. All the tests were carried out on example fans of the
emergent WLS series.
One of the most important parameters of operation in case of fans used for mine
ventilation are performance and efficiency. Based on these factors, it is decided whether
a particular fan can be exploited in a given excavation. Such approach is caused by
various ventilation needs in different parts of mines. Other equally important param-
eters relate to modal properties of fans. They determine whether an object containing
rotating elements is safe to use. If the natural frequency of a fan matches the frequency
associated with rotational speed, the machine might start resonating, which is detri-
mental to the durability of an object and its safety of operation. Figure 1 presents one of
the fans of the WLS series, which was the subject of testing [2, 7, 8, 12–20].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_58
498 P. Moczko et al.
Fig. 1. A fan of the WLS series
The paper presents the methodology of determining the parameters of operation of

axial fans used for local ventilation of mines and the natural frequency of their casings.
The necessity of designing a whole series of fans results from various air requirements
and local flow resistances in different parts of mines. Even though fans are relatively
easy to adjust, one type cannot provide proper local ventilation in any conditions
occurring in mines. The designed series of fans consists of 4 models of different sizes;
the geometrical parameters of an example fan are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Geometrical parameters characteristic to the WLS-400 fan

Inner Diameter Number Number Length Length of the casing
diameter of of outlet of rotor of guide of the with an inlet confuser
the casing reducer blades vanes casing and an outlet reducer
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
U400 U65 16 15 410 685
The article also presents the results of applying computational methods in deter-
mining the natural frequency of fan casings. The current development of numerical
methods allows obtaining modal parameters of a fan at the stage of a virtual prototype.
Thanks to that, all the necessary modifications can be applied to the design before
manufacturing an actual prototype. What is more, various methods of testing are
described. The following parts of the article also present the results of virtual com-
putations and measurements obtained on an actual object. Not only does it concern the
issues of vibrations, but also determining the flow characteristics of fans.
Numerical and Experimental Testing of the WLS Series 499
2 Determining the Frequency of Forced Vibrations
The first thing in testing whether the object is prone to resonance is to determine the
frequency of excitation. As stated above, they can come from various sources. In terms
of fans, they come from the operation of the electric engine which in this case directly
drives the rotor of the fan with a known number of blades l and a set rotational speed n.
The following mathematical equations are used in calculating the rotational frequency
fo and the blade pass frequency fBPF of the fan [12, 18]:
n
fo ¼
60
nl
f BPF ¼
60
where:
n – rotational frequency of the electric motor [rpm]
l – the number of the fan’s rotor blades
It results from the dependency presented above that the frequency of excitation
depends on the rotational speed of the motor powering the fan and the parameters of the
rotor. Each of these values was calculated for each of the types. The values for the
WLS-400 fan are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. The rotational speed of the electric motor powering the WLS-400 fan and the values of
rotational and blade pass frequency
Rotational speed of the Rotational frequency of the Blade pass frequency of
electric motor [rpm] electric motor [Hz] the fan [Hz]
2845 47,42 758,72
3 Calculating the Natural Frequency with the Use of Finite

Element Method
Due to its development, finite element method is currently commonly used to aid
engineering. It also finds its uses in modal analysis. Algorithms included in the modern
computational systems allow obtaining consecutive natural frequencies in a short time.
Another advantage of the method over numerical methods is the fact of obtaining
visualizations of consecutive vibration profile. This, as stated above, allows for
introducing necessary modifications in the design at the stage of a virtual prototype.
The view and the geometrical model of a fan of the WLS series is presented below.
Fig. 4. The 18th vibra-

tion profile of the WL-S
Fig. 2. WL-S 400 fan, geomet- Fig. 3. WL-S 400 fan, dis- 400 fan
rical model crete model
The next stage before conducting modal analysis is to discretize the geometrical
model. Shell and beam finite elements were used in order to achieve that. Thereafter,
boundary conditions, simulating the actual way in which the fans are assembled, were
applied to the discretized models.
Having prepared the discrete model of the fan’s casing, it is possible to conduct
modal analysis with the use of finite element method. In case of this method, it is
enough to define what material the object is made of and the way in which it is
steadied. Table 3 presents the results of the modal analysis conducted for the WLS-400
fan. Additionally, Figs. 2, 3, and 4 show the geometrical and numerical models of the
WLS-400 and an example visualization of one of the vibration profiles.
Table 3. The results of the modal analysis conducted for the WLS-400 fan
Frequency [Hz]
Natural frequency 47.42
Vibration profile number 1 and 2 49.42
3 and 4 51.05
5 and 6 51.44
7 and 8 59.34
9 and 10 69.94
11 and 12 89.22
13 and 14 102.41
15 and 16 102.48
17 and 18 122.03
19 and 20 146.94
4 Determining the Natural Frequency with the Use

of Experimental Methods
There are many methods for determining the natural frequency and vibration profiles of
actual objects with the use of experimental testing. They are two ways of approaching
the issues associated with the experimental and operational modal analyses. For the
purpose of this paper, a laser scanning vibrometer was used, which utilizes the oper-
ational modal analysis in this particular application. The testing was aimed at deter-
mining the natural frequency and its vibration profile of a fan of the WLS series and
verifying the correctness of numerical calculations. The measurements were taken
while the fan was working at a test stand prepared for flow measuring. Operating
parameters of the fan were also measured at the same time. Utilizing the method of
laser scanning allows for a non-contact determination of acceleration, velocity, and
vibration displacement fields in a defined mesh of measuring points, which makes the
method truly universal. The disadvantage of this method is that it is only capable of
registering displacements that are perpendicular to the detector of the measuring head,
which can be eliminated by applying additional ones. The state of the tested object’s
surface is also an important aspect – it should be capable of reflecting a laser beam.
A prototype of the WLS-500 fan was one of the subjects of testing. Figure 5
presents the test stand during measurements.
Fig. 5. WL-S 500 fan at the test stand
Spectrum graphs presenting the vibration frequency characteristics of the tested

object were determined based on the conducted tests. They show values that charac-
terize the WLS-500 fan, such as rotational and blade pass frequencies as well as values
associated with the fan’s natural frequency. Figure 6 presents an example vibration
velocity diagram in the function of frequency. The flow intensity of the fan was
regulated which did not really affect the results – similar diagrams were obtained at
different settings. A characteristic value around 10 Hz can be seen, which is respon-

sible for the natural frequency of the tested object. Additionally, Fig. 7 presents
example visualization of a vibration profile taken from the measuring software.
Fig. 6. Example vibration velocity diagram in the function of frequency for the WL-S 500 fan
Fig. 7. Visualization of the fan casing’s vibration profile determined with the use of a laser
scanning vibrometer
The initial numerical analysis concerned operating conditions in which the fans will
be exploited in mines. The boundary conditions applied in this analysis were different
than those that occurred at the test stand during measurements, where the fan worked
together with a ventilation pipe and an additional measuring intake duct. The duct was
steadied while the fan was attached to it with the use of an extension arm. Due to all
these factors, an additional modal analysis taking into account the actual boundary
conditions registered at the test stand was carried out for the WLS-500 fan. Table 4
presents the results of numerical calculations. The vibration profile accordant with the
experimental testing results is marked with the color blue. Figure 8 shows the
appearance of this vibration profile.
Fig. 8. The third vibration profile of the WLS-500 fan
Table 4. The results of the modal analysis of the WLS-500 fan for boundary conditions present
at the test stand
Frequency [Hz]
Vibration profile number 1 and 2 4.16
3 and 4 10.28
5 and 6 29.33
7 and 8 33.22
9 and 10 56.76
5 Test Stand Measurements and Numerical Calculations
All the measurements were carried out at a test stand designed according to the prin-
ciples of the EN-ISO 5801 standard. Figure 9 presents the test stand and the tested fan.
The tests were aimed at determining the operation characteristics of the fan and the
measurements were conducted for different parameters of operation. It allowed
obtaining characteristics of total pressure rise, efficiency, and power in the function of
flow intensity. Thanks to that, the diagrams of pressure, efficiency, and power were
obtained.
Fig. 9. The test stand used for measurements and the tested fan
The numerical calculations for the WLS series of fans were carried out at the stage
of prototyping. They were aimed at determining the fan’s characteristic (curves of total
pressure rise, efficiency, and power) and finding the areas where flow disturbances
occur. The test stand measurements allowed the authors to verify the correctness of the
computational model [1–6].
Computational models were prepared based on the geometrical models of the fans. In
the first instance, discrete models consisting of three domains (stationary inlet zone,
rotating impeller zone (Fig. 10), stationary outlet zone (Fig. 10)) were prepared, in which
the rotating impeller was the domain to which rotational movement was applied. Due to
that, the equations had to take into account the factor associated with the rotational speed
of the medium placed in the domain [3, 4]. Each of the domains was discretized in such a
way so that the quality of the elements was as high as possible (skewness parameter < 0.9,
angle parameter 9). What is more, in order to achieve proper results around the blades
of the rotating impeller and the stationary outlet zone, the model was prepared with the
assumption that the first element in the boundary layer meets the Y + < 30 criterion.
Based on that, after an initial analysis carried out for different types of meshes, the final
discrete model consisted of the elements listed in Table 5. The problem of calculations
was solved with the use of the so-called Frozen Rotor Approach, meaning that the
calculations were conducted while the placement of the rotating impeller relative to the
stationary outlet zone was fixed, while the rotational movement was taken into account
by adding a factor to numerical equations. Due to low pressure values in the fan, the CFD
calculations were carried out with the use of a pressure-based solver, whereas in order to
take turbulences into account, a two-equational k-e turbulence model was used. The
applied boundary conditions include the velocity inlet at the front of the fan, setting the
proper value of velocity in this cross-section, and a pressure outlet at the back, with the
assumption that the fun pushes gases to the atmosphere. What is more, due to flow
periodicity, the problem was greatly reduced by modeling 1/16 of the rotating impeller
(the impeller has 16 blades) and 1/15 of the stationary outlet zone with guide vanes (it
contains 15 blades), whereas the calculations itself were conducted with the application
of periodic boundary conditions [1–4]. The calculations continued until they were almost
identical to the parameters of the mathematical model or until the convergence of the
values being registered, such as the inlet pressure, outlet pressure, and the torque carried
by the impeller’s shaft was obtained.
The authors obtained the distribution of velocity and pressure, as well as streamlines,
based on the calculations. In order to obtain the characteristics of the fan, the calcula-
tions were carried out at five different points of operation differing in the value of
velocity at the fan’s inlet. As a result, the characteristics of the fan were obtained (curves
of total pressure rise, efficiency, and power) and are presented in Fig. 11. The total
pressure rise of the fan was stated as the difference between the total pressure at the inlet
of the impeller and the outlet of the fan and the dynamic pressure in the outlet [1, 2, 12].
DPt ¼ Pt outlet Pt inlet Pd2 ½Pa
Power carried by the impeller’s shaft was determined based on the following
equation:
Mnp
Pm ¼ ½ W
30
Where:
M – torque on the shaft [Nm]
N – rotational speed [rpm]
Hydraulic power was calculated as the product of the total pressure rise and flow
intensity:
Ph ¼ DPt Q½W
The efficiency of the fan was calculated as the ratio of both powers:
Ph
g¼
Pm
The comparison of test stand measurements with the numerical calculations for the
WLS-400 fan are presented in Fig. 11. Besides the characteristics of the fan, a set of
data concerning the character of flow passing through the impeller and vector distri-
butions of velocity, pressure fields, streamlines, etc. was gathered. The visualization of
some of the data is presented in Figs. 12, 13 and 14 (Table 6).
Table 5. Parameters of a discrete model based on the WLS-400 fan

Zones No. of Type of used Quality parameters of used
cells elements mesh
Stationary inlet 639342 Hexa Maximal skewness 0,9
zones Minimal angle 9
Rotating impeller 204428
zone
Stationary outlet 372792
zone
Sum 1216562
Fig. 10. Rotating zone – 1/16 of impeller (left) and 1/15 of guide vane zone within stationary
outlet zone (right)
Table 6. Results of numerical calculations of the WLS-400 conducted at 5 different points of

operation
Q Pt1 Pt2 Pst1 Pd1 Pd2 ΔPt M Pm Ph η
[m3/s] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Nm] [W] [W]
1,37 −340,2 140,2 −780,7 442,5 140,7 339,7 5,23 1599 466 0,291
1,75 −783,0 222,5 −900,7 117,6 222,2 783,3 7,34 2245 1368 0,609
2,12 −611,3 306,9 −784,9 173,4 306,8 611,4 7,67 2344 1296 0,553
2,49 −385,1 400,6 −904,2 519,6 400,5 385,3 7,49 2292 961 0,419
2,74 −165,8 479,9 −792,9 627,8 479,7 166,0 7,09 2169 456 0,210
Fig. 11. WLS-400 fan characteristics (total pressure rise, efficiency and shaft power in the
function of flow rate) – the comparison of the actual fan and the numerical calculations
Fig. 12. Total pressure distribution

Fig. 13. Static pressure distribution
Fig. 14. Streamlines with visible swirls

The results of testing and numerical analyses coincide with each other. It means that the
values obtained from virtual objects correspond with the real ones. Consequently,
numerical methods can be used for verifying virtual prototypes. Thanks to that, all the
structural changes can be introduced and verified at the stage of documentation. It
limits the number of prototypes that have to be built to the bare minimum. What is
more, utilizing advanced numerical methods allows the researchers to develop new
solutions which are characterized by better technical and performance properties when
compared to older devices. It is clearly visible in terms of the designed fans of the WLS
series when comparing flow parameters and energy demand of the new fans with those
currently exploited in mines. The new machines consume 20–30% less electrical
energy while providing similar flow intensity. It is a considerable advantage and a
reason to utilize them, especially in times of searching new solutions to improve the
efficiency of enterprises. It is worth noting that the energy consumed by ventilating
machines amounts to about 30% of a mine’s total energy demand. Therefore, using
more power-efficient ventilation devices has a great potential for improving energy
balance.
References
1. Basile R, Carolus T (2001) Einfluss von Zwischenschaufel auf die aerodynamischen
Eigenschaften von Radialventilatoren – Vergleich verschiedener numerischer Stromfeld-
berechnungsverfahren. Contributed to: Ventilatoren: Entwicklung – Planung – Betrieb, VDI-
Tagung Braunschweig, 20–21 Feb 2001
2. Carolus T (2013) Ventilatoren. Aerodynamischer Entwurf, Schallvorhersage, Konstruktion,
3rd edn. Springer Vieweg
3. Theory Guide Ansys Fluent 12.0 (2009) ANSYS, Inc
4. User’s Guide Ansys Fluent 12.0 (2009) ANSYS, Inc
5. Zhou X, Zhang Y, Ji Z, Hou H (2014) The optimal hydraulic design of centrifugal impeller
using generic algortihm with BVF. Int J Rotating Mach
6. Younsi M, Bakir F, Kouidri S, Rey R (2007) Influence of impeller geometry on the unsteady
flow in a centrifugal fan: numerical and experimental analyses. Int J Rotating Mach
7. Rusiński E, Moczko P, Odyjas P, Pietrusiak D (2014) Investigation of vibrations of a main
centrifugal fan used in mine ventilation. Arch Civ Mech Eng 14(4):569–579
8. Czmochowski J, Moczko P, Odyjas P, Pietrusiak D (2014) Tests of rotary machines
vibrations in steady and unsteady states on the basis of large diameter centrifugal fans.
Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc – Maintenance and Reliability 16(2):211–216
9. Rusiński E, Smolnicki T (2010) Rozwój metod obliczeniowych w budowie maszyn i
pojazdów. Przegląd Mechaniczny 6:17–24
10. Rusiński E, Czmochowski J, Smolnicki T (2000) Zawansowana Metoda Elementów
Skończonych. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej
11. Zienkiewicz OC, Taylor RL, Zhu JZ (2005) Finite element method–its basis and
fundamentals, 6th edn. Elsevier
12. Cory WTW (2005) Fans & ventilation–a practical guide, Elsevier
13. Al-Badour F, Sunar M, Cheded L (2011) Vibration analysis of rotating machinery using
time-frequency analysis and wavelet techniques. Mech Syst Signal Process 25:2083–2101
14. Kameier F (1997) Rotating blade flow instability as a source of noise in axial turbomachines.
J Sound Vib 203(5):833–853
15. Lee S, Heo S, Cheong C (2010) Prediction and reduction of internal blade-passing frequency
noise of the centrifugal fan in a refrigerator. Int J Refrig 33(6):1129–1141
16. Poursaeidi E, Salavanti M (2007) Failure analysis of generator rotor fan blades. Eng Fail
Anal 14:851–860
17. Radkowski S (2007) Use of vibroacoustical signal in detecting early stages of failures.
Eksploatacja i Niezawodność– Maintenance and Reliability 3:11–18
18. Randall RB (2011) Vibration-based condition monitoring, Wiley
19. Rao AR, Dutta BK (2012) Vibration analysis for detecting failure of compressor blade. Eng
Fail Anal 25:211–218
20. Vloussavi Torshizi SE, Yadavar Nikravesh SM, Jahangiri A (2009) Failure analysis of gas
turbine generator cooling fan blades. Eng Fail Anal 16:1686–1695
Integration of Motion Capture Data
Acquisition with Multibody Dynamic
Simulation Software for Nordic Walking Gait
Analysys
A. Muraszkowski1(&), J. Szrek1, S. Wudarczyk1, J. Bałchanowski1,

R. Jasiński2, B. Pietraszewski3, and M. Woźniewski2
1
artur.muraszkowski@pwr.edu.pl
2
Department of Rehabilitation in Internal Medicine, University School
of Physical Education, al. Ignacego Jana Paderewskiego 35,
3
Institute of Human Sciences, University School of Physical Education, al.
Ignacego Jana Paderewskiego 35, 51-612 Wrocław, Poland
Abstract. This article presents method of Nordic Walking gait data acquisition
using motion capture. The author’s solution of markers location on human body
is presented. It uses Davis protocol enhanced by additional markers for upper
limbs and Nordic Walking poles measurement. The simplified kinematic com-
putational model is presented. It was used for quality tests of data set generated
during Nordic Walking gait. Problems with use of raw data are indicated. They
cannot be used direct for kinematic analysis due to high noise in first and second
signal derivatives. Sources of noise are presented and way to reduce them as
well. Analysis of acceleration signals of measured data is performed. Butter-
worth filters with different cut off frequencies are used. The reconstruction of
measured data from filtered and derivative signals is shown as well as com-
parison with original data.
1 Introduction
The beginnings of Nordic Walking, an extended form of walking, date back to the
1930s. The history of this extremely simple and effective aerobic training takes us to
Scandinavia, where it was used by skiers in the summer. Walking with ski poles was a
natural continuation of skiing - and the noticeable beneficial health effects of this type
of activity, its simplicity and accessibility, determined that the idea spread to the whole
world.
Nordic Walking training involves an intensive walk with the use of poles. In the
early stages he was called “Ski Walking” - the movement imitated skiing [3]. From
ordinary walking, it differs in that it also involves the upper parts of the body, as well as
during skiing. It is a typical aerobic workout and has all its advantages: strengthens all
parts of the body and builds the body’s efficiency. It is also safe, the use of poles while

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_59
Integration of Motion Capture Data Acquisition 511
walking relieves pressure on the joints, knees and spine. It can be used by people in a
weaker physical condition, older, obese, pregnant women and in many other situations
where intense strength training would cause a high risk of injury [1]. The attention of
researchers is also attracted by the possibility of using Nordic Walking in rehabilitation,
which can be deduced from numerous studies conducted on this subject [4].
More and more scientists are researching the Nordic Walking gait. The need arose
to use a fast and repeatable method of collecting data on walking parameters obtained
during the performance of exercises by various people - athletes, ordinary and reha-
bilitating people. One of these methods is motion capture. It uses a set of cameras,
appropriately positioned and calibrated and optical markers. There are different systems
available. Some of them uses passive markers attached directly to the body of exam-
ined person, other uses special elastic linkage between markers and body. There are
also systems that uses active markers that works in infrared, blinking with programmed
frequency, giving additional information. Markers are fixed in specific places on the
test object. The placement of markers is crucial for correctly determining the position
of the body and joint segments. Protocols describing the correct installation of markers
have been created. The Davis protocol [2] is the most widespread. It is used to
determine the gait test method and focuses on the lower limbs. To use motion capture
for Nordic Walking, it is necessary to place additional markers on the upper limbs and
poles. Markers can be placed at various points, but it is important to remember that they
will be used for data acquisition of the movement of each individual human segments,
so the points of mounting should be chosen carefully. It should be remembered that
each marker have to be seen by a minimum of two cameras at the same time throughout
the measurement period, otherwise it is not possible to determine its position.
For dynamic analysis there are used reaction force platforms. Additional, authors
are preparing special Nordic Walking poles with measurement unit [6] for gathering
more dynamic data. Acquired with motion capture system data can be used to deter-
mine kinematic and dynamic parameters [5].
2 Methods
For data acquisition of Nordic Walking gait, there were used a motion capture tech-
nology. Particularly an Optotrak system was used with six analog cameras. The
standard Davis model – Davis Heel protocol, for the lower limbs in the gait process was
chosen for analysis. The basic model consists of 22 markers and has been extended
with an additional 8 markers, two for each upper limb and two for each pole (Fig. 1).
A disadvantage during motion capture measurements was the specificity of Nordic
Walking gait, which is a very dynamic style. Additional limited resources were used
including a small number of cameras and a fairly short image recording path of about
5 m in which all markers are recorded at the same time. As a result there were only
possibility to record 2 s walk. In addition, during Nordic Walking gait there is a strong
activity of the upper limbs equipped with poles, which were covering periodically the
markers placed on the body of the subject. The poles also created the risk of hitting the
markers, causing it to peel off the body or even damage it. The examined person have
had to keep it in mind during the walk. As a result he could not walk in a manner
512 A. Muraszkowski et al.
completely correct with the style. The person had to keep his arms wider than in normal
NW gait in case to avoid hitting the markers, so the trajectory of hand is different from
correct one. Also the force that person applied do poles is weaker and with different
orientation. Although this changes in movement postures the results were considered,
by physiotherapist NW specialist, to be good enough for the purpose of experiment
(obtaining kinematic parameters of human gait with Nordic walking poles). In further
research, alternative motion capture system will be used with smaller markers attached
close to body.
Experiment consisted of walking in straight line. Start point was located about
10 m outside the camera observation area. It allowed the examined person to accelerate
properly and to walk into the camera area with constant velocity and steady
step. Additional, there were force platform mounted in the pathway. They were
camouflaged to prevent the person from changing his step length in order to hit the
platform. As a result not every walk ended up with properly measured force. Examined
person walked with poles using Nordic Walking technic. For comparison standard gait
without poles was also recorded. The experiment was conducted 5 times with poles and
5 times without poles. Every walk was recorded. The best result, with most marker
data, was taken for further analysis.
The next step was to compute the positions of each marker to joints locations and
orientations. It was done automatically by a program delivered with the motion capture
camera system. The computing of exact location and orientation of joints axes is a
known problem to the authors but it is not the subject of this article. Discussion of this
problem can be found in literature, for example Schwartz [7]. Another problem is the
filtering of raw data. Some computer programs don’t even inform the user that filtering
of data is processed, another leave the decision of filtering to the user providing basic
filters with few parameters to set. For simply application it is good enough.
Fig. 1. Scheme of marker arrangement, left – standard Davis Heel Protocol, right (dark) –
enhanced arrangement with additional markers for arms and poles.
To realize the complex of the problem, the motion capture data were used in
general multi body kinematic and dynamic analysis program. The simplified model of
human body were built. Data were used as characteristic for kinematic motion. The raw
data are sufficient for mapping the movement only to show it on animation (Fig. 2).
Even the characteristic of displacement and joints angles looks fine (Fig. 3).
Fig. 2. Gait sequence. Simulation with motion capture data.
Fig. 3. Characteristics of hands displacement and angle of shoulder and elbow joints
The problem is with derivative parameters of kinematics. The biggest error is

present in acceleration characteristics (Fig. 4 dotted line). The source of error is varied.
For example the resolution of camera, the fact that markers are not seen by sufficient
number of cameras – the lack of data are fulfilled by interpolation. In some systems,
markers are placed on thin rod, that is flexible and flex during the movement.
The raw data has to be filtered in case to solve the problem. In Fig. 4 elbow angle
position characteristic processed witch 2nd order digital Butterworth filter and then
differentiated twice (acceleration) is shown as blue line. The signal is lack of high
frequency, high amplitude peaks that occur in raw data. Quite difficult is to define the
value of low pass filter parameters especially cut off frequency. Too high value cause
presence of peaks in signal, too low will cut of important data and distort signal.
Fig. 4. Characteristic of elbow joint acceleration, raw and filtered data
Figure 5 shows raw and filtered data. There is issue to be considered when using filters.
Some of them make phase shift resulting in time delay. The value of this delay depends
on sets parameters. On left side of Fig. 6 this shift is shown. It has to be considered
when using data processing in on-line application or using different filters for each
signals.
Fig. 5. Filtering issue. Raw and filtered data of shoulder joint angle (left) and angular
acceleration (right).
The issues described above is crucial for the task of designing devices used for
reconstruction of movement characteristics. Data acquired by the motion capture
system acts as input data which are relevant to determine the parameters necessary to
appropriate design of the components that will be used for construction of the device.
The data read directly from the motion capture system is strongly disturbed by the
measurement method. Figure 6 shows the angular position of the ankle joint and the
acceleration created by double derivative of position signal of the raw and filtered data.
The angular position data has been filtered. A low-pass, normalized, second order
Butterworth digital filter was used, with 3 different cut-off frequencies set at 0.1, 0.05
and 0.02. The sampling of data was 150 Hz. Acceleration determined from raw data is
characterized by high dynamics and amplitude. When filtering at level 0.1 of the scaled
frequency (when sampling is 150 Hz, the cut-off frequency is 7.5 Hz), you can still see
high dynamics of the signal, although the amplitude is reduced by about twice (Fig. 6
Fig. 6. Ankle joint angular position (left) and angular acceleration (right) for motion capture raw
data and filtered with normalized butterworth digital 2nd order filter with cut off frequency set to
0.1, 0.05 and 0.02.
right). Further shifting of the filtering threshold to 0.05, in scaled frequency, signifi-
cantly reduces the dynamics of the acceleration signal with a good mapping of the
angular position. An even larger limitation of the input signal to the frequency cut off of
0.02 further reduces the amplitude and dynamics of the signal, however, in the angular
position, a significant shift of the signal phase is noted. Therefore, the last filter setting
is considered to distort the signal characteristics in to excessive range. Table 1 shows
the maximum and minimum values as well as the shift in the phase of unfiltered and
filtered signal.
Fig. 7. Ankle joint angular position reconstructed from angle acceleration for motion capture
raw data and filtered with normalized butterworth digital 2nd order filter with cut off frequency
set to 0.1, 0.05 and 0.02.
The extreme values for individual signals are very similar to each other. The
difference between the unfiltered signal and the filtered one with the cut off frequencies
of 0.05 is below 1% and is acceptable due to the use of data to determine the con-
struction design of the devices used for reconstruction of movement characteristics.
Additionally, Fig. 7 shows the characteristics resulting from the double integration of
angular acceleration signals obtained by the method described above and the raw data
from the motion capture system. As shown, the curves of the filtered signals with cut-
off frequencies 0.1 and 0.05 coincide with the reference data. The filtered signal with
cut-off 0.02 is the most delayed in relation to the reference data. It has been found that
filtering with a cut-off at normalized frequency 0.1 and 0.05 distorts the signal in an
acceptable range.
Table 1. Comparison of max, min values and phase shift of ankle joint angle for motion capture
raw data, and filtered with normalized butterworth digital 2nd order filter with cut off frequency
set to 0.1, 0.05 and 0.02.
Raw data Filtered, cut off 0.1 Filtered, cut off 0.05 Filtered, cut off 0.02
Max [deg] 26.1969 26.2016 26.2145 26.0414
Min [deg] −5.7297 −5.7289 −5.7273 −5,6528
Phase shift [s] 0 0.005 0.01 0,026
Motion characteristics of kinematic analysis acquired from optical motion capture

system were presented. It was shown that raw data have a lot of distortion, especially
seen in second order derivative of the data.
Motion capture can be used as the source of data for kinematic analysis. Never-
theless, there is some problems to be considered. The data acquisition itself generate
errors mainly caused by measuring methods and technology. Other source of error is
the method of converting markers position into location and orientations of joints axes.
Issues mentioned above can be solved with appropriate filtering. However, there is to
be considered the signal deviation generated by the processing.
The studies have shown that after appropriate filtering of data acquired with the
motion capture system, it is possible to use them for designing devices used for
reconstruction of movement characteristics registered by the system.
For further analysis of the remaining signals concerning displacements of particular
segments of the human subject and angles in the joints, a filter with a scaled cut-off
frequency of 0.05 was chosen.
Acknowledgement. This research is supported by National Science Centre (NCN) under the
project Opus 12 no 2016/23/B/NZ7/03310.
References
1. Gloc Dagmara, Mikołajczyk Rafał (2015) Application of Nordic Walking in comprehensive
cardiac rehabilitation – a review of current reports. Hygeia Public Health 50(2):253–259
2. Davis R (1991) A gait analysis data collection and reduction technique. Hum Mov Sci
10:575–587
3. Kantaneva M (2005) Original Nordic Walking, World Original Nordic Walking Federation
4. Kocur PD-Ś (2009) Effects of Nordic Walking training on exercise capacity and fitness in
men participating in early, short-term inpatient cardiac rehabilitation after an acute coronary
syndrome – a controlled trial. Clin Rehabil 23(11):995–1004
5. Koizumi T, Tsujiuchi N, Takeda M, Fujikura R, Kojima T (2011) Load dynamics of joints in
Nordic walking. In: 5th Asia-Pacific congress on sports technology (APCST), Procedia
Engineering 11, pp 544–551
6. Muraszkowski A, Szrek J (2017) The concept of mobile system of analysis and visualization
of human gait parameters. In: 23rd International conference engineering mechanics 2017
Svratka, Czech Republic, pp 678–681
7. Schwartz Michael H, Rozumalski Adam (2005) A new method for estimating joint parameters
from motion data. J Biomech 38(1):107–116
Conceptual Design and Concept Development
of Compressed Biogas Transport System Using
CAD/CAE
Marek Mysior(&), Sebastian Koziołek, and Bartosz Pryda

{marek.mysior,sebastian.koziolek}@pwr.edu.pl,
bartosz.pryda@gmail.com
Abstract. Currently, the demand on energy is rocketing. This makes it nec-

essary to use alternative sources of energy like biogas to satisfy our future needs.
Transport of gaseous fuel in compressed state is widely known, although there is
very little amount of knowledge on how to design systems dedicated to raw
biogas transport under pressure. The aim of this study was to define modelling
possibilities for raw biogas using NG models and to apply CAD/CAE into
design process of Mobile Biogas Station. For conceptual design, functional
modelling using hypothesis analysis was used and contradiction analysis using
TRIZ. Detailed design process involved CAD 3D modelling and FEM analysis
and design optimization. As a result, feasible design of Mobile Biogas Station
was created that has modular structure and allows for ease of manufacturing
having significant volume for biogas to be transported.
Keywords: CNG Biogas Compression Storage
1 Introduction
Transport of gaseous fuel in compressed state is widely known [6, 10], but there is very
little amount of knowledge on how to design systems dedicated to raw biogas transport
under pressure. Important problem is connected with evaluation of amount of gas that
needs to be transported and compressed in order to meet customers’ needs. There are
several models that describe parameters of natural gas in transport, such as AGA-8,
GERG-2008 or SGERG-88 summarized in [8], but there is lack of knowledge and
results of research and experiments regarding compression of raw biogas. Some
important aspects of biogas compression are described in [5], but there is very limited
knowledge on design of the containers for transport. In the scope of this article,
analysis of composition of raw biogas was done in order to determine the field of
application of existing knowledge into the design process of raw biogas transportation
systems.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_60
Conceptual Design and Concept Development 519
2 Determination of Raw Biogas Properties in Compression
Raw biogas that is being analyzed in the scope of this article is being characterized by
lower volumetric fraction of CH4 and bigger fraction of CO2 as compared to typical
composition of Natural Gas. Theoretical composition of raw biogas is composed of
65% CH4 and 35% of CO2 (percentage of volume) [7]. Table 1 summarizes compo-
sition of various gases including theoretical and experimentally measured composition
of biogas and natural gas.
Table 1. Comparison of composition of biogas and natural gas, based on [2, 7, 9]

Constituents Biogas Biogas Biogas Natural Natural gas
(minimum) (typical) (maximum) gas (raw) (typical)
CH4 [% vol.] 39,34% 54,74% 62,32% 75–95% 90–98%
CO2 [% vol.] 17,2% 34,99% 47,88% 2–20% 0–3%
H2S [% vol.] 30 ppm 99 ppm 132 ppm 5 ppm 5 ppm
H2O [% vol.] Saturated Saturated Saturated Saturated 10 ppm
H2 [% vol.] 0% 0,5% 1% – –
O2 [% vol.] 0% 0,1% 1% – –
N2 [% vol.] 0% 0,4% 31,8% 0–2% 1%
NH3 [% vol.] 44 ppm 132 ppm 202 ppm – –
Boundaries of concentration of biogas constituents presented in Table 1 are based

on results of experimental analysis of raw biogas composition performed by [7].
Concluding from the table, range of volumetric fraction of constituents is much wider
for raw biogas compared to natural gas. The range of application of methods: AGA8,
GERG-2008 and SGERG-88 for raw biogas based on composition presented in Table 1
is presented on Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
SGERG-88-ext
SGERG-88
GERG-2008-ext
GERG-2008
AGA8-ext
AGA8
Raw biogas
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Mole fracƟon of CH4[-]
Fig. 1. Concentration of CH4 in raw biogas and required range for application of methods
520 M. Mysior et al.
SGERG-88-ext
SGERG-88
GERG-2008-ext
GERG-2008
AGA8-ext
AGA8
Raw biogas
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Mole fracƟon of CO2[-]
Fig. 2. Concentration of CO2 in raw biogas and required range for application of methods
H2
N2 GERG-2008-ext
GERG-2008
O2 Raw biogas
0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Mole fracƟon of consƟtuents [-]
Fig. 3. Concentration of CO2 in raw biogas and required range for application of methods
The above figures presents, that recommended range of application of methods

AGA8, SGERG-88 and GERG-2008, even in extended range, is not enough to
determine the compressibility factor of raw biogas. The possible reason may be con-
nected with appearance of liquified phase during compression, especially regarding
CO2. It is though possible to determine such compression parameters (elevated tem-
perature) that will allow direct transition of CO2 from gaseous phase to supercritical
fluid and because of that it is possible to compress mixtures of CH4–CO2 below triple
point of CO2 [5].
As it was shown on Figs. 1, 2 and 3, range of application of typical methods used
for determining the compressibility factor of raw biogas does not cover the entire range
of composition of this gas. It makes it necessary to perform experimental testing of
gases in order to determine the compressibility factor, which will make it possible to
assess the volume of gas in transport. For the purpose of this article, evaluation of Z-
coefficient was performed using Method of Weighting Treatment [11], in which
compressibility factor is being evaluated based on mole fraction of constituents in
Biogas. Based on data from Table 1 and tabular data for Z-factor obtained for pure
gases prom Coolprop, calculation of Z- factor of raw biogas and natural gas was
performed using Method of Weighting Treatment [11]. Composition of raw biogas is

based on experimental data from [7].
Table 2. Compressibility factor Z for raw biogas constituents, based on Coolprop

Constituents Raw biogas Natural gas Raw biogas compressibility factor Pressure Z [-]
CH4 [% vol.] 54,74% 98% 100 bar 0,63
CO2 [% vol.] 34,99% 1% 150 bar 0,64
H2S [% vol.] 99 ppm – 200 bar 0,68
H2O [% vol.] Saturated – Natural gas compressibility factor Pressure Z [-]
H2 [% vol.] 0,5% – 100 bar 0,83
O2 [% vol.] 0,1% – 150 bar 0,80
N2 [% vol.] 0,4% 1% 200 bar 0,80
As it was shown in Table 2, theoretical compressibility factor of raw biogas

obtained using Method of Weighting Treatment is smaller by 24% as compared to
Natural Gas, which means the amount of gas that can be stored in transportation
equipment under pressure can transfer 24% more compressed raw biogas than CNG.
Those results are being considered as input for conceptual and detailed design of
compressed biogas transportation systems.
3 Conceptual Design of Mobile Biogas Station Using TRIZ
Depending on theoretical or experimental (based on the composition of raw biogas)

parameters of compressed raw biogas, in particular compressibility factor Z it is pos-
sible to perform process of conceptual design of a Mobile Biogas Station. According to
[1], conceptual design is a process in which specific needs and knowledge is being
transferred in a concept being described by series of symbolic attributes. For identi-
fication of those attributes as well as numeric attributes that are important for the design
process of a Mobile Biogas Station, method of hypotheses analysis was used. An
interesting approach according to TRIZ design is focusing on functions per-formed by
a given technical system through the construction of its functional model [4]. Its task is
to determine the dependence between elements of the system by defining the phe-
nomena that occur between them. Thanks to this it is possible to determine a detailed
specification of the key parameters describing the system that should be considered in
the design process of Compressed Biogas Storage Systems. A functional model, also
called a hypothesis map for biogas distribution systems is shown on Fig. 4.
The first step in building a hypothesis map for biogas distribution systems is to
identify two elements of the system that are in a strong relationship with each other, i.e.
purified biogas and the recipient. These are the elements that result from business
modeling. For a biogas purified as an element whose parameters we can influence, its
main task (what it does?), its main component (what it has?), the environment in which
it is located (in what environment?) and the effect of this element (what it produces?).
Fig. 4. Hypothesis map of biogas distribution system.
The final stage of creating a functional model of the diffused Biogas Distribution
Systems is to define phenomena occurring between each element of the model. A fin-
ished functional analysis delivers a set of relations within the elements of system,
super-system and subsystem. This helps to formulate a set of parameters that are
interdependent. In view of these parameters, it is possible to define the contradictions
that constitute barriers to the development of a given solution, and which constitute one
of the pillars of the TRIZ method. Model of one of contradictions present in the system
using TRIZ is presented on Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Contradiction model of raw biogas in Mobile Biogas Station

Based on contradiction model developed, there are two parameters that are defined
in contradiction. We need to increase the content of raw biogas in transportation
system, because the less the methane content, the less energy can be obtained from a
single nm3 of gas. Since raw biogas has significantly smaller energy capacity than
natural gas [7], it is necessary to provide bigger space for gas in transport. On the other
hand, it is unwanted to increase the manufacturing costs associated with ease of
manufacturing if creation of bigger station is considered. Application of Altschuler’s
matrix of solving contradictions for parameters:
• 26: Amount of substance to be increased,
• 32: Ease of manufacturing not to be worsened,
suggest application of inventive principles no 1, 27, 29, 35. Among those, seg-
mentation was believed to be the most promising one. According to this principle,
entire structure of the compressed raw biogas transportation system should be modular
meaning, that the amount of connections between each module should be as small as
possible and the entire object should be composed of as many standard parts as pos-
sible. Conceptual overview of the system-to-be-designed is presented on Fig. 6. This
conceptual model is an input for detailed design process using CAD/CAE that is
presented in Sect. 4.
Fig. 6. Conceptual design of Mobile Biogas Station from the point of view of modularization
4 Design of Mobile Biogas Station Using CAD/CAE
Detailed design process utilizing CAD/CAE tools and techniques makes it possible to
translate specific requirements and conceptual design into final product that the end
user will benefit from. Based on results from Sect. 3, several detailed concepts were
developed using CAD software that were assessed based on technical criteria according
to [3]. Some of those concepts are presented on Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Selected concepts of Mobile Biogas Station based on modularization concept
Selected was the concept of a 20 feet ISO container having 7 modules, which were
equipped with 10 CNG type 3 cylinders. Detailed CAD model of the Mobile Biogas
Station is presented on Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Detailed CAD 3D model of the Mobile Biogas Station
The CAD model visible on Fig. 8. was subjected to FEM analysis, in which the
geometry was simplified by elimination of piping and valves, representation of bolts
using beam elements connected in proper places to the rest of the model. This sim-
plified geometric model was discretized using solid/shell/beam elements depending on
the type of geometry being discretized. Corner fittings were discretized using solid
C3D10 elements, profiles and the entire frame was discretized using shell S4R ele-
ments connected with solid elements on fittings through solid-to-shell constraint
(Abaqus). Beam elements as representation of stiff CNG-cylinders were modelled
using rigid BEAM elements. Overview of the simplified CAD model and discrete
model is presented on Fig. 9
Fig. 9. Simplified CAD model (on the left) and discrete model (on the right).
For the purpose of FEM analysis, specific loads were applied to the carrying
structure that were connected with compressed gas transport in the form of concen-
trated mass located in the model and application of gravity to the model. Cases for
analysis was in agreement with ADR agreement and ISO 1496-3:1995 standard.
Results of FEM analysis, stress concentration region and modified geometry of the
Mobile Biogas Station is presented on Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. Results of the FEM analysis of the Mobile Biogas Station in the initial form (top) and
after optimization (bottom).
To sum up, it was shown that application of existing models for determination of
compressibility factor of natural gas has significant limitations due to differences in
composition between those two gases. This leads to numerous problems in evaluation
of volume of gas in transport and thus the amount of energy that can be transported
using designed Mobile Biogas Stations. Application of simplified models and experi-
mental testing makes it possible to define models of contradictions in the conceptual
design process, that indicates the direction of design of compressed biogas trans-
portation systems that is associated with modularization. At the stage of detailed
design, application of CAD/CAE makes it easier to develop feasible solutions and to
assess them at the early stage of design through visualization. Finally, application of
FEM analysis makes it easy to optimize and modify the carrying structure of the
container before it is manufactured, reducing costs and increasing profitability of R&D
activity.
Acknowledgements. The article was developed as part of project No LIDER/034/645/L-

4/12/NCBR/2013 funded by the National Centre for Research and Development.
References
1. Arciszewski T (2016) Inventive engineering: knowledge and skills for creative engineers.
CRC Press
2. Deublein D, Steinhauser A (2011) Biogas from waste and renewable resources: an
introduction (2nd ed.). Wiley
3. Dietrich M, Kocańda S, Korytkowski B, Zimowski W, Stupiński J, Szopa T (1999)
Podstawy konstrukcji maszyn. Wydawnictwo WNT, Warszawa in polish
4. Gadd K (2011) TRIZ for engineers: enabling inventive problem solving. Wiley
5. Hovland J (2017) Compression of raw biogas. Porsgrunn
6. Jalihal SA, Reddy TS (2006) CNG: An alternative fuel for public transport. J Sci Ind Res 65
(5):426–431
7. Koziolek S, Bialowiec A, Mysior M, Slupiski M, Ptak M, Derlukiewicz D (2017)
Rozproszone systemy dystrybucji biogazu. Badania, projektowanie i rozwoj. Oficyna
Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej in polish
8. Łach M (2016). Dokładność wyznaczania współczynnika ściśliwości gazu z podwyższoną
zawartością wodoru – porównanie metod obliczeniowych. Nafta-Gaz 72(5):329–338. https://
doi.org/10.18668/NG.2016.05.04. (in polish)
9. Skorek J, Cebula J, Latocha L, Kalina J (2003) Pozyskiwanie i energetyczne wykorzystanie
biogazu z biogazowni rolniczych. Gospodarka Paliwami I Energia 12:15–19 (in polish)
10. Varga L, Nagy A, Kovacs A (1995) Design of CNG tank made of aluminium and reinforced
plastic. Composites 26(6):457–463
11. Yang S (2017) Fundamentals of petrophysics. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-3-662-53529-5
Determination of the Bucket Wheel Suspension
Stiffness
Marek Onichimiuk1, Marian Wygoda1, Adam Bajcar1(&),

Damian Pietrusiak2, and Przemysław Moczko2
1
“Poltegor – Instytut”, Opencast Mining Institute, ul. Parkowa 25,
adam.bajcar@igo.wroc.pl
2
and Technology, Łukasiewicza 7/9, 50-371 Wrocław, Poland
damian.pietrusiak@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. This article describes the methods adopted for determining the
stiffness of the bucket wheel boom of the K45 bucket-wheel excavator. Then,
the obtained values of deflection of the bucket wheel boom are presented in an
experimental and theoretical manner. In the end, the results obtained with both
methods are compared.
Keywords: Bucket wheel excavator Stiffness Experimental testing

Numerical simulation
1 Introduction
Determination of the bucket wheel suspension stiffness is one of goals of project led by
Poltegor-Instytut, financed by the Research Fund of Coal and Steel and the Ministry of
Science and Higher Education entitled “Bucket wheel excavators operating under
difficult mining conditions including unmineable inclusions and geological structures
with excessive mining resistance - BEWEXMIN” [1]. The project is being carried out
jointly with three industrial partners: PGE Górnictwo i Energetyka Konwencjon-
alna SA, Oltenia Energy Complex from Romania and Public Power Corporation from
Greece, who in their respective countries are the largest producers of electricity from
lignite. In addition, the following universities and research institutes participating in the
project: VUHU Výzkumný ústav pro hnědé uhli from Czech Republic, Technical
University of Crete, National Technical University of Athens, University of Petrosani
and KOMAG Mining Technology Institute and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of
Wrocław University of Science and Technology.
Determination of the bucket wheel suspension stiffness aims to the determination of
the value of the coefficient of elasticity of this boom [2]. This coefficient is one of the
parameters necessary to determine the impact impulse from hitting a non-mineable
obstacle by a bucket [3]. The theoretical maximum value of this impulse is derived on
the basis of the kinetic energy of the rotating components of the bucket wheel drive and
the energy of elastic deflection of the bucket wheel boom [4–6].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_61
528 M. Onichimiuk et al.
The stiffness of the bucket wheel suspension can be determined on the basis of the
bucket wheel boom deflection under the influence of the force acting vertically on the
boom. For a real machine, this deflection can be determined experimentally or cal-
culated theoretically [7].
This article describes the methods adopted for determining the stiffness of the
bucket wheel boom of the K45 bucket-wheel excavator. Then, the obtained values of
deflection of the bucket wheel boom are presented in an experimental and theoretical
manner. In the end, the results obtained with both methods are compared.
2 Experimental Methods
One of the methods of experimental determination of the value of the bucket wheel
coefficient of elasticity is the measurement of the boom deflection under the influence
of the force of a known value acting on the bucket wheel. For this purpose, one of the
following two methods can be used:
Method 1 is a method of direct measurement of deflection (f) of the bucket wheel
boom under the influence of vertical force (F) from the known weight (see Fig. 1). The
deflection (f) is, in this case, the difference (Dy) between the distance (y0) between the
unloaded bucket wheel boom and the ground and the distance (y) between the boom
and the ground after loading the boom with force (F).
f = Δy
y0
y
F
Fig. 1. Diagram of boom deflection under the influence of vertical force
Technically, the first method requires installation of a displacement sensor on the

bucket wheel boom. It enables the measurement of the bucket wheel axis distance from
the ground. The loading mass hanged upon the boom is attached via a set of ropes and
dynamometer to enable the measurement of the force acting on the bucket wheel boom.
The hanged load is lifted up and down several times with a crane. When lifting by the
crane is proceeded, the force value in the dynamometer and the distance between the
bucket wheel axis and the ground are recorded simultaneously.
Method 2 is an indirect method. It is based on the measurement of the angles of
inclination of a line tangent to the boom deflection line while the boom is loaded by the
force (F) (see Fig. 2). The tangent values of the measured angles are the values of the
derivative of the deflection line of the bucket wheel boom at the measuring points.
After integrating the derivative thus obtained, the boom deflection line is obtained.
Determination of the Bucket Wheel Suspension Stiffness 529
Knowing the deflection line of the bucket wheel boom, one can determine the value of
the deflection (f). In this case, the force (F) can be generated like in the first method or
by means of the rope system by force (S).
S
Tangent Tangent
f Δy
y y0
F
Fig. 2. Diagram of deflection of the attached bucket wheel boom with winch force
Technically, the second method consists of installing tilt sensors on the bucket
wheel boom. One of the sensors should be installed as close as possible to the axis of
vertical movement of this boom, and the other possibly close to the axis of the bucket
wheel. The remaining sensors should be placed on the bucket boom, between the two
peripheral. It enables the measurement of the difference in the boom inclination
between particular sensor locations. As a next step the mass is attached to the bucket
positioned in the horizontal axis of the bucket wheel boom with use of a set of ropes
and dynamometer. Then the set of ropes with the dynamometer is tensioned and
loosened several times through the movement of the hoisting winch of the machine
vertical movement system. The inclinometer and dynamometer readings are recorded
simultaneously during tensioning and loosening of ropes with the dynamometer.
3 Method of Measurement
Method 1 directly gives the value of the boom deflection derived from the force of the
load acting on the bucket. This is a big advantage of this method. However, it also
requires the use of heavy lifting equipment like crane. Moreover, it is necessary to
freely hang the weight on the bucket.
Method 2 is an indirect method. It requires to measure small angle increment and
performing integral calculations. This causes the method to be less accurate and
requiring the use of fairly accurate tilt sensors. In comparison with the first method,
however, it has such an advantage that it does not require the use of additional
equipment in the form of a crane and does not require the weight hanging on the
bucket. Thanks to this, the method is cheaper and easier technically and safer to
implement.
Due to easier technical implementation and greater safety, the second method has
been selected for the measurement of the bucket wheel boom deflection.
Inclinometers or acceleration sensors were considered as inclination sensors.

Accessible were inclinometers type B1N360 V from Hans TURCK GmbH and type
IS2A60P produced by GEMAC Chemnitz GmbH. In accordance with the data sheet,
these sensors allow measurement of the angle of inclination with a resolution not higher
(not worse) than: 0.72” for the B1N360 V sensor and 0.50” for the IS2A60 sensor.
Whereas, the B12/200 acceleration sensors allow measurement of the acceleration
with a resolution of 0.01 m/s2, which allows you to measure the angle of inclination up
to 30°: for vertical positioning of the sensor, with a resolution not higher (not worse)
than 0.12° and for horizontal positioning of the sensor, with a resolution not greater
(not worse) than 0.07°.
4 Measurement
Acceleration sensors have been selected for the measurement of the angle of inclination
of the bucket wheel structure components. That enabled the measurement of the angle
of inclination to be performed with greater precision than the tilt sensors. The sensors
have been set to work in a horizontal position using a special steel block.
Figure 3 below shows the sensor installed at the measurement point 1a, on the
upper surface of the lower flange. A tilt sensor was attached to the side of this flange,
which served as a control. Sensors were attached to the structure via neodymium
magnets.
Fig. 3. View of the measurement point
All measuring sensors were located on the upper surface on the lower flange of the
bucket wheel boom structure, at distances from the vertical movement axis of the
boom, as shown in Fig. 4.
2a 3a 5a
1a
500
500 5850
500 20350
34350
44900
Fig. 4. Measurement points location mesh
A load (bulldozer) was attached to the bucket via a U2A 20t force gauge, using sets
of ropes (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Attachment of the auxiliary machine to the bucket
Using the winch of the excavator’s bucket wheel boom rope system, the tension in
the rope was induced. The force gauge readings for the measurement of the rope
tension and the values of the acceleration sensor readings for the measurement of the
boom deflection angles were read after stabilization of the load. Then, the loads were
released by lowering the bucket wheel boom. After loosening the ropes connecting the
bulldozer with the bucket, the readings of the measuring sensors were read. This
operation was repeated three times.
During these operations, the readings of the acceleration sensors and dynamometer
were recorded. The acceleration values were converted into the value of the structure
angle of inclination at the measurement points. For the obtained values of inclination
angles, see Table 1 below. The increments of angles of inclination and their values in
relation to the boom vertical movement axis were calculated on the basis of the dif-
ference between the values of the angles of inclination with the load and without the
load (see Table 2). For the obtained increments, the corresponding tangent value (see
Table 3) was determined, which was the value of the derivative of the deflection line at
a given measurement point.
Table 1. Absolute readouts

(a) Without load
Point 1a 2a 3a 5a F
Item Degrees Degrees Degrees degrees kN
1 23.667 26.427 13.127 3.284 2.21
2 23.763 26.518 13.205 3.360 0.49
3 23.750 26.525 13.211 3.366 0.45
(b) Under load
Point 1a 2a 3a 5a F
Item Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees kN
1 23.025 25.841 12.582 2.758 204.85
2 23.038 25.835 12.594 2.764 210.35
3 22.866 25.699 12.468 2.641 243.68
Table 2. Relative readouts

(a) Increments
Point 1a 2a 3a 5a F
1 0.642 0.586 0.545 0.526 202.64
2 0.725 0.683 0.611 0.596 209.86
3 0.884 0.826 0.743 0.725 243.23
(b) Relative valuesa
Point 1a 2a 3a 5a F
1 0.116 0.060 0.019 0.000 202.64
2 0.129 0.087 0.015 0.000 209.86
3 0.159 0.101 0.018 0.000 243.23
a
Angle values relative to reference point 5a (boom
vertical movement axis)
The derivative of the line of the bucket wheel boom deflection was approximated
by a linear function on the basis of the tangent values obtained at the measurement
points (see Fig. 6). The X coordinate indicates the distance between the point and the
axis of the bucket wheel boom vertical movement. The Y coordinate is the derivative
value (tangent of the tangent) of the bucket wheel boom deflection line.
Table 3. A derivative of the bucket wheel boom deflection

(a) Angle of deflection
x 33850 20850 5850 0 mm
Point 1a 2a 3a 5a F
Item 10−3 rad 10−3 rad 10−3 rad 10−3 rad kN
1 2.025 1.047 0.332 0.000 202.64
2 2.251 1.518 0.262 0.000 209.86
3 2.775 1.763 0.314 0.000 243.23
(b) Tangent of the deflection angle
x 33850 20850 5850 0 mm
Point 1a 2a 3a 5a F
Item 03-paź 03-paź 03-paź 03-paź kN
1 2.025 1.047 0.332 0.000 202.64
2 2.251 1.518 0.262 0.000 209.86
3 2.775 1.763 0.314 0.000 243.23
Fig. 6. The derivative of the K45 excavator bucket wheel boom deflection line determined
experimentally
By summing up the deflection increments (derived values) in the consecutive

coordinates of the boom, counting from the axis of its vertical movement, the deflection
values of the bucket wheel boom were obtained. For the obtained results of deflection
at the selected points for given loads (j = 1, 2, 3), see Table 4 below.
Table 4. Experimental values of the K45 excavator bucket wheel boom deflections
j i 1 2 3 Fj Kj
Xi [mm] 44900 33350 20850 kN kN/mm
1 Yi,j [mm] 58 33 12 203 3.500
2 68 39 15 210 3.088
3 83 47 18 243 2.928
5 Theoretical Method
The theoretical value of deflection of the bucket wheel axis can be determined by the
analytical method, either by treating the bucket wheel structure as a beam with variable
cross-section, supported in a pivot bearing on one side and suspended on a rope sling or
numerically, using the finite element method.
The analytical method consists of solving, for a given load, the second order
differential equation describing the curvature of the deflection of the analyzed structure
and determining the displacement of the bucket wheel axis on the basis of this
deflection curve.
The finite element method (FEM) is based on the creation of a discrete model based
on the geometry of the boom structure, determination of boundary conditions by
enforcing forces and determination of restraints, automatic generation of the discrete
model finite element stiffness matrix, which allows determination of displacements of
all finite element nodes and approximation of the bucket wheel axis displacement.
The FEM allows, using computer-aided support, obtaining relatively fast and
accurate results, obtaining of which by the analytical method is difficult. The FEM, in
comparison to the analytical method, describes the behavior of the structure in a more
approximate way. However, due to much simpler use of it, and the possibility of
computer-aided computations, it is now widely used in engineering strength calcula-
tions of the structures and was therefore chosen as a theoretical method to determine
the deflection of the bucket wheel boom.
The numerical model used to determine the bucket wheel boom deflection included
all the structural elements of the superstructure, i.e.: the bucket wheel boom, the
counterweight boom, the fixed mast, the movable mast, the central part and the slewing
platform. All these elements were modelled with two-dimensional shell elements, which
ensured a very accurate representation of stiffness of each of them. The shroud cables
were modelled with use of the beam elements with stiffness corresponding to the ropes
mounted on the object. The hoisting system is designed to hold the bucket wheel boom
in the position set by the operator (hence, its flexibility is compensated by the winch)
and therefore, it was modelled with rigid elements while maintaining the mobility.
Superstructure was supported by flexible elements that corresponded to the stiffness of
the undercarriage assembly. The model was supplemented with mass elements repre-
senting the installed elements of the machine/electrical sections (e.g. gear, electric
compartment, etc.). Complete structure was consistent with the location of the mass
centers (individual elements and the entire body) in accordance with the proof of
stability.
y1 y2 y3
x3
x2
F
x1
Fig. 7. Boom deflection under the load (F)
The theoretical values of the deflection, obtained by the FE model are presented in
Table 5. Graphical representation of the measurement points is presented in Fig. 7. The
results were obtained for force(F) of 200 kN and 250 kN.
Table 5. Theoretical values of the SchRs 4000 excavator bucket wheel boom deflections
(Bucket wheel boom vertical deflection under specific force)
j i 1 2 3 Fj Kj
Xi [mm] 44900 33350 20850 kN kN/mm
1 Yj [mm] 61 45 27 200 3.279
2 76 56 34 250 3.289
Fig. 8. K45 excavator bucket wheel boom deflection lines

6 Summary
Figure 8 below presents the K45 excavator bucket wheel boom deflection lines,
obtained by experimental method (the red line) and the same obtained theoretically (the
blue line). The obtained deflection lines result from the vertical force acting on the
cutting edge of the bucket with the value of 250kN.
The theoretical deflection line of the bucket wheel boom presented in Fig. 8 is
approximately a straight line, while the deflection line obtained experimentally is
parabolic. The difference between the shape of both determined boom deflection lines
results from the adopted simplification in the theoretical FEM model. In the FEM
model, the shroud cables were modelled as beam elements. Despite the difference in the
shape of the deflection line, the value of the deflection in the bucket wheel axis
obtained with both methods shows high correlation. The value of the deflection in the
bucket wheel axis (coordinate x = 44900 mm, measured from the boom vertical
movement axis) is, respectively: the theoretical, f = 76 mm and the experimental,
f = 83 mm.
Due to the obtained experimental and theoretical convergence of the bucket wheel
axis deflections, the method and adopted simplifications can be used in engineering
calculations for theoretical determination of deflection and stiffness of the bucket wheel
boom.
Acknowledgements. The scientific work was financed from financial resources for science in
2015–2018 granted for the implementation of an international co-financed project.
References
1. Galetakis M, Michalakopoulos T, Bajcar A, Roumpos C, M. Lazar, Svoboda IP (2016)
Project BEWEXMIN: bucket wheel excavators operating under difficult mining conditions
including unmineable inclusions and geological structures with excessive mining resistance.
In: 13th International symposium continuous surface mining, Belgrad
2. Bošnjak SM, Oguamanam DCD, Zrnić NĐ (2015) The influence of constructive parameters
on response of bucket wheel excavator superstructure in the out-of-resonance region. Arch
Civil Mech Eng 15
3. Bajcar A, Alenowicz IJ (2016) Metody ograniczenia awaryjności koparek wielonaczynio-
wych kołowych eksploatowanych w gruntach trudno urabialnych. IX Międzynarodowy
Kongres Górnictwa Węgla Brunatnego, Bełchatów
4. Szepietowski S (2006) Zespół urabiania wielonaczyniowej koparki kołowej. Redakcja
Górnictwa Odkrywkowego. Wrocław
5. Szepietowski W, Alenowicz J, Nokielski J, Wygoda M, Pałczyński R, Wojtowicz A (1995)
Opracowanie wyników badań napędu doświadczalnego zabudowanego na koparce
SchRs1200 w KWB Adamów”, praca niepublikowana. IGO Poltegor-Instytut, Wrocław
6. Bajcar A, Onichimiuk M, Wygoda M (2017) Metody ograniczenia awaryjności wielonaczy-
niowych koparek kołowych w gruntach z wtrąceniami nieurabialnymi. Górnictwo Odkry-
wkowe nr 6/2017
7. Weber F, Feltrin G, Maślanka M, Fobo W, Distl H (2009) Design of viscous dampers
targeting multiple cable modes. Eng Struct 31
Numerical Analysis of the Crash-Test Platform
Krzysztof Podkowski(&), Zbigniew Barszcz, and Patryk Melańczuk
Automotive Industry Institute PIMOT, Jagiellońska 55, 03-301 Warsaw, Poland

{k.podkowski,z.barszcz,p.melanczuk}@pimot.eu
Abstract. The subject of the work was to carry out numerical analyzes of the
structure of the crash-test platform intended for carrying out research on a
position enabling the simulation of dynamic phenomena, allowing non-
destructive testing of vehicles and their equipment. Dynamic tests consists in
accelerating the truck and braking it with the appropriate deceleration. The brake
applied to the end of the test track is responsible for braking the platform. The
purpose of the platform is to work with large objects, in particular road ambu-
lances in tests for compliance with the PN-EN 1789 standard [8]. The test plat-
form will also be designed for a crash test with a side pole test as part of one of the
EuroNCAP tests [9]. The test object is a suitably loaded vehicle body (ambu-
lance) with medical equipment. Strength calculations of the analyzed structure of
the crash-test platform were made using the finite element method (FEM). These
calculations were based on the exemplar created at the stage of designing the 3D
model, on previously verified material data as well as on pre-determined and
specified loads resulting from the crash test. The software from the Altair
HyperWorks package was used for calculations. The aim of numerical analyzes
was to capture critical sites in the frame structure of the test platform (places of
stress concentration) as well as the character of deformations of this structure.
Keywords: Numerical analysis Fem Finite elements method Fea

Finite elements analysis Crash-test PN-EN 1789
1 Introduction
The subject of the work was to conduct numerical analyzes of the crash-test platform
construction (research platform) to carry out research at a position enabling the sim-
ulation of dynamic phenomena, allowing for non-destructive testing of vehicles and
their equipment.
The basic goal of the numerical analysis was to capture the occurrence of critical
sites in the loaded structure (places where stress accumulated) as well as to determine
the nature of the deformations.
The purpose of the crash-test platform is to work with large objects, in particular
road ambulances in tests for compliance with the PN-EN 1789 standard “Medical
vehicles and their equipment - Road ambulances” [8]. The test platform will also be
designed for a crash test with a side pole test as part of one of the EuroNCAP tests [9].
Due to the large mass of vehicles and their dimensions, the developed concept of
the platform must be characterized by high rigidity and large dimensions.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_62
538 K. Podkowski et al.
Dynamic tests consist in acceleration of the crash-test platform with the vehicle
stationed on it to a certain speed and braking it with a suitable, pre-set deceleration. The
brake applied to the end of the test track is responsible for braking the platform. The
design of the brake is based on the assumptions defined in
UNECE Regulations No 16 and No 44 [10]. It was assumed that the vehicle weight
can be up to 2000 kg, and the maximum speed that the truck can develop is 80 km/h.
The construction must be strong enough to enable non-invasive braking with a
deceleration of 20 g, when loaded with a vehicle. The total weight of the platform and
vehicle must be less than 5000 kg (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1. Model of the crash-test platform (upper view)
Fig. 2. Model of the crash-test platform (bottom view)

Numerical Analysis of the Crash-Test Platform 539
2 Basic Test Methods Resulting from the PN-EN 1789

Standard “Medical Vehicles and Their Equipment - Road
Ambulances”
This European Standard specifies the requirements for the construction, testing, per-
formance and equipment of road ambulances used for transporting and caring for
patients. It contains requirements for the patient’s compartment [8].
This European Standard applies to road ambulances in which there is a possibility
of transporting at least one person on a stretcher.
In the dynamic load range, the tests mainly concern the support systems and
equipment fasteners in the patient’s compartment. According to the standard, all per-
sons and elements, e.g. medical devices, equipment and items normally carried in a
road ambulance, should be attached, installed or arranged so as not to become a bullet
when subjected to acceleration/deceleration of 10 g. Speed in time the collision should
be from 30 km/h to 32 km/h. Five dynamic tests are carried out in five directions
(Fig. 3): + X (forward), −X (backward), +Y (right), −Y (left), +Z (up). The crash-test
platform has been tested. The functionality of the device was tested. During tests, the
truck was loaded to a mass of 2 tons and was accelerated to various speeds. The
maximum test mass for which the devices are qualified, shall be indicated by a label.
The method used to secure the vehicle during the test shall not be such as
strengthen the body or the arrangement of the patient’s compartment or to lessen the
normal deformation of the structure. The only reinforcements allowed are a sub frame
under the original van shell or chassis longitudinal box sections of chassis rails to fix
the body/shell to the test facility. For a box body, a sub frame representing the chassis
can be used in conjunction with the original attachment points under the box designated
for fixing to the vehicle chassis (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9).
Fig. 3. Directions in which tests are carried out in accordance with the PN-EN 1789 standard
Fig. 4. (X+) direction in which test is carried out in accordance with the PN-EN 1789 standard
Fig. 5. (Y-) direction in which test is carried out in accordance with the PN-EN 1789 standard
Fig. 6. (Z+) direction in which test is carried out in accordance with the PN-EN 1789 standard
Fig. 7. Corridor of deceleration impulse (X time in ms, Y acceleration/deceleration in m/s2)
Fig. 8. Crash-test platform during the testing

Fig. 9. Crash-test platform during commercial tests in accordance with PN-EN 1789 standard
3 Numerical Analyzes
The basic strength calculations were conducted using the finite elements method
(FEM) within the scope of the linear static procedure. The calculations were based on
the platforms CAD model, material data and on the assumed loads according to
accepted assumptions. The strength calculations were conducted in the Altair Hyper-
Works application.
The purpose of the conducted numerical analysis was to capture the critical points
in the structure (stress accumulation locations), nature of deformations and to determine
the platform frame’s approximate stiffness.
The results of approval tests conducted in the Automotive Industry Institute are
currently used as a basis to conduct the validation of numerical models and their
potential modification, which would allow verifying the applied validation procedures.
We adopted a surface mesh model – rectangular and triangular elements (locally). The
average element edge length for the grid in the chassis frame amounted to 5 mm.
Substitute of vehicle was modeled as mass elements (2 tons) and connected with the
structure by “RBE3” type elements (Fig. 10). In bolts connections were used “RBE2”
elements.
Model was constrained in all direction on the brake surface (Fig. 10). Deceleration
was applied as gravitation multiplied by 20 (20 g) in the test motion direction.
Fig. 10. Crash-test platform - numerical model
4 Results of the Analyzes
The results of numerical analyzes (displacement and stresses) are presented below
(Figs. 10, 11 and 12).
Fig. 11. Displacement [mm]
Critical places can be determined from them due to durability and potentially
dangerous places where fatigue damage may occur. These stresses occur primarily in
the region of the bumper and its attachment to the base, and on the beams of the
stringers.
Fig. 12. Stresses von Mises [MPa]
The values of particular parameters adopted for vehicle modeling allowed us to develop
its calculation model with a maximum reflection of reality. The implementation of
these parameters into the FEM application enabled us to conduct the structure’s
strength calculations with the adopted assumptions. The obtained results of the strength
calculations demonstrated the structure regions that have to be especially taken into
consideration during the exploitation tests.
The purpose of the conducted numerical analysis was to capture the critical points
in the structure (stress accumulation locations), determine the nature of deformations
and estimate the platform frame’s approximate stiffness. The analyzes allow to deter-
mine critical sites due to their durability.
Obtained results from calculations as well as crash tests (observed deformations of
the test platform during dynamic tests) are currently used to introduce significant
changes in the whole structure of the test stand.
In the future, the obtained results of analyzes and tests can also be used in the
development of other research constructions.
References
1. Rusiński E (2002) Zasady projektowania konstrukcji nośnych pojazdów samochodowych.
Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław
skończonych w konstrukcjach nośnych, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej,
Wrocław
3. Rakowski G, Kacprzyk Z (2005) Metoda Elementów Skończonych w mechanice
konstrukcji, Oficyna Wydawnicza PW. Warszawa
4. Osiński J (1997) Obliczenia wytrzymałościowe elementów maszyn z zastosowaniem metody
elementów skończonych, Oficyna Wydawnicza PW., Warszawa
5. Dyląg Zd, Jakubowicz A, Orłoś Z (2003) Wytrzymałość materiałów. WNT, Warszawa

6. Niezgoda T (2007) Analizy numeryczne wybranych zagadnień mechaniki. WAT, Warszawa
7. Sobolewski T, Posuniak P (2014) Bezpieczeństwo pasażerów pojazdu medycznego podczas
wypadku drogowego w świetle obowiązujących przepisów homologacyjnych, “Logistyka”,
nr 3
8. PN-EN 1789 + A2 (2015) Medical vehicles and their equipment – Road ambulances,
Copyright by PKN, Warszawa
9. Euro NCAP, The European New Car Assessment Programme. https://www.euroncap.com/
en. Accessed 12 Apr 2018
10. UNECE Regulations No 16 and No 44: http://www.unece.org/trans/main/welcwp29.html.
Accessed 12 Apr 2018
Head-to-Bonnet Impact Using Finite Element
Head Model
Mariusz Ptak1(&), Dorota Czerwińska1, Johannes Wilhelm1,

Fábio A. O. Fernandes2, and Ricardo J. Alves de Sousa2
1
{mariusz.ptak,johannes.wilhelm}@pwr.edu.pl, dorota.
czerw@gmail.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, TEMA: Centre for Mechanical
Technology and Automation, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago,
3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
{fabiofernandes,rsousa}@ua.pt
Abstract. The article focusses on the accident reconstruction involving a

pedestrian impacting to the bonnet of a sport vehicle. The corresponding sim-
ulation has recourse to the YEAHM as a high-detailed FE human head and brain
model. Matching thereby the demands of European regulation EC78/2009, the
impact scenario is designed in in order to assess the influence of the vehicle’s
bonnet design, especially by regarding its stiffening structure underneath the
bonnet outer layer in terms of estimated head and brain injuries. The interpre-
tation of the results is based on the injury criteria of H-M-H brain stress and
intracranial pressure (ICP). The observation of the results for the affected lobes
of the brain revealed an influence of the bonnet design to the severity of the
estimated brain injury. Furthermore, the contre-coup phenomenon was noticed
in all simulations, which were performed by the authors. The results proved as
well, that the finite element method could be used as well as an effective tool in
the stage of preliminary part design. In a conclusion, the benefit of taking in this
stage of part designing also possible injury severity in expected impact scenarios
into account needs to be seen in the possibility of increasing passive safety of
vulnerable road users.
1 Introduction
The rapidly developing technology in the early 1950s contributed to enhancing the
safety of passengers in vehicles. Improvements in crumple zones and safety belts are
considered milestones in the automotive industry but their role in improving the safety
of pedestrians was insignificant. Only the systematic introduction of regulations made
changes possible in the market of passenger cars, and the evolution of these changes
can be seen today. Aspects related to pedestrian safety and current trends and issues of
aerodynamics have led to changes in the shape of vehicle fronts. Cars have become
more streamlined and their front bumpers lost the sharp edges that could potentially
increase the injuries sustained by pedestrians in a collision. On the roads of the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_63
546 M. Ptak et al.
European Union countries, vehicles equipped with bumpers made of metal alloys are
very rare as these gave way to plastic bumpers [1]. The type-approval certification
process checks if vehicles meet the requirements established in the regulations of the
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) or the European Union regulations [2].
However, the current regulations demand from the car manufactures to use spherical
head impactor, which barely mimics the human head [3, 4]. The head impactor is a
spherical cast aluminum-alloy covered with rubber. As such, only the translation
accelerations are measured in a device with is fixed in the impactor’s center of gravity
(CoG) [5]. Thus, the authors decided to use a numerical head model to assess the level
of the injury after the head-to-bonnet impact. The presented numerical simulations are
also important from the perspective of forensic science and traffic collision recon-
struction [6–8].
2 Finite Element Model of the Bonnet and the Human Head
For the reconstruction of a road accident involving a pedestrian, the Finite Element
model of an Audi TT bonnet was used. Its geometry was obtained by the technology of
3D scanning using a Leica P20 system [9]. The real bonnet consists mainly of two
aluminum alloy surfaces - the inner surface acts as a reinforcing support, which
increases the stiffness of the entire bonnet. Hence, its shape can be significant in terms
of the severity of the head injury depending on the location of the impact [10, 11]. Both
outer and inner surfaces comprise as discrete model shell elements (Fig. 1). This model
also includes selected parts below the bonnet made of polypropylene. They are mapped
by simply geometries with imposed mesh consisting of solid elements (Fig. 2). In
selected mesh nodes, which are located near the bumper and supports, the three
translational degree of freedom (DOF) were fixed, while the three rotational DOF were
left. The parts below the bonnet were fixed by fully constraint at the bottom surfaces.
The complete Finite Element Model of bonnet is presented in Fig. 3.
Fig. 1. Outer (left) and inner (right) surface model of the bonnet
In order to reconstruct the head impact of the pedestrian to the bonnet, the human
head model YEAHM was used by the authors. The model itself was obtained by
exploiting medical imaging data out of computed tomography and magnetic resonance
techniques [12]. The model’s geometry consists of a skull (without skin and muscles),
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and cerebrum. It also includes sulci and gyri to describe the
brain’s surface (Fig. 4). A detailed explanation of this model can be found in [13].
Head-to-Bonnet Impact Using Finite Element Head Model 547
Fig. 2. Parts below the bonnet

Fig. 3. Complete FE model of the model
Fig. 4. FE Model of human head – YEAHM [13]
3 Methods
In accordance to Regulation (EC) No. 78/2009 of the European Parliament [14], the
human head model was located at an angle of 65° relative to the base. Equally to this
the vector of initial velocity was directed with a value of 11 m/s (Fig. 5). As the height
from which the head started to fall is not relevant for the results but affects the overall
Fig. 5. Initial conditions and the orientation of the head relative to the bonnet
548 M. Ptak et al.
calculation time, it has been minimized to a reasonable minimum. Three different initial
positions of the head were chosen to compare the influence of the bonnet’s design
(Figs. 6, 7 and 8).
Fig. 6. Position of the head in simulation no. 1
In the simulations Huber-Mises-Hencky (H-M-H) stress and intracranial pressure

(ICP) were examined. Their values were compared with the limit values presented in
Table 1.
Table 1. Tolerance criteria for brain injury [15]

Type of injury Criterion Limit
a
Moderate neurological lesions H-M-H brain stress 18 kPa [16]
Severe neurological lesionsa 38 kPa [16]
Cerebral contusionb Intracranial Pressure (ICP) Coup Contre-coup 237 kPa [17]
−104 kPa [17]
a
peak H-M-H brain stress for the prediction of a 50% risk of injury
b
average value of hydrostatic pressure in region of interest (ROI) for injury cases
4 Results
The characteristic steps in head-to-bonnet simulations were identified (Table 2). The
first contact of the head with the bonnet occurred at approximately 0.2 ms of simulated
time in every configuration. The head reached its lowest position in terms of Z-axis in
the global coordinate system. In this moment, the distance of the head was the smallest
to parts located underneath the bonnet (Fig. 9). At this time, the head stopped, rotated
in a plane approximately perpendicular to the bonnet and then began to move away.
This rotation could be probably influenced by the presence of the human body, which
was excluded due to the concentration on the head only. Therefore, the time after
detaching of the head from the bonnet was not considered. Attention was put especially
on the time discrepancy between initial head to contact and the lowest recognized
position. A longer duration up to the lowest position indicated a more of bonnet
deformation and energy absorption. This effect might be influencing as well the amount
and severity of head and brain injuries in a specific case.
The stress propagation from the frontal lobe in the occipital direction began after
approximately 1.4 ms in every simulation. Initially they exceeded the value of 6 kPa
and then increased. After a few milliseconds, the stress in frontal lobe decreased
550 M. Ptak et al.
Table 2. The comparison of the head’s location regarding to the time of simulations
Simulation no. Simulation no. Simulation no.
1 time (ms) 2 time (ms) 3 time (ms)
Impact to the bonnet 0.2 0.2 0.2
Close location to the parts 8.6–11.8 10–11.4 6.6–9
below the bonnet
Detachment from the bonnet 21.8 20 16
Fig. 9. Characteristic steps in the simulation no. 3
slightly and the highest stress values occurred in the temporal lobe and cerebellum.
After that, stress values in the frontal lobe slightly increased again (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10. H-M-H stress propagation from frontal lobe in simulation no. 3
The parietal and occipital lobes were the most affected region of cerebellum
throughout the simulations. Maximum stresses appeared in the parietal lobe, concen-
trating initially on the opposite side of the impact (contre-coup phenomenon). Then the
stress wave was propagating towards the occipital lobe and decreased afterwards. It is
significant, that the region of the cerebral cortex collided with the skull as a result of the
relative displacement. The effect was observed the most in simulation no.3 (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11. H-M-H stress propagation from parietal lobe in simulation no. 3
The before mentioned contre-coup phenomenon, which is associated with brain

contusion on the opposite side from the place where the primary contusion occurred
initially, was observed in all simulations. In this area, the stress value reached always
the maximum observed values during the total collision time (Figs. 12 and 13).
Fig. 12. The point of the impact in simulation no. 3 – cross section view
Fig. 13. Contre-coup in simulation no. 3

552 M. Ptak et al.
The positive pressure gradient from the frontal lobe began at a comparable time
when the stress appeared. The highest pressure values occurred in this region and they
were reached more than once during the simulations. The first maximum resulted from
the wave of compression caused directly by the impact of the head in the bonnet. The
next ones appeared as a result of regressing wave back towards the frontal lobe
(Fig. 14).
Fig. 14. Pressure map in Simulation no. 3
On the occipital lobe, side prevailed the negative pressure. Its highest absolute
values occurred in the lower part of the occipital lobe and cerebellum. At this side, the
gradient of negative pressure was also noticeable, but it did not include a large region
as it was observed for positive pressure (Fig. 15).
Fig. 15. Pressure map in Simulation no. 3
Individual stress and pressure values for each simulation are presented in Tables 3
and 4. They were approximated for selected regions of the brain and their maximum
Table 3. The comparison of H-M-H brain stress in simulations

Lobe Simulation no. 1 Simulation no. 2 Simulation no. 3
H-M-H Time (ms) H-M-H Time (ms) H-M-H Time (ms)
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
– max – max – max
Frontal 15 30 10.2 10 20 7 15 30 2
Parietal, Occipital 30 50 11.8 25 40 8.8 30 50 9.8
Table 4. The comparison of brain pressure in simulationsa

Brain’s Part Simulation no. 1 Simulation no. 2 Simulation no. 3
Pressure Time Pressure Time Pressure Time
(kPa) (ms) (kPa) (ms) (kPa) (ms)
– max – max – max
Frontal lobe 250 500 10.2 150 400 9.2 250 500 2
Occipital lobe, −20 −40 – −20 −30 – −25 −40 –
Cerebellum
a
The maximum value of negative pressure refers to the absolute value
value means peak value achieved locally in the focused area. The detailed description
of the results can be found in [18].
According to the H-M-H brain stress criterion, locally occurring concentrations of
maximum stresses in the frontal lobe could cause moderate injury. However, it was
difficult to determine, whether they covered a sufficiently large region and whether they
lasted long enough for such an injury to develop. In the case of stress including the
parietal lobe and in particular occipital lobe, the probability of suffering severe injuries
would be much higher – in each of the simulations 18 kPa was exceeded for a wide
region and the maximum stress values exceeded locally even 38 kPa. Maximum stress
values always occurred when the head was close to the parts below the bonnet. This
happened either just before it reached the lowest position (Simulation no.2) or directly
after (Simulation no.1 and no.3).
The maximum positive pressure occurred at a similar time as the maximum H-M-H
stresses in the frontal lobe, except for simulation no.3. This difference could result from
the fact, that in specific areas the pressure values were calculated close to a maximum
several times. In simulation no.1 and no.3 the tolerance limit for positive pressure on
the side of impact – coup (237 kPa) was reached. In simulation no.2, the critical value
was exceeded only locally, especially in places where the pressure was maximal. The
only criterion that exceeded the tolerance limits during all simulations was the negative
pressure (on the opposite side of the impact – contre-coup), as this value did not drop
below the permissible limit equal to −104 kPa. The time of occurrence of the negative
pressure was not determined, because it did not converge in any area.
The values of the tested criteria in individual simulations differ from each other and
the only variable factor was the starting position of the head. Therefore, it can be
concluded, that the design of the Audi TT bonnet affects the severity of pedestrian
554 M. Ptak et al.
injuries due to the impact. Initial positions in Simulation no.1 and no.2 were similar,
because they were both in the upper part of the bonnet and the head was exposed to the
same part underneath it. Although the contact time with the bonnet was similar,
parameter values obtained in simulation no. 2 are lower than in simulation no.1. The
authors conclude that the difference stood out as a result from the shape of the rein-
forcement surface of the bonnet or the initial head distance from the part under the
bonnet.
5 Conclusions
The numerical simulations enabled to investigate the injury phenomena occurring in

the head of a vulnerable road user during a car accident. Based on the results simi-
larities were found related to the H-M-H stress and pressure propagation. In particular,
they referred to the contre-coup phenomenon, which has been noticed in all simula-
tions. It was also demonstrated, that the bonnet structure affects the severity of the head
injury. The finite element method can therefore be an effective tool in both developing
advanced head models and designing or optimizing the vehicle structure in terms of
passive safety.
References
1. Fernandes F, de Sousa RA, Ptak M (2018) Head Injury simulation in road traffic accidents,
1st ed. Springer International Publishing
2. European Parliament and Council (2009) Regulation (EC) no 78/2009 of The European
Parliament and of the Council. Off J Eur Union
3. Kleiven S (2013) Why most traumatic brain injuries are not caused by linear acceleration but
skull fractures are. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 1:1–5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2013.00015
4. Ratajczak M, Sąsiadek M, Będziński R (2016) An analysis of the effect of impact loading on
the destruction of vascular structures in the brain. Acta Bioeng Biomech 18:21–31. https://
doi.org/10.5277/ABB-00552-2016-02
5. Fernandes FAO, Alves de Sousa RJ, Ptak M (2018) Head injury simulation in road traffic
accidents, 1st edn. Springer International Publishing, Cham
6. Kubiak P, Mierzejewska P, Szosland A (2018) A precise method of vehicle velocity
determination based on measurements of car body deformation – non-linear method for
the ‘Luxury’ vehicle class. Int J Crashworthiness 23:100–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/
13588265.2017.1328763
7. Kubiak P (2018) Work of non-elastic deformation against the deformation ratio of the
Subcompact Car Class using the variable correlation method. Forensic Sci Int 287:47–53.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.03.033
8. Fernandes FAO, Alves de Sousa RJ, Ptak M (2018) Application of numerical methods for
accident reconstruction and forensic analysis
9. Ptak M, Rusiński E, Wnuk M, Wilhelm J, Więckowski J (2016) Numerical simulation using
finite element method and mulitbody pedestrian dummy - report no. 142/2016. Wroclaw
10. Simms CK, Wood D, Fredriksson R (2015) Pedestrian Injury biomechanics and protection.
Accidental injury. Springer, New York, pp 721–753
11. Ptak M, Blicharski P, Rusiński E, Karliński J (2017) Numerical simulations of composite

frontal protection system according to EC 78/2009. Lect Notes Mech Eng 423–429. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50938-9_44
12. Takhounts EG, Ridella SA, Hasija V, Tannous RE, Campbell JQ, Malone D, Danelson K,
Stitzel J, Rowson S, Duma S (2008) Investigation of traumatic brain injuries using the next
generation of simulated injury monitor (SIMon) finite element head model. Stapp Car
Crash J 52:1–31
13. Fernandes FAO, Tchepel D, Alves de Sousa RJ, Ptak M (2018) Development and validation
of a new finite element human head model. Eng Comput 35:477–496. https://doi.org/10.
1108/EC-09-2016-0321
14. Treaty EC, Treaty E (2009) No 631/2009 Official Journal of the European Union L195/1.
Regulation
15. LLC Elemance (2014) Global human body models consortium. User Man M50 Occupant
Version 42 LS-DYNA
16. Willinger R, Baumgartner D (2003) Human head tolerance limits to specific injury
mechanisms. Int J Crashworthiness 8:605–617. https://doi.org/10.1533/ijcr.2003.0264
17. GHMBC, LLC (2014) User Manual: M50 Occupant Version 4.2 for LS-DYNA
18. Czerwińska D, Ptak M (2016) The use of reverse engineering in the reconstruction of a road
accident involving a vulnerable road user. Wroclaw Univeristy of Science and Techology
Numerical and Experimental Analysis
of Polyethylene Material Compositions for Use
in Joint Endoprosthesis
Anita Ptak(&), Piotr Kowalewski, and Żaneta Michalska

anita.ptak@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The goal of the present study was determine tribological properties
of selected newly developed polymer material compositions for endoprosthesis
applications. The focus was on the modification of ultra-high molecular weight
polyethylene. It was proposed to use a new composition of this material - a
hybrid was created from irradiated material, which filled the matrix made by
materials of much weaker strength parameters. Several models have been pro-
posed that have been numerically tested using the finite element method. The
best model was selected for a series of tribological tests. The tests were carried
out in the slip-roll motion during lubrication simulating knee joint endopros-
thesis work conditions. After the tribological tests were completed, the topog-
raphy by scanning electron microscope was analyzed. The research has shown
impact material modification on the tribological properties. The proposed
material compositions can be successfully used in the production of improved
sliding elements of implants.
Keywords: Polymers PE-UHMW Biotribology Hybrid

New material composition Slip-roll motion FEM
1 Introduction
Human tissues have optimal physical and chemical structure to perform different tasks.
The evolution formed organs that a human being has been trying to replace based upon
its humble knowledge [13]. Mankind try to replace a sick or devastated organ and to
take over all its functions by artificial organs and implants. In the last half-century, the
number of grafted orthopedic implants has significantly increased [13]. Endoprostheses
are specific types of those implants. In those type of implants very important is
selection of sliding materials. The sliding components in a endoprosthesis must meet
the requirements of reliability and durability. A very important function is also the
biocompatibility. One of the most commonly used sliding materials in endoprostheses
is polyethylene with ultra high molecular weight – PE-UHMW.
In the 90-ties there were several grades of the PE-UHMW. One of difference was
content of calcium stearate which was added to reduce oxidation during gamma ster-
ilisation [16]. Since the 60-ties of the previous century the gamma radiation is the
fundamental method used for the sterilization of implants made of PE-UHMW. The
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_64
Numerical and Experimental Analysis of Polyethylene Material 557
cross-linking, degradation, and oxidation are the main changes driven by ionizing
radiation in polyethylene are [17]. The cross-linking consists in the creation of C–C
links between molecules [6]. The degradation of polyethylene consists in the disruption
of chemical bonds between a macromolecule of the polymer [6]. Gamma sterilisation
influenced changes the tribological performance and the mechanical properties the
material.
Attempts to improve the properties of UHMWPE have been undertaken for many
years now. The objective was to reduce the rate of wear, to improve resistance to
fatigue wear and impact loading [13]. One of the most common methods of improving
the properties of polyethylene is gamma irradiation. Gamma irradiation alters the
properties and structure of the UHMWPE, which results in deterioration of the struc-
tural integrity and ultimately the life of the component. Gamma irradiation results in the
following structural changes of the UHMWPE an increase in crystallinity due to chain
scission oxidation of the polymer a greater propensity for tortuosity of the lamellae
structure an increase in saturation crack length under cyclic compressive loads and a
decrease in fatigue crack propagation resistance [19].
Analyzing previously used materials in medicine and their compositions, it can be
concluded that the combination of irradiated polyethylene with non-irradiated would
have a positive effect on the behavior of this material during friction processes. The
main design assumption was recognize that the best new solution is a composition
consisting of non-irradiated polyethylene, i.e. PE-UHMW in the form of a matrix and a
filling consisting of irradiated polyethylene. This combination will guarantee the
flexibility and durability of the material while increasing its resistance to abrasion. As
part of the experiment, 8 geometric models were developed. These models were
subjected to numerical analysis.
The assessment of individual models was made on the basis of specific criteria. In
the second stage of the experiment, the selected material composition was subjected to
verification tribological tests.
The use of the finite element method in friction node modeling enables taking into
account many nonlinear factors that can not be solved by analytical way. The use of
numerical methods also allows friction modeling in concentrated contact in which there
is substantial plastic deformation [1, 5]. Methods for calculating friction in polymeric
tribological nodes have been described in the works [20, 21]. The use of the finite
element method in the friction studies also allows the analysis of the roughness
influence [22]. With FEM it is also possible to predict the wear of friction elements
based on the analysis of the conditions in the friction node [2, 3].
Modifications of polyethylene applied in alloplastic so far focus on the crosslinking
[7] or thermal treatment. Composites based on polyethylene (PE-UHMW) are located
behind the area of sliding bio-polymers for implants [10].
In order to reduce the wear of polymer components in endoprostheses, the surface
modification of rubbing counter elements [8] is also used. It can be unequivocally
confirmed that there is a lack in the field of alloplastic applications similar to the
material compositions described in this paper.
Only in the latest patent applications, one can find attempts to use material com-
positions in biomedical engineering. As in, for example, in the U.S. and Chinese patent
specification (CN 107405201A) of 2015. A prosthetic implant replaces hyaline
558 A. Ptak et al.
cartilage in a synovial joint with a flexible polymer sliding surface. Construction has a
segmented support with an array of adjacent segments that are hydrogel [4]. That
allows better adjustment to the surface of the friction component and also achieve low
wear.
2 Material Compositions
Eight models of material compositions were adopted to select the best structure for
initial numerical analysis. They can be divided into three groups (Fig. 1):
(a) models with cylinder pins - cylindrical models (M1, M2, M7, M8),
(b) models with honeycomb pins (M3, M4),
(c) models with conical pins - conical models (M5, M6).
All models consisted of one type of material - PE-UHMW, the matrix was made of
non-irradiated material, while the pins were of irradiated material with X-ray irradiated
with a 100 kGy dose.
Fig. 1. Models adopted for FEM analysis.
3 FEM Model
Models and calculations for all simulations were performed in Abaqus software.
Computer simulations map the situation, during an occurring friction. Against the
polymer composition slid the steel element in the form of half of the cylinder. Cylinder
dimensions were the radius r = 20 mm and the width b = 5 mm. It was pressed against
the polymer surface with the normal force Fn = 50 N. In the numerical model, the
pressure p = 0.1 MPa was applied (Fig. 2). The reaction of the friction force obtained
by displacement.
Fig. 2. View of the model with a steel counter-sample.
The test was done with a mesh of tetra-type finite elements. In the area of contact of
both samples it has been compacted to optimize the calculation. The model assumes the
material properties presented in Table 1. In the contact model, constant friction coef-
ficient values were used. The calculations were made using the static method.
Table 1. Material data used in the FEM model [12, 15, 18]
Young modulus (MPa) Poisson’s ratio Friction coefficient
on the steel
Steel ANSI 316 L 210 0,3 x
PEUHMW 720 0,38 0,0713
PEUHMW (100 kGy) 1501,6 0,38 0,06
4 FEM Results
A calculation was made for each of the considered cases. Of all the results to a detailed
analysis the equivalent stress and contact pressure have been taken. An exemplary
contact pressure for one of the tested compositions (M2) is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Contact pressure occurring during friction on the surface of the M2 model.
560 A. Ptak et al.
After the analysis, it can be seen that the reinforced structure transfers loads through
areas of higher stiffness. Depending on the tested composition, there are also differ-
ences in stresses in the matrix and irradiated reinforcements.
The criterion for evaluating all models using the finite element method was the
difference in equivalent stresses between the PE-UHMW matrix and the PE-UHMW
pins as a reinforcement. It was assumed that the material with the smallest stress
difference would be the most durable material. In addition, the values of contact
stresses occurring in each model were taken into account. All results obtained are
shown in Table 2.
The smallest value of the difference in stresses reduced by Huber - Mises occurs in
the M5 model. It is a matrix model with a conical pins and the value of these stresses is
0.11 MPa. This is due to the best distribution of stress during loading and displace-
ment. The cone is pressed against the matrix surface during pressing.
Another model is the M2 model, in which the stress difference is 0.94 MPa and the
M3 model, where the value is 1 MPa. This is much more than in the case of the M5
model and at the same time much less than the situation of the rest of the models.
Taking the smallest difference in contact pressure from the above-mentioned
models (M2, M3, M5) as the criterion, the M2 model achieved the smallest value of
3.97 MPa. This model was chosen for tribological experimental verification.
5 Verification Tribological Tests
All tribological tests were performed at the Department of Fundamentals of Machine

Design and Tribology at the Wroclaw University of Science and Technology. For the
tribological tests, the M2 model with filling in the form of rollers with a diameter of
2 mm was used. The sample, following referred to as the hybrid, was tested in a slip-
roll motion.
For comparative purposes, non-irradiated PE-UHMW material and material irra-
diated with PE-UHMW (100 kGy) were also tested. Material radiation was carried out
on a RTT Multitax 600-X50 apparatus with 92 kV, 150 mA, exposure was at 4.005 s
with a load of 605 mAs. This radiation was repeated three times to obtain a radiation
dose of 100 kGy. The physical sample and its numerical model are shown in Fig. 4.
The sample has two rows of cylindrical pins consisting of irradiated material (PE-
UHMW 100 kGy) placed in a polyethylene matrix (PE-UHMW).
As part of tribological tests, the values of friction force, friction coefficient and wear
after 12.500 movement cycles were evaluated. A novel research stand was used for
tribological tests. This stand is used to test friction in slip-roll motion (Fig. 5) [9].
The test consisted in measuring the Ft friction force using a strain gauge, which
read the values of the friction force during the movement. The ANSI 316L steel roller
(2) driven by the stepper motor moved in a rotational motion, and the polymer plate
moved in a linear motion. This motion composition corresponds to the conditions
occurring in the knee joint endoprosthesis [11]. All measurements were made with
distilled water lubrication conditions. The applied force was Fn = 70 N. The feed speed
vp was changed in the range from 0 to 20 mm/s.
Table 2. The results of calculations and the evaluation criteria used for all tested models.
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8
reinforcement
reinforcement
reinforcement
reinforcement
reinforcement
reinforcement
reinforcement
reinforcement
matrix
matrix
matrix
matrix
matrix
matrix
matrix
matrix
Max. von mises stress
6,19 8,98 6,50 5,55 6,89 5,89 7,52 9,59 9,62 9,73 9,54 6,56 7,93 3,91 7,73 10,91
[MPa]
Max. contact pressure
10,67 13,55 10,09 6,12 11,04 16,30 10,38 10,87 18,50 6,95 10,62 5,06 10,65 2,27 10,94 12,32
[MPa]
Max. von mises stress
2,79 0,94 1,00 2,07 0,11 2,98 4,01 3,17
difference [MPa]
Max. contact pressure
2,87 3,97 5,25 0,49 11,55 5,55 8,38 1,38
difference [MPa]
Fig. 4. Hybrid sample: a) real sample for tribological investigation, b) numerical model
Fig. 5. Stand for tribological tests in slip-roll movement: 1 – load, 2 – steel 316L
countersample, 3 – testing sample, 4 – retaining hole, 5 – strain gauge, 6 – platforms, 7 –
guide. On the right: view of the working friction joint with distilled water lubricating [14].
562 A. Ptak et al.
The determination of wear consisted of measurements of the change in the height of

the sample after the tribological test. Wear tests were performed using two methods.
The first one was to measure the thickness of the plate using a digital touch distance
sensor. The second one on the measurement of wear depth with respect to the non-
cooperating surface of the polymer sample using a scanning microscope. The Phenom
Pro-X microscope was used for the study, which has the ability to visualize the surface
roughness of the material. This allowed for wear measurements [9].
6 Results of Tribological Tests
Analyzing the changes in the coefficient of friction l from the feed speed vp, it is clear
that the hybrid material reaches a much higher value than the irradiated and non-
irradiated material. Figure 6 presents graphs of the coefficients of friction from the
variable feed speed in the range of 0–20 mm/s. The values of friction force and material
wear after tribological tests are summarized in Table 3.
0.12
0.11
friction coefficient µ
0.1 Hybrid
0.09
0.08
PE-UHMW
0.07
0.06
0.05 PE-UHMW
100 kGy
0.04
0 5 10 15 20
vp [mm/s]
Fig. 6. Dependence of the coefficient of friction on the feed speed for Fn = 70 N.
Table 3. The results of tribological investigations.

Friction force Friction Linear wear Linear SEM wear
Fn (N) coefficient l [-] Z (µm) ZSEM (µm)
Hybrid 6,70 0,10 15 45
PE-UHMW 4,93 0,07 88,5 150
PE-UHMW 4,12 0,06 48 56
(100 kGy)
Wear measurements performed with two methods showed a much lower wear of
hybrid material. This is the inverse relationship than for the coefficient of friction. The
highest wear was found in non-irradiated material (PE-UHMW).
7 Conclusions
The presented studies describe the first attempt to new kind of material composition.
This is the completely new combination of the same polymer after various radiation
treatments. The showed research successfully used two different scientific methods, the
FEM method and tribological tests. The finite element method allowed for quick
assessment of many geometrical models of material compositions. This significantly
limited the amount of tribological tests and shortened the total time of the experiment.
Summing up the test results, it can be concluded that the use of polymeric material
compositions is beneficial. Although the friction coefficient value for the new hybrid
material composition is high, the material wear is very low.
The resistance to abrasive wear is the most important parameter for the durability and
reliability of an endoprosthesis. This means that the proposed material compositions can
be successfully used in the production of improved sliding elements of implants.
In further works of numerical analysis and tribological tests, other geometrical
models will be subjected. The aim of the research will be to obtain the optimal material
structure of the polymer composition.
References
1. Abo-Elkhier M (1997) Elasto-plastic finite element modelling of strip cold rolling using
Eulerian fixed mesh technique. Finite Elem Anal Des 27:323–334
2. Barbour P, Barton D, Fisher J (1995) The influence of contact stress on the wear of PE-
UHMW for total replacement hip prostheses. Wear 181–183:250–257
3. Barbour P, Barton D, Fisher J (1997) The influence of stress conditions on the wear of PE-
UHMW for total joint replacements. J Mater Sci Mater Med 8:603–611
4. Barrett C, Shi Y (2018) U.S. Patent Application No. 15/608,679
5. Bijak-Żochowski M, Marek P (1997) Residual stress in some elasto-plastic problems of
rolling contact with friction. Int J Mech Sci 39(1):15–32
6. Czupryńska J (2002) Wpływ wysokoenergetycznego promieniowania elektronowego na
zmianę właściwości niektórych polimerów, Polimery 1(47):8–14
7. Fabry C, Zietz C, Baumann A, Bader R (2015) Wear performance of sequentially cross-
linked polyethylene inserts against ion-treated CoCr, TiNbN-Coated CoCr and Al2O3
ceramic femoral heads for total hip replacement. Lubricants 3(1):14–26
8. Fabry C, Zietz C, Baumann A, Ehall R, Bader R (2016) High wear resistance of femoral
components coated with titanium nitride: a retrieval analysis. Knee Surgery, Sports
Traumatology, Arthroscopy, 1–10
9. Feldshtein E, Kowalewski P, Dyachkova L (2014) Studying the surface layers of products
using a low-vacuum scanning electron microscope. J Surf Investig X-ray, Synchrotron
Neutron Techn 8(6):1258–1264
10. Guilhen A, Gadioli R, Fernandes FC, Waldman WR, Aurelio De Paoli M (2017) High‐
density green polyethylene biocomposite reinforced with cellulose fibers and using lignin as
antioxidant. J Appl Polym Sci 134(35)
11. Kowalewski P (2007) Modelowanie tarcia w endoprotezie stawu kolanowego. PhD thesis,
Politechnika Wrocławska, Wydział Mechaniczny, Instytut Konstrukcji i Eksploatacji
Maszyn, Wrocław
564 A. Ptak et al.
12. Kowalewski P, Jasiński R (2015) Badania współczynnika tarcia statycznego polietylenu PE-
UHMW poddanego promieniowaniu jonizującemu, Tribologia 5:67–78
13. Kowalewski P, Wieleba W (2007) Sliding polymers in the joint alloplastic. Arch Civil Mech
Eng VII(4)
14. Kowalewski P, Wieleba W, Leśniewski T (2007) Stanowisko do badań tribologicznych w
złożonym ruchu cyklicznym toczno-ślizgowym. Tribologia, nr 2:303–311
15. Maszybrocka J, Cybo J, Barylski A, Czaja P (2012) Wpływ modyfikacji radiacyjnej i
termicznej na właściwości funkcjonalne polietylenu. Tribologia 4:167–173
16. Li S (2001) Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene: from Charney to cross-linked. Op
Techn Orthopeadics 11(4):288–295
17. Podrez-Radziszewska M, Dudziński W (2003) Wpływ promieniowania wysokoenergety-
cznej wiązki elektronów na własności UHMWPE, Materiały X Seminarium Tworzywa
sztuczne w budowie maszyn. Kraków, p. 303–306
18. Poly Hi Solidur Deutschland GmbH Technical Data (2005) Premium Technology Grades
(PE-UHMW), CHIRULEN® 1020, Issue April
19. Pruitt L, Ranganathan R (1995) Effect of sterilization on the structure and fatigue resistance
of medical grade PE-UHMW. Mater Sci Eng, C 3:91–93
20. Wieleba W, Kowalewski P (2006) Wykorzystanie metody elementów skończonych do
wyznaczania momentu tarcia w polimerowym łożysku ślizgowym. Górnictwo Odkrywkowe,
R. 48(7/8):179–182
21. Wieleba W (2007) Metoda numeryczno-doświadczalna wyznaczania oporów tarcia w
polimerowych łożyskach ślizgowych podczas rozruchu. Tribologia, R 38(3):329–337
22. Zhang S, Hodgson P, Cardew-Hall M, Kalyanasundaram S (2003) A finite element
simulation of micro-mechanical frictional behaviour in metal forming. J Mater Process
Technol 134:81–91
Numerical Simulation of a Motorcycle to Road
Barrier Impact
Mariusz Ptak(&), Johannes Wilhelm, Olga Klimas, Grzegorz Reclik,

and Leszek Garbaciak

{mariusz.ptak,johannes.wilhelm}@pwr.edu.pl,
olga.marianna.klimas@gmail.com, memorek0@gmail.com,
leszek.garbaciak@gmail.com
Abstract. Motorcycle crashes are an increasing road safety problem in the

world, as this mean of transport has become a popular way to avoid traffic
congestion, as well as a way to reduce the overall transportation cost, especially
in developing countries. Currently, riding a motorcycle is also a lifestyle for
many people. This publication presents a numerical approach to the subject of
traffic accident involving a motorcyclist impacting a new on the market roadside
barrier. Currently, there are still not explored construction solutions. The focus
of the research is the determination of risk and potential consequences of
motorcycle injuries using finite element method (LS-DYNA) coupled with
multibody dummy model (MADYMO). Among many crash-tests carried out,
there are still few simulations with the participation of motorcycles. The
research conducted by authors is intended to draw attention on danger, to which
some of the vulnerable road users are exposed. The paper points also on the
overall complex motion and specific head-to-barrier impact – especially when
neck injuries are concerned.
Keywords: Passive safety device design Injury criteria

Accident reconstruction Motorcycle LS-DYNA MADYMO
1 Introduction
Motorcyclist accidents contribute meaningfully to road trauma around the world

through the high incidence of serious injuries and fatalities. The role of roadside safety
barriers in road trauma is an area of growing concern amongst motorcyclists, road
authorities and road safety researchers and advocates [1]. The amount of motorcycles
moving on the roads has been growing significantly in recent years, but affects the
amount and variety of traffic accidents with their participation. Despite the fact, that
motorcyclists drive a very small part of the distance travelled by all motor vehicles,
they constitute a significant percentage of victims in road traffic. The highest per-
centage of fatal accidents is caused by direct head injuries [2–5]. On the other hand,
dynamically developing computational methods based on finite element method
(FEM) increased robustness of conducted research and drastically reduced their cost.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_65
566 M. Ptak et al.
Numerical methods are considered as non-destructive approach, thanks to which there

is a possibility to conduct simulations multiple times with various boundary conditions.
Such a wide range of modification that can be carried out in one simulation allows the
researches to examine all potentially threads occurring during road accidents. This
allows the engineers and researches to create detailed information database, which are
necessary for development of road infrastructure.
2 Biomechanical Injury Criterion
One of the most commonly used criteria in crash tests is the Head Injury Criterion
(HIC). It is a dimensionless value and is calculated by the formula:
0" #2:5 1
1 t2
HIC ¼ @ ðt2 t1 ÞA
Z
aðtÞdt ð1Þ
t2 t1 t 1
max
By its help, the probability of brain damage during an impact can be determined.
Therefore, Fig. 1 shows the corresponding diagram in order to estimate the probability
of occurring injury in a specific level in relation to the previously calculated HIC(36)
value.
Fig. 1. Probability of head injury in relation to calculated HIC(36) value [6]
The value of HIC(36) depends on the resultant linear acceleration, according to a

time window of maximum 36 ms. Furthermore it is influenced by duration and dis-
tribution of the observed acceleration [7]. The current valid norm for certification of
road use safety helmets ECE R 22.05 allows in this context a peak acceleration of
275 g and a resulting HIC(36) of 2400 for the approval [8]. In the literature, HIC as
injury criterion is nowadays discussed controversially, as it is omitting at least rota-
tional acceleration directly. On the other hand, positive correlation of the magnitude of
linear and rotational acceleration was found by [9]. The research, which is dedicated to
cyclists, focussed exemplarily on the phenomenon of oblique impacts. This form of
Numerical Simulation of a Motorcycle to Road Barrier Impact 567
motion is representative for most impact scenarios of cyclists and motorcyclists [10].
The focus is set as well in the here presented approach to real collision conditions, such
as the multi-impact effect, oblique impact and collision with a long element with a
small cross-section.
3 Methodology
Figure 2 on the right side shows a geometrical model of the motorcycle which was
created by using the technique of reverse engineering. This required firstly the 3D scan
of a motorcycle (Fig. 3) – this was performed by the authors with the Leica ScanS-
tation. The head of the scanner is rotating thereby horizontally and vertically, resulting
in a measurement in a spherical coordinate system. The created cloud of points (Fig. 2
left) out of interferometry represents the base for the geometrical reconstruction within
dedicated CAD software. The conversion of the geometrical model into a discrete
model enabled the authors to use the generic motorcycle model in LS-DYNA for the
envisaged simulation.
Fig. 2. A point cloud created as a result of a motorcycle scan (left) and constructed 3D
geometrical model (right)
Fig. 3. Real motorcycle during scanning process.

568 M. Ptak et al.
The motorcycle and as well the additionally created geometry of a motorcycle

safety helmet, which is used also in this research, was simplified consciously to a
specific level. This approach enables to reduce calculation time reasonably, but to avoid
the limitation of the expressive capability of the results. The helmet itself was repre-
sented by a shell made out of copolymer acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and an
inner layer of a cork agglomerate.
Nowadays increasing traffic density and the general high driven velocities on roads
are pointing on the necessity of adequate road infrastructure and the use of road safety
systems [11]. Road restraint systems are thereby a common solution to improve road
safety. In this sense, especially road safety barriers allow to avoid breakthroughs of
vehicles to the opposite driving direction in terms of road traffic accidents. Generally,
the reduction of kinematic energy is targeted by these systems [12–14]. The effect in a
real-world scenario might be differing for motorcyclists with their vehicles due to their
exceptional geometry and kinematics. The authors implemented out of this context a
modified road barrier. The road barrier model was created based on measurement of
real road barrier, which are currently in use. Its geometrical model is shown in Fig. 4.
Rollers
Protective shield
Fig. 4. Modified roller barrier
The barrier’s structure was modified to reduce the motorcyclist’s risk of being
injured during the collision scenario, as e.g. regularly used road barriers are built out of
sharp edged and open profiles. This circumstance might be due to the characteristic of
modern road traffic. In the current road traffic, cars are predominant. Hence, road
infrastructure is designed mainly for handling car’s geometry and masses, but partic-
ularly not motorcycles. This general circumstance could be an increasing cause for
possible cut off the cyclist’s extremities in case of being trapped under the barrier.
Additionally, motorcyclist might be exposed to a secondary impact to the own vehicle.
Currently development barrier prototypes try to consider these phenomenon, but these
are still rare in their implementation [15, 16].
In the presented simulation, the barrier was modified by adding several elements.
The focus is set thereby on absorbing the initial impact energy and changing the path of
the motorcyclist’s movement. The rollers, which are shown in Fig. 4, are extra ele-
ments, which are rotating parts made out of ABS. Furthermore, protective shields were
installed to prevent protruding of the motorcyclist to the barrier. The main task of the
rollers instead should be to transform the kinetic energy of the impacting rider to
kinetic energy of the rotary motion of the rollers. Dimensions of the extra elements
were based on available data and dimensions of motorcycles from which average
values were drawn.
In opposite to the models of motorcycle, helmet and roadside barrier represented in
LS-DYNA, the authors included the MADYMO 50th percentile Hybrid III dummy as
the motorcyclist. The dummy is the most popular implemented test dummy in simu-
lations to assess restraint and safety devices in the automotive sector, but not available
in the primary code of LS-DYNA. The technique of coupling allows the authors
thereby to reduce calculation time while having recourse on the dedicated safety crash
test capacities of the MADYMO environment [17].
Attention is set as well to the specific boundary and initial conditions of the crash
scenario corresponding to real-world conditions. Hurt’s Report became therefore the
base for the publication [18]. Based on the research carried out by the Hurt team, a
relatively low initial speed of 40 km/h was chosen within the simulation for the
motorcycle, as it corresponds to the largest number of traffic incidents. The DEKRA
organization carried out simulations of a motorcycle collision with an energy-intensive
and concrete barrier. Based on the above-mentioned publication, the two angles of
initial impact of 12° and 30° were selected finally for the author’s attempt.
4 Results
The focus of the research was set to the determination of risk and potential conse-
quences of motorcyclist injuries. The earlier mentioned calculation of HIC(36) plays
thereby a central role, as partially legislation and automotive industry are relying on
this value as a widely accepted injury indicator. As the base for the HIC(36)-calculation
is the resultant linear acceleration of the head’s centre of gravity (COG), both are given
in Fig. 5 for the performed simulation.
Around 10 ms after the start of the simulation, the acceleration graph reaches its
maximum by approximately 230 g. Although the narrow form of the corresponding
acceleration-deceleration-curve, mainly the moderate absolute acceleration value leads
to a resulting HIC(36) of only 816. The value of 1000 is thereby described as a
tolerance level for severe but not life-threatening injuries [19, 20]. Recapitulating, the
ECE R 22.05 allows a HIC(36) of 2400 and a peak resultant linear acceleration of
275 g. As the calculated values are only valid by respecting the performance of the
helmet with cork layer, the results shall be mentioned. The cork agglomerate absorbed
in this approach energy between 20 and 30 J, respectively the external shell between
6.5 and 10 J. An overall view of the impact scenario is given in the following Fig. 6.
The authors put especially attention to the motion of the motorcyclist in the further
proceeding. After the first impact with the head, the right shoulder and arm are not only
570 M. Ptak et al.
Fig. 5. Resultant acceleration graph for the head’s COG and corresponding calculated HIC(36)
t=0 t=10 ms
t=20 ms t=30 ms
Fig. 6. Illustration of the crash scenario and the head impact

contacting a roller of the barrier, but showing the behavior of intrusion into the
structure. In this context, the torso of the motorcyclist is starting to turn toward the
roadside barrier. Furthermore, the neck is bended laterally by the roller’s geometry,
which can be recognized in Fig. 7 below. Although, in assessing the possibility of
occurring neck injuries, the base is often found in the calculation of neck injury criteria
Nij. Thereby, focus is set in terms of bending on neck flexion and extension [21]. The
presented calculation revealed for this motion a magnitude of 122 Nm (see Fig. 7,
right) with an axial force acting of approximately 2 kN. Thereby it exceeds critical
intercept values for flexion and extension according to Schmitt et al. [22], which might
be leading to AIS1 neck injury.
140
120
Torque flexion/extension M [Nm]
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-20
-40
Time t [ms]
Fig. 7. Top view at t = 30 ms (left) and graph of neck flexion/extension torque (right)
Anyway, the influence of lateral bending to the injury outcome is not covered by
these injury criteria as they were intended for rear-end crashes with whiplash motion.
Although, this combined motion is in accordance with the again ascending acceleration
graph in Fig. 5 up from approximately t = 22 ms. In addition but not included here, it
might be worth paying attention in this context as well at neck-spine strain, as it is
accepted as a common reason for causing spinal cord damage. This type of injury may
lead already in minor forms to paralysis and efforts medical treatment, partially chronic
rehabilitation [23].
In consequence, the previously assumed motion of sliding is interrupted, as the
body of the motorcyclist is decelerated. Beside the circumstance, that the motorcycle
shows according to its higher mass a higher tend to sliding, the action of the barrier
itself needs to be discussed. The initial intention was to create a barrier, which is
transforming the kinetic energy of the impacting body into rotational kinetic energy of
the rollers. The simulation proves in this scenario, that a partially abrupt decelerating of
the rider and turning into the barrier can be observed instead. Although it is not
representing a proper sliding, the section of the impacted barrier instances is larger than
in common roadside barriers and might have an influence on the injury severity in real-
world cases. The envisaged behavior of the barrier to transform impact energy with its
rollers is only marginal. During the motorcycle’s impact at an angle of 12° the rollers
absorbed 65 J of energy, while at an angle of 30° the amount of absorbed energy
572 M. Ptak et al.
equalled 135 J. Most of the energy was absorbed by the barriers frame and can be
valued with 1095 J for the 12° angled impact, respectively 450 J at 30°. Anyway, for
the motorcycle as a single instance the sliding along the barrier can be stated, but it is
strongly connected to the higher mass and connected inertia.
5 Conclusions
Road barrier prototypes featured with energy absorbing elements are intended to absorb
a part of the initial impact energy. The in this approach presented design of a roadside
barrier with included rollers to transform translational impact energy into rotational
energy of the rollers figured out as less effective as intended. The result might be
caused by a suboptimal ratio between the moment of inertia of the energy absorbing
roller elements and the mass of the motorcyclist. Furthermore, the partial intrusion of
the extremities of the rider into the structure of the barrier was observed. This lead to a
turning into the barrier and significant deceleration of the motorcyclist. Anyway, due to
the geometries section, the injury severity concerning the phenomenon of cutting off
thereby extremities might be reduced. At this moment, there is no regulation or
compulsory norm, that concentrates in its process of road side barrier approval on these
criteria or the effectiveness of an energy absorbing road barriers for motorcyclists. In a
conclusion, the conducted simulations are showing that one of the most dangerous
scenarios is still the intrusion of the rider into the barriers structure, which can cause the
cut off extremities. The research is in this sense valuable input for the design of road
infrastructure elements. It proves as well the benefit of using FE simulations already in
the stage of designing by saving resources at a high outcome of data.
In regard of the helmeted head in this simulation, the calculated HIC(36) and peak
acceleration values proved in this concern to be low enough to obtain in theory an
European homologation according to the ECE R 22.05 regulation. Although this, the
through the presented simulation estimated injuries of head, neck and extremities needs
to be respected. The research points thereby on the overall complex motion and
problem situation of impacting motorcyclists.
References
1. Bambach MR, Grzebieta RH, McIntosh AS (2012) Injury typology of fatal motorcycle
collisions with roadside barriers in Australia and New Zealand. Accid Anal Prev 49:253–
260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2011.06.016
2. Fernandes FAO, de Sousa RJA (2013) Finite element analysis of helmeted oblique impacts
and head injury evaluation with a commercial road helmet. Struct Eng Mech 48:661–679.
https://doi.org/10.12989/sem.2013.48.5.661
3. Fernandes FAO, Alves de Sousa RJ, Ptak M (2018) Head injury simulation in road traffic
accidents, 1st edn. Springer International Publishing, Cham
4. Ptak M, Wilhelm J, Saunders N (2018) Safety analysis of a bicycle-mounted child seat. In:
IEEE: 2018 XI international science-technical conference automotive safety. IEEE, pp 1–6
5. Ptak M, Kaczynski P, Fernandes FAO, de Sousa RJA (2017) Assessing impact velocity and
temperature effects on crashworthiness properties of cork material. Int J Impact Eng
106:238–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2017.04.014
6. Yang J (James), Dai J (2010) Simulation-Based Assessment of Rear Effect to Ballistic Helmet
Impact. Comput Aided Des Appl 7:59–73. https://doi.org/10.3722/cadaps.2010.59-73
7. Chang L, Chang G, Huang J, Huang S, Liu D, Chang C (2003) Finite element analysis of the
effect of motorcycle helmet materials against impact velocity. J Chinese Inst Eng 26:835–
843. https://doi.org/10.1080/02533839.2003.9670838
8. Ptak M, Kaczynski P, Fernandes F, de Sousa RA (2017) Computer Simulations for Head
Injuries Verification After Impact. In: Proceedings of the 13th international scientific
conference: computer aided engineering
9. Zhang L, Ramesh D, Yang KH, King AI (2003) Effectiveness of the football helmet assessed
by finite element modeling and impact testing. Technology, 27–38
10. Mills NJ, Gilchrist A (2008) Oblique impact testing of bicycle helmets. Int J Impact Eng
35:1075–1086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2007.05.005
11. Kubiak P (2018) Work of non-elastic deformation against the deformation ratio of the
Subcompact Car Class using the variable correlation method. Forensic Sci Int 287:47–53.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.03.033
12. Gawdzińska K, Chybowski L, Przetakiewicz W (2016) Proper matrix-reinforcement
bonding in cast metal matrix composites as a factor of their good quality. Arch Civ Mech
Eng 16:553–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2015.11.004
13. Rusiński E, Cegiel L, Michalczyk A, Moczko P, Olejarz J, Pietrusiak D (2015) Investigation
and modernization of buckets of surface mining machines. Eng Struct 90:29–37
14. Karliński J, Ptak M, Działak P (2018) Improving occupant safety in heavy goods vehicles-
Universal energy absorbing system. In: 11th International science and technical conference
automotive safety, automotive safety 2018
15. Bundesministerium für Verkehr und digitale Infrastruktur (2015) Halbzeitbilanz des
Verkehrssicherheitsprogramms 2011–2020
16. Koziołek S, Derlukiewicz D, Ptak M (2010) Design process innovation of mechanical
objects with the use of design for six sigma methodology. In: solid state phenomena,
pp 274–279
17. Ptak M, Rusiński E, Wnuk M, Wilhelm J, Więckowski J (2016) Numerical simulation using
finite element method and mulitbody pedestrian dummy - report no. 142/2016. Wroclaw
18. Hurt HH (1981) Motorcycle accident cause factors and identification of countermeasures
19. Shuaeib FM, Hamouda AMS, Radin Umar RS, Hamdan MM, Hashmi MSJ (2002)
Motorcycle helmet - Part I. Biomechanics and computational issues. J Mater Process
Technol 123:406–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(02)00048-1
20. Fernandes FAO, Tchepel D, Alves de Sousa RJ, Ptak M (2018) Development and validation
of a new finite element human head model. Eng Comput 35:477–496. https://doi.org/10.
1108/EC-09-2016-0321
21. Eppinger R, Sun E, Bandak F, Haffner M, Khaewpong N, Maltese M, Kuppa S, Nguyen T,
Takhounts E, Tannous R, Zhang A, Saul R (1999) Development of Improved Injury Criteria
for the Assessment of Advanced Automotive Restraint Systems - II By
22. Schmitt K-U, Muser MH, Niederer P (2000) a New Neck Injury Criterion Candidate for
Rear-End Collisions Taking Into Account Shear Forces and Bending Moments. Technology
1–9
23. Yoganandan N, Yoganandan N, Nahum AM (2015) Accidental injury: Biomechanics and
prevention
Use of Radiography to Identify the Gangue
Agnieszka Pustułka(&) and Tadeusz Leśniewski

{agnieszka.pustulka,tadeusz.lesniewski}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The article presents a method of detecting undesirable objects on a

conveyor belt. In this paper problem of distinguishing coal from gangue is
described. The method which is presented in this article is based on the x-ray
phenomenon. The tested objects will be distinguished on the basis of the density
difference. This method is very important for mining industry because a stone or
another undesirable object which gets to belt conveyor can damage it, and
output transport will have stopped.
Keywords: Waste brown coal Conveyor belt Defect detection Output

Mining industry
1 Introduction
The gangue is a material which is useless in the extraction process of specified minerals
[1]. The presence of gangue in lignite - especially if it occurs in larger quantities – is
undesirable, because it reduces the calorific value of the material which is supplied to
the power plant boilers, causes periodic cleaning of the furnaces and may contribute to
damage to the elements of these furnaces. For this reason, effective detection of waste
rock in the mining output, its removal and management of dumps is particularly
important.
Radiographic examinations are used in order to evaluate some properties of the
tested objects, in this case gangue and lignite.
These examinations are regarded to be the basic method of non – destructive
testing. These studies are characterized by the highest reliability of the results. They use
the phenomenon of absorption of penetrating radiation by the examined objects.
Radiography allows you to obtain an image of an x-rayed object on a radiographic
or digital image.
Mostly, they are used for:
• Identification of internal material discontinuities;
• Thickness measurement;
• Density measurement.
These examinations are also used to check the correct installation of the equipment
and to observe their operation [3].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_66
Use of Radiography to Identify the Gangue 575
2 Study of the Level of Discrimination Lignite from Gangue
The Fig. 1 presents the characteristic objects: lignite and gangue. On these objects
testing researches are performed. As can be seen in the picture, the examined objects
look very similar to each other.
Fig. 1. The samples on which the researches were made [4]
It was assumed that the detection of objects should be based on identifying and
analysis of the differences between the examined objects.
Several properties which differentiate these two objects were analysed. Considered
features such as: lump size, chemical composition, hardness and other.
Surveys have shown that, only the difference in X–ray absorption was so significant
that this property could be used as the basis for the method of detecting gangue in the
output which is transported on the conveyor belt.
Fig. 2. The picture of lignite and gangue after exposure in time 45 s: a) before modification, b)
by applying successively grayscale and histogram extension and gamma correction and
histogram alignment [4]
576 A. Pustułka and T. Leśniewski
The Fig. 2 presents results which were performed after exposure time equal 45 s.
Variant a presents the results before modification was done, and the variant b presents
the results which were performed by applying successively gray scale and histogram
extension and gamma correction and histogram alignment.
Researches have been performed using different exposure time values from 10 to
300 s. The difference between gangue and lignite was noticeable after 45 s. Therefore,
on the results which were obtained for this exposure time, further analysis was
performed.
The difference between the examined objects (lignite and gangue) was determined
based on the difference in the level of the X-rays absorption and the grayscale analysis
was demonstrated.
Fig. 3. Graph of grayscale [5]
The grayscale value starts from 0 to 255 (Fig. 3), the bigger value, the brighter
picture. According to the radiological data, the X-ray film becomes black in places
where it gets a large amount of radiation, so it is characteristic for objects which absorb
a small amount of radiation. On the other hand, if there is no rays or only a small
amount of radiation, then the X-ray film becomes white. This is usually the case for
objects which absorb large or larger amounts of radiation.
The amount of beam, which was absorbed per unit thickness of the examined object
is represented by the linear absorption coefficient. It means that objects which have a
high density, have also a higher ability to weaken the beam and in the image they are
presented as white areas [2].
From the analysis of the assumptions above, it is shown that the gangue charac-
terized by high absorption coefficient and thus high density, because the image of this
object is brighter and it means that little X-rays are passed to the X-ray film. In the case
of lignite, a dark image is obtained, so it can be said that it has a lower absorption
coefficient and a lower density than that of the gangue.
3 The Effect of the Exposure Time on the Level of Distinction

of Objects
The obtained dependence of the exposure time from the level of distinction of
examined objects are presented in Table 1. Based on the analysis of the obtained graph,
it was found that with the increase of exposure time, the difference in the level of x-ray
film blackening, by individual objects increased.
Table 1. Dependence of the level of blackening of the X-ray film from the exposure time of
objects: gangue and lignite [4]
Level of the
blackening of
the film (%)
Exposure time (s) Gangue Lignite
10 0,25 0,3
45 0,35 0,45
90 0,4 0,65
150 0,6 1
300 1 1,85
As it was shown in the Table 1, along with increasing the exposure time of objects,
the value of blackening of the film for coal and for gangue increases. The level of
differentiation of the examined objects also changes. The greater the time of exposure,
the greater the difference in the density of the film by the X-rays.
On the basis of the data included in Table 1, a graph presenting the dependence of
the x-ray film blackening from the exposure time of the objects was made (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Dependence of the blackening of the x-ray film from the exposure time of the objects [4]
4 The Value of the Average Grayscale for the Tested Lumps,

Which Are Including Metal Elements
Figure 5 illustrates the dependence how the effect of the presence of metal elements in
the test lumps have influence on the average value of density. On the basis of the
obtained results it was found that the received images for solids which containing metal
elements are darker than for solids without metal elements.
Fig. 5. Effect of metal presence on the level of average grayscale value [4]
5 Elaboration of the Ranges of the Average Grayscale Value

for Gangue and Lignite
On the basis of the made tests, the ranges of the average grayscale value for the
individual lumps were determined. The ranges which are presented will be used to
establish the reference value for gangue and lignite (Table 2). This values allow us to
identify the gangue.
On the basis of the analysis which is summarized in the Table 2, it was shown that
the ranges of the average grayscale value for gangue and lignite can be determined. The
obtained result is satisfying because the ranges for given solids do not overlap, which
means that it is possible to set a pattern for specific solids.
The average grayscale value range presented in the Table 2 has been made
depending on the time, therefore, such a low value for carbon (13) appears, it is the
value for the exposure time which is 300 s.
Table 2. The range of mean gray values for brown coal and gangue [4]
The mean
grayscale values
Gangue Lignite
109 13
120 29
128 45
150 73
202 110
109–202 13–110
On the basis of the data compiled in the table, a graph (Fig. 6) was made to show
the range of the average gray value for the examined lumps.
Fig. 6. The graph showing the average gray value range for lignite and gangue [4]
Based on the analysis of the results obtained, the following conclusions were made:
– The level of blackening of the x-ray film depends on the exposure time of the
objects. The noticeable difference between objects was obtained after 45 s.
– Gangue has a higher density than lignite and it is property that can serve as a
parameter for the differentiation of examined objects.
– Based on the researches, it has been proven that the x-ray method makes it possible
to distinguish the examined objects by both the density difference and the volume
difference.
– The absorbed radiation dose depends on the type of radiation and on the type of
absorbing material. It means that both of the volume and mass of the material affect
the amount of absorbed radiation dose.
– The presence of metal elements affects the average density value.
– Based on the analysis of the results, it was found that it is possible to set an average
grayscale value for lignite and gangue.
– The computer image analysis allows also to relate density values to the appropriate
grayscale value, thanks to which, a gain of another parameter that differs from the
examined lumps can be obtained.
References
1. http://wiadomosci.ngo.pl/wiadomosc/1351000.html. Accessed 26 Feb 2017
2. Budzik G, Dziubek T, Turek P (2015) Podstawowe czynniki wpływające na jakość obrazów
tomograficznych. Problemy nauk stosowanych, Tom 3:77–84
3. Jezierski G (1993) Radiografia przemysłowa. Wydawnictwo Naukowo-Techniczne,
Warszawa
4. Pustułka A (2017) The method of gangue detection in the continuous mining transport
system, Dissertation, Wrocław
5. http://py.processing.org/tutorials/color/. Accessed 16 Mar 2017
Qualitative Evaluation of Modeling the Aramid
Fabric Elementary Cell in the Piercing Process
with a 9 mm Full Metal Jacket Projectile
Dariusz Pyka1, Joanna Pach2, Miroslaw Bocian1,

and Krzysztof Jamroziak1(&)
1
Department of Mechanics, Materials Science and Engineering,
and Technology, Smoluchowskiego 25, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
{pykadariusz,miroslaw.bocian,
krzysztof.jamroziak}@pwr.edu.pl
2
Department of Foundry, Plastics and Automation,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Science and Technology,
Lukasiewicza 5, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
joanna.pach@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The authors simulated the piercing of a loose aramid fabric. The
analysis was carried out in the ABAQUS environment with the use of the
Explicit method. The fabric was modeled in two ways: the first one as a surface,
with the parameters and nature of aramid fibers considered, while the second as
single bands in the fabric. The qualitative and quantitative results of the
deformation of the tested material were compared. In addition, the deformation
of the 9 19 mm Parabellum FMJ projectile was compared with a real object.
Keywords: Ballistic impact Projectile Modeling Composites

Aramid fabric
1 Introduction
Currently, composite materials have gained great popularity as components of energy-

intensive shields. Especially fibrous composites made based on high-strength fibers that
are artificially obtained in the process of their production [1–3]. Aramid fibers (Kev-
lar®, Twaron®, Rusar®, Teksar®), Ultrasol High Molecular Weight Polyethylene
(UHMWPE) fibers (Dyneema®, Spectra®), glass and carbon fibers belong to fibers
most commonly used as reinforcements in ballistic composites [4–7]. PBO (Zylon®)
fibers are less commonly used due to their low resistance to UV radiation [8], although
they have better energy absorption properties compared to Kevlar [9].
Factors such as its thickness, the lay-up sequence, the way of connection of the
layers with the matrix, geometry as well as the shape, weight, structure and kinetic
energy of the projectile decisively influence the ballistic properties of the composite, in
addition to the type of reinforcement [1, 10–13].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_67
582 D. Pyka et al.
The search for optimal material solutions in relation to the ballistic limit is related to
the relevant research procedures. The basic procedure is all kinds of theoretical ana-
lyzes, which refer to the development of the mathematical model and its verification
[14–16]. Nowadays, as for the optimization of ballistic shields, fundamental attention is
attached to numerical modeling. Numerical modeling should give credibility to the
obtained results in terms of ballistic experimental studies. Such simulations are
extremely supportive in the design of ballistic shields. It should be emphasized that the
quality of the obtained results is evidenced by the appropriate development of geo-
metric and numerical models, as well as the mutual relationship of the interaction of
yarn in fabric [17–20] and the adoption of appropriate modeling methods [21–24].
Fabric modeling methods are often regarded as anisotropic continuum approaches
[25, 26], where material properties are modeled using the Representative Volume
Element (RVE). Other modeling methods present the fabric as a grid of mass points
connected mutually with flexible elements [27, 28]. A description based on the Finite
Element Method (FEM) is repeatedly met. The fabric is represented by means of solid
or coating elements in a direct way (discrete, three-dimensional approaches) as
mesostructure with the shape and dimensions of the weft and warp and their mutual
interlacing taken into consideration [29]. Mixed methods constitute the last group,
where the yarn being in direct contact with the principal yarns is investigated, taking
account of the shape, size and details of the interlacing. However, the remaining
elements are treated as a homogenized continuous medium [27, 30].
In the study, the authors presented two variants of numerical modeling of aramid
fabric to evaluate the effectiveness of FEM utilization compared to experimental
results.
2 The Subject and Scope of Research
Twaron® aramid fabric of 173 g/m2 basis weight and type 2200 plain weave was tested
(Table 1). The composite panel was made of a loose arrangement of aramid fabrics,
sewn at the edges with a simple cotton thread to prevent their displacement during the
tests. The prepared structure was then subjected to tests on a drop hammer, yielding
impact energy of 60 J.
Table 1. Basic characteristics of fabric [31]

Description Specification
Material Twaron® 1210 dtex
Fabric construction (ends/picks 6.7 6.7 ± 0.3
per cm)
Areal weight 173 g/m2 ± 4%
Fabric thickness 250 µm ± 15%
Weave Plain
Tensile strength (warp/weft) 1140 N/cm
Finishing Fabric can be supplied Loomstate, Scoured or Water-
Repellent
Qualitative Evaluation of Modeling the Aramid Fabric Elementary 583
At the second stage of the research, ballistic tests were carried out by firing at a
9 mm fabric system with a Parabellum full metal jacket projectile with a mass of 8 g
and an average muzzle velocity of 354 m/s (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. View of the fabric during experimental tests: (a) piercing on the hammer, (b) firing with
a pistol projectile
3 Initial Numerical Simulations
The research was focused on mapping the dynamic test conditions for piercing the
fabric on the drop hammer. The beater and table were modeled as a non-deformable
element. The fabric was supported on the circumference of the table with translations
and rotations blocked in three axes X, Y, Z. Numerical simulations presented in the
work were carried out in the ABAQUS program. For this purpose, numerical models of
the research post were made. The beater, the table and pressure fixing were modeled as
non-deformable elements. The initial velocity of the beater was set at 4.4 m/s. Figure 2
shows a model of a test stand for piercing laminates, and Fig. 3 shows a single layer
model of an aramid fabric.
Fig. 2. Numerical model of a test stand for

piercing laminates Fig. 3. Model of the aramid fabric accepted
in numerical calculations
584 D. Pyka et al.
The aramid fabric was modeled as a volumetric element with separate bands.
Material constants used in numerical calculations are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Material constants adopted in numerical calculations [32, 33]

Specification Properties
Density q (g/cm3) 0.70
Young’s modulus E11 (GPa) 71.0
Poisson’s ratio m12 0.30
Shear modulus G12 (GPa) 1.39
Breaking stress rc (GPa) 2.56
This paper presents only the results of numerical simulation for aramid fabrics not
related to the polymer matrix (Figs. 4, 5 and 6).
Fig. 4. Simulation of piercing a five - layer aramid fabric
Fig. 5. Simulation results for a ten - layer aramid fabric

Fig. 6. Comparison of the shape of the cone creation obtained in the numerical simulation
(a) and (c) and drop test conditions (b) and (d) for a ten - layer aramid fabric
These results were compared to the shape of fabrics deformations obtained under
real conditions. They are consistent with the results obtained in the experiment. Thus,
the relevance of research in this area has been confirmed.
4 Numerical Simulations with Ballistic Velocities
At the second stage of work, tests were carried out for a piercing speed at the level of
354 m/s, which corresponded to the initial velocities of 9 19 mm Parabellum pistol
projectiles fired from firearms. Additionally, rotations of the projectile were taken into
consideration. The 1/100 ratio of rotational energy to progressive energy was assumed.
This is the size that is assumed in the design calculation of small arms. There was
adopted a substrate on which the considered sample was supported, which is an
important element in determining the back face signature (BFS). The BFS size with a
suitable substrate was measured; it is usually ballistic plasticine that initiates blunt
trauma to the human body based on the assessment of the magnitude of the dynamic
deflection [19].
The 9 19 mm projectile Parabellum was modeled using a volumetric method
including the projectile jacket and core (Fig. 7). The 0.5 mm element size was
assumed. The Johnson-Cook material model (J-C) was used, including part of the
damage.
586 D. Pyka et al.
Fig. 7. Discretization (a) projectile jacket, (b) lead core
The aramid fabric was modeled in the Inventor program and then exported to the
ABAQUS program. The element was made by volume. The contact was established as
“Hard Contact”.
The following material parameters of the projectile and fabric were adopted for the
model (Table 3). Parameters were determined by means of two-stage homogenization
[24].
The numerical model of the fabric being pierced on the supported substrate is
presented below at the speed corresponding to the muzzle velocity of the Parabel-lum
projectile (Fig. 8). The attention is brought to the density of the grid of elements around
the area of the projectile’s impact.
Table 3. Material properties adopted for the numerical model

Material Density Young’s Poisson’s Strength A B n m e_ 0
(g/cm3) modulus ratio [−] model (MPa) (MPa) [−] [−] (s−1)
(MPa)
Brass 8.5 115103 0.31 J-C 206 505 0.42 1.68 510−4
Lead 10.1 18.510 3
0.41 J-C 24 40 1.00 1.00 510−4
Aramid 1.4 7110 3
0.30 J-C 2650 2750 0.10 1.00 510−4
where: A - yield at zero plastic strain, B - hardening constant, n - hardening exponent, m - thermal
softening exponent, e_ 0 - reference strain rate
Fig. 8. Numerical simulation with the ten - layer aramid fabric on a ballistic plasticine substrate
The next step was to compare the destruction mechanism for two limit values. The
first one - after exceeding the immediate strength given as Rm of material, the second
one - after exceeding the deformation e. The results are depicted in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. Comparison of the fabric damage during piercing: (a) after exceeding 2750 MPa,
(b) after exceeding 2% of deformation
As noted (Fig. 9), the differences in the damage to a single layer of the fabric are
clearly visible. In this case, the penetrator (black color) was modeled as a non-
deformable element. Then, a number of experiments were carried out related to the
analysis of the deformation of the projectile penetrating the material system. In the
projectile’s deformation, the friction between its core and jacket was omitted. Selected
results of this analysis are summarized in Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. Stages of deformation of the 9 19 mm Parabellum FMJ projectile as the effect of
piercing the material system of 10 layers of aramid fabric supported on a plasticine substrate
For the needs of the presented results, verification of the composite samples were
fired by 9 mm projectile type Parabellum (see Fig. 1b). The “mushrooming” results of
the pistol projectile were subjected to a comparative analysis with the results obtained
on the shooting track. The selected example is illustrated in Fig. 11.
588 D. Pyka et al.
Fig. 11. Deformation of the 9 19 Parabellum projectile: (a) a “mushroom” head, (b) side
view, (c) a deformed projectile from the ballistic experiment
5 Conclusions
The work concerns the analysis of the numerical modeling method with the application
of the element method for two types of ballistic fabric modeling. Volumetric elements
were used in the first case, while the mixed method in the second one. In both cases, the
J-C strength model was taken advantage of. Material constants were adapted from the
technological fabric card, data in the literature as well as own research [23, 34]. The
results of the numerical simulation obtained (Fig. 6) from the piercing of the layered
composite on the drop hammer and with the ballistic velocities (Figs. 8 and 11) confirm
the correctness of the Johnson-Cook models adopted for the projectile and the aramid
fabric. The end results show similar effects of the method for damaging individual
layers of fabric and deformation (mushrooming) of the projectile. It should be
emphasized that modeling the destruction of fabric strands with the help of the
deformation limit e offers better mapping of piercing. Assumptions as to the method-
ology of proceedings proved to be correct. On the basis of the literature on the subject
and the presented results of own research it should be stated that it is of crucial
importance to get focused on appropriate fabric and projectile modeling techniques as
demonstrated in this article, where the final effects could be interpreted in two ways
with varying qualitative results. The authors intend to target subsequent simulations by
the application of different types of matrices binding individual fabric layers.
Acknowledgements. Calculations have been carried out in Wroclaw Centre for Networking and
Supercomputing (http://www.wcss.pl), grant No. 452.
References
1. Ben-Dor G, Dubinsky A, Elperin T (2006) Applied high-speed plate penetration dynamics.
Published by Springer
2. Hearle JWS (2001) High-performance fiber. Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press
LLC
3. Reid SR, Zhou G (2008) Impact behaviour of fibre-reinforced composite materials and
structures. Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC
4. Gogineni S, Gao XL, David NV, Zheng JQ (2012) Ballistic impact of Twaron CT709 plain
weave fabrics. Mech Adv Mater Struct 19(6):441–452
5. Sapozhnikov SB, Kudryavtsev OA, Zhikharev MV (2015) Fragment ballistic performance of
homogenous and hybrid thermoplastic composites. Int J Impact Eng 81:8–16
6. Hazzard MK et al (2017) Effect of fibre orientation on the low velocity impact response of
thin Dyneema composite laminates. Int J Impact Eng 100:35–45
7. Nguyen LH et al (2016) A methodology for hydrocode analysis of ultra-high molecular
weight polyethylene composite under ballistic impact. Composites: Part A 84:224–235
8. Kwong K, Goldsmith W (2004) Lightweight ballistic protection of flight-critical components
on commercial aircraft. Part 1: Ballistic characterization of Zylon. Final Technical Report, U.
S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration, Washington
9. Pereira MJ, Revilock DM (2009) Ballistic impact response of Kevlar 49 and Zylon under
conditions representing jet engine fan containment. J Aerosp Eng 22(3):240–248
10. Bilisik K (2010) Experimental determination of ballistic performance of newly developed
multiaxis non-interlaced/non-Z E-glass/polyester and 3D woven carbon/epoxy composites
with soft backing aramid fabric structures. Text Res J 81(5):520–537
11. Chu Cheng-Kun, Chen Yu-Liang (2010) Ballistic-proof effects of various woven construc-
tions. Fibres Text East Eur 18(6):63–67
12. Lim CT, Tan VBC, Cheong CH (2002) Perforation of high-strength double-ply fabric
system by varying shaped projectiles. Int J Impact Eng 27(6):577–591
13. Ulven C, Vaidya UK, Hosur MV (2003) Effect of projectile shape during ballistic
perforation of VARTM carbon/epoxy composite panels. Compos Struct 61(1/2):143–150
14. Bocian M, Jamroziak K, Kulisiewicz M (2014) An identification of nonlinear dissipative
properties of constructional materials at dynamical impact loads conditions. Meccanica 49
(8):1955–1965
15. Bocian M, Jamroziak K, Kosobudzki M, Kulisiewicz M (2017) Methods of identification of
definite degenerated and nonlinear dynamic system using specially programmed nonhar-
monic enforce. J Dyn Syst Measurement Control Trans ASME 139(8): No. 081012
16. Buchacz A, Placzek M, Wrobel A (2014) Modelling and analysis of systems with cylindrical
plezoelectric transducers. Mechanics 20(1):87–91
17. Bohannan AL, Fahrenthold EP (2008) Hypervelocity impact simulation using mem-brane
particle-elements. Int J Impact Eng 35(12):1497–1502
18. King MJ, Jearanaisilawong P, Socrate S (2005) A continuum constitutive model for the me-
chanical behavior of woven fabrics. Int J Solids Struct 42(13):3867–3896
19. Peng XQ, Cao J (2005) A continuum mechanics-based non-orthogonal constitutive model
for woven composite fabrics. Composites: Part A 36(6):859–874
20. Kedzierski P et al (2013) Experimental study of hybrid soft ballistic structures. Compos
Struct 153(1):204–211
21. Bansal S, Mobasher B, Rajan SD, Vintilescu I (2009) Development of fabric constitutive b
ehavior for use in modeling engine fan blade-out events. J Aerosp Eng 22(3):249–259
22. Mazurkiewicz L, Damaziak K, Malachowski J, Baranowski P (2013) Parametric study of
numerically modelled delamination process in a composite structure subjected to dynamic
loading. Eng Trans 61(1):15–31
23. Bocian M, Jamroziak K, Kosobudzki M (2014) The analysis of energy consumption of a
ballistic shields in simulation of mobile cellular automata. Adv Mater Res 1036:680–685
24. Pyka D, Jamroziak K, Blazejewski W, Bocian M (2017) Calculations with the finite element
method during the design ballistic armour. In: Rusinski E, Pietrusiak D (eds) Proceedings of
the 13th international scientific conference, computer aided engineering. Springer Interna-
tional Publishing AG, pp 451−459
590 D. Pyka et al.
25. Nilakantan G et al (2010) On the finite element analysis of woven fabric impact using
multiscale modeling techniques. Int J Solids Struct 47(17):2300–2315
26. Lim CT, Shim VPW, Ng YH (2003) Finite-element modeling of the ballistic impact of fabric
armor. Int J Impact Eng 28(1):13–31
27. Parsons EM, Weerasooriya T, Sarva S, Socrate S (2010) Impact of woven fabric:
Experiments and mesostructured based continuum level simulations. J Mech Phys Solids 58
(11):1995–2021
28. Shim VPW, Tan VBC, Tay TE (1995) Modelling deformation and damage characteristics of
woven fabric under small projectile impact. Int J Impact Eng 16(4):585–605
29. Tan VBC, Ching TW (2006) Computational simulation of fabric armour subjected to
ballistic impacts. Int J Impact Eng 32(11):1737–1751
30. Chocron S et al (2010) Modeling and validation of full fabric targets under ballistic impact.
Compos Sci Technol 70(13):2012–2022
31. http://www.havel-composites.pl/index.php?menu=produkty&type=tkaniny_aramidowe.
Accessed 20 Apr 2016
32. Tabiei A, Yi W (2002) Comparative study of predictive methods for woven fabric composite
elastic properties. Compos Struct 58(1):149–164
33. Teijin Ballistic material handbook - Twaron®. http://www.teijinaramid.com/wp-content/
uploads/2011/08/0090078_Ballistics_handboek_A4_final2.pdf. Accessed 20 Apr 2016
34. Jamroziak K, Koziolek S, Smolnicki T (2012) Analysis of punching process of ballistic
shield with the use of finite element method. Journal of Gen. Tadeusz Kosciuszko Military
Academy of Land Forces 165(3):289−302
Development of Auxiliary Gas Protection
During Laser Cladding on the Axisymmetric
Ti6Al4V Component
Przemysław Radkiewicz, Piotr Koruba(&), and Jacek Reiner

piotr.koruba@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The paper presents results of simulation based study of auxiliary

shielding nozzle in the laser cladding process. The thermal surface treatment of
titanium aviation components requires high purity around cladding area otherwise
undesirable hard phases in material will occur. To understand and optimize the gas
shielding, especially for non-flat surfaces, a CFD simulation model in COMSOL
multiphysics was developed. Computations of fluid flow and gas diffusion were
evaluated for different nozzle constructions. A prototype of the optimized clamping
shielding nozzle was experimentally verified and proved better surface properties.
Keywords: Laser cladding Composite coating Multiphysics simulation

Auxiliary shielding
1 Introduction
Titanium and its alloys are highly desired and valued materials, especially in the
aircraft industry [1, 2], due to their mechanical properties. High specific strength,
resistance to corrosion and fatigue [3] make them very beneficial in use instead of steel
and other alloys in many applications. However titanium surfaces are susceptible to
abrasive wear, therefore to improve their tribological properties, a special surface
treatment is needed [4, 5]. One of currently being implemented surface heat treatment
technologies is laser cladding (LC) [6, 7]. This technology enables deposition of
reinforced, wear-resistant coatings that may increase abrasive resistance [8–10].
Notwithstanding this, during thermal treatment of titanium alloys, due to high material
reactivity with ambient gases in temperatures above 300 °C, the ambience purity is
mandatory. Especially in the case of aviation, thin-walled elements, where the heat
capacity is relatively limited. Furthermore, continuous heat delivery by the laser beam
prolongs the cooling process due to the comparatively low thermal conductivity of
titanium. Therefore the reactivity with nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen contamination
have to be strictly controlled in order to its high influence on ductility [11]. Fragile
phases like TiN can cause material chipping and destruction of responsible elements.
To provide demanded ambience purity of the melting and surrounding area the process
requires special process chambers providing vacuum conditions or at least effective
shielding systems with inert gases such as argon [12].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_68
592 P. Radkiewicz et al.
Performed laser cladding experiments, carried out on axially symmetrical elements

with the use of auxiliary shielding nozzles have shown that obtained surfaces were
substantially chemically contaminated, therefore an improvement of the shielding
system was necessary. Since a complex study about shielding gas distribution and
ambience composition by experimental methods is highly difficult a CAE approach –
CFD simulation was proposed.
This paper presents a results of numerical simulation in COMSOL of shielding
nozzle. The initial study was initiated with available auxiliary clamping nozzle, which
constituted as a reference for optimized construction. The performed computations
includes numerical simulations of fluid flow [13] and concentration of inert gas among
a crucial area of melting pool. The developed shielding nozzle was verified by
experimental laser cladding process, which proved its better effectiveness.

2.1 Experimental Setup for Laser Cladding
During the laser cladding process, a laser beam is directed to the base material surface,
which melts under its affection and provides a melt pool. There, a portion of additive
material in form of powder is being injected and mixed with the substrate, providing
extra material volume. In this case, the process was performed on the axisymmetric
element (Fig. 1a) which is a part of plane landing gear assembly. The substrate material
is Ti6Al4V alloy and the externally cladded surface was a 34 mm diameter cylinder,
approximately 200 mm long. The additional materials used in the process have to
ensure the increase of wear-resistance, while maintaining the corrosion resistance
demand. Therefore, the powder mixture, consisted of Ti6Al4V powder (matrix) and
tungsten carbide WSC powder (reinforcement) was developed. Figure 1b gives an
overview of the performed technology. In order to provide continuous, airtight,
Fig. 1. The geometry of processed axisymmetric element (a) and sketch of laser cladding
process
Development of Auxiliary Gas Protection During Laser Cladding 593
uniform deposition of the surface, rotation of the element and linear movement of the
laser head results with spiral trajectory of cladding process was applied.
Coating deposition was performed using laser cladding system which consisted of
the robotic arm Reis RV60–40 with supplementary turntable RDK05, 4 kW HPDL
laser unit Laserline 4000–30, powder feeder GTV H-PF2/2 and shielding gas (argon)
flow controller Vögtlin GSC-C9SA. The process parameters are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Laser cladding of Ti6Al4V component process parameters

Pl h (mm) mT mC xe vh Vs Vt
(W) (g/min) (g/min) (rev/min) (mm/rev) (l/min) (l/min)
550 7 2.16 3.92 11.2 0.75 40 2
PL – laser power, h – distance between cladding nozzle and the substrate, mT – Ti6Al4V powder
feed rate, mC – WSC reinforcement powder feed rate, xe – angular velocity of the element, vh –
linear velocity of laser head, Vs – shielding gas (argon) volumetric flow rate, Vt – transporting
gas (argon) volumetric flow rate.
2.2 Experimental Analysis of Reference Nozzles

To reduce coating oxidation, an auxiliary shielding system with argon was applied.
Study on an optimal auxiliary shielding system started with preliminary analysis of
commercially available shielding nozzles (reference nozzle): flat jet nozzle with 16
outlets (Fig. 2a) in two different positions and curved, fitted for cylindrical elements
(Fig. 2b). Flow rate of shielding gas was at the same level in all of the aforementioned
solutions.
Fig. 2. Shielding nozzles used in preliminary tests mounted on a cladding head: (a) flat jet
nozzle, (b) clamping nozzle for cylindrical elements
There were four coatings deposited, each one for different type of shielding. All
were checked for eventual defects and initially evaluated for nitrogen contamination
(Fig. 4) by visual and chemical composition testing. Based on the fact that commercial
nozzle protection occurred to be most efficient but still unsatisfying, research on the
optimal shape of nozzle fitted to the element was conducted.
Fig. 3. Obtained surfaces after LC: (a) with no auxiliary shielding nozzle, (b) flat jet nozzle
positioned radially, (c) axially and (d) with clamping shielding nozzle
Although the LC parameters and default powder nozzle shielding provided good
properties of the crack-free clad on Ti6Al4V plates, the results on cylindrical substrates
were unacceptable. It resulted from different shielding gas distribution and therefore
insufficient protection in the case of cylindrical, thin-walled substrate. The deposited
coating had gold discolorations that informed about TiN phase presence in the com-
position of the coating, which was confirmed by material and chemical evaluations.
Although it is impossible to observe the mechanism of shielding formation in real
process, the virtualization and simulation was proposed for its understanding and
analysis for optimization.
3 Simulations
In order to perform numerical simulations on CAD model, COMSOL Multiphysics

software was selected. It enables modelling of many physical phenomena (e.g. solid
mechanics, heat transfer, fluid flow, chemical reactions, optics, dynamics or electro-
dynamics) as well as interactions between them by using multiphysics interfaces. In the
first stage of modelling, a 3D CAD model of the clamping shielding nozzle was
developed. Then appropriate physics interfaces within the software were selected and
assigned for specific domains of the model. Subsequently, parameterized input data has
been assigned to the corresponding boundaries (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Simulated air volume: (a) localization and (b) simulation model
In the simulation study, fluid dynamics issues were solved with CFD module with
Turbulent Flow interface based on solving Navier-Stokes equation (1), whereas the
diffusion of argon in the ambient air was calculated with Transport of Concentrated
Species interface. In the case of turbulent flow a k-e RANS model was used and for
diffusion a Mixture-averaged model was employed.
@u
q þ qðu rÞu ¼ r ½pl þ ðl þ lT Þ ru þ ðruÞT þ F þ qg ð1Þ
@t
Simultaneously with the velocity field, gases diffusion was determined based on mass
transport equation for every individual species (2).
@xi
q þ r ji þ qðu rÞxi ¼ Ri ð2Þ
@t
The simulation model used reacting flow multiphysics which combine both inter-
faces by feedback. Coefficients and constrains applied in the simulation as initial
conditions are presented in Table 2.
After describing physics of the model virtual elements were transferred into a Finite
Table 2. Coefficients and constrains used in simulation

qAr (kg/m ) µAr (Pa*s) u1 (m/s) u2 (m/s) xAr (%) D (m2/s) MAr (g/mol) MAir (g/mol)
3
1.66 1.815E-5 1.8 0.8 99 1.65E-5 39.948 28.964

qAr – density of argon, µAr - dynamic viscosity of argon, u1 - initial velocity for curved nozzle,
u2 - initial velocity for fitted nozzle, xAr - argon mass fraction on inlet, D - diffusion coefficient
of argon in air, MAr - argon molar mass, MAir - air molar mass.
Element Model and a time-dependent study was undertaken.
In this paper, only the simulation of optimized shielding nozzle geometry was shown to
focus on the final goal. Geometry optimization was performed based on results from
simulation of reference clamping nozzle shielding gas flow characteristics. A comparison
between the developed nozzle and a reference one was shown to identify the improvement.
Fig. 5. Velocity and streamlines of the gas: (a) reference nozzle, (b) developed nozzle
Comparison of both shielding system solutions was made starting with analyzing
stream speed and velocity distribution (Fig. 5). The velocity of gas near the wall differs
considerably. In the trailing shield case, due to its side-closed area and high velocity,
turbulence is created which can draw the air from the ambience to the crucial zone.
More stream lines leaves the critical area just behind the nozzle in axial direction and
form a very narrow stream. In comparison, stream lines in optimized geometry volume
are arranged in a more slight way and overflows the wall in laminar regime. Shielding
gas streams leave the crucial area mostly on the opposite side providing good cover on
the wall. Behind the nozzle, outflow stream is much wider which can be important for
cooling the surface.
Fig. 6. Argon concentration: (a) reference nozzle, (b) developed nozzle
Diffusion data gives more insight into shielding efficiency. Figure 6 presents a
fraction of argon content in the critical area. To make the figures more clear and gain
information about the distribution of shielding gas, surfaces for defined concertation
levels are shown. In case, optimized nozzle side protection is sufficient and larger
amount of shielding gas overflows the element. The second nozzle has a wider area of
high argon concentration but the protection ends just behind the closed area. To
evaluate the specified data about mass fractions results of argon contamination on the
measuring line were extracted. A more in depth analysis was shown on a plot in Fig. 7
that presents data of shielding gas content in the mixture of argon and air on the
measuring line (Fig. 4).
Fig. 7. Percentage of argon fraction on the measuring line

For verification of the simulation study, a prototype of the optimized clamping

shielding nozzle was manufactured. Subsequently, series of laser cladding experiments
were performed (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Optimized shielding system in use (a) and surface deposited with its use (b)
Obtained cladded surfaces had better and acceptable quality which confirmed
shielding efficiency increases comparing to coatings received with previous shielding
systems (Fig. 3).
Thanks to CAE approach - simulation methods, it was possible to better understand and
quantitatively evaluate the shielding process of laser cladding, since analysis of gas
flow and diffusion is impossible by experiments. Simulating the diffusion of second
phase enhanced capabilities of analyzing the results due to mutual complementation of
flow streamlines and argon concentration levels. Simulation data corresponding with a
laser cladding process give results which show not only the utility of the method but
also value for expanding the research. As a further continuation of the study, a heat
transfer can be added. Furthermore, an automatic optimization of the geometry can be
established due to prior parametrization of the model.
Acknowledgements. Financial support from below grants is gratefully acknowledged: NCBiR,

INNOLOT, AMpHOra—Additive Manufacturing Processes and Hybrid Operations Research for
Innovative Aircraft Technology Development, I/6/NCBR/2013 and Wrocław University of
Science and Technology statutory grant.
References
1. Campbell FC (2008) Manufacturing technology for aerospace structural materials, 1. ed.,
Aerospace engineering, materials science. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Heidelberg
2. Koruba P, Jurewicz P, Reiner J et al (2017) Ultra-High Speed Laser Cladding (UHSLC)
technology for Stellite 6 functional coatings deposition in aviation industry. Przegląd
Spawalnictwa 89
3. Blau PJ (1991) ASM metals handbook v.2 Properties and selection - nonferrous alloys and
special-purpose materials, 10th ed. ASM International, Materials Park, OH
4. Dai ZD, Pan SC, Wang M et al (1997) Improving the fretting wear resistance of titanium
alloy by laser beam quenching. Wear 213(1–2):135–139
5. Bolelli G, Cannillo V, Lusvarghi L et al (2006) Mechanical and tribological properties of
electrolytic hard chrome and HVOF-sprayed coatings. Surf Coat Technol 200(9):2995–3009
6. Sienicki J, Dworak A, Koruba P et al (eds) (2017) Cold spraying and laser cladding in the
aircraft coating production as an alternative to harmful cadmium and chromium electro-
plating processes
7. Koruba P, Wall K, Reiner J (2018) Influence of processing gases in laser cladding based on
simulation analysis and experimental tests. In: Procedia CIRP: proceedings of 10th CIRP
conference on photonic technologies
8. Baraniecki T, Chlebus E, Dziatkiewicz M et al (2015) System for laser microsurfacing of
metal powders. Welding International 30
9. Farayibi PK (2014) Laser Cladding of Ti-6Al-4V with carbide and boride reinforcements
using wire and powder feedstock. Doctor of Philosophy, University of Nottingham
10. Al-Sayed Ali SR, Hussein AHA, Nofal AAMS et al (2017) Laser powder cladding of Ti-
6Al-4 V a/b alloy. Materials (Basel) 10(10)
11. Li X, Xie J, Zhou Y (2005) Effects of oxygen contamination in the argon shielding gas in
laser welding of commercially pure titanium thin sheet. J Mater Sci 40(13):3437–3443
12. Li C, Li B, Wu Z et al (2017) Stitch welding of Ti–6Al–4 V titanium alloy by fiber laser.
Trans Nonferrous Metals Soc China 27(1):91–101
13. Górnicz T, Lewandowski T, Sałacki R et al (2017) Simulations of air flow around the blades
of a wind turbine rotor using CFD methods. In: Proceedings of the 13th international
scientific conference: computer aided engineering
Structural Analysis of Composite Scooter
Monocoque
Igor Rogacki(&), Eugeniusz Rusiński, and Marek Sawicki(&)

rogackiigor@gmail.com, {eugeniusz.rusinski,
sawicki.marek}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The subject of the analysis is the monocoque frame of a conceptual

compressed air - powered scooter. It is made out of epoxy-carbon composite.
The structural analysis of the structure is presented. Issues such as stack up of
fibers and composite-metal connections are described. Forces and load cases
provided by authors are performed in finite element analysis software.
Keywords: Composite Monocoque Scooter Structural analysis
1 Introduction
The subject of the analysis will be the frame of the conceptual scooter, made of epoxy-
carbon laminate (so called CFRP). The purpose of this project was to adapt it by the
‘Hydro+’ student science group, which creates compressed air – powered vehicles at
the Wroclaw University of Science and Technology. One of the tasks was to change the
method of powering the engine of a scooter from petrol to compressed air. The next
step is to modify the vehicle through changing its superstructure from steel to com-
posite in order to reduce its weight [1].
2 Monocoque FRP Frame
The developed frame has a monocoque structure, which means that there is no division
into supporting frame and external panels [2]. The shell of the scooter is its super-
structure, on which steering system, seat, drive system and suspension are installed. It
also holds a bottle with compressed air [3].
The largest component of the designed frame is the main body. In its front part, a
steering column is mounted with screws. The edge of the central part is high, it does not
fall to the level of the floorboard. It houses a bottle with compressed air and the
pneumatic equipment. The lateral surfaces have openings relieving the structure. In the
rear part there is a horizontal base designed for mounting the seat, while the vertical
surfaces have holes for mounting the swingarm with the motor and shock absorbers [4].
The side modules are glued to the body, which increase the rigidity of the whole
structure. Their individual fragments serve as floorboards, footrests and fenders.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_69
600 I. Rogacki et al.
Stiffness is ensured by a set of composite inserts placed transversely inside the

body, in areas of the highest stress. One of them is in the front part of the vehicle and
the steering column is screwed to it. Another three reinforce the driver’s seat.
The frame has been designed in such a way that not only stiffness and durability,
but also functionality are appropriate. The dimensions of the structure ensure a com-
fortable position for a person with a height of 1.9 m [5] (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Frame of the Pneumatic scooter
Monocoque structure allows to significantly simplify the construction and reduce

the number of single components. One element replaces many other, forming both the
supporting structure and the panels that cover the vehicle.
The frame shape is advantageous for the purpose of lamination. It consists sepa-
rately manufactured components, joined together by gluing. Most of them – including
the largest and most complicated – can be laminated in many ways, for example by the
infusion method (Resin Transfer to Mould method). These processes do not require the
use of advanced equipment and can be carried out even in moderately equipped
workshops [6].
Obviously some difficulties may occur during the design, production and operation
of this type of frame [7]. Preliminary FEM simulation the entire monocoque, which is
treated as one object, will not consider glued joints, which can have different properties
than the original laminate. Beside that, the holes cut in a laminate (e.g. relieving the
structure) disturb the calculations through distorting the shape of finite elements in their
vicinity. Moreover, laminates have very limited stiffness and are sensitive to bending
perpendicular (normal) to their surface. If the scooter had flat – characteristic for this
kind of vehicles – floorboard, there would be a risk of bending or breaking the frame.
However, due to the fact that a space for a bottle with compressed air is provided
inside, it has a high central tunnel. The side effect of such solution is – very advan-
tageous – increasing the stiffness of the entire structure and its bending strength [8, 9].
Structural Analysis of Composite Scooter Monocoque 601
3 Composite – Metal Connection
Composites has low capabilities in carrying concentrated forces and technology pro-
cess cannot provide enough accuracy in dimension tolerance and positioning interface
surfaces for bearing elements such as sleeves, bearings etc. It should be mentioned that
in opposite to metal structures FRPs materials should not be milled or turned precisely.
It may cause surface cracks which may lead to future failure. This solution should be
replaced by different solutions. Multiple approaches are used to improve area of
connection between metal and composite parts. The most common is gluing. For
composite – metal gluing surfaces two major group adhesives should be mentioned:
epoxy and metacryl adhesive systems. Both of this system is chemical setting. Metacryl
adhesive systems can carry around 25 MPa shear stress. For this systems in opposite to
most of adhesive systems the minimum thickness of cohesive films should be at least
0.25 mm. Moreover, additional press is not required and is introduced usually only for
ensure full penetration of glue around gluing area. For epoxy systems various manu-
facturers provide wide range of parameters [10].
It should be noted that due to difference in thermal expansion of glued materials,
cured adhesive suffer high strain which leads to failure. Amplitude of temperature
which scooter may suffer should be considered the same as for most of devices:
−40 °C − +125 °C. Thus for aluminum – UD carbon composite connection it gives:
e ¼ aDT ð1Þ
eAlu 6061 ¼ 0:39%
eUD CFRP ¼ 0:016%
Manufacturers sometimes provides mode of failure between cohesive film and

glued material. In most of cases for metal – cohesive pair dominant mode of failure is
cohesive in opposite to composite – cohesive pair where dominant mode of failure is
composite surface [11] (Table 1).
Table 1. Thermal expansion coefficient for considered materials

Thermal expansion coefficient – a [10−6/K]
S355 Aluminum CFRP (Fiber CFRP (traverse - fiber G10 – quasi
steel 6061 direction) direction) isotropic
12.0 23.6 −1 26 13
4 Selection and Characteristics of the Laminate
The most important criteria adopted when choosing a material for this case are high
strength and low weight. A composite which meets these criteria is an epoxy-carbon
laminate. The carbon fiber has high tensile strength and low density. In turn, the
thermosetting epoxy resin infiltrates well the reinforcement, adheres to the fiber surface
and is characterized by high hardness and durability. It effectively transfers external
loads to fibers and between fibers. It also determines the shape of the element that does
not change permanently under the influence of applied loads or temperature [12].
Laminates are orthotropic materials - their mechanical strength and stiffness are
strongly associated with the formation and direction of the fibers. For strength calcu-
lations it is usually assumed that reinforcement mainly transfers tensile and compres-
sive forces. Therefore the fibers should be stacked parallelly to the direction of the
tensile and compressive forces affecting the element. To achieve this, it is advantageous
to use reinforcement in the form of a fabric instead of a mat in which the fibers are
arranged chaotically.
Structures that are designed taking into account these properties are optimized for
higher strength and lower mass than those made of homogeneous materials. In addi-
tion, CFRPs meets additional requirements connected with high resistance to weather
conditions, dirt, chemicals, as well as significant surface hardness. However, while
designing composite elements, testing methods are still used because the results of
theoretical predictions and calculations often may vary from reality.
Table 2. Material properties used in simulation

UD CFRP [0°] CFRP Fabric [0°/90°]
q [kg/m3] 1600 1600
E1 [GPa] 135 70
E2 [GPa] 10 70
E3 [GPa] 10 10
m12 0.25 0.1
m13 0.25 0.1
m23 0.4 0.4
G12 [GPa] 5 5
G13 [GPa] 5 2
G23 [GPa] 1 2
Table 3. Material strength properties for failure hypothesis

UD CFRP [0°] CFRP Fabric [0°/90°]
XT1 [MPa] 1100 XC1 [MPa] 800 XT1 [MPa] 600 XC1 [MPa] 570
XT2 [MPa] 50 XC2 [MPa] 100 T
X2 [MPa] 600 XC2 [MPa] 570
T
X3 [MPa] 50 XC3 [MPa] 100 T
X3 [MPa] 50 C
X3 [MPa] 100
X12 [MPa] 45 X12 [MPa] 45
X13 [MPa] 45 X13 [MPa] 90
X23 [MPa] 90 X23 [MPa] 90
Tsai-Wu coef. −0.0000075378 Tsai-Wu coef. −0.0000014619
5 Geometric and Digital Models
The vehicle frame consists of two types of reinforcement: unidirectional carbon fiber
and a fabric with a regular weave at 0 and 90°. Their mechanical properties are
presented in the Table 2 and 3:
These material properties are necessary during the simulation for designate
deformation of a monocoque, stress state and IRF – Inversed Reserve Factor [13].
Fig. 2. Visualization of the laminate structure

Table 4. Description of the stack-up sections

Color Reinforcement Number of layers/thickness
Orange Carbon fiber fabric 0°/90° 2/0.4 mm
Red Carbon fiber fabric 0°/90° 4/0.8 mm
Turquoise Carbon fiber fabric 0°/90° 8/1.6 mm
Fuchsia Carbon fiber fabric 0°/90° 12/2.4 mm
Green Carbon fiber fabric 0°/90° 16/3.2 mm
Yellow Carbon fiber fabric 0°/90° 20/4 mm
Brown Unidirectional carbon fiber 0° 12/2.4 mm
Before digitizing the model, a set of Layups must be created. Layup is a compo-
sition of laminate layers, determining their number, mutual position, material and
thickness
The continuous model is discretized by applying mesh collectors. They assign
appropriate Layups (including fiber directivity) and finite elements mesh to specific
areas. For surfaces with non-complex shapes, it is preferable to use lower-order ele-
ments (triangular or quadrangular) (Fig. 2).
Fig. 3. The direction of the reinforcement fibers in the rear area of the frame
The areas of occurrence of individual layups are visualized above. The meaning of
each color explains the Table 2. The yellow area is the surface of gluing the body with
side modules. The thickness of the layers belonging to both joined elements add up
there. The stack-up section that forms the main body consists of 16 layers in this area
and has a thickness of 3.2 mm. In turn, the side modules have a thickness of 0.8 mm on
the cooperating surface (Table 4).
When assigning a mesh collector to a given surface, the main direction of the
reinforcement fiber must be declared. It is set according to the expected direction of the
Maximum Primary In-Plane Stress (Fig. 3).
Because of scooter monocoque is only point of concern other necessary features are
generated rigid beam elements. In this way, a steering column and a swingarm with a
shock absorber were added.
Aim of analysis is to check design in order to carrying service loads and resistance
for unexpected, dynamic loads. The destruction begins at the microscopic level, and the
initiating damage can develop within the fibers, matrix or layers. Propagation of defects
may lead to catastrophic destruction. Due to the orthotropic nature of composites, safe
stress values cannot be calculated using the theories appropriate for homogeneous
materials. The orientation of the fibers in adjacent layers can be different, thus the
strength and stiffness in specific directions may vary depending on the considered
lamina.
Therefore, two basic methods of analysis are used: the First Ply Failure method
assumes that the composite is destroyed when at least one of its layers is damaged. In
turn, the Last Ply Failure method consists in eliminating successively damaged layers
up to the use of last layer strength. Although there are many stress criteria for ortho-
tropic materials, there is no universal method for each case, nor very accurate - that
provides results equal to values read from empirical studies. In practice, the Maximum
Stress, Tsai-Hill and Tsai-Wu Criteria are often used.
6 Calculations Using the Finite Elements Method
After creating a discrete model, simulations should be performed for the various load
cases that the vehicle can undergo during operation. For each case, a proper system of
constraints should be created. Forces should be applied in points or areas on which they
operate and their correct value and direction must be provided. These forces simulate
behavior of a bottle with compressed air, a scooter monocoque and a driver interface
etc. For the entire system the acceleration resulting from gravity or breaking must also
be determined [14].
Fig. 4. Forces acting on the frame

One of such extreme cases is the situation in which the driver stands while driving
on one leg (concentrates all the mass on one side of the vehicle), and the rear wheel hits
the crosswise unevenness in the road. The simulation must show how the frame will
perform, being subjected to a strongly asymmetrical set of forces [15].
It has been assumed that hitting the obstacle will cause temporary acceleration of -
3 g towards X and +3 g towards Z. The vehicle was constrained in such a way that it
can behave naturally under the influence of the applied forces [16] (Table 5).
Table 5. Description of constraints

Constraint Blocked Spot
motion
Fix 1 Translation Connection between the steering column and the front wheel
XYZ axle
Rotation XYZ
Fix 2 Translation YZ Connection between the swing arm and the shock absorber
All forces have been selected to simulate (Fig. 4) how the equipment and the driver
affect the frame in described conditions. In addition, the force of gravity was applied to
the entire body (Table 6).
Table 6. Description of forces

Force Direction Value Source
Force 1 X 3600 N Driver
Z −3600 N
Force 2 X 528 N Bottle
Force 3 Z −528 N Bottle
Force 4 X 132 N Bottle
Z −132 N Bottle
Force 5 X −3000 N Entire structure
Force 6 X −3000 N Entire structure
Force 7 Z 3000 N Entire structure
Force 8 Z 3000 N Entire structure
It was assumed that for this case these are the highest achievable force values and
the scooter frame cannot be damaged under their influence.
Fig. 5. Frame deformation
Observation of deformation (Fig. 5) allows to indicate maximum displacement. It is

necessary for ensure meet stiffness criteria. In turn, undistorted areas should be opti-
mized in order to reduce weight.
Due to the fact that the frame is made of laminate, stresses cannot be averaged over
the entire cross-section and must be considered separately for each layer. During the
analysis, the destruction of the laminate should be considered both as a result of fiber
failure and delamination. Using one of the failure criteria (Tsai-Wu in this case), it
Fig. 6. Rear shock absorber mounting - fiber destruction coefficient

calculates the stresses in the structure and shows the value of the fiber failure coefficient
and the delamination coefficient for each layer. The factor determining the fiber
strength must be in the range from −1 for compressive stress to +1 for tensile stress, for
the delamination coefficient - from 0 to 1. Exceeding the limit values means that
damage of the laminate may occur [17].
One of the areas in where the highest stress appears is the mounting of the rear
shock absorber (Fig. 6).
The most exposed to this destruction are the outer layers of fibers. For the first ply,
the value of the failure coefficient is about 0.3, while for the last one (20th) - about 0.4.
The closer to the center, the lower the stress is: between 7th and 14th layer, the value of
fiber failure coefficient is lower than 0.1. The largest (0.4) value of the coefficient
indicates that in this part of the frame the reinforcement has sufficient strength and in
the conditions for which the simulation was carried out, it should not break.
Fig. 7. Rear shock absorber mounting - delamination coefficient
The lack of symmetry in the load of the first and last layers results from the
asymmetrical loading of the vehicle. Macroscopically it results in deformation of the
entire frame, but also causes differences in the values of forces affecting two sides of
the laminate within one examined area.
The highest stresses that can cause delamination occur in the inner layers and
symmetrically decrease towards the outer layers. Between 1st and 2nd and also 19th
and 20th lamina they reach a value of about 0.15. The maximum delamination coef-
ficient achieved between the 10th and 11th layers is 0.92 (Fig. 7), which can be
considered as already high value, though still within the scope of safety [18].
Such high stresses in the laminate may be caused by inaccurate design of the
model. In fact, the shock absorber does not connect directly to the laminate, but to the
metal insert in the hole. Its use would certainly reduce the stresses occurring in this
area. More accurate results could also be achieved by modeling the shock absorber and
swingarm in the form in which they actually are or create of sub model this area with
more detail approach. In this case, they were replaced with rigid, one-dimensional
beams.
After simulating all possible load variants, the structure has possibility for next
iteration of optimization, by cutting out or reducing the thickness of the low-load areas,
in order to reduce the weight of the entire structure [19].
7 Conclusions
In many applications CFRPs, if it is possible, can replace homogenous materials, in

view of particular good strength-to-weight ratios. An example of an application is the
monocoque of a pneumatic scooter. Made of CFRPs is a light and durable structure,
characterized by simple construction that can be produced without the use of advanced
equipment.
However, the orthotropic properties, it is a bit more difficult (compared to a
homogeneous material) for design process, perform structural analysis of such a
structure.
The process of creating elements made of laminates is simplified by the software
allowing for a fairly precise calculation of stresses in individual layers. By carrying out
a series of analyzes and considering various cases of structural load, authors get a broad
view of how a structure transfers the loads for each load case. On this basis, a both safe
and well-optimized structure can be developed.
Results of structural analysis performed in Finite Element Method software envi-
ronment are valid only for ideal model. Real monocoque has numerous flaws, non-
continuity and manufacture defects. It requires to perform real test of final version of
monocoque. It is recommended to perform test with parallel boundary condition to
numerical calculation and compare the results. If results out of real test vary signifi-
cantly from results from FEM results, more detail model is needed and materials
properties should be designated for particular material.
References
1. Dobrzański LA (2002) Podstawy nauki o materiałach i metaloznawstwo: materiały
inżynierskie z podstawami projektowania materiałowego. Wydawnictwa Naukowo-
Techniczne
2. Airale A. Carello M, Scattina A (2011) Carbon fiber monocoque for a hydrogen prototype
for low consumption challenge. Materialwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnik, 42(5): 386–392
3. Trucker N, Lindsey K (2002) An introduction to automotive composites. Rapra technology
limited, UK
4. US4613146A, 1984-05-03, SHARP T. M., STEPHAN D. C., Monocoque bicycle frame
5. Scooter monocoque: https://www.vaneko.com/, stan na dzień: 20.04.2018
6. Gurdal Z et al (1999) Design and optimisation of laminated composite materials. Wiley
7. Jones RM (1999) Mechanics of composite materials. Taylor & Francis
8. Vasiliev V, Morozov E (2001) Mechanics and analysis of composite materials, Elsevier
9. Voyiadjis GZ, Kattan PI (2005) Mechanics of composite materials with MATLAB. Springer
10. Hinton PD, Hinton MJ, Kaddour AS (1998) Lamina properties, lay-up configurations and
loading conditions for a range of fiber-reinforced composite laminates. Composit Sci
Technol 58:1011–1022
11. Wessel JK (2004) Handbook of advanced materials: enabling new designs. Wiley
12. Hexcel, Pre-preg Technology. https://www.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/mavt/
design-materials-fabrication/composite-materials-dam/Education/Manufacturing_of_
Polymer_Composites/FS2017/Prepreg_Technology.pdf, stan na dzień: 20.04.2018
13. Knops M (2008) Analysis of failure in fiber polymer laminates, Springer
14. Homewood RH, Brine AC, Johnson AE Jr (1961) Experimental investigation of the
buckling instability of monocoque shells. Exp Mech 1(3):88–96
15. Zienkiewicz OC et al (1977) The finite element method. McGraw-hill, London
17. Deuschle HM (2010) 3D failure analysis of UD fibre reinforced composites: Puck’s Theory
within FEA, Institute of Statics and Dynamics of Aerospace Structures, Universität Stuttgart
18. Altair University, Practical Aspects of Finite Element Simulation, e-book, https://
altairuniversity.com/free-ebooks-2/free-ebook-practical-aspects-of-finite-element-
simulation-a-study-guide/, stan na dzień: 20.04.2018
19. Rusinski E (1990) Mikrokomputerowa analiza ram i nadwozi pojazdów i maszyn roboczych.
Warszawa: Wyd. komunikacji i łączności
Analysis of Material Properties Base on Fluid
Structure Interaction Simulation
Robert Roszak1,2(&), Daniela Schob1, Holger Sparr1,

and Matthias Ziegenhorn1
1
Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Senftenberg,
Germany
Robert.Roszak@b-tu.de
2
Poznan University of Technology, Poznań, Poland
Abstract. Paper presents results of dynamic FSI simulation of unmanned aerial

vehicle, where for first case, a typical linear material was used, and for second
case, a composite material was used. The simulations were performed with the
objective of studying model reaction with forces indicated by flow which were
defined by initial conditions. Secondary objective was to evaluate critical flutter
speed. Simulations provided interesting results: for linear case, applied flow
speed resulted with occurrence of flutter phenomena, while composite case
exhibited damping of vibration in designated points along the wing. Presented
simulations were performed within an environment using loosely-coupled
approach. CFD simulations were carried out with use of parallel code DLR-Tau.
FSI computations were executed with applied modal approach for structural
model and full data exchange between fluid and structure as well as mesh
deformation.
1 Introduction
This paper is concerned with fluid-structure coupling, taking into account the com-
posite material of structural models. This phenomenon has important influence in many
aeronautical applications. The presented examples include structures with composite
material applied to a model of unmanned aerial vehicle. Paper presents results of
dynamic FSI simulation of unmanned aerial vehicle, where for first case, a typical
linear material was used, and for second case, a composite material was used. The
simulations were performed with the objective of studying model reaction with forces
indicated by flow defined by initial conditions. Secondary objective was to evaluate
critical flutter speed. Simulations provided interesting results: for linear case, applied
flow speed resulted with occurrence of flutter phenomena, while composite case
exhibited damping of vibration in designated points along the wing. Furthermore
composite case revealed high frequency vibrations on the shape of the wing. This
phenomenon, even thought it can be omitted for flutter investigation, it can lead to
progressive changes in internal structure of composite material, as presented in [2, 3]
present influence of cyclic changes of loads on material properties. Temperature
increase, which leads to changes of properties in material structure and later to damage
and failure. Simulation results reveal that for composite material models, it is very

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_70
612 R. Roszak et al.
important to not only look at basic phenomena like flutter but also structure reaction in
its full range of frequencies. Obtained results, combined with papers researching
material structure of composite materials show that, compared to linear materials, there
can be other criteria of failure for composite materials. Presented simulations were
performed within an environment using loosely-coupled approach. CFD simulations
were carried out with use of parallel code DLR-Tau. FSI computations were executed
with applied modal approach for structural model and full data exchange between fluid
and structure as well as mesh deformation.
2 Computational Aeroelastic Model
Computational aeroelasticity can be classified broadly under three major categories:

fully coupled, closely coupled, and loosely coupled analyses. Before looking at the
various CAE models in detail, it is useful to look at the generalized equations of motion
[4] to explain CAE methodologies better [1].
½M f€qðtÞg þ ½C fq_ ðtÞg þ ½K fqðtÞg ¼ fF ðtÞg ð1Þ

XN
fwðx; y; z; tÞg ¼ i¼1
qi ðtÞf;i ðx; y; zÞg ð2Þ
Here, fwðx; y; z; tÞg is the structural displacement at any time instant and position
and fqðtÞg is the generalized displacement vector. The matrices ½M ; ½C ; ½K are the
generalized mass, damping, and stiffness matrices; respectively and ;i are the normal
modes of the structure, with N being the total number of modes of the structure. The
term on the right-hand side of Eq. (1), fF ðtÞg; is the generalized force vector, which is
responsible for linking the unsteady aerodynamics and inertial loads with the structural
dynamics. Equation (1) shows that there are distinct terms representg the structures,
aerodynamics, and dynamics disciplines. This gives us the flexibility in choosing
different methods for any particular system. For example, linear structural models can
be coupled with a 3-D unsteady RANS model, to develop a CAE model without
actually changing the overall formulation of the equations of motion. Some of these
models are discussed next. Aeroelastic calculation algorithm used in this work is based
on modal approach. The equation of motion of the structure, given by Eq. (3), where R
(t) is a vector containing the aerodynamic forces associated with aerodynamic loads;
and {q(t)}, fq_ ðtÞg, and f€qðtÞg are the displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors of
the finite element assembly [1],
½M f€qðtÞg þ ½C fq_ ðtÞg þ ½K fqðtÞg ¼ fRðtÞg ð3Þ
can be solved using modal approach by composing the solution with the eigenvectors
of the vibration problem. The displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors can be
transformed to generalized vectors using a transformation matrix, as shown below [1].
Analysis of Material Properties Base on Fluid Structure 613

fqðtÞg ¼ ½UfZ ðtÞg; fq_ ðtÞg ¼ ½U Z_ ðtÞ ; f€
qðtÞg ¼ ½U Z€ ðtÞ ð4Þ
Here, ½U is the modal matrix containing the eigenvectors, orthonormalized with the

mass matrix and fZ ðtÞg, Z_ ðtÞ , and Z€ ðtÞ are the generalized displacement, velocity
and acceleration vectors, respectively. The eigenvectors are orthogonal to both mass
and stiffness matrices and if Rayleigh damping is assumed, it is also orthogonal to the
damping matrix. Pre-multiplying Eq. (3) by ½UT , we get

Z€ ðtÞ þ ½UT ½C½U Z_ ðtÞ þ X2 fZ ðtÞg ¼ ½UT fRðtÞg ð5Þ
where

½UT ½K ½U ¼ X2 ; ½UT ½M ½U ¼ 1: ð6Þ
The initial conditions on fZ ðtÞg are obtained using Eq. (4) at time 0, as follows
Z0 ¼ ½UT ½M q0 ;
ð7Þ
Z_ 0 ¼ ½UT ½M q_ 0 ;
Equation (5) can be written as n individual equations, one for each mode, as
follows

€zi ðtÞ þ 2ni xi€zi ðtÞ þ x2i zi ðtÞ ¼ ri ðtÞ
i ¼ 1; 2; . . .. . .:; n ð8Þ
ri ðtÞ ¼ UTi fRðtÞg
with initial condition
xi jt¼0 ¼ ½UTi ½M q0

ð9Þ
x_ i jt¼0 ¼ ½UTi ½M q_ 0 :
Here xi is the natural frequency for the ith mode and ni is the corresponding
damping parameter for that mode. The solution to the above equation can be obtained
for each mode using direct integration algorithms, which will be discussed next.
There are several ways to integrate the modal equations of motion given by Eq. (8).
The schemes range from explicit central difference schemes to implicit schemes such as
the Houbolt, Wilson-y and Newmark methods [1, 5]. Two major criteria decide in
choosing the appropriate scheme for time integration: stability and accuracy. The
explicit scheme was found to be conditionally stable is limited by the choice of time
step size [1, 6]. Hence, one may be forced to perform iterations of the structure solver
to synchronize with the time step of the implicit flow solver. Due to this reason, the
focus will be on implicit time integration schemes, which are unconditionally stable. In
terms of accuracy issues, both period elongation as well as amplitude decay were
observed with both the Houbolt scheme and the Wilsony scheme for a small time step
size [1, 5]. However, for the Newmark scheme, only period elongation was observed
for a small time step size and the percentage of period elongation observed was found
to be the least among implicit schemes [1, 5]. It has been proven that Newmark method
performs best for Dt/T < 0.01, where T is the time period of vibrations and hence time
step size must be chosen appropriately to obtain best accuracy. All these factors lead to
choosing the Newmark scheme as the time integration scheme for the structural
equations of motion [7]. A brief description of the Newmark scheme is given next. The
modal equation of motion, Eq. (8), written at a time t + Dt, reads as follows
€zt þ Dt þ 2nx€zt þ Dt þ x2 zt þ Dt ¼ rt þ Dt ð10Þ
In the above expression, n, x and rt þ Dt are known beforehand. The task is to

evaluate the displacement, velocity and acceleration at the time t + Dt. The following
expressions for velocity and displacement are formulated at time t + Dt first as a
function of acceleration at t + Dt and displacement, velocity and acceleration from
previous time level t.
z_ t þ Dt ¼ z_ t þ ½ð1 dÞ€zt þ d€zt þ Dt Dt2 ð11Þ

1
zt þ Dt ¼ zt þ z_ t Dt þ a €zt þ a€zt þ Dt Dr 2 ð12Þ
2
where, a and d are parameters that are chosen based on desired stability and accuracy.
For the Newmark scheme to be unconditionally stable, values of 0.25 and 0.5 are
chosen for a and d, respectively. Equations (11) and (12) are substituted back into
Eq. (10) to evaluate €zt þ Dt and then Eqs. (11) and (12) are used to evaluate z_ t þ Dt and
zt þ Dt . The technical aspect of FSI Description can found at [8].
3 Validation of FSI System
Presented FSI system has been tested on selected examples of air constructions and
compared with experiment. The Algorithm of experimental research has been based on
a research scheme known all over the world. It is a standard experimental research
scheme used to determine the critical speed of the flatter for the studied profile. Cal-
culations have been made for the same configuration as in the case of the experimental
studies. In the first stage of simulation, standard linear elements have been used. As a
result, displacement and the angle of rotation in the function of time for specified
boundary conditions have been obtained. Figure 1 - left shows an experimental model
of the wing profile NACA 0012 under examination together with its dimensions and
the spot of measuring displacement (along the Y axis) and the angle of rotation (against
the Z axis). In the experiment [10] a wind tunnel has been used with the height of 0.5
[m] and the width of 0.65 [m]. In the tunnel the examined profile (Fig. 1 right) has been
placed, whereas the mechanical system of suppression together with a measuring
apparatus has been outside the area of flow. Below the results of the research in the
form of displacement (along the Y axis) and the angle (against the Z axis) of rotation
(the point of control – Fig. 1 left) in the function of the first and the second stages of the
experiment are shown. In this paper [8] is an example of a test based on the profile
NACA 0012. The experiment was carried out in collaboration with the Institute of
Aviation in Warsaw [9].
Fig. 1. The ILOT experiment - the model of the wind tunnel together with the profile NACA
0012 under.
The final result of the experiment for a linear result was to determine the critical
speed of the flatter VF = 21.3 [m/s]. Displacement and the angle of rotation in the
function of time at the flatter’s critical speed is shown in Fig. 2. The history dis-
placement and rotation angle in time show the compatibility of displacement and
rotation obtained from the wind tunnel and using Fluid Structure Interaction system.
Fig. 2. The function of the profile’s displacement (the point of control) with the flatter’s critical
speed of VF = 21.3 [m/s], experiment – left [9], numerical calculation – right [8].
4 Aeroelastic Computations Base on Composite Material

of Structure
In this section, the computational procedure, including the computational setup, for
performing fluid–structure interaction computations will be discussed. The different
methodologies will be discussed by applying the methodology to predict the FSI
analysis for a three-dimensional full configuration UAV geometry base on composite
material. The UAV concept was adopted as a test case. The reduced weight and the use
of light materials for the construction are required from the UAV. A composite material
consisting of 5 layers of carbon laminate was used for the construction. The captured
concept consisted of a rigid fuselage and an empty wing (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. The UAV model: CAD Geometry left, structural model middle and CFD model right.
The drawing shows the CAD model of UAV (left), a structural surface model based
on Shell and Rigid (middle) elements and the generated hybrid CFD mesh (right). The
structural model is represented according to an earlier description by modal form and
eigenvector. The structural model was prepared and the modal analysis was carried out
using the Nastran system. Figure 4 shows the structural model (left) together with the
structure of the individual layers of the composite material (right).
Fig. 4. Structural model of UAV vehicle (left) and structure of the composite material layers
(right).
Table 1 presents selected values of modal analysis for UAV. The total number of
modal form representing the structural model was 20.
Table 1. Selected modal forms from modal analysis.

No. Eigenemode shape Mode type Eigenvalue [Hz]
1 Bending wings Symmetric 21
2 2-node bending wings Symmetric 29
3 Torsion of the wings Symmetric 30
4 Torsion of the wings Non-symmetric 39
5 Shape of the wing vibration Non-symmetric 40
Aeroelastic calculations were carried out for several inflow speeds along the main
axis. Values are 35, 40 and 45 [m/s] (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Measuring points of displacement and rotation angle.
The analysis was carried out by determining the displacement distribution and angle
of rotation for the UAV wing. In addition, due to the concept of the surface model, the
displacement on the surface of the wing was measured. The following initial conditions
were adopted: Vx = 40 [m/s] pressure and ambient temperature. P = 101300 [Pa],
T = 293[K]. Time step for CFD and structural calculations was taken Dt = 0.001 [s].
Fig. 6. Measuring points of displacement and rotation angle.
Analysing the sequence, displacement and the angle of rotation in the function of
time for the speed of 40 [m/s] one can assume. As a result of the calculations carried
out, it has been shown (Fig. 6) that the vibrations of the conceptual UAV wing made of
a composite material are damped. The case of the wing surface, vibrations of constant
amplitude but with higher frequency were observed. In the case of a composite material
as described in [2, 3] this may lead to a local rise in temperature and, as a consequence,
to damage. In this case, a more detailed analysis of the material description using the
Chaboche model [11] and the introduction of the GTN [12, 13] model should be
considered in order to accurately analyze the behavior of the material.
5 Conclusion
The paper presents preliminary analyses of composite material behaviour for the UAV
concept. During the analysis, it was shown that in the case of the design of such an
aircraft one should not only be careful about the flutter phenomena of the wings and
controls, but also on the shape. The shape of the wing vibrations are very similar to the
cyclic load. In this case, it is possible to have changes in the material structure, which
can lead to damage. According to the authors, the topic is developmental and will be
continued with specified material behaviour.
Acknowledgments. Thank you Resolv3D company for providing the CAD UAV vehicle
model.
References
1. Kamakoti R, Shyy W (2004) Fluid–structure interaction for aeroelastic applications. Prog
Aerosp Sci 40:535–558
2. Sparr H, Hausdorf A, Jeske P, Kaleb N, Schacht R, Ziegenhorn M, Zysk O (2015) ±270
VDC aircraft harness structural analysis. In: 1st International conference on structural
integrity. Procedia Engineering, vol 114, pp 346–353
3. Ziegenhorn M, Grzelak E, Sawicki M, Schob D, Sparr H (2017) Chaboche material model
and thermo-mechanical behaviour of polymers with respect to fatigue. In: Proceedings of the
13th international scientific conference computer aided engineering, Springer, pp 617–631.
Nasdala L (2012) FEM-Formelsammlung Statik und Dynamik, Springer Vieweg
4. Schuster DM, Liu DD, Huttsell LJ (2003) Computational aeroelasticity: success, progress,
challenge. J Aircr 40(5):843–856
5. Bathe K-J (1996) Finite element procedures. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
6. Kamakoti R, Lian Y, Regisford S, Kurdila A, Shyy W (2002) Computational aeroelasticity
using a pressure-based solver. In: AIAA-2002-0869
7. Kamakoti R, Shyy W, Thakur S, Sankar B (2004) Time dependent RANS computations for
an aeroelastic wing. In: AIAA-2004-0886
8. Roszak R, Posadzy P, Stankiewicz W, Morzyński M (2009) Fluid-structure interaction for
large scale complex geometry and non-linear properties of structure. Arch Mech 61:3–27
9. Szeląg D, Lorenc Z, Fornasier L, Posadzy P (2004) A digitally controlled suspension system
for the real time generation of the structural nonlinearities in the flutter wind tunnel
validation testing. Munich, Germany
10. Steger JL, Bailey E (1980) Calculation of transonic aileron buzz. AIAA J 18(3):249–255
11. Chaboche JL, (1986) Time-independent constitutive theories for cyclic plasticity. Int J Plast 5
12. Gurson AL (1977) Continuum theory of ductile rupture by void nucleation and growth:
Part I yield criteria and flow rules for porous ductile media. J Eng Mater Technol 99(2):15
13. Needleman A, Tvergaard V (1987) An analysis of ductile rupture modes at a crack
tip. J Mech Phys Solids 35:151–183
Structural Analysis of PVC-CF Composite
Materials
Przemysław Rumianek(&), Piotr Żach, Radosław Nowak,

and Piotr Kosiński
Faculty of Automotive and Construction Machinery Engineering, Warsaw

University of Technology, Narbutta 84, 02-524 Warsaw, Poland
{p.rumianek,pzach,rnowak}@simr.pw.edu.pl,
diotrek@gmail.com
Abstract. The article presents study on vacuum-formed carbon fibre, glass

fibre and PVC foam composite materials. Experiment and finite elements
method calculations are performed to determine material properties. Experiment
is done for the materials manufactured in the Institute of Machine Design
Fundamentals. Analyzed material is in use in automotive industry. It is used to
create vehicle’s structure reinforcement. Material is analyzed for tensile strength
and bending strength. In order to fully characterize the properties of the material,
research of multilayer composites consisting of separate components are carried
out. Research is conducted to characterize complex mechanical behavior in
heterogeneous materials. Verification of material properties confirmed possi-
bility to use examined material as a reinforcing element, what lead to con-
struction of “PIAST” vehicle. The main theme of the article is to create
mechanical, experimental characteristics and numerical simulation of multilayer
foam, glass fibre and carbon fibre composite material. Experimental analysis
confirmed extraordinary capabilities of multilayer structure with foam core and
resin bonded skins. Using foam as sandwich core infill increases material
rigidness and strength. At the same time it reduces mass in comparison to carbon
fibre, reinforced with glass fibre composite material. Risk of skin dissection
should be taken into account during construction design. In real engineering
applications dissection should be eliminated or partially reduced by production
technology improvement. The experiment results and numerical simulation
results agrement can be achieved by proper constitutive modeling and adequate
numerical techniques. Analysis of the location of damages, strains in the core
and the formation of the delamination outside the skin can be taken into account
using appropriate material models.
Keywords: Carbon fibre Glass fibre Composite sandwich Syntactic foam

Mechanical tests Numerical simulations (FEM)
1 Introduction
Use of the foam-core composite materials in automotive engineering for structures and
construction elements that requires high rigidness and strength, mainly for bending
loads increase lattely. The weakest point of those composite materials is often

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_71
620 P. Rumianek et al.
dissection of external layers, which should have considerable rigidness and strength in
relation to the foam core. It is required that they have low specific mass and adequate
shear stiffness. Nowadays strength analysis is in used for controlling properties of
manufactured materials. The aim of this study is to determine properties of low-cost,
crafted material and market-available materials. This article shows selected experi-
mental and numerical research results on mechanical behavior of composite materials.
They are made of PVC HEREX-type foam, carbon fibre and glass fibre. This composite
material is designed to be applied in light-weight components in “PIAST” vehicle
constructed for Shell Eco-Marathon competition. Material mechanical characteristics is
made in the laboratory of Institute of Machine Design Fundamentals on the Faculty of
Automotive and Construction Machinery Engineering. Two material are considered:
vacuum-formed composite panel (carbon fibre, glass fibre – skins, bonded with resin
with PVC core) and purchased composite panels manufactured by highly-efficient
RTM process (carbon fibre and glass fibre bonded with resin, without foam core). The
research is performed through the following sequence of steps: (a) experimental tests of
multilayer panels – static analysis, tensile test; (b) static analysis, bending test in four-
point holder; (c) experimental tests of multilayer panels and their separate elements;
(d) numerical use of engineering constitutive models for material behavior - tensile test;
(e) FEM numerical simulation of multilayer panel in four-point holder – bending test.
All experiments and numerical calculations are performed for two mentioned kinds of
materials. This article focuses on results obtained in steps (a), (b), (d) and (e).
2 The Materials Under Study
The reinforcement materials used to make the composites have different physical
properties. In the presented case samples are prepared from composite panels (Fig. 1).
Panels are created using the vacuum method (material consisting of carbon fiber, glass
fiber bonded with epoxy resin-and PVC foam core). Those panels are used most
commonly in sandwich structures (Fig. 2), such as glass fabric (roving glass fabric,
weight 200 g/m2 and 280 g/m2, thickness 0.5 mm and 0.7 mm), carbon fabric with
twill weave (T300, weight 90 g/m2 and 200 g/m2, 0.5 mm and 0.7 mm), and sandwich
materials (Herex PVC foam, density 60 kg/m3, thickness 1.5 mm). The epoxy resin
LH130 is used as a bonding agent.
Fig. 1. The sandwich under study - schematic representation

Structural Analysis of PVC-CF Composite Materials 621
Fig. 2. Structures of fabrics used to build the composite: (a) - glass mat, (b) - carbon mat
Material samples without a foam core are tested also. The material is made of the
high-speed compression of Resin Transfer Modeling (a material consisting of carbon
fiber and glass without foam, bonded with resin).
3 Experimental Results of the Composite
This section of the article treats about single-axis stretching tests made for the discussed
materials. The mechanical tests of the sandwich and its components are described in
this section. These experiments were performed on an MTS testing machine located at
the Faculty of Automotive and Construction Machinery in the laboratory of the
Institute of Machine Design Fundamentals. The test is divided into two parts, two types
of properly prepared samples are considered (Fig. 3). The first one developed on the
faculty and the second one prepared by the manufacturer. In the case of bending tests,
the samples did not have reinforcing elements at their ends.
Fig. 3. Composite tested under tension - shape and size of the specimen used (dimensions in mm)
In the first part of the research the tensile strength of the material is determined. In
the uniaxial stretching tests the sample is mounted on both ends in special holders
(Figs. 4, 5). The influence of the composite fiber directions on the relative extension
due to sample destruction are considered. The brittle strength of the reinforcement is
determined [1, 2]. The full assessment of the composite’s behavior is determined on the
basis of the stretching plots obtained in this test. Both the composites with and without
the foam core are tested, for both materials the direction of the fibers in the mats was
taken into account. Both types of samples for stretching are strip shaped (Figs. 3, 4).
The samples with foam core has glued aluminium spacers on both ends, what ensures
proper mounting without damage [3–6].
Fig. 4. Tensile test on the sandwich
Due to the fact that composite materials during the tensile test have the ability to
strengthen the fibers in the mats towards the reinforcement, four-point bending tests
were carried out (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Flexural tests on the sandwich - testing device for four-point-bending (dimensions in mm)
The tests are carried out with the accordance to the standard, which provides for the
use of cuboidal samples with a certain height-to-distance ratio of supports. This ensures
that failure due to normal stress and associated bending moment occur before
delamination due to shear stresses.
Fig. 6. Composite tested under tension. Picture of a specimen after rupture (a), after bending
delamination (b)
On the basis of the tests, the stretching and four-point bending curves are deter-
mined (Figs. 7, 8).
Fig. 7. Composite tested under tension, axial and transverse stress/strain responses under
tension
The sandwich structure can be loaded after the core failure, what can be noticed at
Fig. 6. At higher load values the failure extends to the skin under tension or, in some
cases, to the skin/core delamination. A rapid rupture is observed for the sample without
the foam core (Table 1).
Fig. 8. Comparison tested under tension, load/displacement for the four-point bending tests
Table 1. Experimental mean values and nominal values of the composite in uniaxial tension for
loading in the weft and warp direction.
Nominal value provided by the Experimental mean
manufacture value
Tension б [MPa] – 48
E2 18000 1620
[MPa]
e [%] 0.8 0.6
Compression б [MPa] 60 53
E [MPa] 15000 1438
e [%] 0.5 0.7
4 Numerical Simulation
Simulation analyzes are performed to check the possibility of determining the fracture
mechanisms observed in experimental studies [1, 2]. ABAQUS software is used to
make calculations (Table 2).
Table 2. Mechanical data adopted for the numerical simulations.

E [MPa] v бmax [MPa]
Skin 12 000 0.15 225
Core 1100 0.25 60
The main fracture mechanisms which is observed in laboratory tests results and
simulations results of four-point bending are the formation of cracks in the core or
delamination in the skins or additional skin folds under load [7–9]. Taking into account
local stress values, different failure ratios are considered. Different failure indexes may
be considered, either based on local strain or stress states. In the numerical calculations,
a Rankine criterion is assumed for the simulation of damage in the core and the skins.
While a control on the maximum shear stress is adopted for the strip of elements at the
boundary core/lower skin for the simulation of skin debonding. The bending rolls are
simulated as rigid bodies (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. Finite element model of testing device for four-point-bending

A load/displacement plot occured in numerical simulations for the four-point-

bending test by activating the rupture criterion in the core only is compared in Fig. 10
with two experimental plots concerning tests which registered symmetric failure in the
core. The elastic stiffness and the fracture load are adequately captured considering of
the adopted model [1]. The possibility of earlier composite destruction in simulations
results is shown on the Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. Comparison between experimental and numerical load/displacement plots for the four-
point bending tests with core rupture. Continuous lines: experiments. Dotted line: numerical
simulation
This article focuses on the mechanical experimental characterization and numerical

simulation of composite, glass fiber, carbon fiber and PVC foam core. The analyzed
material is used for the construction of the “PIAST” vehicle. Experimental and sim-
ulation tests confirmed the possibilities of a layered structure with a syntactic foam core
and skins combined with epoxy resin for the above applications. The structured
material under investigation seems to be well suited to automotive engineering. In
addition, the foam provides a drastic reduction in weight with respect to the fully
laminated glass fiber reinforced panel. As the main point of attention resulting from
experiment, there is a significant weakness of skin sandwich binding with foam
material in the case of bending test. The risk of skin layers delamination in real
engineering applications is very important; this phenomenon should be taken into
account and partially reduced by improving the production technology or applying
additional reinforcements. The modeling process in numerical simulation is a com-
promise between the conflicting requirements of correctly describing the actual
behavior of the material. Properties of the individual components of the composite
should take into account during manufacturing process. A better compliance between
experimental results and numerical simulations could be obtained by adopting more
sophisticated constitutive modelling and relevant computational techniques. In partic-

ular, for the simulation of damage processes and strain localization in the core, for-
mulated damage models can be use, while the phenomenon of skin delamination could
be captured by making use of suitable interface models.
References
1. Paul D, Velmurugan R, Jayaganthan R, Gupta NK, Manzhirov AV (2018) Analysis of
syntactic foam–GFRP sandwich composites for flexural loads. In: IOP conference series:
journal of physics: conference series, vol 991, p 012064
2. Corigliano A, Mariani S (1992) Simulation of damage in composites by means of interface
models: parameter identification. Compos Sci Technol 61(15):2299–2315
3. Lemaitre J (1992) A course on damage mechanics. Springer, Berlin
4. Ladeve Áze P (1992) A damage computational method for composite structures. Comput
Struct 44:79–87
5. Rizzi E, Maier G, Willam K (1996) On failure indicators in multi-dis-sipative materials. Int J
Solids Struct 33:3187–214
6. Krajichinovicz D (1983) Constitutive equations for damaging materials. J Appl Mech ASME
50:355–360
7. Allix O, LadeveÁze P (1992) Interlaminar interface modelling for the prediction of
delamination. Comp Struct 22:235–242
8. Corigliano A (1993) Formulation, identication and use of interface models in the numerical
analysis of composite delamination. Int J Solids Struct 30:2779–2811
9. Allix O, LadeveÂze P, Corigliano A (1995) Damage analysis of interlaminar fracture
specimens. Compos Struct 31:61–74
Selected Problems of Fatigue Testing
of Automotive Drive Shafts
Eugeniusz Rusiński(&), Tomasz Dobosz, Fabian Grendysz,

Department of Machine Design and Research, Wroclaw University of

Technology, Łukasiewicza 7/9, 50-371 Wrocław, Poland
eugeniusz.rusinski@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The article concerns fatigue testing of drive shafts used in cars. The
manufacturers of drive shafts shoulder a great responsibility because the
workmanship of the product greatly affects the reliability of the shafts. The
durability of a drive shaft is defined by many factors, however, the quality of the
material is the most vital one. The paper presents the most occurring causes of
fatigue damage of shafts. A series of tests of automotive drive shafts was also
conducted.
Keywords: Drive shaft Fatigue testing Strength calculations
1 Introduction
Drive shafts of automotive vehicles perform a crucial role in the kinematic chain.
Currently, the durability of drive shafts is carefully controlled by manufactures. What is
more, their attention is also directed at materials engineering and new materials.
A drive shaft is composed of joints and a connecting element in form of a pipe, as
shown in Fig. 1. Drive shafts mainly utilize Cardan joints, but other joints, such as
constant-velocity joints, are also used.
Fig. 1. An example geometrical model of a drive shaft with a Cardan joint

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_72
628 E. Rusiński et al.
2 Typical Drive Shaft Damage
Drive shafts are damaged due to improper car exploitation or incorrect manufacturing
process. The most basic types of drive shaft damage can be divided into the following
groups:
• material defects – defective material used in the production process,
• assembly – caused by improper installation,
• fatigue – resulting from exploitation.
One of the most common faults is the damage caused by applying an excessive
driving moment to the pipe of the shaft. A shaft damaged during testing can be seen in
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Damaged drive shaft made of an aluminum alloy
In this case, the damaged shaft was made of a pipe with a diameter of 3 inches. An
aluminum alloy was used to produce it. In order to increase the load capacity of the
shaft, its diameter was increased to 3.5 inches, which allowed the shaft to carry the
required torque.
3 Testing Drive Shafts
The aim of studying the elements of shafts is to conduct functional and strength tests.
One of the most important trials is to verify whether any potential errors resulting from
improper heading of pipes (Fig. 3) impact the strength of a complete shaft during
strength tests in static and fatigue ranges.
Selected Problems of Fatigue Testing 629
Fig. 3. Shaft damaged during the process of heading
Drive shafts are tested in two types of tests described below.

Static strength testing – the aim of such testing is to determine the maximum
twisting moments carried by driving shafts. The test is conducted until the shaft loaded
with a static twisting moment is destroyed. The weakest areas of shafts are identified
during these tests. It is common to assume at the stage of prototyping that the bolted
joints connecting pipes should be the shaft’s weakest points. The spline of a drive shaft
connecting its individual segments could be its yet another weak point. An example of
a destroyed drive shaft is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Splines destroyed due to a static twisting moment applied to the drive shaft
Example results acquired through testing static strength of a shaft by twisting it. are
presented in Table 1 as the maximum twisting moments carried by a shaft. The min-
imal values of required torque that a shaft should be able to carry are also presented.
The values show whether the tests were successful.
Table 1. The results of static strength tests carried out to check the torsional strength of an
example shaft
Piece The required minimal value of twisting Results acquired by applying a static
moment [Nm] twisting moment [Nm]
Shaft 2000 2050
“a”
Shaft 2000 2082
“b”
In this case, the testing of drive shafts loaded with a static twisting moment con-
firmed that the shafts meet the design requirements and the weakest point was located
as predicted.
Fatigue testing – these tests are usually conducted in order to determine the
weakest points of a drive shaft from the perspective of fatigue damage. All fatigue tests
of shafts are carried out with the frequency of 2 Hz and temperature control up to
40 °C.
Example results from fatigue testing of drive shafts in a universal testing machine
in the form of the number of cycles for different twisting moments are presented in
Table 2.
Table 2. The results of fatigue testing of a drive shaft

Sample Moment Minimum number of Obtained, experimental number of
[Nm] cycles cycles
1 850 52900 206027
2 850 52900 172797
3 850 52900 269404
4 850 52900 152430
5 1309 3300 3673
6 1309 3300 4594
7 500 300000 (600000)
8 500 300000 (600000)
Example of fatigue fracture of drive shaft’s spline can be seen in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Fatigue fracture of a spline
Another, but seldom encountered, phenomenon of fatigue damage that can be

observed during standard exploitation is the twisting of a shaft, which is shown in
Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Example of damaged shaft’s pipe twisted during exploitation
The conducted tests confirmed that the drive shafts meet the criteria of fatigue
strength, which is limited by the value of the twisting moment. The relationship
between the number of cycles and the twisting moment is presented at the Wöhler
curve in Fig. 7.
1200
1000
Nm
800
600
400 N
3000 30000 300000
- experimental tests
- fatigue strength curve
Fig. 7. Wöhler diagram for the shaft no. 1
A detailed analysis of the causes of fatigue fractures of shafts allows to potentially

prevent such phenomena in the future. An example of such damage of a shaft/pipe
within welded joints is presented in Fig. 8. In this case, metallographic examination of
the fracture was conducted. An example microstructure of the cross-section of a pipe,
with the visible place in which the fatigue fracture started, can be seen in Fig. 9.
Fig. 8. The place of fracture – drive shaft no. 1

Fig. 9. Microstructure – drive shaft no. 1
Microhardness tests were also conducted in the heat-affected zone of the weld. The
results are presented in Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. Hardness penetration pattern on a 70 mm joint – drive shaft no. 1
The most typical area of shafts most prone to fatigue damage is the spline. Material
tests in the form of the view of the fracture and the metallographic sample are presented
in Fig. 11. Apart from the typical areas (notches that are the result of the joint’s
geometry) of initialization of fatigue fractures in splines, surface flaws, which are
another place of damage initialization, were also observed during tests.
Fig. 11. Fatigue fracture of the drive shaft no. 6
Some of the problems regarding static and fatigue testing of drive shafts were presented
in the article. The conducted research shows that quality inspections carried out during
the production process of individual elements of a drive shaft play a major role. Thanks
to proper inspection, manufacturing defects can be identified and eliminated.
Improper inspection, or a lack of one, might lead to releasing a shaft with a design
flaw or a material defect to be used in power transmission systems of cars. The
conducted tests showed that the faults developed in the process of manufacturing the
pipes of shafts do not have a strong impact on the strength of a shaft, nor are they the
weakest points. The weakest point of a shaft is the spline, which creates a notch that is
the result of the joint’s geometry and in which stress concentration takes place.
Nonetheless, the tests demonstrated that all of the tested shafts meet the criteria of
limited fatigue strength. The visual inspection of the damaged pipes of the drive shafts
(e.g. Figs. 7 and 8) shows that no imperfections, e.g. holes, point welds, cracks, should
occur on the surface of the pipe. Any of such faults greatly decrease the fatigue strength
of a shaft and lead to fatigue damage (Fig. 9). Such imperfections might also lead to the
shaft losing the local stability of its pipe. An example of such phenomenon can be seen
in Fig. 2 – a balancing half-ring was welded to the shaft’s pipe made of aluminum alloy
which leads to the destruction of the shaft. The perfect pipe of a shaft with no faults or
flaws is presented in Fig. 12.
Fig. 12. Two-piece steel drive shaft with no imperfections manufactured by GKN Driveline -
http://www.gknservice.com
References
1. Rusiński E, Czmochowski J, Moczko P, Pietrusiak D (2017) Surface mining machines.
Problems of maintenance and modernization. ©Springer International Publishing AG
2. Seherr-Thoss H, Schmelz F, Aucker E (2006) Universal joints and driveshafts. Springer,
Wuerzburg
3. Crolla DA (2009) Automotive engineering powertrain, chassis systems and vehicle body.
Elsevier
4. Fabian G (2017) Badanie zmęczeniowe elementu wałów napędowych. Praca Dyplomowa
Inżynierska, Politechnika Wrocławska
5. Rusiński E, Kopczyński A, Czmochowski J (2004) Tests of thin-walled beams joined by spot
welding. J Mater Process Technol 157(158):405–409
skończonych w konstrukcjach nośnych, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej
Selected Problems of Strength Calculation
of Power Boiler Steam Superheater
Eugeniusz Rusiński1, Artur Górski1, Michał Attinger2,

Jerzy Czmochowski1, and Michał Paduchowicz1(&)
1
and Research, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
michal.paduchowicz@pwr.edu.pl
2
PCC ROKITA S.A, Wrocław, Poland
Abstract. The paper discusses the problems of sizing and evaluation of the
steam superheater header in the connecting area with a stub pipe superheater III
in boiler BB-1150. The basic element of the assessment was strength calcula-
tions using numerical methods. The most important element of the work was to
develop original computational models for thermal and structural calculations
with extended forms of boundary conditions using the finite element method.
The developed models of the tested object were subjected to the analysis of the
state of deformation in a steady state and transient state. The results of computer
simulations of the welded connection between the header and the coil spigot are
presented in details [1].
1 Introduction
Working at high temperatures and pressures, a support structure of a boiler and loop
technology equipment are subjected to degradation phenomena of creep. What is more,
their periodic mode of operation in a transient state adversely affects the structural stability
of the structure’s pressure elements. Inspections of the technical condition of pressure
elements are aimed at determining the time of further safe operation of the pressure parts of
boilers. Very often, such inspections identify local material’s cracks and discontinuities.
In many cases, exposed damages force long and costly shutdowns of entire power
units, resulting in huge financial losses. Such a state, which is already the result of a
failure, can be minimized to some extent by attempting to identify critical points of the
pressure structure element by applying numerical calculation methods. Performing
numerical simulations for various operational states, assuming the loss of mechanical
properties with time and operating temperature, it is possible to determine the proba-
bility of occurrence of failures in individual the structure’ elements [2].
2 The Essence of the Problem
Analisys of the temperature distribution of steam in individual boiler pressure elements

(Fig. 1) shows that the highest temperature prevails in superheaters of steam, where
PK, PG PW are designations of the particular live steam superheaters and PM2 PM2

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_73
Selected Problems of Strength Calculation of Power Boiler Steam 637
are designations of the particular resuperheated steam superheaters. In addition, the

high temperature changes the mechanical parameters o the steel, which, with the
participation of a high pressure, is disadvantageous in the critical construction sites of
the superheater. Thus, the outlet header are considered to be the most critical elements
of the pressure part of the boiler in the entire technological loop. This is also confirmed
by the operational data of many energy units [3].
Fig. 1. Technological diagram of the steam overheat system in the analogized power unit
The production of pressurized thick-walled header is a labor-intensive production

due to the high quality requirements of the welded joint. Connection of the sub pipes
with the super forms a shaped surface, which results from the penetration lines of the
connected elements. Preparation and location of stub pipes at various angles requires
considerable machining costs and special devices. TIG (141) methods and welding
with coated electrode (111) as angular with fillet welds are recommended for such a
type of connection of pressure elements [4]. The type of peripheral connector that has
been modeled is shown in the drawing below (Fig. 2a).
Fig. 2. (a) The joint structure of the peripheral header and stub pipes formed by welding
technology (b) solid geometric model of header with stub pipes
Performing a computer simulation of welded joint is the most difficult task of FEM
analysis due to the specificity welding process. The use of the same material groups and
welding materials allows for the assumption of a uniformity of a material in the studied
area. However, the occurring thermomechanical effects are the reason why the results
can only be approximated.
As the object of analysis, a thick-walled pipe was adopted, along the axis of which
7 rows of stubs were arranged, 10 stubs in a row. The geometric model of the dis-
cretization header was developed in Fig. 2b [4].
Technical - geometric data of header and the associated stub pipes are indicated in
Table 1.
Table 1. Technical data of the header and stub pipes

Elements Ø - diameter s - thickness l - lenght
mm mm mm
Header 342 46 2000
Stub pipes 44,5 7,1 110
Important issue of the computational work is a reliable determination of the

material properties for all components of the superheater support structure. Structural
calculations have been carried out for two different materials: X20CrMo12-1 and
10CrMo9-10. The assumption of a homogeneous material of the header, stub pipes as
well as welds, allows assuming the unification of the material structure of the model for
structural calculations using the finite element method. The basic physical and
mechanical properties as well as the chemical composition of the materials selected for
the calculation are presented in the following Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5 [5, 6].
Table 2. Physical and mechanical properties of X20CrMoV12-1 steel according to EN

10273:2008 [7]
Properties Temperature Units
20 °C 200 °C 300 °C 400 °C 500 °C 600 °C
Modulus of elasticity E 218 206 198 190 180 167 GPa
The limit of elasticity Rp0,2 490 430 390 360 290 – MPa
Heat conduction k 24 24,8 25,1 25,6 26,1 26,4 W/m∙K
Thermal expansion a 10,2 10,9 11,3 11,6 12,0 12,2 10−6/K
Heat capacity Cp 439 534 571 625 704 831 J/kg∙K
Table 3. Physical and mechanical properties of 10CrMo9-10 steel according to EN 10273:2008

[7]
20 °C 200 °C 300 °C 400 °C 500 °C 600 °C
Modulus of elasticity E 212 199 192 184 175 164 GPa
The limit of elasticity Rp0,2 272 232 221 198 173 – MPa
Heat conduction k 34,9 38,2 37,8 36,6 35,2 33,6 W/m∙K
Thermal expansion a 11,5 12,7 13,2 13,6 14,0 14,4 10−6/K
Heat capacity Cp 461 499 517 536 558 587 J/kg∙K
Table 4. Strength coefficients X20CrMoV12-1 steel according to EN 10273:2008 [7]

500 °C 520 °C 540 °C 560 °C 580 °C 600 °C
The limit of creep and R1/10 000 240 197 158 125 97 76 MPa
creep resistance R1/100 000 186 145 112 86 64 44
RZ/10 000 299 251 211 172 136 103
RZ/100 000 235 186 147 112 82 59
RZ/200 000 215 167 128 96 69 48
Table 5. Strength coefficients 10CrMo9-10 steel according to EN 10273:2008 [7]

Własność Temperature Units
500 °C 520 °C 540 °C 560 °C 580 °C 600 °C
The limit of creep R1/10 000 147 119 94 74 57 44 MPa
and creep resistance R1/100 000 103 78 58 41 30 23
RZ/10 000 196 157 123 95 75 59
RZ/100 000 142 108 78 56 41 29
RZ/200 000 127 95 68 47 33 24
3 Calculation Model
The solid model (Fig. 3) was generated in the ANSYS Workbench 15.0, in which
structural calculations of the deformation state were carried out. The model has three
basic construction areas: a header, stub pipes and a weld connecting the stubs with the
header. Due to the symmetry of geometry and loads, the geometric model of the
surface-linear structure of the header was isolated along with the superheater lines
reaching it, and the symmetry conditions were determined on the division surfaces
(Fig. 3). The use of symmetry was possible due to the geometry as well as the system
of boundary conditions with supporting elements [8].
The geometric model was discretised using higher solid elements HEXA 20.
Considering the inconsistencies that arose for these types of header in the stub pipes
region and on between bridges-holes, the finite element mesh in these areas was
compacted (Fig. 4). This approach allows to improve the quality and accuracy of
calculation results in critical areas of superheater constructions at the stage of dis-
cretization [9].
4 Numerical Calculation
Numerical calculations due to the nature of the structure focused primarily on transient
heat flow states. These primarily include boiler start-up states. Therefore, in the case of
Fig. 3. Symmetry conditions for the geometric model: A-perpendicular, B- parallel to the axis of
the header
Fig. 4. Areas mesh density discrete model: (1) the area between bridges-holes, (2) the area of
welds
analyzing the transient state of the subject superheater, a variable value of the tem-
perature and pressure increment was applied from the initial value to the nominal value
during boiler start-up [10] (Fig. 5).
Below the assumed initial time of analyzes (6000 s), pressures and steam flow are
too small. Thus, the heat transfer coefficient for both the header and the single con-
Fig. 5. Thermal expansion coefficients in the adopted calculation steps
nector is a * 0 W/m2 K and does not affect the calculations carried out, therefore, in
the simulations, this data was omitted [11].
The values of loads adopted for calculations for a steady state, when the nominal
steam capacity is reached [12]: steam temperature in the header Tnom = 540 °C, steam
pressure in the superheater: pnom = 18,4 MPasteam flow rate in the header:
ṁnom = 160 kg/s.
• header’s thermal expansion coefficients: akom = 7102,46 W/m2∙K
• stub pipe’s thermal expansion coefficients: akróć = 10593,16 W/m2∙K
• initial time: tstart = 34200 s
• duration time: t = 6800 s
• header’s initial temperature: Toto = 50°C
• thermal expansion coefficients: aoto = 50 W/m2∙K.
5 Analysis of Calculation Results and Final Conclusions
Using the numerical model and a set of thermal load, mechanical strength calculations
were carried out by using finite element software ANSYS Workbench 15.0. Sample
results of calculations in the form of contours of reduced stresses and displacements are
indicated in the following figures (Figs. 6 and 7).
The analysis of strength results of numerical calculations in the process of unsteady
heat flow during the start-up or withdrawal of the power unit is very extensive. Mul-
tiplicity of numerical calculations generates a very extensive data base regarding the
Fig. 6. Distribution of equivalent von Mises stress [MPa] in the header and stub pipes for steels
(a) X20CrMoV12-1, (b) 10CrMo9-10
Fig. 7. Total displacements in the area of the header and stub pipes for steels [mm]
(a) X20CrMoV12–1, (b) 10CrMo9–10
state of effort of individual construction nodes. In addition, material diversity puts the
analysis results of calculations as a task in itself. Figure 8 presents a summary of the
calculation results in the form of maximum stresses reduced for one of the construction
nodes in the process of starting the power unit. The time variable has been replaced
with the temperature of the superheater element adequate to the time [13].
On the basis of a wide spectrum of results, potential faults of the superheater can be
identified, and the level of littering for various states of operational and extreme loads
can be pre-estimated. Considering the analysed steam superheater, it can be stated that:
MPa Equivalent von Mises Stress

300 278
X20CrMoV12-1 267 266 266
258
10CrMo9-10
250 231 223
221 222 222
213 211
200
174
156
145 146
150
109 115
100
50 2520
2 1
0
100 200 250 280 315 405 490 540 540 540 540 [°C]
Fig. 8. Comparison of maximum stresses reduced by Huber’s Mises hypothesis [MPa]
1. Maximum stresses reduced according to Huber’s Mises hypothesis, for two mate-
rials tested, are generated in the eighth calculation step (Fig. 8), this corresponds to
reaching the maximum boiler operating parameters [14].
2. Maximum stresses occur in the area of the outer jacket of the header, at the border
of the weld face connecting the connectors with the header (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. Area of maximum equivalent von Mises stress [MPa]

3. The resulting maximum stresses are higher than the permissible ones, thus the
strength criterion in the test area for both the first and the second material tested is
not met.
4. Computer simulations of the load state of the computational model in the area of
connection between the header and the pipes negate the correctness of the design
assumptions of the welded joint structure [15, 16].
References
1. Kruczek S (2001) Kotły: konstrukcje i obliczenia, Wrocław: Oficyna Wydaw. Politechniki
Wrocławskiej. (in polish)
skończonych w konstrukcjach nośnych. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej.
(in polish)
3. Damzy L, Pawlik M, Strzelczy F (2012) Elektrownie. Warszawa. (in polish)
4. Naumenko K (2016) Modeling high temperature materials behavior for structural analysis
Part I : Continuum Mechanics
5. Liu M-S, Dong Q-W, Wang D-B, Ling X (1999) Numerical simulation of thermal stress in
tube-sheet of heat transfer equipmen. Int J Press Vessel Pip 76:671–675
6. Silva LFM, Altenbach H, Kruch S, Advanced Materials modelling for structures, vol. 19
7. PN-EN 10273:2016-09 (2016) Pręty walcowane na gorąco ze stali spawalnych o
określonych własnościach w podwyższonych temperaturach na urządzenia ciśnieniowe (in
polish)
8. Liu D, Li H, Liu Y (2015) Numerical simulation of creep damage and life prediction of
superalloy turbine blade, 2015
9. Zienkiewicz OC, Taylor RL, Zhu JZ (2013) The finite element method: its basis and
fundamentals. Elsevier Science
10. Farragher TP, Scully S, O’Dowd NP, Leen SB (2013) Development of life assessment
procedures for power plant headers operated under flexible loading scenarios. Int J Fatigue
49:50–61
11. Okrajni J, Twardawa M (2013) Boundary conditions in models of power plant components
under thermal loading 62(1):28–35
12. Hernas A, Dobrzański J, Pasternak J (2015) Charakterystyki nowej generacji materiałów dla
energetyki. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Śląskiej, Gliwice (in polish)
13. Twardawa M, Okrajni J (2016) The influence of the grade of materials and their state on the
thermo-mechanical behaviour of the chosen power plant components. Solid State Phenom
250:238–243
14. Kwon O, Myers M, Karstensen AD, Knowles D (2006) The effect of the steam temperature
fluctuations during steady state operation on the remnant life of the superheater header. Int J
Press Vessel Pip 83(5):349–358
15. Okrajni J, Junak G, Marek A: Modelling of the deformation process under thermo-
mechanical fatigue conditions. Int J Fatigue 30(2):324–329
16. Rosienkiewicz M, Chlebus E, Detyna J (2017) A hybrid spares demand forecasting method
dedicated to mining industry. Appl Math Model, 87–107
Simulation of Cavitation Participation
in the Water Treatment
Lech J. Sitnik(&)
Wrocław, Poland
lech.sitnik@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The use of cavitation for water and wastewater treatment is a well-
known procedure. Cavitation can be used alone or in combination with other
phenomena. Cavitation is, however, a “chimeric” phenomenon. As a rule, it is
difficult to call it if it is a useful phenomenon, but it is easily created when it is
undesirable. Therefore, various activities are necessary for the development of
cavitation devices operating according to assumptions. Such activities include
various types of simulations. In this work, a cavitation was simulated in which
the outlet water undergoes a full evaporation process due to cavitation. Simu-
lations are carried out using the FLUENT software version 6.3.36, The use of
theoretical assumptions (resulting from earlier research work) recalled in this
work is also particularly important here. It seems that it would be expedient to
use hybrid computational methods. For example, FLUENT simulations could be
combined with the use of the Monte Carlo mathematical method to actively
determine the values of coefficients occurring in the model. This will be the
subject of further work.
Keywords: Cavitation Simulation Water treatment
1 Introduction
The growing awareness of the environment and the increasingly stringent environ-
mental protection regulations that result from it, make the treatment of water, including
sewage, a key aspect of research. Much work has been devoted to the development and
testing of new techniques and their combinations, or by conventional biological and
chemical methods [4, 5]. Cavitation is one of such new techniques, which proved to be
very beneficial in water conditioning [1].
Cavitation can be described as the formation, growth and subsequent collapse of
void spaces (caverns) in a liquid in which the pressure is higher like the pressure of its
saturated vapor.
The conditions for oxidation are created (by the formation of hydroxyl radicals, as
well as hydrogen peroxide). Reactors, based on the use of ultrasonic radiation to
generate cavitation bubbles, have been classified as sonochemical reactors, whereas
when these bubbles are generated using hydrodynamic agents (exchange of energy
flow and pressure energy), they are referred to as hydrodynamic cavitation reactors.
Authors of numerous works focused on the application to sonochemical reactors for
e.g. wastewater treatment [1, 4, 5, 9, 10, 13, 14, 17]. However, very little work was

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_74
646 L. J. Sitnik
devoted to the use of much more energy-efficient hydrodynamic cavitation reactors [8,
18]. Cavitation is the generation, growth and subsequent collapse of bubbles in the
liquid. This is due to the pulsation of pressure inside the liquid [7]. The state of
imbalance causes an increase, and then the collapse of bubbles, which under certain
conditions can be considered as implosion.
When bubbles implode, the compression effects upon its internal gases might cause
temperature increases about 100 K [7, 20] and pressure peaks of 102–103 bar [15].
Due to the extreme P-T conditions inside the bubbles, water dissociates into Hand
OHradicals. The hydroxyl radical is a very strong oxidant (e0 = 2.79 V) and most
substances are readily oxidized in its presence. The processes that generate them, i.e.
combinations of UV+(TiO2/H2O2/O3/Fe2+), are commonly known as Advanced Oxi-
dation Processes (AOPs). Cavitation can be considered an AOP in which the bubbles
behave as micro reactors as they implode. Due to the oxidation potential of OHradi-
cals, AOPs are generally considered as very effective techniques in water treatment.
But operation costs in those plants are usually high due to the presence of UV light
and/or chemical reactants. Cavitation offers here two important advantages over con-
ventional AOPs due to the fact that neither reactants nor UV light are used: first, it
requires significantly lower operation costs than the rest of the AOPs; and second, the
by-products are limited to those expected from the oxidation of the contaminants,
avoiding the presence of other dangerous oxidants such as for example chlorine.
Nevertheless operation costs are usually high due to the presence of UV light
and/or chemical reactants. Cavitation offers two important advantages over conven-
tional AOPs due to the fact that neither reactants nor UV light are used: first, it requires
significantly lower operation costs than the rest of the AOPs; and second, the by-
products are limited to those expected from the oxidation of the contaminants, avoiding
the presence of other dangerous oxidants such as for example chlorine.
2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation
Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) can be caused by the liquid passing through the
hydraulic resistance, such as the hole in the plate. As the liquid passes through the hole,
the speed of the liquid increases at the expense of pressure. If throttling is sufficient to
cause a pressure drop below the threshold cavitation pressure (usually the vapor
pressure of a given liquid at operating temperature), fluid discontinuities are generated.
Then, when the liquid stream expands, the pressure returns to normal, leading to
implosion and loss of discontinuity. However, there are turbulences in the stream.
Turbulences with very high intensity occur on the lower side of the stenosis, after
which the pressure is lower and fluid flows out. The intensity of cavitation and tur-
bulence depends in the first row on the difference in pressure before and after the
hydraulic resistance. The macro and microgeometry of resistance and the conditions of
liquid flow are also important [21]. The intensity of turbulence has a profound effect on
the intensity of cavitation [16, 21].
In this way, by controlling the geometric and operational conditions of the reactor,
the required intensity of cavitation can be created to bring about the desired change
with maximum efficiency. The temperature and pressure generated during the
Simulation of Cavitation Participation in the Water Treatment 647
cavitation phenomenon are also a strong function of operational and geometric

parameters [16, 21]. Figure 1 shows a typical configuration for generating hydrody-
namic cavitation The relation between the velocity and the pressure of the flowing fluid
can be determined in the first row from the law of Bernoulli. The velocity of the liquid,
flowing when it passes through the mechanical constriction (part a in Fig. 1) increases -
with the increase of kinetic energy and the corresponding decrease of the local pressure
(part b in Fig. 1).
If throttling is sufficient to reduce the absolute local pressure below the saturated
vapor pressure (at operating temperature), there is a spontaneous break of the medium
continuity and microbubbles (nucleation) are formed in the liquid. With continuous
pressure reduction, the incontinuity are still growing. It also occurs that they are filled
by liquid vapor or gas desorption (if some gas dissolves in the medium) reaching the
maximum size at the lowest pressure. Subsequent pressurization causes implosion in
the adiabatic phase, thus generating a type of extreme state of pressure and temperature.
Fluid flow through hydraulic resistance is associated with a pressure change. This is
shown schematically in Fig. 1. The drawing shows the simplest structure of a hydraulic
resistor. However, such simple constructional solutions can be divided into two groups.
In this division, the ratio l/d is important [23]. Resistances in which l/d <1 and in the
case of l/d > 1 are particularly distinguishable. The research has found that such a
division makes sense.
Fig. 1. Diagram of pressure distribution when fluid flows through hydraulic resistance
If the proportions of the hydraulic resistance dimensions are appropriate, the

resistance of the fluid stream from the resistance walls is broken inside the tube, and
then the stream narrows. In section “0”, the stream is the narrowest. Next comes its
648 L. J. Sitnik
re-expansion. Practically between the “0” and “2” sections, cavitation can occur. Of
course, this depends on a number of factors, especially the properties of the fluid and
the construction of the resistance (its macro and microgeometry).
If at constant pressure p1 the pressure p2 is lowered, then the flow of fluid increases,
and the pressure in one of the narrowest stream cutters decreases once. If the pressure in
this section reaches a value equal to the vapor pressure of p2k, the cavitation is initiated.
It follows from the above that in the induction of cavitation the p2/p1 ratio is
important.
Fig. 2. Areas of cavitation as function of p2/p1 depending of Reynolds number
Studies were carried out in which cavitation was initiated in the cover by the
hydraulic resistance shown schematically in Fig. 1. In this resistance l/d = 1.65. Both
p2 (with constant p1) and p1 (with constant p2) were changed. The obtained results are
presented in the function of the Reynolds number (shown here in the logarithmic scale).
Figure 2 shows that there is such a value of the Reynolds number below which it is
not possible to call cavitation. This possibility increases as the number of Reynolds
increases to. With the increase in the proportion of p2/p1, the induction of cavitation
requires the flow of an ever-tumbling turbulent, i.e. the Reynolds number must grow.
In [23] a reliable criterion for assessing the initiation and occurrence of cavitation is
given.
A dimensionless number known as cavitation number is used to relate the flow
conditions with the cavitation intensity. Hydraulic resistance coefficient is given by the
following equation no. 1:
While Dp ¼ p1 p2 and Dp0 ¼ ðp1 p2 Þk wherein p1 p2 (markings - see
Fig. 1).
!
p1 p2 Dp
f¼ ¼2 ð1Þ
2 qv
1 2 qv2
The maximized hydraulic resistance coefficient can be saved as

!
0 p1 pstat Dp
f ¼ ¼2 ð2Þ
2 qvstat
1 2 qv2stat
When
f
Dp0 ¼ ðp1 p2 Þk ¼ p1 ð3Þ
f0
then

f
p2k ¼ p1 1 0 ð4Þ
f
There is only pressure on both sides of the Eq. (4). The proportions of pressure
depend on a number of factors, but first of all on the geometry of the hydraulic
resistance. Therefore, it was decided to analyze several structural solutions for resis-
tance. The simulations were carried out using FLUENT [12, 19].
3 Simulation Study of the Cavitation (with the Use

of Software FLUENT)
In the process of developing a solution for a given problem researchers can resort to the
development of the modern science in a form of a processing unit, which allow the
design to be tested in a virtual environment saves both time and money on construction
and testing a prototype of a potential solution. Software FLUENT, from ANSYS
company, allows to perform simulations of a number of problem related with any form
of fluid flow. Use of computers to simulate and test proposed designs in order to
identify most promising solutions before conducting any other work have a sense.
In this case, numerical simulation of cavitation was performed with the operating
conditions of those present in the water plants facilities (speed of the water of 1.75 m/s,
pressure of 0.5 MPa and water pipe diameter of 230 mm). The settings of the software
FLUENT, used for simulation of the cavitation, were adjusted to reach numerical
model suitable for reaching cavitation in a realistic manner. Adjustments include
introduction of two phases of water; vapor and liquid by using RNG viscosity model,
and linear calculation model. [3]
Solutions of the exemplary designs are as follows (Figs. 3 and 4):
650 L. J. Sitnik
Fig. 3. Solution for Venturi-type nozzle [12]
Fig. 4. Solution for wire-type nozzle [12]
At this stage designs is not possible to suffice the base requirement of full partic-
ipation of cavitation in the outlet water. The best solution allows to get less than 1% of
cavitation in outlet water volume. Further work is needed regarding the development of
the calculation method, which can be applied to new designs of hydraulic resistance.
4 Conclusions
Cavitation is a very “chimeric” phenomenon. As a rule, it is easy to achieve it when it is

not desired and causes unproductive problems. However, it is difficult to achieve when
it is planned to take advantage of its advantages. As a rule, laboratory work on real
models is required for reliable cavitation. This is also due to this work.
Regardless of the potential usefulness of the work, design is far beyond the
numerical capabilities of the software FLUENT and need to be tested in a laboratory
for further development. The use of theoretical assumptions (resulting from earlier
research work) recalled in this work is also particularly important here.
It seems that it would be expedient to use hybrid computational methods. For
example, FLUENT simulations could be combined with the use of the Monte Carlo
mathematical method to actively determine the values of coefficients occurring in the
model. This will be the subject of further work.
References
1. Adewuyi YG (2001) Sonochemistry: environmental science and engineering applications.
Ind Eng Chem Res 40:4681
2. Entezari MH, Pétrier C, Devidal P (2003) Sonochemical degradation of phenol in water: a
comparison of classical equipment with a new cylindrical reactor. Ultrason Sonochem
10:103
3. Gogate PR, Mujumdar S, Thampi J, Wilhelm AM, Pandit AB (2004) Destruction of phenol
using sonochemical reactors: scale up aspects and comparison of novel configuration with
conventional reactors. Sep Purif Technol 34:25
4. Gogate PR, Pandit AB (2004) A review of imperative technologies for waste water
treatment. I. Oxidation technologies at ambient conditions. Adv Environ Res 8:501
5. Gogate PR, Pandit AB (2004) A review of imperative technologies for waste water
treatment. II. Hybrid methods. Adv Environ Res 8:553
6. Gogate PR, Pandit AB (2000) Engineering design methods for cavitation reactors II:
Hydrodynamic cavitation reactors. AIChE J 46:1641
7. Hammitt FG (1980) Cavitation and multiphase flow phenomena. McGraw-Hill, USA
8. Kalumuck KM, Cahine GL (2000) The use of cavitating jets to oxidize organic compounds
in water. J Fluids Eng 122:465
9. Kidak R, Ince NH (2006) Ultrasonic destruction of phenol and substituted phenols: a review
of current research. Ultrason Sonochem 13:195
10. Mahamuni NN, Pandit AB (2006) Effect of additives on ultrasonic degradation of phenol.
Ultrason Sonochem 13:165
11. Moholkar VS, Pandit AB (1997) Bubble behavior in hydrodynamic cavitation: effect of
turbulence. AIChE J 43:1641–1648
12. Pasis M (2014) Simulation of cavitation chamber for full participation of cavitation in outlet
water Graduate thesis. Wroclaw University of Science and Technology. Mechanical Faculty.
Wroclaw, pp 1–24
13. Petrier C, Francony A (1997) Incidence ofwave-frequency on the reaction rates during
ultrasonic wastewater treatment. Water Sci Technol 35:175
14. Petrier C, Jiang Y, Lamy MF (1998) Ultrasound and environment: sonochemical destruction
of chloroaromatic derivatives. Environ Sci Technol 32:1216
652 L. J. Sitnik
15. Shutilov VA (1988) Fundamental Physics of Ultrasound; Gordon & Breach Science
Publishers: New Cork
16. Sitnik l (2005) Stroemungskavitationsverschleiss. ISBN 83-7085-876-7. Oficyna Wydaw-
nicza Poliitechniki Wrocławskiej. pp 1–162. Wroclaw 2005
17. Sivakumar M, Pandit AB (2001) Ultrasound enhanced degradation of rhodamine B:
optimisation with power density. Ultrason Sonochem 8:233
18. Sivakumar M, Pandit AB (2002) Wastewater treatment: a novel energy efficient
hydrodynamic cavitational technique. Ultrason Sonochem 9:123
19. Software Manual ANSYS FLUENT 6.3
20. Suslick KS, Hammerton DA, Cline DE (1986) The Sonochemical Hot Spot. J Am Chem Soc
108:5641–5642
21. Warade AR, Gaikwad RW, Sapkal RS, Sapkal VS (2016) Review on wastewater treatment
by hydrodynamic cavitation IOSR J Environ Sci, Toxic Food Technol (IOSR-JESTFT) e-
ISSN: 2319-2402,p- ISSN: 2319-2399.Volume 10, Issue 12 Ver. II (Dec. 2016), PP 67-72.
www.iosrjournals.org
22. Weissler A (1948) Ultrasonic in chemistry. J Chem Educ, 28–30
23. Will D, Reichert V, Mathis W (1983) Zum Stand der Druckverlustberevhnung und
Kennwerte Ermittlung fuer Hyddraulische Bauelemente und Anlagen. 5. Fachtagung
Hydraulik und Pneumatik TU Dresden
Modeling of Liquid Exchange Process
in a Hydraulic Cylinder Chamber in the Aspect
of Power System Design
Tomasz Siwulski1(&), Urszula Warzyńska1, Łukasz Moraś2,

Piotr Rosikowski3, and Paweł Pac3
1
tomasz.siwulski@pwr.edu.pl
2
WM Engineering S.A., Ul. Grabiszyńska 163, 53-439 Wrocław, Poland
3
Centrum Badawczo-Rozwojowe PONAR Wadowice S.A., Ul. Św. Jana Pawła
II 10a, 43-170 Łaziska Górne, Poland
Abstract. The results of verification performed on the numerical models of

liquid flow in the chambers of a hydraulic cylinder, as reported in this paper,
constitute a part of a larger research and development project carried out by the
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and
Technology, in cooperation with WM Engineering S.A. The project involved
designing an innovative experimental set-up for testing hydraulic cylinders. The
new test stand significantly improved the research potential of Research and
Development Center of PONAR Wadowice S.A. – a company which cooperates
with the above mentioned project leaders. The original test program and the new
test equipment allowed the verification of the accuracy of the numerical model
which was generated in the Ansys CFX environment and which describes the
process of mixing fluid from two different domains, having different initial
temperatures, during the operation of the cylinder. The data obtained during the
tests confirmed that it is reasonable to modify the cylinder supply system in
accordance with the patent application filed by Wroclaw University of Science
and Technology. This paper presents sample results of both actual tests and
computational simulations performed on the analyzed phenomenon of liquid
exchange in the piston chamber of the hydraulic cylinder. It also describes the
proposed method for the comparative analysis of the results. The obtained
results fully confirm that research in this area was justified and provide a basis
for further research, development and deployment works on the design of
hydraulic cylinders and their power supply systems.
Keywords: Hydraulic cylinder Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

Transient thermal analysis Immersed solid

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_75
654 T. Siwulski et al.
1 Introduction
The reliability of machines employed in mining, chemical, metallurgical, military

industries etc. largely depends on their failure-free operation in such difficult conditions
as high level of dust, high ambient temperature or chemically aggressive atmosphere.
Sample failure analyses of the machines operated in Polish underground copper ore
mines indicate that hydraulic cylinders are the most failure-prone elements of mining
machines [1], and downtime due to the malfunction of hydraulic systems results in
significant financial losses and the disorganization of mining production processes. The
analysis of the degradation processes in hydraulic cylinders, as described in previous
publications [2], showed that some part of the liquid remains in the power supply line
and in the hydraulic cylinder (non-flow through elements), which therefore may not
always offer the removal of the working liquid at an adequate rate from the power
supply lines and from the cylinder chambers, for example due to thermal constraints.
The first outcome of the research works in this area is the proposed new design of the
power supply system for the cylinder. One of the advantages of the new solution is that
it increases, as compared with the classic design, the amount of liquid removed during
the operation of the system comprising the power supply line and the cylinder chamber.
This new solution has been described in detail in previous publications. The next step
in the research work here presented was to develop a numerical model which served as
a basis to analyze how liquids having different temperatures mix in the chambers of an
operating cylinder, with respect to both the classic and the proposed power supply
system. For this purpose, a complete cycle of simulations was performed, and a new
test stand was designed and developed in order to verify the simulation results. This
article presents the comparison of results obtained from the numerical models and from
the test stand.
2 Characteristics of the Classic and of the New Power Supply

System of a Hydraulic Cylinder with Respect to Thermal
Energy Removal
The conducted analytical works demonstrated that in a classic solution of a system

comprising a hydraulic cylinder and power supply lines, the exchange of liquid, and
hence the exchange of thermal energy stored in the liquid, is hindered [2]. The pro-
posed power supply system (Fig. 2) allows improved removal of liquid from the
cylinder chambers. This effect was achieved by defining a particular flow direction for
all of the hydraulic lines, so that the liquid flowing away from the chamber will be
always removed outside of the system, while the liquid flowing into the chamber will
be always supplied from an external source. In a classic system, part of the liquid
remains in the supplying lines in which the direction of flow changes. A more detailed
description of the volumetric relationships, of the flow process and of thermal energy
sources in the operated hydraulic cylinders is provided in previous publications [2].
Modeling of Liquid Exchange Process in a Hydraulic Cylinder 655
Fig. 1. Geometry of the investigated cylinder with classic power supply system
Fig. 2. Geometry of the investigated cylinder with the new power supply system
3 Numerical Simulations
Numerical simulations with the use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) were
performed in the Ansys CFX application. In order to enable the simulation of piston
movement without the need to deform the finite volume mesh, the calculations were
based on the immersed solid algorithm, which is commonly applied in the construction
of numerical models in transient analyses, in the case when fluid domain has variable
geometry [3]. The advantages of this approach include shorter calculation time and
most importantly the possibility to avoid the problems related to remeshing the model,
which frequently lead to great geometry distortions in three-dimensional models. The
properties of the working liquid have been assumed in accordance with the specifi-
cations of hydraulic oil HLP46, which was also used during the tests. The parameters
of the oil have been assumed to be constant, without introducing the relationship to
temperature and pressure (Table 1).
Table 1. Parameters of the hydraulic oil used in simulations

Kinematic viscosity Density Specific heat Heat conductivity
(mm2/s) (kg/m3) (J/kgK) (W/mK)
44.2 (for T = 40 °C) 900 1880 0.134
Geometric models of the hydraulic cylinder in both the classic and the new design
were developed on the basis of technical drawings and in accordance with the actual
assembly of the hydraulic system during the tests (Figs. 1 and 2). The cylinder in
accordance with the classic design has a single line, 4600 mm in length, connected to
each of the working chambers. The cylinder in accordance with the new design has
four lines, and each of the working chambers is connected to a supply line and to a
return line. The length of the supply lines in the new solution was shortened to
180 mm. Geometric models were divided into discrete tetrahedral elements with regard
to the boundary layer in the volume of the hydraulic cylinder. Mesh parameters used in
both models were identical. The selected size of mesh elements provided maximum
calculation accuracy without excessively lengthening the calculation time. Figure 3
shows the discrete model on the example of the geometry in the new cylinder.
Fig. 3. Detailed view of the discrete model
The boundary conditions in the simulation were defined in analogy to the condi-
tions observed during experimental tests. During the tests, the piston rod in its initial
position was extended by l0 = 330 mm, the work cycle began with the retraction of the
cylinder, and the stroke length was s = 145 mm. At the beginning of the test, the
temperature of the liquid in the cylinder and in the power supply lines was equal to
ambient temperature and was T0 20 °C. The cylinders were powered with oil heated
in an external loop to temperature Ts = 55–56 °C. Oil flow velocity set as a boundary
condition at the inlet resulted from the actual flow rate during the tests: at the rod-end
inlet it was v1 = 1.2 m/s, while at the cap-end inlet it was v2 = 1.24 m/s. Piston
velocity during retraction was v1t = 0.014 m/s, and during extension was v2t = 0.011
m/s. The boundary condition at the outlet was defined as free outflow with pressure
p = 1 atm.
4 Test Stand
In order to facilitate further development of hydraulic cylinders, a dedicated test stand

was designed and constructed (Fig. 4). One of its numerous potential applications is to
verify the results obtained from the above described numerical models. The test stand
was equipped with a system allowing real time data recording and acquisition from
temperature and pressure transducers as well as from the sensors of cylinder dis-
placement and of force at the piston rod.
Fig. 4. Test stand for experimental tests and the image from a thermal vision camera with
clearly visible liquid domains of different temperatures
The test stand allows a wide range of in-service tests on hydraulic cylinders loaded
both with pressure and with external forces from an independent loading system.
Importantly, especially with respect to the performed tests, an additional system was
developed, which enabled, at the preparatory stage, separating two liquid domains
having different temperatures (Fig. 4). This system allowed the representation of the-
oretical assumptions and thus the analysis of the phenomena which occur in the
cylinder chamber during the process of liquid mixing. The analysis was based on the
first three work cycles of the cylinder having the parameters corresponding to the
cycles used in the numerical simulation.
5 Test Results
Figures 5 and 6 show curves of temperature versus time recorded at the cap-end side
outlet of the investigated cylinder. The curves were compared with the aim of verifying
the consistency of the numerical model with the actual tests for the two cylinder power
supply systems. Mean temperature of liquid removed from the piston chamber during
retraction in each work cycle was selected as the criterion for the qualitative com-
parison of the obtained values. Table 2 contains sample comparison results for the
piston chamber of the cylinder.
60
50
40
T [°C]
30
20
10 cap-end IN meas. cap-end OUT meas.

cap-end IN sim. cap-end OUT sim.
start/end cycle point
0
0 20 40 60 80
t [s]
Fig. 5. Mean temperature measured at the inlet and at the outlet of the piston chamber in the
new cylinder – comparison of simulation and test results
60
50
40
T [°C]
30
20
10 cap-end VALVE meas. cap-end VALVE sym.

start/end cycle point
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
t [s]
Fig. 6. Mean temperature measured at the inlet and at the outlet of the piston chamber in the
classic cylinder – comparison of simulation and test results
Table 2. Comparison of temperatures measured at the outlet of the piston chamber during
simulations and actual tests
New cylinder Classic cylinder
Retraction 1 Retraction 2 Retraction 3 Retraction 1 Retraction 2 Retraction 3
TS (°C) 55 55 55 56 56 56
T0 (°C) 20 20 20 20 20 20
DT (°C) 35 35 35 36 36 36
TAM (°C) 19.95 33.54 42.39 24.58 43.56 46.51
TAS (°C) 20.00 30.00 38.94 20.00 36.05 42.74
Difference (°C) −0.05 3.54 3.45 4.58 7.52 3.77
Difference (%) −0.24 10.55 8.13 18.64 17.26 8.10
Ts – temperature of oil supplying the piston chamber of the cylinder

T0 – initial temperature of oil in the system
ΔT – difference between the temperature of oil supplying the piston chamber (Ts) and
the initial temperature of oil T0
Tam – mean temperature at the outlet during retraction – measured value
Tas – mean temperature at the outlet during retraction – simulated value
The analysis of the time functions of temperatures recorded at the measurement

nodes (Figs. 1 and 2) shows high correlation between the simulation results and the test
results. Interestingly, changes of temperature in the function of time are less rapid in the
actual system, as the temperature transducers used in the tests have a certain time delay
due to their inertia. In the view of the above, both the comparison of mean liquid
temperatures at the outlet of the system (Table 2) and the resulting value of maximum
model error at 18.64% indicate that the consistency level is not only acceptable but also
valuable for further research.
The actual tests proved that the proposed numerical model is valid and correctly
represents a hydraulic cylinder piston chamber with various power supply systems. The
verified results of the simulated mixing process of the liquid supplied from an external
source with the liquid having a different initial temperature, as observed during the
operation of a hydraulic cylinder, allow the continuation of research on the influence of
a power supply system on the effectiveness of liquid exchange process in the cylinder.
Additional research works focus on developing a numerical model which would have a
consistency level corresponding to the level of the model presented above and which
would simulate liquid flows in the rod chamber of the cylinder. Investigation and
precise description of the hydrokinetic phenomena involved in these processes is an
indispensable stage in the development of new hydraulic cylinders which would dis-
play greater reliability and resistance to difficult operating conditions.
References
1. Król R, Zimroz R, Stolarczyk Ł (2009) Failure analysis of hydraulic systems used in mining
machines operating in copper ore mine KGHM POLSKA MIEDZ S.A. Scientific papers of
the institute of mining of the Wroclaw university of technology 128:127–139 (in Polish)
2. Siwulski T, Warzyńska U (2017) The advantages of a new hydraulic cylinder design with a
control system. In: Proceedings of the 23rd international conference engineering mechanics
2017. Svratka, pp 874–877
3. Zawiślak M (2017) Method of fluid-flow machinery and systems design and modernization by
computational fluid dynamics application (in Polish). Wydawnictwo Politechniki Poznańs-
kiej, Poznań
Assessment of Atmospheric Air Quality
in the Area of the Legionow Square
in Wroclaw
Maria Skretowicz(&) and Anna Galas-Szpak

Technology, Braci Gierymskich 164, 51-640 Wroclaw, Poland
maria.skretowicz@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The paper presents the application of mathematical models: the

emission model and the model of dispersion of pollutants to the analysis of the
impact of road transport on the quality of atmospheric air in the urban agglom-
eration. The calculations were made on the example of the crossroad at Legionow
Square in Wroclaw, which is characterized by compact buildings (street canyons)
and high traffic volume. The NEMO model was used to estimate the emission of
pollutants from motor vehicles. In turn, the Lagrange model GRAL, belonging to
CFD-class, was used to calculate the dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere.
Examples of simulation results are presented, and the summary also presents
problems that may arise from the use of mathematical models to assessment the
impact of road transport on the quality of atmospheric air.
Keywords: Air pollution CFD-modelling Dispersion modelling

Road transport Exhaust emission
1 Introduction
Mathematical modelling of emission from road transport and dispersion air pollution is
widely used in science and practice. Many models have been developed, which focus
on different aspects of the problem, among others due to the purpose of modelling
(diagnostic/forecast/accidents), scale of modelling (local/regional/global scale), land
use (urban/rural areas). In a lot of models used for road transport, the source of
emission is the road or section of road (not single vehicles), so in these models there are
line sources. One of such models is R-LINE, developed by EPA (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency), based on Gaussian formulas [1]. That model is usually used in
global scale, for example for road transport emission inventory. In urban areas there are
commonly compact buildings, creating so-called street canyons. In such cases, the CFD
class models (Computational Fluid Dynamics), based on Euler coordinate system,
suited very well. These models provide to carry out exact simulations of air mass flow
in complicated areas (in terms of land use) by closing the equation of advection-
diffusion with the turbulence model [2]. For example Borrego et al. used the VADIS
model, belonging to the CFD-class models, for evaluation distribution of pollutant from
road transport concentrations in Lisbon [3]. In Austria, in turn, the GRAL model has

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_76
662 M. Skretowicz and A. Galas-Szpak
been developed, which is recommended for street canyons [4]. The model is constantly
verified and used to study air quality in many European cities [5, 6].
With air pollution dispersion models from road usually cooperate models of emissions
from motor vehicles. Modelling of exhaust emission based on the calculation the emission
rate based on developed emission factors, traffic parameters (such as traffic intensity,
average speed, etc.) and on the parameters of emission sources (analysed road section). In
Europe the most popular model used is COPERT, which was developed in 1991 as a result
of the CORINAIR program coordinated by the EEA (European Environmental Protection
Agency). The model calculates emission rate from the road transport based on average speed
and is used mainly on a regional scale, e.g. for balancing global emissions from automotive
sources [7, 8]. An example of a model used in urban areas is INFRAS, which contains an
additional parameter characterizing traffic conditions (considering the conditions of vehicle
operation) [9]. INFRAS has been developed for the order of the central environmental
protection offices of Switzerland and Germany [10]. Developed in Austria NEMO model
(Network Emission Model) also based on HBEFA guidelines [9]. Typical applications of
the model range from emission inventories for cities, regions and countries to complex
activities such as environmental zones or the promotion of alternative propulsion systems.
The NEMO parameterization is based on data from European measurements in real road
conditions contained in the HBEFA guidelines [11].
2 Area Characteristics
Analysis presented in the paper were conducted for Legionow Square in Wroclaw. That
crossroad is located in city centre and is characterized by a heavy traffic and frequent
congestions in rush hours, because it connects road from different parts of Wroclaw and
Fig. 1. Monthly distribution of vehicles categories in Legionw Square

Assessment of Atmospheric Air Quality in the Area 663
is located close to the Main Railway Station. Due to the localization in the city centre,
road transport is the most significant source of emissions on that area. Monthly number
of vehicles on the crossroad divided to categories in Fig. 1 is presented. As it can be
seen, the passenger cars constitute the largest percentage of vehicles.
The analysed Square connects three streets: Pilsudskiego (direction northwest –
southeast), Grabiszyńska (from the Legionow Square in the south-west direction) and
Sadowa (from the Legionow Square in the north-east direction). For each of four
directions a section of the street from Plac Legionow to the next intersection was
marked out. All sections were divided for traffic lanes according to theirs real numbers.
In Fig. 2 scheme of crossroads on Legionow Square is presented. The geographical
coordinates of the beginning and end of each road lane were also determined. It
allowed to locate the research area in the specific spatial, what was input data for
simulations.
Fig. 2. Schema of the analysed crossroads divided into the traffic lanes
3 Emission Modelling
The first step was to collect necessary data and calculation of exhaust emissions from
vehicles moving in the analysed area. The simulations were carried out using the
NEMO model (Network Emission MOdel) developed at Institute of Internal Com-
bustion Engines and Thermodynamics, Technical University of Graz, Austria. NEMO
model consists of three modules: the fleet, the emission and the road network module
[12]. The data necessary to NEMO as input were among others: traffic (number of
vehicles per day), fleet of vehicles divided into category of vehicle (e.g. passenger cars,
light duty vehicles, buses, etc.) and propulsion concept (gasoline engine, diesel engine,
electric vehicles), age structure and technology class (taking into account reduction
technology, such as EGR, SCR, catalysts), the length of the road section, number of
road lanes, width of the road lane, geographical coordinates of the beginning and end of
road lanes, etc. [13, 14]. Emission factors to calculate exhaust emission from fleet were
taken from HBEFA database (Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport) [9].
NEMO performs the simulations of the emission based on the principle that is the
strong correlation of engine specific behaviour with the cycle average engine power in
a normalised format for all engines inside each of vehicles categories, propulsion
concepts and emission standards [15]. Data on traffic and fleet of vehicles were taken
from Intelligent Transport System in Wroclaw. Simulations were performed for 2015.
As the results from NEMO were in two.csv files. The first one contains summary data
on the annual emissions of emitted in fumes substances (such as nitrogen oxides,
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particle matter, ammonia, etc.) from the studied area,
divided the fleet into categories of vehicles, technological classes (EURO standards)
and types of engines (gasoline and diesel engines). In this case, the emission of par-
ticular compounds into the atmosphere is expressed in tons of substance per year
(tons/year). The second file comprises the summary of the emission calculated sub-
stances for all analysed road sections and categories of vehicles. The emission is
expressed in mass units divided by unit of distance and time (kg/(km*h)). In addition,
inside the file there is information about number of vehicles divided on road sections
and categories. Because the files include geographical coordinates, it is possible to
visualize the results for all calculated parameters in Geographical Information System
(GIS) software. In the Fig. 3 examples of results for NOx emission are presented. The
visualization was made in ArcGIS ESRI software. Calculated in NEMO model emis-
sion values were directly input to GRAL dispersion model.
Fig. 3. Emission of nitrogen oxides from all vehicles (basemap: OpenStreetMap)

4 Dispersion Modelling
Calculations of dispersion of pollutants in air were provide with use Lagrangian Par-
ticle Model GRAL model, which belongs to CFD class. The GRAL model was
developed at the Graz University of Technology (Austria), Institute for Internal
Combustion Engines and Thermodynamics in 1999 and is recommended among others
for pollutant dispersion simulations from road transport in microscale [4]. The basic
principle of Lagrangian models is the tracing and tracking of a multitude of fictitious
particles moving on trajectories within a 3-d wind field. The position of these particles
is calculated according to the following basic Eq. (1) [16]:

xi;new ¼ xi;old þ ui þ u0i Dt ð1Þ
where:
xi,new –the new position of particle in space (with i = 1, 2, 3),
xi,old –the previous position of particle,

ui –the mean velocity component,
u0i – the fluctuating (random, stochastic) part due to turbulence of the particle
movement,
Dt – a time increment.
The microscale flow field model in GRAL is based on the Reynolds-averaged-

Navier-Stokes equations, neglecting molecular viscosity and Coriolis and buoyancy
forces. As it is typically for CFD-models, for computing the turbulent exchange Eq. (2)
is used:
k
K ¼ cl ð2Þ
e
where:
cl – constant of the standard k-e model (0.09),
k – the turbulent kinetic energy,
e – dissipation rate.
For users Graphical User Interface (GUI) has been developed, which is helpful in
inputting data, computations and visualizations [17]. The GUI consists of 7 tabs:
– Project – creating new and opening existing projects,
– GRAL Settings – definition all main control parameters for model (such as aver-
aging time for calculated concentrations, grid resolution, surface roughness, vertical
thickness of layers for flow fields computations, etc.)
– Domain (GIS Interface) – definition all spatial data (model domain, locations and
geometries of emission sources, building, etc.) and visualization results of
computations,
– Sources – selection of defined emission sources and pollutants for dispersion cal-
culations with the possibility of edition emission modulations,
– Meteorology – importing and analysing the meteorological data for selected period
of time (half hourly or hourly values) containing information: date, time, wind
speed, wind direction and stability class of atmosphere),
– Topography – importing additional data for GRAMM model,
– Computation – selection of range of calculations and performing calculations.
The domain has been specified in Coordinate System for Poland ETRS_1989_-
Zone_6 in the area of Legionow Square (about 2000 2000 m). Grid resolution has
been defined for 10 m. Calculations of dispersion were provided for the same time as
simulations of the emission rate in NEMO, i.e. for all 2015. Therefore, meteorological
data has been prepared hourly for all 2015. The source of the meteorological data was
air monitoring station belonging to the national monitoring system, located on the
Korzeniowski Coast in Wroclaw (the nearest station). Emission of all pollutants for
each of road section (emission source) were taken from NEMO model. Additionally, in
GIS Interface (tab Domain), the GIS layer with buildings geometry and highs has been
loaded (as ESRI shapefile). The GIS data was taken from Wroclaw Development
Office, City Hall of Wroclaw. The GRAL model calculates among others wind fields
and, based on their, concentrations of pollutants in each receptor of the mesh. Con-
centration values depend on distance from emission source, land use (e.g. surface
roughness, obstacles as buildings) and meteorological parameters (wind speed, wind
direction and atmosphere stability class). Concentrations are calculated for every
meteorological situation (in this case every hour all year) in all mesh. After calculations
it is possible to calculate averaged concentration values over the imported meteoro-
logical time series (mean), maximum daily mean concentration and percentiles.
5 Results
The results of computations are stored as ASCII Files and it is also possible to visualize
the results of simulations in tab Domain (GIS Interface). There are many ways to
present spatial distribution of concentration in graphical form, e.g. as isolines (contour)
or pixel with many colours, line widths, labels, fonts, etc. A north arrow and map scale
could be also added into the map. GRAL GIS Interface allows to analyse mean and
max concentration values averaged to all inputted meteorological situations (in this
case hourly for all 2015) and also to analyse every situation separately. In Fig. 4
exemplary spatial distribution of PM10 (particle matter of 10 lm or less) concentration
(mean values averaged for all 2015) is presented. On the map the objects in the
greyscale are buildings.
The highest concentration values of the analysed pollutant have been registered
along the line source and spreading over the entire width of the road up to the
buildings, which are obstacles. Farther from the source, PM10 concentration values are
significantly lower. It shows that along the roads with compact buildings are the so-
called “street canyons” and ventilation in that cases is much more difficult than in the
open area. It makes that pollutants cumulative inside the street canyon.
Fig. 4. Map of average annual values of PM10 concentration in area of Legionow Square
6 Conclusions
Mathematical modelling of dispersion of pollutants from road transport is a very

important tool in the analysis of the impact of motorization on the quality of atmo-
spheric air. It is almost impossible to make accurate measurements of concentrations of
pollutants in the air, because they require a lot of work and time. In addition, mea-
surements can be made at one or several measurement points, and this also carries high
costs for the measuring equipment. And the next, not only pollution from motor
vehicles but also from other emission sources is taken into account in the measurements
of air quality. Mathematical modelling in comparison to measurements is less time-
consuming and labour-intensive, it only takes into account pollution from vehicles and
it could be used for areas of various sizes, from a single section of road to whole urban
agglomerations. With the right choice of parameters for the specific cases, mathe-
matical modelling is the fastest and the best tool, giving reliable results in considering
the impact of road transport on the quality of ambient air.
In the paper simulations of dispersion of air pollutants emitted from road transport
were presented. The calculations of concentrations of pollutants are averaged to one
year, 2015. In the next steps of research in this topic the correlation between con-
centrations of pollutants and category of vehicles will be determined.
Acknowledgments. The results presented in the paper was provided and developed during the
0402/0056/17 project realization.
References
1. Snyder M-G, Heist D-K (2013) User’s guide for R-LINE model, version 1.2. A research
LINE source model for near-surface releases
2. Brzozowska L et al (2009) Transport drogowy a jakość powietrza atmosferycznego.
Modelowanie komputerowe w mezoskali, Wydawnictwa Komunikacji i Laczności.
Warszawa
3. Borrego C et al (2003) Emission and dispersion modelling of Lisbon air quality at local
scale. Atmos Environ 37:5197–5205
4. Öettl D, Kuntner M (2017) Recommendations when using the GRAL/GRAMM modelling
system. Government of Styria, Graz, Austria
5. Öettl D (2015) Quality assurance of the prognostic, microscale wind-field model GRAL 14.8
using wind-tunnel data provided by the German VDI guideline 3783-9. J Wind Eng Ind
Aerodyn 142:104–110
6. Zink K et al (2016) GRAMM/GRAL: Computing air quality maps at the urban scale. In:
Proceedings of the 17th international conference on harmonisation within atmospheric
dispersion modelling for regulatory purposes. Budapest, Hungary
7. Ntziachristos L, Samaras Z (2000) Speed-dependent representative emission factors for
catalyst passenger cars and influencing parameters. Atmos Environ 34:4611–4619
8. Buron J-M (2004) Estimation of road transportation emissions in Spain from 1988 to 1999
using COPERT III program. Atmos Environ 38(5):715–724
9. HBEFA (2017) Handbook of emission factors for road traffic, version 3.3. Infras AG, Bern
10. Infras AG (1995) Handbuch fur Emissionsfaktoren des Strassenverkehrs. INFRAS, Bern
11. iCET (2015) Calculating urban transportation emissions: private vehicles. Lessons from
existing tools’ development, design and implementation
12. Eichlseder H (2015) Assessment of transport emissions in Luxembourg based on emission
factors from HBEFA1.2 and HBEFA3.2. Graz
13. Dippold M et al (2004) NEMO – A universal and flexible model for assessment of emission
on road networks. In: 19th international conference transport and air pollution. Thessaloniki,
Greece
14. Rexeis M, Hausberger S (2009) Trend of vehicle emission level until 2020 – Prognosis
based on current vehicle measurements and future emission legislation. Atmos Environ
43:4689–4698
15. User manual emission model, NEMO network emission model, version 4.0.0, Institute of
internal combustion engines and thermodynamics. Technical University of Graz, Austria
16. Öettl D (2017) Documentation of the Lagrangian particle model GRAL (Graz Lagrangian
model). Government of Styria, Graz, Austria
17. Öettl D, Kuntner M (2017) GRAL manual GRAL graphical user interface. Government of
Styria, Graz, Austria
Application of Multi-vector Iteration
to Identification of Load Distribution
in Slewing Bearing of Excavator
Michał Smolnicki and Tadeusz Smolnicki(&)

Michal.Jan.Smolnicki@gmail.com,
Tadeusz.Smolnicki@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. Equilibrium aspect of complex assemblies is important problem to

deal with, because such systems are statically indeterminate with usage of
classic mechanical methods. In this paper method of solving assembly of this
type using numerical computation is shown. The aim of article is to present
possibility of using optimization methods such as Newton-Raphson method to
finding equilibrium of forces and torques as well as presenting description of
object in terms of mechanic, which is need to properly define equation systems
to solve. Described method is finally applied to slewing bearing of crawling
excavator. Load distribution for every rolling element and change in contact
angle is presented.
Keywords: Slewing bearing Numerical methods Load distribution
1 Introduction
Complex mechanical assemblies are connected by construction elements, which have

both non-linear and asymmetric characteristic of main properties. In assemblies of this
type solving equilibrium problems is important problem to deal with, because system is
statically indeterminate with usage of classic mechanical methods. Good example of
such assembly is slewing bearing with more than one row. Each of this row is char-
acterised by different and variable action-angle, radial and axial clearance and value of
preload.
In this paper method of solving such of assembly using numerical computation is
presented. The purpose is to show possibility of using optimization methods such as
Newton-Raphson method to finding equilibrium of forces and torques as well as pre-
senting description of object in terms of mechanic, which is need to properly define
equation systems to solve. Finally application of presented method to force analysis of
rolling elements in slewing bearing of crawler excavator is showed for four different
position of excavator boom.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_77
670 M. Smolnicki and T. Smolnicki
2 Determination of Specific Loads of Balls in Bearings
In order to solve problem of force distribution for every ball of slewing bearing under
particular external forces coordinate system with beginning in middle of bearing is
used. In the Fig. 1 main symbols of quantities are denoted.
Coordinates of the most loaded ball are showed in Eq. (1).
2 3
R
C ¼ 4O5 ð1Þ
h
After consideration about initial work direction of bearing (descripted by angle c) as

well as length of radiuses rA and rB it is possible to calculate coordinates of middle point
of raceways A and B curvatures. Appropriate equations are denoted as formula (2).
2 3 2 3
R þ ðra r Þsin c R ðrb r Þsin c
A¼4 O 5B ¼ 4 O 5 ð2Þ
h þ ðra r Þsin c h ðrb r Þsin c
Fig. 1. Key quantities of slewing bearing and their symbols

Application of Multi-vector Iteration 671
Another key parameters of bearing in terms of load distribution are clearance – both
radial and axial. After taking that into consideration final dependence on location of
middle point of raceways A and B curvatures is obtain as shown in the Eq. (3).
2 3 2 3
R þ ðra r Þsin c R ðrb r Þsin c
AL ¼ 4 O 5BL ¼ 4 O 5 ð3Þ
h þ ðra r Þsin c þ Lr h ðrb r Þsin c þ Lo
Balls of bearing lie on circumference of circle, which has radius equal to half of the
bearing pitch diameter. From that fact as well as from Eq. (2) one could infer general
location of middle point of raceways A and B for ball number i – denoted as Ai and Bi
respectively (Eq. 4).
2 3
ðR þ ðra r Þsin cÞ cos 2p i1
6
z
7
6 7
Ai ¼ 6 ðR þ ðr r Þsin cÞ sin 2p i1 7
4 a z 5
h þ ðra r Þsin c þ Lr
2 3 ð4Þ
ðR ðrb r Þsin cÞ cos 2p i1
6
z
7
6 7
Bi ¼ 6 ðR ðr r Þsin cÞ sin 2p i1 7
4 b z 5
h þ ðra r Þsin c þ Lo
Bearing like other objects must comply basic criteria of equilibrium. In problem
which is taken into account in this paper 5 equations shown in the Eq. (5) are relevant.
X X X X X
X ¼ 0; Y ¼ 0; Z ¼ 0; Mx ¼ 0; My ¼ 0 ð5Þ
It has been assumed that ring A of bearing is stationary, however ring OB can be
moved in 3 directions - x; y; z as well as rotated about axis x and y. Points Bi are
dependent on location of ring OB so they change their coordinates while this ring is
moved. It is possible to define location of these points (i.e. contact points of balls and
ring OB ) after move (denoted as B0i ) using basic transformation matrixes (i.e. rotation
and translation matrixes). Appropriate rearranging is presented in formula (6).
2 32 32 3 2 3
cos ay 0 sin ay 1 0 0 ðR ðrb r Þsin cÞ cosðai Þ ux
0 6 76 76 7 6 7
Bi ¼ 4 0 1 0 54 0 cos ax sin ax 54 ðR ðrb r Þsin cÞ sinðai Þ 5 þ 4 uy 5
sin ay 0 cos ay 0 sin ax cos ax h þ ðra r Þsin c þ Lo uz
ð6Þ
Once coordinates of B;i points are obtained it is possible to obtain value of distance
between raceways A and B. This is done by simply vectors subtraction as shown in the
Eq. (7).

di ¼ Ai B0i jAi Bi j ð7Þ
Next step is to obtain the value of force at all pairs raceway-ball-raceway. This
force is either 0 when there is no contact or is given by a formula (8) dependent on the
distance taken from Eq. 7 and some constants such as Young’s Modulus E and
parameters of exponential function C and g [1].
(
d 1g 21
g ; gdy d [ 0
C Ed
i
Fi ¼ i ð8Þ
0; gdy di 0
Of course, the force is a vector quantity, so beside the value we need to define
direction of force vector. It is clear, that this direction is the same as direction of B0i Ai
vector, so we can take it from formula (9).
0
i ¼ Fi Bi Ai
F ð9Þ
jB0i Ai j
After obtaining force vectors we can obtain torques vectors as a result of cross
product of force and position vector (lever).
3 Numerical Solving of Described Problem
In previous point the complete system of equations is demanded to solve the problem.
However in order to check the criteria of equilibrium under particular external loads
displacement ux ; uy ; uz and rotation ax ; ay must be known. That is the reason why other
method is applied. In this paper generalised displacement is searched for which
equilibrium criteria are fulfilled.
Problems which are described later in this paper are complex and cannot be solved
without use of the computer. For the purposes of this article the computer program is
written using the Java language. Version 8 of Java is used with standard library – Math.
All numerical values are stored as double type. This is double-precision floating point
type of number in Java. Exactness which is provided by use of such a number is
sufficient for described problem.
First problem to deal with is the angle ai from formula 6 which is not exactly the
same as 2p i1
z angle for ball i cause of movement of ring OB . The assumption that
generalized displacements of ring OB is knew, in purpose to obtain value of ai , one
must solve non-linear equation 10.

0 0 i1
x ai tg 2p y0 a0i ¼ 0 ð10Þ
z
This type of non-linear equation is simply to solve by use of the Newton-Raphson

method. This is typical root-finding algorithm which is based on value of function in
point x0 as well as value of derivative of this function in point x0 . Algorithm can be
written in simply recursive form (see formula 11).
f ð xk Þ
xk þ 1 ¼ xk df ð11Þ
dx ðxk Þ
Method described above has quadratic convergence. Taking into account the rel-
atively small number of equations needed to solve it is clearly sufficient. The important
thing to consider is the starting point for formula 11. For computation which is made
for the needs of project angle 2p i1
z is used (where i is number of particular ball and z
is total number of balls). Derivative function is obtained using analytical methods.
To solve the main problem the following steps are made. Firstly we arbitrarily
assume the generalized displacement vector denoted as x0 ¼ ðu0x ; u0y ; u0z ; a0x ; a0y Þ. Next
we use formulas described earlier in this paper to find forces and torques in each node.
After summing the forces and torques for all nodes we can check if it satisfied the
equilibrium criteria (formula 5). Of course the answer is negative, cause values of
displacements are arbitrarily assumed. So we use the Newton-Raphson method to
recursively find best vector xk again [2]. Unfortunately, the usage of the Newton-
Raphson method for non-linear multi-equation systems is not that easy as it is for one
equation. General idea is the same as it is showed at formula 11, but with use of matrix
calculation like is presented in the Eq. (12) [2].
1
xðkÞ ¼ xðk1Þ J xðk1Þ F xðk1Þ ð12Þ
J denotes Jacoby Matrix and is equivalent of derivative in one equation formula-

tion. F denotes vector of forces and torques calculated for xk1 vector. Full definition is
presented in the formula 13.
2 @Fx @Fx @Fx @Fx @Fx 3
@ux @uy @uz @ax @ay 2 3
6 @F 7 F x ux ; uy ; uz ; ax ; ay
6 y @Fy @Fy @Fy @Fy 7 6 7
6 @ux @uy @uz @ax @ay 7 6 F y ux ; uy ; uz ; ax ; ay 7
6 7 6 7
6 @F @Fz @Fz @Fz @Fz 7 6 7
J ð xÞ ¼ 6 @uxz @uy @uz @ax @ay 7F ð x Þ ¼ 6 Fz ux ; uy ; uz ; ax ; ay 7 ð12Þ
6 7 6 7
6 @Mx @Mx @Mx @Mx @Mx 7 4 M x ux ; uy ; uz ; ax ; ay 5
6 @ux @ay 7
4 @My @uz @ax 5
@My @My @My @My @My M y ux ; uy ; uz ; ax ; ay
@ux @uy @uz @ax @ay
In fact functions that describe dependency between generalized displacements and

forces (or torques) are too much complicated to find partial derivative using analytical
methods, so we decide to obtain values of this partials at particular points using
numerical computation.
Based on recommendations included in the paper [3] we use symmetric formula
(see formula 13) for derivative, which is better than standard one.
df f ðx þ hÞ f ðx hÞ
¼ ð13Þ
dx 2h
We used double type of data so machine accuracy (i.e. the smallest number which
after adding to 1 gives number other than that) is set as ef ¼ 252 . According to [3] the
best h value taking into account both truncation as well as fractional error is presented
in the Eq. 14.
1
h ¼ e3f x ð14Þ
The last impactful issue in derivative finding problem is that computers are binary-
based in contrast to decimal numbers which we usually use. For this reason after value
of h is obtained (as a finite decimal number) from 14 formula it is necessary to round it
to closest finite in binary meaning. After Jacoby matrix is calculated as described above
there is need to find inverse matrix. For that purpose Gauss-Jordan elimination is
applied.
4 Application to Bearing of Crawling Excavator
We use computer program written based on information contained in previous part of

the paper for finding load distribution in rolling elements of crawling excavator.
Problem of determining load distribution in excavator slewing bearing or similar
machine is presented in papers [4–8]. Similar problems are presented as well in dif-
ferent machine and their elements [9–11]. In the Fig. 2, the key information about it is
also presented. In the part (a) schema of excavator, in the part (b) trajectory of exca-
vator boom with considering position (indicated by Roman number) and finally in the
part (c) main dimensions of bearing are showed.
Fig. 2. Digging forces of crawler excavator and slewing bearing of its superstructures
In the calculation according to ISO standard the digging force is assumed at the
level of 80 kN. Subsequent load cases denoted by Roman number have different axial,
radial forces as well as slewing moment. This load cases represent four different
positions of excavator boom defined by az angle value – for I case 30 and 0 , 30 ,
60 for cases II, III and IV respectively. In Table 1 the values of this forces (and
moment) are shown as well as the calculated maximal specific load of ball (i.e. load
divided by squared diameter) and change of rolling element contact angle (see
formula 15).
AB0 AB
Dc ¼ arc cos ð15Þ
jAB0 j jABj
Table 1. Resultant forces on slewing bearing, maximal forces on balls and its directions
Load Digging force 80 kN Upper (main) row Lower row
case
Axial Radial Slewing Maximal Change Maximal Change
force force moment specific of specific of
[kN] [kN] [kNm] load of rolling load of rolling
ball element ball element
[MPa] contact [MPa] contact
angle angle
[deg] [deg]
I −531 −40 499 16,57 7,10 18,40 0,74
II −520 0 512 16,59 7,35 19,98 0,86
III −531 40 505 16,28 7,56 20,81 1,09
IV −600 80 364 13,42 7,25 16,59 1,76
Fig. 3. Load per unit of area in function of circumferential angle – load case IV
Fig. 4. Change of rolling element contact angle in function of circumferential angle – load case
IV
Fig. 5. Comparison of change of rolling element contact angle in function of circumferential

angle – for different load cases - lower row
Computer program written by the authors of this papers in Java environment is used to
find the loads distribution for rolling elements as well as to obtain the change in contact
angle for each ball. Numerical optimization method such as Newton-Raphson method
is used in purpose to solve the non-linear multi-equation systems. Created program can
be used to calculate this quantities for any two-point bearing. The parameters for such
computation are the bearing diameter, balls diameter, number of rows, curvature radius
of raceways, radial and axial clearance and angle of action. In the article the usage of
presented method for real object is detailly presented. The distribution of loads for
crawling excavator is also made. Results are shown in form of appropriate charts
(examples are shown in the Figs. 3, 4 and 5) and maximal value of force with division
into lower and upper row. The loads obtained in this way in every ball can be used as
the input data for finite element method models and be very helpful in analyse of the
machine work.
References
1. Smolnicki T (2013) Large size machines rotation joints. Local and global phenomena (in
Polish); Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław
2. Remani C (2012) Numerical methods for solving systems of nonlinear equations. Lakehead
University, Ontario
3. Press WH (2002) Numerical recipes in C. Cambridge University Press, New York
4. Smolnicki T, Rusiński E (2007) Superelement-based modeling of load distribution in large-
size slewing bearings. J Mech Des 129(4):459–463
5. Smolnicki T, Derlukiewicz D, Stańco M (2008) Evaluation of load distribution in the
superstructure rotation joint of single-bucket caterpillar excavators. Autom Constr 17
(3):218–223
6. Kania L, Krynke M, Mazanek E (2012) A catalogue capacity of slewing bearings. Mech
Mach Theory 58:29–45 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2012.07.012
7. Gao X, Hang XD, Wang H, Chen J (2011) Modelling of ball-raceway contacts in a slewing
bearing with non-linear springs. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part C J Mech Eng Sci 225(C4):827–
831. https://doi.org/10.1177/09544062jmes2454
8. Hongbin L, Jishun L, Yujun X, Wei M (2011) Study on load distribution calculating method
of slewing bearing with the link elements. Adv Sci Lett 4(8–10):2759–2763. https://doi.org/
10.1166/asl.2011.1638
9. Sokolski P, Sokolski M (2014) Evaluation of resistance to catastrophic failures of large-size
caterpillar chain links of open-pit mining machinery. Eksploatacja i niezawodnosc -
maintenance and reliability 16(1):80–84
10. Biernacki K (2014) Selection of the optimum tooth profile for plastic cycloidal gears. Proc
Inst Mech Eng Part C J Mech Eng Sci 228(18):3395–3404. https://doi.org/10.1177/
0954406214531408
11. Zrnić N, Hoffmann K, Bošnjak S (2009) Modelling of dynamic interaction between structure
and trolley for mega container cranes. Math Comput Model Dyn Syst 15(3):295–311
Numerical Modelling of Thermal
and Mechanical Properties of Construction
Elements in a Heat Storage Unit with Phase
Change
Daniel Smykowski(&), Tomasz Tietze, Piotr Szulc,

and Kazimierz Wójs
Faculty of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science

and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
daniel.smykowski@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. This paper presents the results of simulations of thermal stresses

occurring in a thermal energy storage unit with a phase-change material. The
simulations have been performed for a smooth tube and two different airflow
velocities. The thermal stresses occurring in the thermal energy storage unit are
caused by the heating of the material of the tubes and a change in the volume of the
phase-change material. It has been shown that the greatest thermal stresses occur
during the initial heating of the thermal energy storage unit, while the location of
potential damage depends on whether the stresses come from the temperature
gradient in the material of the tube or from the expansion of the phase-change
material.
Keywords: Phase change material Thermal energy storage Thermal stress
1 Introduction
Storage of various forms of energy is currently a very interesting issue both in scientific
and utilitarian aspects. One of the most commonly used forms of energy storage is the
storage of thermal energy. Thermal energy can be stored in solid materials as well as in
liquid materials with a relatively high heat capacity. The thermal energy stored is
proportional to the volume of the material and its physical properties. Therefore the
storage of large amounts of thermal energy requires the use of large volumes of the
material, which entails significant investment costs. Up to now, the most commonly
used material has been water. It is a cheap material which however has disadvantages
that limit the possibility of using it. The most important disadvantages include low
thermal capacity, which makes it necessary to use very large tanks, and a low boiling
point in non-pressurized systems. The use of pressurized systems that allow raising the
boiling point considerably complicates the design of the system and increases the
associated investment costs.
The solution to this problem is the use of a material with a greater thermal capacity,
which allows utilizing the phenomenon of phase transition at a specific temperature [1–
5]. Such a material significantly increases the amount of heat that can be stored. Such
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_78
Numerical Modelling of Thermal and Mechanical Properties 679
materials are called phase change materials (PCM). When selecting such materials,
their physical properties, such as the melting point and the enthalpy of phase transition,
should be taken into account. Currently, materials with different physical properties are
widely availability in the market, which enables the selection of a material with an
appropriate phase transition temperature dedicated to a given phase transition process.
The process of energy storage takes place in thermal energy storage units filled with
the PCM material, which have been designed specifically for a given process. In
practice, stationary thermal energy storage units are used most often. They are usually
placed near the process, from which they are charged and discharged [5]. Mobile
thermal energy storage units constitute another group. They enable transport of thermal
energy to customers located at a greater distance from the heat source [5]. In terms of the
range of operating temperatures, thermal energy storage units were divided into three
basic groups: low, medium and high temperature units. In the case of low-temperature
storage (up to 100 °C), commonly used PCM materials include paraffins and possibly
fatty acids. Due to their low melting point, paraffins are quite commonly used in solar
heating systems. In [6], RT50 paraffin (with a melting point of 50 °C) was used in a solar
system for production of domestic hot water. The PCM material was located in a tube-
in-tube heat exchanger. Based on the numerical calculations performed, it has been
found that the stability of the heat flux is better for PCM located in the internal tube. In
addition, due to a special arrangement of the phase-change material, the time of melting
was reduced by almost 50%. Another problem associated with the use of paraffins as
phase-change materials is their low thermal conductivity. In [7, 8], the coefficient of
conductivity of paraffin was improved by adding carbon fibres, graphite foam and solid
particles with a higher thermal conductivity, e.g. powdered aluminium. Experimental
studies conducted on a laboratory scale and a pilot scale with the use of paraffin as a
phase-change material [9, 10] showed that the time of melting was shorter than the time
of solidification due to the fact that a layer of solidified material was formed at the tubes
in the second case and that there was no heat transfer through convection.
In the case of a medium-temperature storage (up to 250 °C), salts or hydroxides are
used primarily, while in the case of a high-temperature storage (above 250 °C) there are
used salts but also liquid metals. The phase-change materials with a melting point up to
250 °C which are commonly found in the literature include a mixture of salts called
Hitec. Due to a higher melting point than that of paraffin, it is used, inter alia, in solar
power plants. It is an eutectic mixture with the following composition by weight: 53%
KNO3, 40% NaNO2 and 7% NaNO3.
As a result of the process of charging and discharging the thermal energy storage
unit, a temperature gradient is created in the structural material of the thermal energy
storage unit and the density is changing – and thus also the volume of the PCM
material. As a consequence, stresses are applied to the tubes of the thermal energy
storage unit, which may lead to damage.
The purpose of the simulations was to determine the stresses occurring in the
structural elements of the model segment of the thermal energy storage unit due to
changes in temperature changes during the process of charging the thermal energy
storage unit. An analysis of the stresses occurring as a result of the changes in the
temperature during the operation of the thermal energy storage unit were performed.
One design variant (with a smooth tube) was subjected to the analysis. The simulations
680 D. Smykowski et al.
were carried out for two values of the velocity of the hot air charging the thermal
energy storage unit. Parameters such as temperature and stress distribution along the
tube were taken into account in the analysis.
2 Methodology
Two models of the segment of the thermal energy storage unit were used in the
simulations, taking into account two velocities of the flow of air through the tube of the
storage unit. The geometry of the segment of the thermal energy storage unit is pre-
sented in Fig. 1. The numerical simulations were carried out using COMSOL Multi-
physics software [11].
Fig. 1. The three-dimensional models of two geometry variants of the segment of the thermal
energy storage unit used in simulations
The model of the segment of the thermal energy storage unit has following external
dimensions: 200 mm 200 mm 500 mm. Inside the segment, there is a smooth tube
with the external diameter of 30 mm and the internal diameter of 22 mm. The bottom
part of the segment of the thermal energy storage unit is equipped with transverse
supports with a rectangular cross-section (20 mm 20 mm) – one fixed (bottom
surface of the support with locked coordinates) and the other one movable.
The numerical model consists of three domains: air flowing through the tube – heat
transfer with non-isothermal flow, smooth tube (SS316L steel) – heat transfer, and
phase-change material (PCM) – heat transfer. Additionally, to each of the domains,
except the air inside the tube, there was assigned a solid mechanics model used for
determining the stresses and deformations. The phase-change material in the thermal
energy storage unit is an alloy of three salts: NaNO3 – KNO3 – NaNO2 with a phase
transition temperature of 150 °C. Based on DSC measurements [12], the heat capacity
of PCM together with the latent heat was implemented in the form of a piecewise
function with the following conditions:
Tð25 C147 CÞ : Cp ¼ 1:17 kJ=ðkg KÞ ð1Þ

Table 1. The most important physical properties of the materials used in the simulation
Temperature of the start of the phase transition 147 °C
Temperature of the end of the phase transition 153 °C
Heat of phase transition 122 kJ/kg
Heat capacity of PCM(s) 1.17 kJ/kg K
Heat capacity of PCM(c) 1.73 kJ/kg K
Density of PCM 1938 kg/m3
Density of SS316L steel 7950 kg/m3
Coefficient of thermal conductivity for PCM 0.5 W/m K
Coefficient of thermal conductivity for SS316 steel 12–17 W/m K
Thermal expansion for SS316L steel 1.55–1.7 10−5 1/K
Thermal expansion for PCM 3.4–3.9 10−5 1/K
Young’s modulus for SS316L steel 1.8–2.0 10−5 Pa
Young’s modulus for PCM 2.2–2.6 E10 Pa
Poisson’s ratio for SS316L steel 0.295
Poisson’s ratio for PCM 0.278
Table 1 presents the most important parameters representing the thermal and
mechanical properties of the materials used in the model of the thermal energy storage unit.
In the performed simulations, the air flows through the tube inside the storage unit
with an average velocity of (depending on the variant): 2 m/s and 10 m/s, while the
temperature at the inlet is 250 °C. The initial temperature of the domain of PCM and
tube is 20 °C, which corresponds to the discharged and supercooled thermal energy
storage unit.
Fig. 2. Arrangement of the stress and temperature measurement points in the wall of the tube of
the thermal energy storage unit
The distributions of the temperature and stress in the tube as well as the extent of
deformations were analyzed. The measurement points designated as P1…P11 were
selected to determine the value of stresses and temperatures at 11 points along the tube
– from the inlet of the tube to its outlet with a spacing of 7 cm (Fig. 2).
Fig. 3. Plots of temperatures at the selected points of the wall of the tube for the variant with the
air flow velocity of 10 m/s
Figure 3 shows plots of temperatures at the selected points of the wall of the tube for
the variant with the air flow velocity of 10 m/s.
Fig. 4. Time characteristics of stresses at the analyzed points of the wall of the tube for the air
flow velocity of 10 m/s
Plots of temperatures at individual points of the wall of the tube indicate that in the
initial phase (several first minutes) the increase of the temperature in the tube is very
intense, while the difference of temperatures in the individual zones along the tube is
the largest. Then, along with the further course of the heating process, the temperature
difference in the wall of the tube decreases, while temperatures at each point stabilize.
The thermal phenomena occurring in the thermal energy storage unit directly affect the
characteristics of stresses in the tube. Figure 4 shows the time characteristics of stresses at
the selected points of the wall of the tube (variant with an air velocity of 10 m/s).
The curves representing stress values at the analyzed points in the wall of the tube
indicate that a rapid increase in the stress values is observed in the initial phase of
heating. This effect results from a large temperature difference in the individual zones
of the tube and coincides with a rapid increase in the temperature of the wall of the
tube. It is worth noting that the highest values of stresses are observed for points 4, 5, 6
and 7, which are located in the middle part of the tube. At the moment when tem-
peratures at individual points of the tube begin to stabilize, the values of stresses
decrease to a significant extent and in most points they reach the minimum value. As a
result of further heating, a relatively mild increase in values of stresses takes place,
while the temperatures in individual zones of the tube are practically constant. In
addition, maximum stresses appear not in the middle part of the tube, but at its ends. In
this case, the increase of the stresses in the tube is caused by the heating of the PCM
material and the resulting stresses that are transferred to the walls of the tube. An
Fig. 5. Distribution of stresses, distribution of temperature, and strains in the selected stages of
the simulation for the air flow velocity of 10 m/s
important observation is the fact that the maximum value of stresses in the phase of
heating of the tube is significantly higher than that in the subsequent phase associated
with the heating of PCM. Therefore, the highest values of stresses result from too rapid
heating of the tube in the initial phase, which is caused by an excessive velocity of the
flow of hot air.
The observations resulting from the time characteristics of temperatures and
stresses are confirmed by the distributions of temperatures and stresses, as shown in
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6. Plots of temperatures at the selected points of the wall of the tube for the variant with a
smooth tube and the air flow velocity of 2 m/s
For comparison, there was performed a simulation at a reduced stream of hot air
flowing through the tube of the thermal energy storage unit. Figure 6 shows plots of
Fig. 7. Time characteristics of stresses at the analyzed points of the wall of the tube for the air
flow velocity of 2 m/s
temperatures at the selected points of the wall of the tube for the variant with a smooth
tube and the air flow velocity of 2 m/s.
In the case of a lower velocity of air flow, the individual zones of the tube heat up
slower than in the previous one, while a distinct temperature difference is observed in
the tube itself. In this case, the duration of the phase of the rapid heating of the tube is
approx. 50–60 min and is longer as compared with the previous simulation. Along with
further heating, the temperatures of the wall of the tube stabilize (Fig. 7).
A lower dynamics of the increase in the temperature of the tube in the phase of
initial heating affects directly the values of the stresses observed. In relation to the
previous case, the stress values are distinctly lower, especially in the initial phase of
charging the thermal energy storage unit. In addition, the stresses in the initial phase are
at a level similar to that at the final phase of heating. This means that the flow of hot air
in this case is sufficiently limited so that the heating of the thermal energy storage unit
is not too rapid and does not result in excessive stresses.
Fig. 8. Distribution of stresses, distribution of temperature, and strains in the selected stages of
the simulation for the air flow velocity of 2 m/s.
Similarly to the previous simulation, in the initial phase of heating, the greatest
stresses occur in the central zone of the tube (points 4, 5, 6, 7), while in the final phase
the stresses of the highest values are visible in peripheral areas of the tube, especially
on the side of the inlet of the thermal energy storage unit. These observations are
confirmed by the stress distributions presented in Fig. 8.
The analysis of the results allows drawing practical conclusions as to the design and
method of supplying the thermal energy storage unit. The element, in which the
greatest stresses occur due to temperature, is the tube through which the medium
supplying the thermal energy storage unit flows. Based on the simulations, two critical
zones were identified, in which the stress values are the highest, and thus these areas
are exposed to the greatest risk of damage. During the initial phase of heating of the
thermal energy storage unit, regardless of the flow rate of the medium, the zone that is
most exposed to risk is the middle part of the tube. The flow rate significantly affects
the values of the stresses, but does not have any visible impact on the locations of their
occurrence. In turn, in further phases of charging the thermal energy storage unit, along
with an increase in the temperature of PCM and the stabilization of the distribution of
temperature along the tube, large stresses start appearing at the ends of the tube,
especially on the side of inlet of the storage unit.
It is worth noting that in the case of a high flow rate of hot air the maximum values
of stresses during the entire simulation are observed in the initial phase and are much
higher than the stress values observed in later stages of charging. A decrease in the air
flow rate results in reducing these stresses, so that the stress values in the initial and
final phases of charging the thermal energy storage unit are at a similar level. From a
practical point of view, the thermal energy storage unit should be charged in the initial
stage with a reduced flow rate of hot medium, and the flow rate can be increased only
after a relative stabilization of temperatures of the wall of the tube.
The paper presents an analysis of stresses occurring in the structure of the thermal
energy storage unit as a result of charging it with hot air. Two air streams corre-
sponding to average flow velocities of 2 m/s and 10 m/s were considered. During the
process of charging of the thermal energy heat storage unit, three main stages can be
distinguished: a rapid increase in the temperature of the tube and the resulting stresses
in the tube, the stage of stabilization of the distribution of temperatures in the tube and a
reduction of stresses, as well as further heating of the PCM material which transfers the
stresses occurring in it to the wall of the tube. The simulations demonstrated that the
stress values in the first stage depended strongly on the stream of hot air, and thus on
the rate of heating the thermal energy storage unit. From a practical point of view, this
means that the initial stream that charges the thermal energy storage unit should be
reduced to prevent the occurrence of excessive stresses which could potentially damage
the components of the thermal energy storage unit. It is also important that the potential
locations of damage to the structure of the thermal energy storage unit depend on
whether they result form a rapid heating of the storage unit in the first phase or are
caused by the stresses originating from the PCM material being heated. In the first case,
damage could be expected in the central zones of the tube, while in the second case – at
its ends, especially on the side of the air inlet of the thermal energy storage unit.
The test results obtained are important in terms of designing the mechanical structure of
thermal energy storage units and optimization of the algorithm for controlling the
process of charging and discharging the thermal energy storage unit.
References
1. Zalba B et al (2003) Review on thermal energy storage with phase change: materials, heat
transfer analysis and applications. Appl Therm Eng 23(3):251
2. Jankowski NR, McCluskey FP (2014) A review of phase change materials for vehicle
component thermal buffering. Appl Energy 113:1525–1561
3. Agyenim F et al (2010) A review of materials, heat transfer and phase change problem
formulation for latent heat thermal energy storage systems (LHTESS). Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 14:615–628
4. Liu M et al (2012) Review on storage materials and thermal performance enhancement
techniques for high temperature phase change thermal storage systems. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 16:2118–2132
5. Wójs K (2015) Odzysk i zagospodarowanie niskotemperaturowego ciepła odpadowego ze
spalin wylotowych, PWN, Warszawa
6. Gorzin M et al (2018) Investigation of PCM charging for the energy saving of domestic hot
water system. Appl Therm Eng 137(5):659
7. Khyad A et al (2016) Energy storage with PCMs: experimental analysis of paraffin’s phase
change phenomenon & improvement of its properties. J Mater Environ Sci 7(7):2551
8. Guo C et al (2015) PCM/ graphite foam composite for thermal energy storage device. In:
2015 Global conference on polymer and composite materials (PCM 2015), IOP conference
series: materials science and engineering 87, p 012014
9. Jin Y et al (2015) PCMs heat transfer performance enhancement with expanded graphite and
its thermal stability. Procedia Eng 102:1877–1884
10. Gasia J et al (2016) Experimental evaluation of a paraffin as phase change material for
thermal energy storage in laboratory equipment and in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. Appl
Sci 6(4):112
11. Foong CW et al (2010) Numerical study of a high temperature latent heat storage
(200–300°C) using eutectic nitrate salt of sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate. In:
Proceedings of the COMSOL conference 2010
12. Redzicki R et al (2018) Research on medium-temperature phase change materials used in the
heat accumulation process (in polish). Rynek Energii 2:72–77
Thermal Evaluation of Operation of Disc
Brakes Made of Selected Materials
Justyna Sokolska and Piotr Sokolski(&)

{justyna.sokolska,piotr.sokolski}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. Disc brakes play a fundamental role in reliability and safety of

vehicles. Because of that a coupled thermal and mechanical analyses of oper-
ation of those parts made of three common materials were performed: steel, cast
iron and aluminum alloy. The best thermal properties were observed in alu-
minum alloy disc. On the other hand values of temperature of both steel and cast
iron were significantly higher but still below permissible level.
Keywords: Disc brakes Safety Thermal analysis Finite element method
1 Introduction
Brakes are one of the indispensable elements of wide range of machines. They are
usually operated under high loading which can result in high rate of wear. Several
significant pros of disc brakes make usage of those parts particularly favourable.
Among others they have high braking efficiency, are resist to unfavourable thermal
processes, are capable of self-cleaning and are not vulnerable to brake fade [5].
Elements of brake systems like linings must fulfil a combination of demands,
among which the most significant are to provide high values of coefficient of friction,
high durability and reliability and thermal stability. What is more, obtained values of
coefficient of friction should not be influenced by: weather conditions, contact pressure
between disc and linings, initial velocity and temperature of working surfaces in the
brake [16]. However, velocity of a vehicle in the moment of beginning of braking plays
a significant role in terms of values of coefficient of friction. An extensive study on this
problem is described in [16]. Brakes break-in has an effect on coefficient of friction as
well [14].
Among demands put towards modern brakes are high thermal conductivity, wear
resistance and low weight. It can be obtained using composites and light alloys among
others. Examination of one of composites consisting SiC ceramic and aluminum alloy
is presented in [6, 11]. Usage of that material positively influences thermal properties,
i.e. lowers both maximum temperature in the process of braking and thermal gradients.
It must be noted that beside its pros, that composite is characterised by two main
disadvantages: relatively low strength while operating in high temperatures and high
values of coefficient of linear expansion [6]. Usage of such types of materials is
extremely favourable in terms of heat distribution. High values of thermal conductivity

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_79
Thermal Evaluation of Operation of Disc Brakes 689
of used materials and cooling capability as well contribute to those benefits [11].
Special shape of brake elements can result in increase of both area of heat transfer and
speed of air flow. It can be obtained among others in so-called ventilated brakes
[11, 17].
There are plenty of factors which influence wear process which occurs in disc
brakes. Main parameters are hardness or state and properties of surface layer [8, 10].
Results of researches show that in order to obtain high wear resistance of a metallic
element one should ensure fine-grained microstructure as well as high values of
hardness, shear and compressive strength [8].
Developed polymer materials have more and more applications as machine parts. If
used for parts of disc brakes even more mechanical parameters would be meaningful,
such as coefficient of plasticity, tensile modulus, cracking velocity, critical crack length
among others [4].
Thermal processes play a significant role in terms of durability and reliability of the
whole brake systems. Improper heat transmission can result in several important
problems [1, 9, 12, 18]:
• Deformation of the disc and lowering of values of coefficient of friction;
• Cracks formation because of excessive thermal stresses;
• Vibrations;
• Local increase of contact pressure and because of that occurrence of spots of peak
temperatures escalating the phenomenon.
In case of deformation, coefficient of friction can also be modified. Both additional
stresses and deformation should be included in analyses of friction [7].
One of the most common ways of improving heat balance in those brakes is
application of ventilated discs. Thermal processes in such units are well analysed
among others in [3, 13].
2 Thermal Analyses of Disc Brakes
This work is a continuation of the Authors research presented in [17]. Previous anal-
yses of different types of disc brakes were performed in terms of their strength and
thermal processes running in those mechanisms. A significant influence of usage of
ventilated discs on values of stresses and temperature was shown as both parameters
were lowered.
The goal of the current work was to evaluate temperature level and distribution in
ventilated discs made of 3 different materials: steel, aluminum alloy AlZn5.5MgCu and
gray cast iron 150 (according to ISO). Steel is not typically used material for car’s disc
brakes whereas for motorcycles X12Cr13 steel can be used. In this paper application of
different steel (42CrMo4) with considerably better thermal properties was analyzed.
The goal of such a selection was to evaluate behavior of this material in extremely
demanding thermal conditions. Properties included in simulations (Table 1) were
derived from [3, 11, 17].
690 J. Sokolska and P. Sokolski
Table 1. Properties of disc and pads included in analyses

Density Young’s Poisson’s Thermal Thermal Specific
[kg/m3] modulus ratio [−] expansion conductivity heat
[GPa] [m/mK] [W/mK] [J/kgK]
Pads 1450 1.4 0.24 1.1e-5 1.1 1200
Steel disc 7800 209 0.29 1.26e-5 48 452
Gray cast 7250 138 0.28 1.08e-5 57 460
iron disc
Aluminum 2830 72 0.32 1.3e-5 153 860
disc
In the simulations values of temperature during and after the processes of braking
were evaluated. Main assumption taken into account was that the simulations repre-
sented an emergency braking of a passenger car which mass was 1830 kg. Initial speed
was 178 km/h and the car stopped after 7 s of braking [17]. Assumed boundary
conditions during the analyses were as follows. For disc rotation along the direction of
movement of the car was allowed while for pads every degree of freedom was fixed
which represented full clamp of those elements.
Fig. 1. Geometrical model of simulated pads-disc connection. Three points used in analyses are
marked: 1 – in the internal part of disc’s perimeter, 2 – in the middle of the disc’s perimeter,
3 – in the external part of disc’s perimeter
3D elements were utilized in the discrete model. Most of them were HEXA ones
and the rest were TETRA elements.
The model used in simulations is shown in Fig. 1. In thermal analyses distribution
of temperature along the radius of the disc was evaluated according to Fig. 1. The
analyses were focused on the outer part of the disc as this was the friction surface were
the highest temperature arise was expected.
Time courses of temperature for all points taken into account in simulations are
presented in Figs. 2, 3, 4.
Fig. 2. Values of temperature against time of 3 selected points on analyzed steel disc
(indications of points according to Fig. 1)
Fig. 3. Values of temperature against time of 3 selected points on analyzed cast iron disc
Fig. 4. Values of temperature against time of 3 selected points on analyzed aluminum alloy disc
One can notice that maximum values of temperature for all analyzed materials
occurred before the end of braking process in the middle and in the internal part of
disc’s perimeter. It corresponds to the results of research presented in [5, 15], where
peak values of temperature were observed at a specific time before the end of braking.
After this time temperature of elements of brakes decreased.
Another conclusion from the analysis of the results of simulations was that in
aluminium disc temperature values were the lowest: below 300 °C for point 1, below
200 °C for point 2 and slightly above 100 °C for point 3. Those values for steel and
cast iron were significantly higher: up to 500 °C, more than 300 °C and slightly below
200 °C for points 1, 2 and 3 respectively. It can be explained by significantly lower
values of thermal conductivity and specific heat of aluminum alloy. Better heat dis-
sipation was observed. Those two parameters for steel and cast iron had similar values
and time courses of temperature changes occurred.
For all of the materials used in simulations the biggest arise of temperature was
inside the perimeter of the disc. Gradually with growing distance from the centre of the
analysed part, temperature had lower values. The reason for this phenomenon could be
a bigger influence of air flow and heat radiation on the outer areas of the disc which
cooled it down.
Later in the simulations a general distribution of temperature within the disc after
the entire braking was analysed (Figs. 5, 6, 7). It was characterized by a uniform
character. Additionally, the initial assumption that temperature will have the biggest
values on the friction surface was confirmed. Those results also showed that with
growing distance from the centre of the disc within the perimeter, the temperature
values lowered.
Fig. 5. Temperature distribution [°C] in pads and steel brake disc and after braking
Fig. 6. Temperature distribution [°C] in pads and gray cast iron brake disc and after braking
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution [°C] in pads and aluminum alloy brake disc and after braking
Thermal analyses of operation of disc brakes for three common materials used were
done. Thermal processes ran more adversely in cast iron and steel than in aluminum
alloy. It was because of thermal conductivity and specific heat which have bigger
values in the latter material. It was also observed that the highest values of temperature
occurred in the inner part of the disc’s perimeter. Temperature lowered along the
radius. Such a location was caused by frictional character of those surfaces which were
in contact with pads.
In the end it is worth noting that beside above mentioned properties other
parameters like Young’s modulus have influence on vibroacoustic processes. Among
others in [2] a study on this phenomenon was carried out.
References
1. Belhocine A, Ghazaly NM, Abdullah OI (2014) Structural and contact analysis of a 3-
dimensional disc-pad model with and without thermal effects. Tribol Ind 36(4):406–418
2. Belhocine A, Ghazaly NM (2015) Effects of material properties on generation of brake
squeal noise using finite element method. Lat Am J Solids Struct 12(8):1432–1447
3. Belhocine A, Wan Omar WZ (2017) CFD analysis and numerical aerodynamic investiga-
tions of automotive disc brake rotor. Int J Mech 11:251–265
4. Capanidis D, Kowalewski P, Krauze M (2016) Study of resistance to abrasive wear of
multicomponent polyoxymethylene composites. Tribologia 47(1):7–19
5. Ghadimi B, Kowsary F, Khorami M (2013) Thermal analysis of locomotive wheel-mounted
brake disc. Appl Therm Eng 51(1–2):948–952
6. Jiang L, Jiang Y, Yu L, Su N, Ding Y (2012) Thermal analysis for brake disks of SiC/6061
Al alloy co-continuous composite for CRH3 during emergency braking considering airflow
cooling. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China 22:2783–2791
7. Kujawa M, Niemiec A, Wieleba W (2016) The influence of deformation of selected
thermoplastics on the friction with steel. Tribologia 47(4):137–143
8. Lesniewski T (2013) The influence of hardness of the steel sliding surfaces on their
tribological characteristics. In: WTC 2013: 5th world tribology congress, Torino, Italy, 8–13
Sept 2013
9. Mao J-J, Ke LL, Yang J, Kitipornchai S, Wang Y-S (2018) The coupled thermoelastic
instability of FGM coatings with arbitrarily varying properties: in-plane sliding. Acta
Mechanica 1–17
10. Muzdybaev MS, Muzdybaeva AS, Rogovskij VV, Myrzabekova DM, Elemes AB,
Wieleba W, Lesniewski T (2016) Preliminary experimental research of tribological
properties of bus brakes friction linings. Tribologia 47(4):167–176
11. Nong XD, Jiang YL, Fang M, Yu L, Liu CY (2017) Numerical analysis of novel SiC3D/Al
alloy co-continuous composites ventilated brake disc. Int J Heat Mass Transf 108:1374–
1382
12. Osenin Y, Al-Makhdi DM, Sergienko O, Sosnov I, Chesnokov A (2017) Providing stable
friction properties of disc brakes for railway vehicles. Transp Probl 12(1):63–71
13. Parish D, MacManus DG (2005) Aerodynamic investigations of ventilated brake discs. Proc
Inst Mech Eng Part D J Automob Eng 219:471–486
14. Ptak A, Wieleba W (2013) Correlation between the state of the metal-polymer surface and
the friction parameters in (-50-0) °C temperature range. In: WTC 2013: 5th world
tribology congress, Torino, Italy, 8–13 Sept 2013
15. Rozylo P (2017) Numerical thermal analysis of a car braking system. Adv Sci Technol Res J
11(2):38–43
16. Sawczuk W (2018) Analytical model coefficient of friction (COF) of rail disc brake on the
basis of multi-phase stationary tests. Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc – Maintenance and
Reliability 20(1):57–67
17. Ziolkowska J, Sokolski P (2016) Comparative thermo-mechanical analysis of different types
of disc brakes. In: Proceedings of 22nd international conference on engineering mechanics,
Svratka, Czech Republic, 9–12 May 2016
18. Zurin WMWS, Talib RJ, Ismail NI (2017) Thermal analysis on motorcycle disc brake
geometry. In: 2nd international conference on applied physics and engineering ICAPE 2016,
Penang, Malaysia, 2–3 Nov 2016
Problems of Strength Estimation
of the Vulnerable Zones in the Tools
of Hydraulic Hammers for Mining
Marek Sokolski and Piotr Sokolski(&)

{marek.sokolski,piotr.sokolski}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. Reliability of hydraulic hammers depends to a large extent on the

strength and durability of their main components. This remark applies in par-
ticular to tools of hammers that are subjected to extremely high loads. Degra-
dation of these tools usually occurs in a few characteristic areas, i.e. in the
impact zone, retainer zone, tool shank zone and tool tip zone. The causes and
mechanism of the most frequent damage in the tools are explained. The
numerical simulations of stress distribution in the impact zone and retainer zone
were performed. Then, the strength of these zones was estimated and on this
basis the maximum permissible impact velocity was determined.
Keywords: Hydraulic hammers Tool degradation Weakness zones

Strength estimation
1 Introduction
Hydraulic hammers are used in many areas of important industrial activity - including
mining and quarrying, civil engineering and metallurgy [1, 7, 9, 10].
One of the main attribute of the working process of the hydraulic hammers are the
impact forces. In such conditions the tools of hammers are particularly exposed to
damages.
However, that wide range of applications and varied operating conditions of
hydraulic hammers create high demands on durability and reliability. This refers in
particular to the main components of impact excitation systems, e.g. to beater and tools.
What is more in some cases costs of tools can reach up to 15% of all costs of
production [3].
Taking this into consideration, the analysis of the strength analysis of typical
structure of hammer tools were performed and on this basis the vulnerable zones of
tools were determined where the sudden or fatigue failures can occur.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_80
Problems of Strength Estimation of the Vulnerable Zones 697
2 Problem Formulation
The degradation of the tools of hydraulic hammers occurs as a result of many various
internal and external (environmental) factors.
However, the impact forces are usually the main causes of tool damages because
these forces are enough easily capable of doing the excessive stress concentration
which values are larger than the ultimate or fatigue strength of material.
The vulnerability of the hammer tools is conditioned by the design, technological as
well as operating factors. The typical “natural” destructive factors are various notches
which create stress concentration and can relative easily become sources of the fatigue
cracks. The “technological” destructive factors are e.g. inhomogeneous steel structure
(because of internal defects which reduce the material strength) or improper thermo-
chemical treatment of the tool. Same factors are observed in other utilities with similar
mechanics of operation (forging tools among others [14]).
The main “operational” factors which have a destructive influence on the tools of
the hydraulic hammers are [10–13]:
– impact forces in the working process which can reach extremely high values,
– additional non–axial external forces which can occur in the extreme cases, e.g.
when in rock breaking the tool is used as a lever or the working angle of the tool is
too small (the correct position of the tool should be near a 90° angle to the rock
surface),
– so–called blank – firing which occurs when piston strikes the rear side of the tool
while working end is not in contact with rock,
– low temperature which reduces the crack resistance as well as the fatigue strength of
the tool material,
– corrosion caused by an aggressive influence of the environment (moisture, salinity),
– insufficient lubrication on contact surfaces “tool shank/tool holder” and “tool
retainer pin/pin groove”. For these applications the molybdenum disulfide grease is
recommended as a good lubrication medium [4].
The tool damages can have a progressive/wear character (e.g. fatigue, creep, cor-
rosion, ageing) or a sudden/catastrophic character (e.g. buckling, fracture, seizing,
chipping). In the first case the rate of wear depends among others on hardness and
microstructure of surface of cooperating parts [5].
Besides, the tool damages can be also classified from the operational viewpoint as
[11, 13]:
– partial damages including failures of a tool fragment (e.g. deformation of a retainer
pin, partial chipping of a tool bit) while the tool can be conditionally still used but
with lower efficiency,
– total damages including destruction of a bigger fragment (e.g. failure of the tool
shank) which qualify the tool for replacing.
Efficiency of hydraulic hammers can be improved among others by using impact
impulse systems. In such cases oscillations characterized by high-frequency are moved
698 M. Sokolski and P. Sokolski
between parts of those mechanisms [1, 6]. It generates extra loading within those units
influencing the rate of wear.
3 Vulnerable Zones of a Hammer Tool
The performance of the hydraulic hammer is usually determined by the blow energy. In
fact the energy required for rock breaking can be estimated as a function of the lump
volume and rock properties – according to the Kick theory - as follows:
R2c V
LV ¼ k ð1Þ
2Er
where Rc, is the rock compressive strength, Er is the rock modulus, V is the rock
volume to be fragmented and k is the coefficient to be experimentally determined.
That is why the impact energy in hydraulic hammers should be usually applied as
high as possible. However, the high impact energy can cause tools degradation which
occurs in most cases in a few characteristic vulnerable zones presented in Fig. 1.
The degradation of hammer tools is most frequently occurred in typical forms such
as: mushrooming the rear end of a tool (impact surface), fracture of tool shank, damage
of retainer pin, wear of pin groove as well as mushrooming and chipping of the tool bit
[10, 11, 13].
Fig. 1. The vulnerable zones of tools of hydraulic hammers: 1 – impact zone, 2 – retainer zone,
3 - shank zone, 4 – bit zone
The maximum permissible value of impact velocity and energy and thereby the
hammer performance are limited by the strength of these vulnerable zones of a tool.
Because of that, the strength of these weakest zones should be seriously taken into
account if right reliability of a hydraulic hammer is to be achieved.
Taking this into consideration, the strength estimation of these so-called “Achilles’
heels” of hammer tools was performed by the authors.
Numerical analyses were carried out using the finite element method [8] on the base
of the physical models “piston (beater) – tool” presented in Figs. 2 and 5. These models
are generally referring to the real impact system “beater – tool” of hydraulic hammers
used in Polish copper mines (because of confidential data, the names of these hammers
are not given). Simulations were performed in ABAQUS/Explicit.
Due to the limited frame, in the following text the results of the strength estimation
of the impact zone as well as the retainer zone of a hammer tool are presented.
However, more comprehensive analyses of these problems are presented in authors’
works [10–13].
4 Strength of the Impact Zone
The impact zone including the rear part of the tool is a vulnerable zone which is
strongly loaded by cyclically repeated blows of a piston-beater. Therefore this zone is
without exaggeration the proverbial “Achilles’ heel” of a hammer tool.
Degradation of the impact zone occurs as a result of the local exceeding of the yield
stress or the ultimate strength of tool material. The damage created by a plastic
deformation most frequently assumes a shape of a mushroom and it is therefore often
called mushrooming of the rear part of the tool.
In extreme cases chipping of the material can occur. Monitoring of this critical area
is difficult because the impact zone is located inside the hammer and the access to this
area is possible only after the tool is taken out from the hammer.
The main reasons of degradation of the impact zone of the tool are: the excessive
velocity of a piston (beater) that can create sudden (catastrophic) damage as well as
long repeated blows that cause fatigue failures. To avoid material degradation in the
impact zone, it is usually recommended to limit the time of blowing the tool to a period
of 15–20 s [10, 11, 13].
Numerical analyses of stress in the impact zone of a tool were carried out on the
base of the physical model “beater – tool” presented in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Basic model for the FEM analysis of stresses in the impact zone: 1 – piston (beater), 2 –
tool, 3 – rock, BC1, BC2 – boundary conditions
In the FEM analysis of dynamical problems, one of the key question is how to
choose an appropriate physical model of material and the constitutive equation that
correctly describe the process of the flow stress. This is particularly important in the
case of impact loads when the strain hardening effect is usually a significant factor
affecting the stress state in material. This question with an extensive analysis of such
models and constitutive equations is treated in work [2].
In the FEM simulations of impact excitation process in the system “beater – tool”,
the Johnson–Cook constitutive model [4] was adopted with the parameters applied as
for the AISI 4340 alloy steel. More details are given in the authors’ work [12].
Then in the numerical analyses the following boundary conditions were assumed.
The first boundary condition BC1 (for coordinate z = L1) in the model of impact
system (Fig. 2) determines the interaction between the piston (beater) and the tool.
Here is the - called hard contact in normal direction without friction applied. The
thermal conditions during the single impact were assumed as constant. This assumption
is generally considered valid when the time of blowing does not exceed the above
mentioned recommended period of 15–20 s.
The second boundary condition BC2 (for coordinate z = L1 + L2) determines the
interaction between the tool and the rock. Here is the extreme case assumed when the
rock is not broken under the single impact. The mathematical interpretation of this type
interaction is the homogeneous Dirichlet boundary condition at the tool tip.
Some calculation results of the equivalent von Mises stress rMises for three values
of the impact velocity v1 = 10 m/s, v1 = 20 m/s and v1 = 30 m/s are shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Contour lines of the equivalent stress (accord. to von Mises yield criterion) for the
impact velocity: (a) v1 = 10 m/s, (b) v1 = 20 m/s, (c) v1 = 20 m/s
The simulations show that the maximum values rMises(max) of the von Mises stress
in the impact zone occur along the boundary of the contact surface and they are
approximately 40–75% higher than the stress values rMises in the centre of the contact
surface – depending on the impact velocity v1.
As the starting point for the strength evaluation of the impact zone, it was assumed
that the tool is made of steel with the yield strength of rY = 790 MPa (as for AISI
4340 alloy steel). Then the safety factor X was expressed as the ratio of the yield
strength rY to the maximum values of the von Mises stress rred(max), e.g. as X = rY/
rred(max). The estimated values of this safety factor X were presented in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Maximum values of the equivalent von Mises stress rMises and the safety factor X in the
impact zone
When the required factor of safety X for the impact zone is assumed as X 1.5,
then the theoretical permissible impact velocity in the beater–tool system should be not
greater than v1(max) = 20 m/s.
However, the real impact velocity in conventional hydraulic hammers is usually
applied at the lower level of v1(max) = 10−12 m/s. In this way, an additional safety
margin for material fatigue is taken into account.
5 Strength of the Retainer Zone
The next vulnerable zone of a hammer tool, this is the so-called retainer zone includes
the retainer pin and the pin groove.
During the normal operating process of a hammer the loads in the retainer zone are
relatively low and they are caused mainly by tool weight.
However, if the so-called blank hammering is happen, i.e. when the tool is still
impacted and the tip is not in contact with rock, then the stress in the retainer zone can
achieve relatively high level. The plastic deformations or brittle fracture of the retainer
pin occur as typical consequences of these events. In such cases there are considerable
difficulties by removing the retainer pin while it is necessary to replace the tool. Then
the high value of force is required to pushing out the tool retainer and that usually leads
to a damage of the pin groove. After that the tool is not longer suitable for use. Such
cases are normally not covered by the producer’s warranty [11–13].
The simulations of blank hammering process in the system “beater – retainer pin –
tool” (Fig. 5) at the impact velocity v1 = 5 − 10 m/s are performed. They were ref-
erence points in the retainer zone identified (Fig. 6) which were the basis for strength
assessment. The results are shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 5. Basic model for the FEM analysis of stresses in the retainer zone: 1 – piston (beater), 2 –
tool, 3 – retainer pin
Fig. 6. Reference points for the FEM analysis of stresses in the retainer zone
Fig. 7. Maximum values of the equivalent von Mises stress rMises and the safety factor X in the
retainer zone
When just like in the case of the strength estimation of impact zone, the required
factor of safety X for the retainer zone is assumed as X 1.5, then the theoretical
permissible impact velocity should be not greater than v1(max) = 5 m/s.
This conclusion clearly proves that blank hammering is a highly harmful process
that can cause damage to the retainer zone of a tool even at relatively low impact
velocity.
Hydraulic hammers are used in many important industrial branches such as mining,
quarrying and civil engineering. This wide range of applications in diverse operating
conditions create high demands on durability and reliability of main components of
hydraulic hammers. This is referring in particular to the elements of impact excitation
systems, e.g. to beaters and tools.
In order to achieve high effectiveness of hammers, the blow energy should be as
high as possible. However, the excessive energy can cause tools degradation which is
usually occurred in a few following vulnerable zones: impact zone, retainer zone, tool
shank zone and tip zone.
Therefore, providing adequate strength of these zones is an important challenge for
constructors in the context of achieving high reliability and operation safety of
hydraulic hammers.
Taking this into consideration, the state of stress in the impact zone and retainer
zone of a tool under impact working loads was analyzed and the strength of these
weakness zones was estimated. As the final result of these analyzes, the maximum
permissible blow velocity v1(max) was determined.
This text presents a deterministic approach to estimating the strength of the vul-
nerable zones of hammers’ tools. However, in real conditions, work loads/stresses and
material properties are random variables.
For these reasons the strength assessment of weakness zones of tools should be
made in a probabilistic approach. Examples of the application of such a probabilistic
method were presented by the authors in the works [11–13].
References
1. Chernysheva N, Platovskikh M, Yungmeister D (2016) Study of the effectiveness of the
vibro-impact system “Piston-striker-shank” in the construction of pneumatic and hydraulic
hammers for the subway driving complexes. Procedia Eng 165:1254–1260
2. Gronostajski Z (2000) The constitutive equations for FEM analysis. J Mater Process Technol
106:40–44
3. Hawryluk M, Mrzyglod B (2017) A durability analysis of forging tools for different
operating conditions with application of a decision support system based on artificial neural
networks (ANN). Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc–Maintenance and Reliability 19(3):338–348
4. Johnson GR, Cook WH (1985) Fracture characteristics of three metals subjected to various
strains, strain rates, temperatures and pressures. Eng Fract Mech 21(1):31–48
5. Lesniewski T (2013) The influence of hardness of the steel sliding surfaces on their
tribological characteristics. In: WTC 2013: 5th world tribology congress: Torino, Italy, 8–13
Sept 2013
6. Muravieva L, Vatin N (2015) Strength evaluation of a linear extended structure on a
statically inhomogeneous foundation. Appl Mech Mater 725–726:703–709
7. Redelin R-A, Kravchenko V-A, Kamanin Y-N, Panichkin A-V, Bozhanov A-A (2017)
Study of effect of in-line hydropneumatic accumulators on output characteristics of hydraulic
hammer. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 87:022016
8. Rusinski E, Czmochowski J, Smolnicki T (2000) Zaawansowana metoda elementow
skonczonych w konstrukcjach nosnych (Advanced Finite Element Method for Load-
Carrying Structures of Machines). Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wroclawskiej,
Wrocław (in Polish)
9. Sokolski M (2009) Mloty hydrauliczne – tendencje rozwojowe w minionym cwiercwieczu
(Hydraulic hammers–development trends in the past quarter–century). Gornictwo Odkry-
wkowe, R. 50(4–5):123–128
10. Sokolski M (2013) Podstawy syntezy charakterystyk młotów hydraulicznych (Fundamentals
of Synthesis of Characteristics of Hydraulic Hammers). Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki
Wroclawskiej, Wroclaw (in Polish)
11. Sokolski M, Sokolski P (2015) Assessment of the probability of failure-free operation of the
working system of a small-dimension hydraulic hammer–a case study. In: Podofillini L et al
(eds) Safety and reliability of complex engineered systems. Taylor & Francis Group,
London, pp 4213–4217
12. Sokolski M, Sokolski P (2016) Strength estimation of the impact zone–a critical area of the
tools of the hydraulic hammers. Arch Civ Mech Eng 16(2016):767–776
13. Sokolski M (2017) Problems of reliability assessment of impact excitation systems of
hydraulic hammers. J KONBiN 41(2017):129–139
14. Zwierzchowski M (2017) Factors Affecting the Wear Resistance of Forging Tools. Arch
Metall Mater 62(3):1567–1576
Thermo-Mechanical Material Modelling
for Cyclic Loading a Generalized Modelling
Approach to Different Material Classes
Holger Sparr(&), Daniela Schob, and Matthias Ziegenhorn
BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg, Universitätsplatz 1, 01968 Senftenberg, Germany

holger.sparr@b-tu.de
Abstract. The paper presents a modelling approach for thermo-mechanically

coupled problems and an experimental concept for a material law validation.
The approach is generally applicable to a variety of material classes. The main
objective is to integrate viscoplasticity as one major aspect in cyclic loading of
high-performance polymers at small deformation gradients. After a classification
of the subject a brief outline of the theoretical framework is given, which is then
followed by the description of the experimental setup and some specifics to be
accounted for. The Paper continues with some results of the numerical analysis
on how to validate the applied material law.
1 Introduction
A general task for engineers is to assess the fatigue behaviour of a high perform-ance
structural component. The most common load is in fact time-dependent. Therefore
fatigue is the cause of 60–80% of all component failures. The com-plexity in terms of
low- and high-cycle fatigue incorporating viscoplasticity in the description of classical
design materials has been widely studied [1] and is nowa-days transferred to new and
more complex material classes like heterogeneous material or additive manufactured
plastics.
The mechanical properties of (reinforced) plastics in conventional or additive
manufacturing are dominated by the properties of the matrix material. These materials
similar to conventional design materials at elevated temperatures exhibit a rate-
dependent behaviour and furthermore an equilibrium hysteresis when subjected to a
relaxation process on the load path. Additionally, by extending the measurement
procedure to cover the temperature field in a cyclic load setting (with a common stress
amplitude, mean stress and frequency) we observe a characteristic temperature evo-
lution. The observation of equilibrium hysteresis classifies the material as viscoplastic
[2] whereas a significant temperature evolution leads the material modelling to a
thermo-mechanical analysis.
To cover the different micro-mechanical phenomena the applied material models
and the experimental procedures to establish the set of material parameters need to be
adapted. Additionally through the application of thermography, the consideration of an
evolving temperature field opens an opportunity to verify the chosen modelling
approach and creates further possibilities for proof.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_81
706 H. Sparr et al.
The fully coupled thermo-mechanical model is based on the quantitative evaluation

of the second law of thermodynamics. In terms of small deformation gradients for
uniaxial loaded specimens the outline of rheological networks offers a comprehensive
access [3]. Therefore, the contribution presents a concepts for a suitable material
characterization of classical design materials and plastics exploiting different ways of
covering viscoplasticity.
A classical continuum mechanical framework with the concept of inner variables
was applied in [4]. Here he main focus lies in the hygro-mechanical formulation.
2 Fundamental Equations
The complete formulation is based on the concepts of continuum mechanics. First of all
can be named the balance equations (balance of momentum, balance of energy, balance
of entropy and conservation of mass) which need to be fulfilled.
In thermo-mechanical analyses with the fundamental coupling of the temperature
and displacement field the second law of thermodynamics becomes important and leads
to a common result as in (1).
1 1 @h
d ¼ r_e e_ þ h_s q 0 ð1Þ
. .h @x
The symbols refer to the internal dissipation d, the density ., the stress r, the strain
e, the Helmholtz free energy e, the temperature h, the entropy s and the heat flux q. The
derivative of h is the temperature gradient.
Fig. 1. Simple rheological network as proposed in [3]
The advantage of rheological networks is a straight forward application of additive

decomposition rule. The network outlined in Fig. 1 was developed by Broecker et al. [3]
and serves as the basis for all further numerical results presented here. The first to chain
members combine thermoelasticity as the branched member describes the viscoplas-
ticity. All elements contributing to internal dissipation are highlighted by the red box
and are located in the viscoplastic branch. Two of the fundamental additive decompo-
sitions for the Helmholtz free energy and the strain are given by Eqs. (2) and (3).
Thermo-Mechanical Material Modelling for Cyclic Loading 707
e ¼ eth þ eel þ eiso þ ekin þ . . . ð2Þ
e ¼ eel þ eth þ evp ð3Þ
The introduction of the material laws, common laws in the sense of elasticity or
thermal expansion and non-linear laws based on experimental observations for the
viscoplastic and hardening behaviour, lead to set of equation summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Set of equations

Elastic stress - strain r ¼ Eeel ¼ Eðe evp Þ (4)
relationship
Closure of the elastic domain Er :¼ fðr; nÞ 2 R R j f ðr; nÞ 0g with (5)
f ðr; nÞ ¼ jr nj

Flow rule 1 f m (6)
e_ vp ¼ sgnðr nÞ
g d0

n _
n_ ¼ En e_ vp evp with e_ vp ¼ e_ vp
n1
Thermal expansion e_ th ¼ ah_ (7)
Heat conduction 1 (8)
cdef h_ ¼ Eah_eel þ dM
q
1 n2 _
dM ¼ ½ f þ evp 0
q n1
The numerical solution for the evolutionary equations of the one-dimensional

problem is set up by a Backward-Euler scheme. The subsequent calculation are carried
out by assuming adiabatic boundary conditions.
3 Measurement Procedure
Additional to the classical measurement equipment for mechanical tests on a uni-axial

servo-hydraulic testing machine, a temperature sensor is necessary to cover the tem-
perature field evolution. To meet the required accuracy a high-precision IR camera was
applied to preliminary tests and proofed applicably (see Fig. 2). The conventional
application of IR cameras provide a precision of approximately 20 mK. In terms of
cyclic loading at a small deformation gradient it is expected that the temperature evolve
at small rates with less than the mentioned standard accuracy in temperature change per
cycle. Therefore the Lock-In thermography is going to be applied, where well defined
strain or forced controlled load spectra serve as an internal excitations. By transfor-
mation of time signal into the frequency domain the precision of measurement can be
improved up to 1 mK for a pure elastic deformation process.
708 H. Sparr et al.
Fig. 2. Tension test and corresponding temperature evolution
The transition in a viscoplastic setting goes beyond the regular usage of Lock-In
thermography since the amplitude as well as the phase angle in the frequency domain
might be influenced by viscoplastic phenomena, which was already discussed in [5].
The localized effects of (visco-)plastic deformations depicted on the right of Fig. 2.
need to be predicted in the test preparation or quantified and assessed as post-test
procedure by analytical tools.
A deeper understanding of predicted temperature field gives the opportunity to
calibrate the Lock-In measurement for non-standard observation tasks. The experi-
mental observations of energetic physical measures and the correlation to dissipative
phenomena in the material points into the very accurate temperature field measurement.
In contrast to the Lock-In technology an experimentally complex setup was suggested
in [6].
4 Numerical Results
The results presented in this study are based on the material parameters collected in
Table 2.
Table 2. Material parameters

Parameter Unit Value
Thermo-Elasticity
Modulus of Elasticity E N mm−2 60800
Density . kg/m3 2900.0
Expansion Coefficient a K−1 21; 5 106
Heat Capacity cdef J/(kg K) 940.0
Thermal conductivity k W/(m K) 210.0
Friction Element (Dissipation)
Yield Stress k0 N mm−2 60
Lin. Dissipation Coeff. b1 [−] 0…1
Non-lin. Dissipation Coeff. b2 [−] 0…1
(continued)
Table 2. (continued)
Parameter Unit Value
Kinematic Hardening
Kin. Hardening Modulus Ek N mm−2 5250
Kin. Saturation k 1 N mm−2 61.8
Isotrope Verfestigung
Iso. Hardening Modulus En N mm−2 5250
Iso. Saturation n1 N mm−2 61.8
Viscosity
viscosity g s 1…1000
Viscosity Exponent m [−] 0.2…5
These parameters can be obtained by fitting experimental data of standard

mechanical tests at different strain rates and standard caloric tests. Difficulties can arise
in the unique identification of the hardening parameters the since isotropic and kine-
matic hardening phenomena is addressed simultaneously. A sophisticated verification
and validation process needs to established, what can be achieved by applying the
described analytical tool to characteristic cycle sequence.
Fig. 3. Cyclic test with a linearly increasing amplitude in tension and compression
An academic strain-controlled cycle sequence is shown in Fig. 3. Since the period

of the positive resp. negative strain maxima is constant, the strain rate increases in time.
The lower left diagram in Fig. 3 shows the energy transformation ratio indicating that
at the end of the process the main fraction of the introduced work is transformed into
heat. This behaviour can be explained by the assumed saturated hardening function.
710 H. Sparr et al.
Fig. 4. Parameter variation - different hardening behaviour
Qualitative and quantitative insight is gained due to parametric studies like pre-
sented in Fig. 4. A simple strain-controlled experiment (Fig. 4 – left) leads to a sig-
nificant and measurable temperature difference at the end the load sequence (Fig. 4 –
right) while the energy transformation ratio gives only marginal evidence.
This work shows a theoretical framework on the well-known concept of rheological

networks to exploit the thermo-mechanical analysis in preparing and evaluating cyclic
mechanical test with an additional observation of the temperature field. By proofing a
characteristic temperature evolution through a characteristic load cycle sequence
experimentally, the validity of the applied material law is confirmed. The presented
numerical results meet the temperature range in other publications. Therefore, the
parametric studies are going to be extended and the method is going to be transferred to
other material classes.
References
1. Chaboche J-L (1989) Constitutive equations for cyclic plasticity and cyclic viscoplasticity.
J Plast 3:247–302
2. Haupt, P (2002) Advanced texts in physics. In: Continuum mechanics and theory of materials.
2nd. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag
3. Bröcker C, Matzenmiller A (2013) An enhanced concept of rheological models to represent
nonlinear thermoviscoplasticity and its energy storage behavior. Cont Mech Therm 25:749–
778
4. Yu, Ch, Kang G, Chen K (2017) A hygro-thermo-mechanical coupled cyclic constitutive
model for polymers with considering glass transition. Int J Plast 89:29–65
5. Ummenhofer T, Medgenberg J (2006) Numerical modelling of thermoelasticity and plasticity

in fatigue-loaded low carbon steels. Quant InfraRed Thermogr J 3(1):71–91. https://doi.org/
10.3166/qirt.3.71-91
6. Knysh P, Korkolis YP (2015) Determination of the fraction of plastic work converted into
heat in metals. Mech Mater 86:71–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmat.2015.03.006
Kinematic Analysis of a Mobile Robot While
Overcoming Curb
Przemysław Sperzyński(&) and Bogusz Lewandowski
Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Theory of Mechanisms and Mechatronics,

Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Łukasiewicza 5, 50-370
Wroclaw, Poland
{przemyslaw.sperzynski,bogusz.lewandowski}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. This paper proposes a simplified formulation of the kinematic model

of wheeled mobile robot while negotiating threshold obstacle. Wheel angular
velocity analysis has been presented to avoid wheel slip while articulated limbs
are changing configuration. In order to simplify the task, a constraint to maintain
level of the platform relative to the ground is assumed. Permissible velocities of
robot’s actuator has been analysed. Based on the resulted limb’s motion times
configuration of the robot has been obtained to accelerate the robot motion.
Numerical simulation of the model of presented robot, validates wheel speed
model, described in the paper.
Keywords: Obstacle overcoming Mobile robot Velocity analysis
1 Introduction
The subject of work is a wheel-legged robot named LegVan introduced earlier in the
literature [4]. The robot is an example of a mobile platform that can be operated via
driven wheel [1] or stepping, by properly moving the limbs. Similar hybrid robotic
constructions are the subject of other studies. WorkPartner [5] robot was designed to
cooperate with people in everyday activities. The Hylos robot [2], just like the featured
Legvan, was created as a universal mobile platform. In this paper a simulation of
overcoming obstacles like a threshold or curb, stepping over an obstacle and simul-
taneously driving without stopping the platform is subjected. An analysis of over-
coming similar obstacles by Hylos or WorkPartner robots based on approaching the
step while at the same time leaning on the rear limbs can be found in literature [2].
However this solution requires stopping the platform in front of an obstacle and its
energetically more consuming. The computer model of the LegVan robot placed in
front of the obstacle is shown in Fig. 1. The robot consists of the similar limbs at end of
which there are wheels connected. The model was created in the MSC ADAMS sys-
tem, where a possibility of kinematic and dynamic simulation of the wheels—ground
reaction was possible.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_82
Kinematic Analysis of a Mobile Robot 713
Fig. 1. Legvan robot standing in front of the obstacle, in initial configuration. Global coordinate
frame in the left bottom corner is presented, as well, as the mobile platform frame. Center of mass
of the robot, as red sphere in the middle, is marked
2 Obstacle Definition and Robot Configuration
The mobile robot is designed to overcome obstacle such as thresholds or curbs, without
the necessity of stopping the platform. For this purpose, it must be equipped with an
appropriate sensor system that will allow the obstacle to be detected in front of the
robot in real time.
In the paper [3] a 3D scanner, which in response gives a picture of a point cloud—a
distance map was introduced. The wheel trajectory is superimposed on this image
results in a line that refract on the obstacle profile, giving in this way the information
about the distance from the curb—d, located in front of the robot and its height -
dimension—h (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Point cloud image in front of the robot platform with theoretical wheel path projected
into the image
The initial configuration of the platform before starting the procedure of avoiding
obstacle is shown in Fig. 3. The robot consists of four identical, symmetrically
arranged limbs. In order to distinguish between individual limbs, the robot coordinate
system {P} is located on the platform, so that the xP axis is arranged along the platform
and indicates the forelimbs. The yP axis indicates the left extremity.
714 P. Sperzyński and B. Lewandowski
Fig. 3. Top view of a robot platform, centre of mass (CoM) position relative to wheel—ground
contact points and stability triangle
In order to ensure the obstacle avoidance without stopping the platform, the robot’s
front wheels should be drawn aside along the platform (axles xP) first forward, other
backward. The distance between the wheels is necessary in order not to stop the
platform while lifting the limbs over the obstacle. The first wheel is to be raised before
reaching the obstacle. When the first wheel approached the step, the distance between
the front wheels ensures enough time to lift the second wheel by the time the platform
moves forward.
3 Kinematics Analysis
In order to ensure the robot to step over, it is necessary to change the configuration of
the robot’s limbs along the platform. While the robot is moving, any such change must
be included in the wheels rotation speed. In case of the rotation speed of the wheels
does not change, the movement of the limb along the platform may cause the wheel to
slip on the ground, which in turn might cause the uncontrolled pivot of the robot
relative to the obstacle’s front. An adopted coordinate system necessary to determine
the wheels rotation speed at the contact point with the ground is shown in the Fig. 4. At
the limb attachment point to the platform a coordinate system of the limb was defined,
{L}, then in the centre of the wheel the coordinate system of the wheel was placed {W}
so that the wheel rotation axis coincides with the zW axis of this system. Afterwards, at
the contact point of the wheel and the ground, the contact coordinate system {C}
attached to the wheel was defined. The wheel will roll without a slip, if velocity of a
contact point attached to the wheel relative to the ground equal to zero is provided [4].
This fact, leads to nonholonomic constraint, in form of:
vP=G þ vW=L þ vC=W ¼ 0; ð1Þ

Fig. 4. Robot limb kinematic scheme, coordinate frames definition and wheel velocities
where the velocity vW/L depends only on the limb actuators, and velocity vC/W is a
velocity of a point on the wheel circumference and depends only on the rotational
speed of the wheels xW:
vC=W ¼ pC=W xW ð2Þ
To simplify the task, it was assumed that the robot would move along the ground
without changing the orientation of the platform. This entails the necessity of the
wheels movement to be parallel to the ground plane, without changing the height of the
wheels relative to the platform. In this case the velocities specified in Eq. (1) would be
parallel. As a result of the adopted motion assumptions, the rotational speed of the
wheels is equal to the difference between the given platform velocity and the speed of
the wheels relative to the platform:
vP þ vWx
xW ¼ ; ð3Þ
rW
where vP is the assumed parameter indicating the speed of the robot’s movement,
allowing to overcome the obstacle without stopping. vWx stands for the rotation speed
of the wheels relative to the projected on the limb axis, parallel to the ground line xG.
Constant rW is the wheel’s radius and the length of the vector pC/W, as well. In order to
fulfil this assumption the limbs should move along lines that are parallel to the ground
line.
3.1 Workspace Analysis of a Limb

Changing the robot’s stability triangle will require moving the wheel along straight
lines, parallel to the ground line. Stepping over an obstacle, while the platform is in
motion (velocity vP), leads to two scenarios of obstacle negotiations. First, to wait until
the raised wheel reach the curb or to move it over. Both ways require the wheel’s
angular velocity to be controlled, but the first sets the velocity xW to constant value.
Wheels lift operation will be performed along vertical lines perpendicular to ground
plane, in order to introduce velocity vWx equal to zero. This will require, the inverse
kinematics task to be solved, which can be described by the equation:

pW=L ¼ f ðsÞ ) s ¼ f 1 pW=L ; ð4Þ
where vector s = (s1, s2)—denotes limb’s linear actuators variables, which controls
location of the center of the wheel, relative to robot’s platform - vector pW/L (Fig. 4).
In Fig. 5 available workspace of robot’s limb has been presented. Described area is
the result of limb’s actuators stroke range, which has been used in the design. A rect-
angle, lh = 200 mm height, has been inscribed into the showed workspace. Height lh is
the maximum assumed value of obstacle dimension, that robot can reach. Vertical and
horizontal marker lines, contained in the area, helped to achieve first node WO of the
rectangle. Then assumed height, gave second node WH and another horizontal line,
which at intersection point with the workspace limits received spanning point of the
rectangle WS. After dimensional analysis rectangle width lw = 440 mm has been
achieved. It is maximum allowed length between left and right wheel, due to which a
time gap for lifting a wheel over the obstacle, has been established.
Fig. 5. Robot limb’s workspace described in limb’s {L} frame. Point Wmid describes location of
a wheel when actuators stroke are at the middle position
In addition to particular range of achievable displacements of linear actuators,

maximum stroke velocities ṡmax = 50 mm/s, cannot be exceeded while planning the
motion of a limbs. It is relevant, that the time in which the robot can reconfigure the
stability triangle or lift the wheel over the obstacle, will be solved before motion starts.
Limb kinematic task in velocities domain, can be described as:
vW=L ¼ J ðsÞ_s ) s_ ¼ J 1 ðsÞvW=L ; J ¼ df ðsÞ=ds ð5Þ
where matrix J is the Jacobian matrix of the robot’s limb.

Robot’s wheel motion, using quasi—trapezoidal velocity profile has been assumed1.
Acceleration time tacc and deceleration time tdec of planned motion profile was set to 0,5 s
to ensure actuators’ accelerations will not exceed its limits. Maximum velocity of the
wheel, after acceleration phase, was set to vmax = 100 mm/s. Limb motion’s time T, has
been calculated as a simple fact, that the travelled distance is equal to integration of
assumed velocity profile. Initially, how much time it will take to travel from WH to WS in
horizontal direction, has been examined. Time T is equal then, to:
lW tacc þ tdec
T¼ þ ; ð6Þ
vmax 2
The vW/L wheel motion speed determined in this way gave the characteristics of the
speed of the ṡ drives. This task is scalable, i.e., if the velocities of the wheel will be
multiplied k—times, the obtained velocities characteristics of the drives will also be k
—times greater:

J 1 ðsÞvW=L ¼ s_ ) J 1 ðsÞ k vW=L ¼ k s_ ð7Þ
The wheel was traversed along the horizontal lines from the designated one rectangle
boundary xWs = 75 mm to xWw = 515 mm, with the assumed velocity profile. Horizontal
lines were set for different values of yW2<−362, −562> mm changing the level yW of the
trajectory by 10 mm. This way the family characteristics of drive variables s(t) has been
appointed. For each of the curves the maximum value was determined and divided by the
permissible velocity ṡmax resulting in the coefficient of the scale ki. Figure 6 presents an
example of a family of velocity characteristics of one of the linear drives, for given wheel
trajectories along the horizontal lines at various levels relative to the platform yW. It can
be noticed, that the drive speeds are smaller than the permissible maximum value of
50 mm/s, which means that we can accelerate the displacement of the wheel by a given
straight section. The displacement time of the wheel after scaling the speed characteristics
of the drives is the quotient of the movement period resulting from the integral of the
speed profile and the calculated scale ki.
Fig. 6. Exemplary family characteristics of the velocity of the actuator s1 when moving the
wheel along horizontal lines. Obtained maximum value were used to set scale ki
Figure 7 shows the received map of time, that takes the wheel to move within the
scope of the designated rectangle inscribed in workspace. On the left side, the times of the
wheel’s displacement in horizontal direction for the constant value of yW = const are
shown. On the right side, in analogy to the presented procedure, a map of the time needed
to raise the limb above the obstacle in the vertical assuming constant parameter xW =
const has been presented. It can be observed, that the robot will raise the limb the fastest
way, while the wheel is extended forward in relation to the platform, when xW = 445
mm, the lifting time of the wheel by maximum allowable height 200 mm is equal to 2.8 s.
Fig. 7. Time map of the robot’s wheel displacement along the horizontal and vertical axis
4 Exemplary Simulation
Based on the results of motion’s time and actuator’s velocity profile analysis, exem-
plary simulation has been prepared. The robot moves in the limb configuration, at the
point marked as Wmid, which corresponds to the centre stroke values of the robot’s
actuators s. From the map of movement time (left part of Fig. 7) results that the robot
will change the configuration of the stability field when the platform is maximally
raised, i.e. yW ! min. Therefore it is necessary to raise the platform in the first step,
and then move the wheels to the WH or WS points (Fig. 8a). When moving the limbs,
the speed of the wheels should be set according to the presented Eq. 3. In Fig. 8 limbs:
the front left and rear right are in the configuration of the WH point, while the rear left in
the WS. As described, the limb that will be raised before the robot meet the obstacle,
should be moved from the position xWmid to position xW = 445 mm. In the presented
example, the right leg is marked in green (Figs. 1 and 8). The difference in the position
of the left wheel relatively to the right one in this case will be equal to 370 mm. In
addition, the asymmetrical arrangement of the opposite limbs—the right front and left
rear (respectively green and grey, Fig. 8b) causes the centre of gravity to move towards
the back of the robot. The distance between the attachment of the legs to the platform is
Fig. 8. Distances between wheels, (a) configuration of the robot while it is prepared to step over
the obstacle, (b) configuration of the robot after overcoming the obstacle by the front limbs
equal to 220 mm. If the front left and right rear wheels are at WH points, where xWH =
75 mm, this gives the distance from the next wheel also equal to 370 mm. In order to
step over the curb, the rear limbs has to be raised in opposite sequence to the front ones.
5 Summary
The analysis of the angular velocity of wheels of a robot during the obstacle avoidance
when rolling without a slip was presented. The permissible wheel displacement times,
simultaneously while robot is in motion over the curb was analysed. The limb
movement strategy needs to be analysed to overcome the threshold obstacle faster. The
velocity profile of the centre of the wheel vW/L can be changed, in such way that one of
the actuators moves at the maximum speed. For example, the scale ki(t) can be adjusted
during the movement of the limb so that the speed of the actuators is equal to ṡmax.
References
1. Bałchanowski J (2016) Modelling and simulation studies on the mobile robot with self-
levelling chassis. J Theor Appl Mech 54(1):149–161
2. Grand C, Jarrault P, Amar FB, Bidaud P (2016) Experimental evaluation of obstacle clearance
by a hybrid wheel-legged robot, experimental robotics. In: The 14th International symposium
on experimental robotics, pp 47–58, ISBN 978-3-319-23778-7
3. Gronowicz A, Sperzyński P, Szrek J, Jakubiak J (2014) Wheel-legged robot—construction
and obstacle detection sensors. New Advances in Mechanisms, Transmissions and
Applications, Springer Netherlands, pp 191–198, ISBN 978-94-007-7485-8
4. Sperzyński P, Gronowicz A (2017) Kinematics modelling of mobile robot with articulated
limbs without wheel slip. New Advances in Mechanisms, Mechanical Transmissions and
Robotics, Springer International Publishing, pp 251–258, ISSN 2211-0984; vol. 46
5. Ylonen SJ, Halme AJ (2002) WorkPartner – centaur like service robot. In: IEEE/RSJ
International conference on intelligent robots and systems, vol 1, pp 727–732
The Impact of Piston Design on Thermal Load
of Internal Combustion Engine
Zbigniew J. Sroka(&) and Kacper M. Kot

zbigniew.sroka@pwr.edu.pl, 239762@student.pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. This article presents an analysis of piston design into thermal

parameters of internal combustion engine. To improve the overall efficiency and
reduction of cost, evaluation of different materials and piston crown shape were
prepared. The simulation process composed of two steps. First of them was
engine design in Diesel-RK Software, where operational and thermal parameters
of engine were calculated. The next step was using temperatures inside com-
bustion chamber for three types of piston (Mitsubishi, Pan and Hesselman) in
ANSYS Software. Simulations were prepared in Transient – Thermal analysis
module for each case. For most efficient piston design the various types of
materials (Aluminum alloys, Magnesium alloys, Titanium alloys, Low-alloyed
steel) were explored to investigate thermal properties of design. Despite the fact,
that the maximum values of total heat flux and convection were lowest for
Mitsubishi piston crown design, this construction is stable and deviations of
values are lower. Additionally, from Diesel-RK Mitsubishi design is most
efficient in heat flow through engine parts. Magnesium alloys can be applied as
piston material because of their high thermal conductivity and titanium alloys
could be used thanks to low thermal conductivity, which results in higher
performance of the engine.
Keywords: CAE Internal combustion engine Piston Thermal load
1 Introduction
The history of internal combustion engines is more than 100 years age. During this
time it can be observed increase of operational parameters. This trend is visible for both
gasoline and diesel engines by upgrading operational parameters and developing
combustion process to achieve better performance and simultaneously decrease fuel
consumption and accommodate to EURO norms for ecology. To rectify the overall
efficiency of engine, the motor as a thermal model has to be analyzed, which consists of
many elements having influence into upgrading performance. Combustion process is
achieved in combustion chamber, where piston plays very important role.
Technological development and simulation programs let us to modify existing
piston constructions in case of thermal and mechanical loads. These modifications are
focused on innovations in materials design or changing the geometrical dimensions and
shape of pistons. In modern piston the inventions are introduced in case of piston

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_83
The Impact of Piston Design on Thermal Load of Internal 721
crowns to achieve adequate shape of combustion chamber or swirl phenomenon in

cylinder. Additionally, tendencies to reduce the mass of pistons to decrease inertial
forces can be observed, which has negative effect into other elements of crankshaft
system.
Thanks to these upgrades the thermal process can be improved using bigger value
of compression ratio, which has detrimental effect into operational parameters. Tech-
nological innovation let to achieve higher values of temperature inside combustion
chamber and thermal process can be improved. Nowadays, a lot of piston producing
companies are trying to implement innovation design in order to let combustion
engines use their potential in the field of increasing the performance and durability of
driving units [5–7, 10, 14].
2 Design of a Piston as an Engine Component
2.1 Design Process

Piston is working in very tough conditions, transferring mechanical and thermal loads.
Maximum values of pressure inside the combustion chamber can cross from 10 to
17 MPa depends on type of engines. Mechanical load is also obtained by inertial forces –
this process leads to piston wear [5, 11, 12]. High values of temperatures in combustion
chamber decrease mechanical properties of materials used for designing a piston. Gra-
dient of temperatures connected with dynamic loads can additionally lead to internal
stress of component. As a result, the piston can heat up and cool very fast [1, 2, 4, 8]. This
is the reason why is very hard to obtain proper values of clearance between piston, piston
rings and cylinder liner. Strength calculations of piston crown are complicated, because
the shape is complex and thickness doesn’t have to be constant. Generally, the
mechanical loads from pressure and thermal loads from gradient of temperature are
included. The maximum values of overall stress should not exceed 120 MPa [1–3]. The
gradient of temperature is restricted with maximum value of piston crown temperature.
Mathematical software including FEM (Finite Element Method) enable designers to
increase the quality of calculations and use additional constraints [3, 9, 12]. Full
analysis of piston should include thermal and mechanical stress analysis, because both
of them affect each other. Proper design of piston should include:
– obtaining mechanical and thermal loads in piston, which not exceed specified
values of thermal expansion or fatigue strength,
– reaching uniform temperature distribution to prevent from structural cracks and
material change properties,
– correct collaboration of piston and its rings and prevention from lacking of oil in
first ring groove,
– sufficient stiffness of piston pin boss to achieve correct work of crankshaft system
bearings,
– calculated clearance values between piston and cylinder liner with taking into
consideration dimensional changes – thermal expansion coefficient [5, 6].
722 Z. J. Sroka and K. M. Kot
2.2 Materials Used for Design of a Piston

Development of internal combustion engines has large influence into durability and
reliability to obtain operational parameters. Modifications lead to higher values of
break mean effective pressure and faster burning of combustible mixture. Improving
these parameters is equal to increasing thermal and mechanical loads.
Typical types of materials used for construction of pistons are aluminum alloys,
cast iron and alloyed steel. Nowadays new types of materials can be included: mag-
nesium and titanium alloys. Most often used material for piston production are alu-
minum alloys. In this area there are distinguish aluminum alloys with silicon additive
or copper. Silicon can be added in range from 10 to 12% to increase strength and
provide relatively low coefficient of thermal expansion. Copper can be added from 1 to
5% to increase strength for high temperatures [2, 4, 13].
New materials are also applied into piston design. Magnesium alloys have the
smallest density and their mechanical properties are similar to aluminum alloys.
Titanium alloys have very small coefficient of thermal conductivity, but thermal
expansion is also one of the lowest.
3 Heat Transfer Process and Thermal Load
The temperature of gas in internal combustion engine is of order 2500 K [2, 6, 8].
Cooling process and material properties reduce the temperature of combustion chamber
component to prevent from wear and failure. Heat flux during combustion period can
reach even 10 MW/m2, but it varies essentially with location. Highest fluxes are in
regions of contact between burned gases and walls. Piston crowns are in the region of
highest heat flux values and thermal stresses has to be kept below specified levels,
because it would be reason of fatigue damage. For cast irons and steels temperature
should not exceed 673 K and for aluminum alloys 573 K. Temperatures can be reg-
ulated by material conductivity properties.
For a combustion process three main models of heat transfer are important: con-
duction, convection and radiation.
Conduction – heat is transferred by motion of molecules through fluids and solids,
due to temperature gradient:

W
q_ ¼ k DT ð1Þ
m2
where: W
k thermal conduction coefficient mK
K
DT temperature gradient m
This type of heat is transferred inside the solids – through cylinder head and walls,
piston, piston rings to cylinder wall and through engine block.
Convection – heat is transferred between solid surface in relative motion and fluid,
additionally between fluids in motion. In steady-flow heat transfer processes, the heat flux
is transported from fluid stream of Tg temperature and solid surface at Tw temperature:

W
q_ ¼ hc Tg Tw ð2Þ
m2
where:
hc thermal convection coefficient m2WK
Tg temperature of fluid ½K
Tw temperature of solid surface ½K
Radiation – this process is a heat exchange as a result of absorption of electro-

magnetic waves. Transfer of heat occurs inside and outside of the engine. Combustion
gases at high temperature transfer radiative heat to walls of combustion chamber.
Radiative heat transfer is described by formula:

W
q_ ¼ r T14 T24 ð3Þ
m2
where:
r Stefan-Boltzmann constant - 5,6710−8 m2WK
T1 ; T2 temperatures of black bodies containing no absorbing material ½K :
4 Methodology and Simulation Process

4.1 Influence of Piston Crown Modifications into Thermal Load
First part of simulation included Diesel-RK Software for engine design. Three types of
piston crown geometry was analyzed: Mitsubishi, Pan and Hesselman (Fig. 1).
Mitsubishi Hesselman Pan
Fig. 1. Shape of piston crown in 3 analyzed types

One internal combustion engine was designed for simulations of every piston.
Some engine parameters: cylinder bore 79.5 mm, piston stroke 95.5 mm, compression
ratio 19.5, air-fuel equivalence ratio 1.75, toroidal shape of combustion chamber. For
the first step o simulation the Aluminum alloy 2014-T4 was used for piston design. The
only difference between designs is piston crown geometry deviation. Each of simula-
tions had also available temperature inside combustion chamber data for every
crankshaft angle. Temperature inside combustion chamber was used for simulation
preparation in ANSYS Software. The value of heat released is the same for all the
cases, because the injection profile for engine is the same. For each of the piston
designs capability of heat transfer was investigated.
According to Table 1 deviations in heat transfer inside combustion chamber could
be observed.
Table 1. Heat transfer parameters for analyzed piston crowns from Diesel-RK Software
Quantity Hesselman Pan Mitsubishi
Heat exchange in the cylinder
Average equivalent temperature of cycle, K 1075 1088 1098
Average factor of heat transfer in cylinder, W/m2K 328,0 330,5 333,0
Average piston crown temperature, K 379,6 381,7 382,9
Average cylinder liner temperature, K 420,0 420,0 420,0
Average head wall temperature, K 446,6 448,8 450,5
Average temperature of cooled surface, K 379,7 379,7 380,0
Heat flow in a cylinder head, W 1023,3 1048,7 1071,0
Heat flow in a piston crown, W 1132,4 1158,8 1182,7
Heat flow in a cylinder liner, W 721,3 706,5 697,3
Piston crown has substantial influence into thermal loads, because the shape of
piston head is recognized as combustion chamber. From piston crown temperature it
can be concluded, that higher value equals lower thermal conductivity of piston head.
The higher temperature is obtain to combustion chamber, the better performance of
engine was achieved. When shape of piston crown is more complicated (has bigger
surface), more heat can be transferred into cooling system, oil to prevent dangerous
temperatures of pistons.
ANSYS Software was used to prove the calculations of thermal load for specified
types of pistons. The temperature from Diesel-RK software was applied into piston
crown and convection was used in whole piston to achieve appropriate conduction
process. The simulations were prepared in Transient-Thermal module, because one
cycle of combustion process (720° Crank Angle) was analyzed. Each of piston designs
distinguish another form of temperature inside combustion chamber and this difference
was taken into consideration.
The values in Table 2 represent results of simulations. Total Heat Flux described
how much heat could be transferred in reference to piston crown shape. Convection
refers to speed of heat transfer, because one cycle took about 0,05 s. The values are
negative, because piston is taking heat from combustion chamber. Maximum tem-
perature in bottom side of piston refers to thermal strength of a piston design. The
values of heat taken by piston were calculated using integration from convection
values. Maximum values of Total Heat Flux were obtained by Hesselman type, the
lowest by Mitsubishi one.
Table 2. Results from analysis prepared in ANSYS Software

Parameters from ANSYS software Mitsubishi Pan Hesselman
Reaction Probe – Convection, W – Max. −2,961 −2,719 −2,772
Total Heat Flux, W/mm2 – Max. 1,158 1,392 1,609
Temperature, °C - bottom side of piston crown – Max. 90,701 90,923 90,781
Temperature, °C – piston crown – Max. 98,564 98,604 99,057
Heat taken by piston, J - Numerical Integration 0,1053 0,107 0,109
4.2 Influence of Materials Modifications into Thermal Load

This part of analysis is prepared for one type of piston – Mitsubishi type. The differ-
ences in material properties can be easily changed in ANSYS Software. The most
important properties are thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion. For
best application, first parameters should have the highest value and the second one the
lowest. The materials used in simulations process were as follow: aluminum alloy
2014-T4, magnesium alloy HM21A-T5, titanium alloy Ti-2,5 Cu Annealed, low-
alloyed steel 30NiCrMo2. The boundary conditions have changed and piston crown as
well as the rest of piston are described by Convection.
New materials for pistons were investigated to check, if they could be used
appropriately in future. Magnesium alloys have similar thermal conductivity to alu-
minum alloys, so heat transfer will be higher than for steels or titanium alloys. Low
coefficient of thermal expansion is required property, because piston is heated up to
573–673 K and the geometry could not be changed much (Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5).
Fig. 2. Temperature of magnesium alloy achieved in 0,05 s

Fig. 3. Temperature of titanium alloy achieved in 0,05 s
Fig. 4. Temperature of aluminum alloy achieved in 0,05 s
Fig. 5. Temperature of low alloyed steel achieved in 0,05 s
When piston has higher thermal conductivity, the lower value of heat is accumu-
lated inside material. This results in lower value of maximum temperature of piston
crown. Titanium alloys has the worse thermal conductivity, so the lowest value of heat
was transferred through it and the highest heat value was kept inside combustion
chamber.
Computer simulations of piston design are very useful tool nowadays, because different
materials could be analyzed without production of piston. Piston crown shape is
strongly related to quality of combusted air-fuel mixture and improved shape can
modify flow of heat. New materials can be used nowadays, because they become more
popular. Magnesium alloys have lower fatigue strength than aluminum alloys, so they
would be replaced more often. Titanium alloys can be applied for sport cars, because
the best performance is achieved, when the heat stays inside combustion chamber.
Most popular materials nowadays are aluminum alloys, because they are accessible and
the cost of production is low. Thanks to Diesel-RK and ANSYS Software, analysis of
thermal expansion can be achieved more precisely and the cost of research & devel-
opment tasks could be lowered.
References
1. Ambrozik A (2012) Podstawy teorii tłokowych silników spalinowych. Warszawa
2. Blair GP (1996) Design and simulation of four-stroke engines. Edition SAE, Warrendale
3. Guzzella L, Onder Ch (2010) Introduction to modelling and control of internal combustion
engine systems, 2nd Edition; Springer Editor
4. Heywood John B (1988) Internal combustion engine fundamentals. McGraw-Hill, Inc. USA
5. Kozaczewski W (2004) Konstrukcja grupy tłokowo-cylindrowej silników spalinowych.
WKŁ, Warszawa
6. Luft S (2011) Podstawy budowy silników: Silniki spalinowe. WKŁ, Warszawa
7. Merker GP et al (2009) Combustion engines development. Springer Edition
8. Oppenheim AK et al (1996) Model and control of heat release in engines. Am J Engine
Combust Flow Diagn SAE Paper 1157(1996):15–23
9. Rusiński E (1994) Metoda Elementów Skończonych, WKŁ, Warszawa
10. Rychter T, Teodorczyk A (2006) Teoria silników tłokowych. WKŁ, Warszawa
11. Sroka ZJ (2012) Thermal load of tuned piston. Arch Civil Mech Eng 12(3):342–347
12. Sroka ZJ, Dziedzioch D (2015) Mechanical load of piston applied in downsized engine.
Arch Civil Mech Eng 15(3):663–667
13. Stone R (2012) Introduction to internal combustion engines part 1, part 2. SAE International,
Warrendale, Pennsylvania USA
14. www.diamondracing.net (2017)
Analysis of the Influence of Leaf Geometry
on Stiffness and Effort of the Heavy-Duty
Spring
Mariusz Stańco(&)

mariusz.stanco@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The article discusses how the basic geometrical parameters of the
leaf have an effect on a spring effort. On the example of a selected leaf of a
parabolic spring with a length of 1800 mm, stress distributions in the leaf were
shown at a given deflection. The influence of the rolling rate of a parabolic leaf
on its stiffness and effort was analysed.
Keywords: Heavy-duty suspension Parabolic spring Spring stiffness
1 Introduction
Springs are used in heavy-duty vehicles almost from the beginning. In the construction
the spring does not distinguish with anything special. It consists of a supporting beam
built of several flat bars stacked on top of one another. However, in vehicles operated in
difficult terrain conditions, they cause many difficulties to their users by fatigue
cracking [1, 2].
A characteristic feature of the leaf springs is their ability to absorb or accumulate
the energy generated by its deflection. The amount of energy absorbed by the spring
depends directly on the stiffness of the spring, which, depending on the purpose of the
vehicle, should be selected for the given vehicle. The proper selection of the spring
type and its stiffness has a significant impact on the driving comfort of both the driver
and the passenger of the vehicle, but also determines the durability of the vehicle frame
elements.
The stiffness of the spring is selected by choosing the right number of leaves and by
proper shaping of their geometry. The geometry of the leaf should be selected in such a
way that, as a result of exploitation, its fatigue life should be as long as possible.
2 Spring Types
Currently, there are two types of the leaf springs in heavy-duty vehicle suspensions:
parabolic and semi-elliptic. Figure 1 shows a front suspension of the vehicle based on
parabolic springs, while Fig. 2 shows a front suspension in which semi-elliptical springs
were used. However, increasingly often parabolic springs replace heavy semi-elliptical

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_84
Analysis of the Influence of Leaf Geometry on Stiffness 729
springs consisting of several to dozen stack flat bars with a fixed thickness and variable
length. In parabolic springs, usually two to four, five leaves of equal length but variable
thickness are used.
Fig. 1. Front suspension of the vehicle with parabolic spring
Fig. 2. Front suspension of the vehicle with semi-elliptic spring
3 Influence of the Rolling Rate on Strength
The length of springs used in heavy-duty vehicles is within the limits of

16001900 mm. It results mainly from the amount of space for suspension and the
number of axles of the vehicle. The length of the spring has a significant influence on
730 M. Stańco
its stiffness. With the increase in the length of leaves, the spring stiffness decreases,
while the bend deflection increases (Fig. 3).
Selection of the proper leaf stiffness is related with choosing the right geometry of
the structure. In case of the parabolic springs, the leaves have a variable thickness on
the length. In the middle part of the leaf, a constant thickness occurs in the zone where
the U-bolts are mounted (it is usually above 22 mm) and near the end of the element,
the thickness is modified and finally it is at least 12 mm. It is important that the length
of the rolled part is well chosen, because it determines the stiffness of the spring. It also
affects a stress level, which then has an influence on the fatigue strength of a given
spring. A proper way of rolling the leaf may significantly improve a fatigue life.
Figure 4 shows the distribution of stresses along the length of the leaf, where the
rolling length was incorrectly selected.
The selection of the rolling length should be carried out in a way to obtain a
relatively uniform distribution of stresses on the longest possible length (see Fig. 5). In
that case the spring takes the full advantage of the material from which it was made.
Fig. 3. Influence of the leaf length on stiffness and bend deflection of the spring
Figure 6 presents the stress distribution along the leaf for different rolling lengths,
assuming a linear thickness change. Due to the symmetrical geometry of the leaf, the
analysis was made for half of its length. The stress change r1 for the rolling length in
the range 50550 mm for the leaf with a length of 1800 mm was presented. In each of
the obtained distributions, it may be noticed a sudden change of stresses in the area,
where the beginning of rolling takes place. The consequence of the stress rapid changes
will be the fatigue cracks in the leaves. None of the presented geometric model are
suitable for the utilisation.
Fig. 4. Distribution of the stress along incorrectly rolled leaf
Fig. 5. Distribution of the stress along properly rolled leaf
Figure 7 presents the change in stresses r1 along the leaf for the rolling lengths in
the range of 580700 mm. The resulting stress distributions obtained in this way show
that the increase of the stresses for the rolling length over 580 mm is more stable.
Exemplary stress distributions r1 in leaves in the form of color contours [3] for
different rolling lengths are shown in Fig. 8.
The use of single rolling for springs with a length of 1800 mm is associated with
the use of the length of rolling in range 580700 mm. This limits, however,
the possibility of smooth stiffness selection, because the range of the stiffness of the
732 M. Stańco
Fig. 6. Stress distribution along a half of the leaf for the rolling length in range 50550 mm
Fig. 7. Stress distribution along a half of the leaf for the rolling length in range 580700 mm
three-leaf spring will be within the limits of 295340 N/mm. Therefore, during the
rolling, a double or even triple change in the thickness of the leaves is used while
maintaining a uniform distribution of stresses. Figure 9 shows the actual change in the
thickness of a 1800 mm long leaf after double rolling. The distribution of stresses along
the length of the leaf with the bend deflection f = 100 mm was also presented.
Fig. 8. Contours of stress r1 of the leaves for different rolling lengths: (a) 100 mm, (b) 300 mm,
(c) 400, (d) 600 mm
Fig. 9. Change of thickness along length of the leaf and the stress distribuiton in a leaf while
maintaining a constant bend deflection f = 100 mm
734 M. Stańco
Fig. 10. Change in the parabolic spring stiffness depending on the type and length of rolling
4 Influence of the Rolling Rate on a Spring Stiffness
As mentioned above, the rolling length significantly influences the stiffness of the
spring. Chart presented in a Fig. 10 shows the change in stiffness as a function of
rolling length for three-leaf spring made using single and double rolling. The presented
results were obtained from the numerical calculations for a springs length of 1800 mm.
Introducing a double thickness change in the rolled part of the leaf, enables to
increase the range of the obtained spring stiffness. It also allows to control the stress
distribution.
The designing and a proper selection of the geometry of the parabolic leaf springs are
important, especially when they are used in the off-road vehicles [4, 5]. The issue of
proper selection of the geometry, discussed in the article, indicates the necessity of
using multiple rolling of the leaves. This enables to control of both the stiffness of the
leaf and the entire spring as well as the distribution of stress along its length.
References
1. Drozd K (2011) Fraktograficzne i metalograficzne badania uszkodzeń sprężyn zawieszenia
pojazdów. (2011) Postępy Nauiki i Techniki. 11
2. Drozd K (2003) Analiza możłiwośći wykazania przyczyn uszkodzeń piór resorowych.
(2003) Eksploatacja i Niezawodność. 2

skończonych w konstrukcjach. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej nośnych
4. Stańco M, Kosobudzki M (2016) The loads identification acting on the 4x4 truck. Mater
Today Proc 3(4):1167–1170
5. Kosobudzki M, Stańco M (2016) The experimental identification of torsional angle on a load-
carrying truck frame during static and dynamic tests. Eksploatacja i Niezawodność -
Maintenance and Reliability 18(2):285–290
Failure Analysis of a Damaged U-Bolt Top
Plate in a Leaf Spring
Mariusz Staco(&), Paulina Działak, and Maciej Hejduk

{mariusz.stanco,paulina.dzialak}@pwr.edu.pl,
222308@student.pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The article discusses the causes of fatigue cracking of the top cap
plate in the leaf spring used in heavy-duty vehicles. The results of the experi-
mental studies conducted on the special test stand are presented. Next, the
results of the numerical analysis of the top plate were discussed and finally
compared with the results of the experiment.
Keywords: Leaf spring Top cap plate U-bolt Fatigue analysis
1 Introduction
Leaf springs, used in both off-road and personal vehicles, are attached to the driving or
non-driving axle by means of U-bolts, which are connected with each other by an
element called top cap plate. The main function of this element is to maintain the U-
bolts at a constant distance from each other, and improving spring stiffness in its central
part, through the contact pressure caused by the clamping force of the U-bolts. The top
plate is always mounted in the middle part of the parabolic as well as the semi-elliptic
springs [3]. An example of the structure of the spring connection with the axle and
frame of the vehicle is shown in Fig. 1.
The shape of the top plates depends mainly on the length and width of the spring
leaves, and on the diameter of the U-bolts and the distance between them. Usually,
these elements are forged (Fig. 2a) and made of high-strength steels. In the era of CNC
machines, top caps are also made by means of machining (Fig. 2b). In the central part
of the plate, there is a hole, where the bolt, clamping the spring leaves into one whole,
is hidden. Figure 2 presents the design solutions of the top plates used in heavy-duty
vehicles.
The U-bolt top plate is in contact with the upper spring leaf only on a small surface
located just under the U-bolts. The surface of the plate’s contact with the leaf is about
18–20% of the bottom surface of the top cap. In the middle part, the top plate is
undercut, ensuring a clearance between the spring leaf and the plate, which improves
the fatigue strength of the spring [3].
The plate cooperates directly with the U-bolts. They are designed to ensure a proper
contact pressure of both the leaves to each other and the spring to the axes. By
tightening the U-bolts with the required torque (for heavy goods vehicles over

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_85
Failure Analysis of a Damaged U-Bolt Top Plate in a Leaf Spring 737
Fig. 1. The structure of the leaf spring suspension system
Fig. 2. View of the top plate (a) forged, (b) milled
400 Nm), friction force appears, keeping the leaves at a constant distance and pre-
venting them from moving. The length of U-bolts mainly depends on the length of the
spring and it is usually about 8–15% of the length of the base leaf. The diameter of U-
bolt ranges from 1824 mm. They are made of a properly shaped round bar. In the
group of U-bolts, there are several types of structures, out of which two basic types can
be distinguished:
– U-bolts with constant cross-section (Fig. 3a);
– U-bolts with variable cross-section (Fig. 3b).
Improper design of the U-bolts causes that the contact with the top plate does not
occur along the entire length, what results in high surface pressures and yielding of
both U-bolts and a top cap. Abrasion (Fig. 4) is then visible on the surfaces of both
elements. This has an adverse influence on the spring compression force.
The tightening torque of the U-bolt is a significant part of the spring operation
process. The usage of incorrect (too small) values of torque can contribute to damage
both the drive system and the entire suspension system.
738 M. Staco et al.
Fig. 3. U-bolts (a) with constant cross-section, (b) with variable cross-section
Fig. 4. Abrasion of the U-bolt surface
2 Experimental Testing
The fatigue tests of a parabolic spring were conducted under laboratory conditions.
A special test stand for fatigue testing of the springs was developed [4]. It allowed
mounting the spring on a MTS type universal testing machine. The object of the study
was a five leaves parabolic spring, used in a heavy-duty vehicles [2]. The test stand
enabled to mount the spring in a similar way to the mounting on a vehicle. The spring
was clamped with two U-bolts with a diameter of Ø20 mm, tightened with a 550 Nm
torque. The purpose of the spring fatigue tests was to determine its fatigue strength at
the maximum bend deflection. The method of the U-bolts fixing is shown in Fig. 5. At
the bottom the top plate (1) made of the 40H steel may be seen. It is connected with two
U-bolts (2) attached to the rigid tie plate (3). The U-bolts support the spring (4) on its
both sides.
Fig. 5. Fixed spring with a U-bolts and the top and tie plates
The experiment was conducted with a deflection of 140 mm. During the test, the
fatigue crack of the top cap occurred (Fig. 6 and 7).
Fig. 6. Fatigue crack of the top cap plate
The plate cracked after about 77,000 cycles. Figure 8 shows the fatigue crack of the
top cap. The fatigue fracture showed that there was an uneven load on the top plate,
which can be caused by incorrect tightening of the U-bolts. The crack initiation
appeared in the corners of the element, situated on the diagonal of the cross-section.
740 M. Staco et al.
Fig. 7. Bottom view of the top plate crack
Fig. 8. Fatigue fracture of the damaged top cap
During the fatigue tests, the effort of the springs was measured. Additionally, the
strain gauges were placed on the one of the U-bolt arms. The strain gauge was located
on the unloaded U-bolt, what enabled to measure the strength of the U-bolt during
mounting the spring, top cap plate and the U-bolts. Figure 9 presents the recorded U-
bolt stress while tightening the U-bolt with the maximum torque.
From the conducted experiment it may be noticed that the stresses in the U-bolt
during the subsequent cycles of the spring bending are reduced. It shows that the bolt
cannot withstand the given preload (Fig. 10).
Fig. 9. Stresses recorded during tightening the U-bolt with maximal torque
Fig. 10. Stresses recorded during the spring fatigue tests
After the tests, visual assessment of the spring mounting elements was made. It was
noted that the thread on the bolt had been stripped (Fig. 11). This fact indicates that the
material from which the U-bolt was made of was improper or the heat treatment was
selected incorrectly. This negligence contributed to the uneven stress on the U-bolts
and loosening during the tests, which resulted in the fatigue crack of the top cap plate.
Fig. 11. Damaged thread of the U-bolt

742 M. Staco et al.
3 Strength Analysis
The cause of a top plate fracture was also examined using the finite element method
(FEM) [1, 5]. The numerical model of the spring was developed together with the top
cap and U-bolts (Fig. 12). The model reflects the geometry of the real objects used for
the experiment. For modelling the abovementioned parts, HEXA type solid elements
[1] were used. The numerical analysis included also the friction between the connected
elements of the spring and the tightening the U-bolts by the required torque. Geometric
nonlinearity of the analysis was also considered.
Fig. 12. Discrete model of the spring and the mounting elements
The results of the numerical calculations were convergent with the minimum and
maximum stress zones located in the area where the fatigue crack initiation occurred
(Fig. 13).
Fig. 13. Contours of the principal stress r1

The authors presented and discussed the causes of the top cap plate damage during the
fatigue tests of the parabolic spring. The results of experimental research of the U-bolt
effort during the spring bending are shown. The stresses obtained through the strength
analysis using the finite element method were also shown, assuming that the top cap is
twisted by the variable moment. The obtained results were strongly convergent with the
results of the experimental research. The maximum stress zones at the numerical top
cap occur in similar areas, where the real plate has fractured. The main reason for the
top plat damage was the improper heat treatment of the U-bolts. The yield strength
limit for the U-bolts was lower than their effort due to the tightening torque and spring
work during the examination.
References
1. Rusiński E., Czmochowski J., Smolnicki T.: (2000) Zaawansowana metoda elementów
2. Stańco M, Kosobudzki M (2016) The loads identification acting on the 4x4 truck. Materials
Today: Proceedings 3(4):1167–1170
3. SAE, Spring Design Manual—Design and Application of Leaf Springs, HS-744, AE-11,90.
(1990), SAE International
4. Savaidis G., Karditsas S., Savaidis A., Stergioudi F., Michailidis N.: (2017) Fatigue
Assessment of Stress Peened Leaf Springs supported by Microstructural Surface Analyses.
3rd International Conference of Engineering Against Failure. Online
5. Derlukiewicz D, Karlinski J (2012) Static and dynamic analysis of telescopic boom of self-
propelled tunnelling machine. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics 50(1):47–59
Development of Measuring Points
for Experimental Tests of Loads on the Driving
Axle of a City Bus
M. Stańco(&), A. Górski, and D. Derlukiewicz

{mariusz.stanco,artur.gorski,
damian.derlukiewicz}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The article presents the method of selection of measuring points on

the elements of the rear drive axle in order to identify the maximum loads
occurring when the bus is both empty and filled with passengers. Selected
waveforms recorded during measurements are also presented.
Keywords: Load measurements Driving bridges Buses Reaction bars
1 Introduction
The experimental research was carried out by the measurements of the loads acting on
the rear driving axle of a city bus during its operation in urban conditions. For the load
tests a two-axle bus (Fig. 1) was selected and equipped with a drive motor located at
the rear of the vehicle, from which the drive torque to the rear axle is transmitted via the
drive axle (Fig. 2).
The loads occurring during operation were measured by acceleration sensors, or by
measuring the effort of a given element. In the conducted experiment, the measure-
ments were made both with use of acceleration sensors and strain gauges, on the basis
of which the vertical loads as well as longitudinal forces occurring while driving were
determined.
2 Measurement Points
A total of eight measuring points located on the bus’s driving axis and measuring
points inside the bus were developed. Four points located on the bellows supports were
defined for measuring the vertical loads acting on the axis. The location of the points
was chosen based on the numerical analysis using the finite element method [1, 2].
A geometric and discreet model of the bellow support was made (Figs. 3 and 4), and
then the boundary conditions were also defined. The bracket was loaded by the unit
force to determine the stress zones in which it is possible to install strain gage sensors.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_86
Development of Measuring Points for Experimental Tests 745
Fig. 1. An example of a two-axle bus [4]
Fig. 2. The driving axle of the tested bus [5]
Fig. 3. The geometric model of the arm of the bellow

746 M. Stańco et al.
Fig. 4. The discrete model of the arm of the bellow
The obtained stress distributions show that in the bellow support it is possible to
select zones in which the stress changes gently and there is a similar uniaxial state of
strain. Figure 5 shows the main stress contour lines for unit loads.
Fig. 5. The contour lines of main stresses r1 [MPa]
The view of the installed measurement point shown in Fig. 6.

In addition to vertical loads, the acceleration sensors placed on the axis of the drive
bridge on both sides were used (Fig. 7). These points will give the information about
the loads from the type of road on which the vehicle is moving. Additional measuring
points inside the bus have been placed in order to measure the overloads that are
affecting the vehicle during its operation. The results obtained in this way will show
Fig. 6. Measuring point on one of the four bellow supports
Fig. 7. Measurement point for measuring vertical loads [5]

how large are the values of vertical overloads acting on the bus axle, and the resulting
from the mass and inertia of the body. These sensors are located in the middle of the
bus’s weight and over the rear drive axle.
The longitudinal forces coming from the driving drive as well as the one arising
during exploitation as a result of starting, braking, or twisting or other loads were
Fig. 8. Positions of measuring points placed on the bellows brackets and reaction rods [5]
measured on four reaction bars connecting the bus’s driving axle with its supporting
structure. Strain gage sensors were used for this purpose. The reaction rods carry only
axial forces, from which the force values can be easily obtained. The positions of the
measurement points are shown in Fig. 8. A GPS sensor was also included in the set of
measurements to record the speed of the bus
3 Measurements
The measurements were made while the bus was driving in urban conditions. Emer-
gency braking at various driving speeds was also performed. In addition, load mea-
surements were made during slalom driving as well as while driving in a traffic jam.
Figures 9 and 10 show examples of stress courses at individual measuring points while
driving an empty bus in the city.
The exemplary results that were obtained while driving a bus loaded with dead
weight and passenger mass are shown in Figs. 11 and 12. The results presented were
obtained while the bus was moving around the city.
Fig. 9. Change of forces in the reaction bars while the bus is driving
Fig. 10. Change of the stresses in the bellows brackets

Fig. 11. Change of forces in the reaction bars while the bus is driving
Fig. 12. The change of stresses in the bellows brackets

The long-term measurements of the load on the driving axle of a bus moving in and out
of the city contributed to the selection of maximum ad hoc and fatigue loads occurring
while driving the vehicle. These loads will be the first step towards further research
related to the design of the new bus system of the bus.
Acknowledgements. The article was written as a result of the project funded by the National
Centre for Research and Development in Poland, project: “Opracowanie modułowej innowa-
cyjnej osi napędowej wykorzystującej silniki elektryczne w kołach jezdnych” realised by SKB
Drive Tech S.A. (Agreement no POIR.01.01.01-00-0451/16-00).
References
1. Stańco M, Kosobudzki M (2016) The loads identification acting on the 4 4 truck. Mater
Today Proc 3(4):1167–1170
3. Rusiński E (1990) Mikrokomputerowa analiza ram i nadwozi pojazdów i maszyn roboczych.
Wydawnictwa Komunikacji i Łączności
4. http://www.kmpk.cba.pl/
5. Information materials from www.zf.com
Static and Dynamic Tests of Suspension System
Heavy Off-road Vehicle
M. Stańco(&), A. Iluk, and M. Sawicki

{mariusz.stanco,artur.iluk,marek.sawicki}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. In paper are presented results of static and dynamic tests conducted
on 4 axles heavy off-road vehicle, which crossing over 300 mm height obstacle.
During test was measured stress state and deformation when vehicle drive
through obstacle for different velocities. The aim of work was determination of
maximum stress state and deformations in mounted parabolic springs.
Keywords: Suspension heavy vehicle Parabolic springs Measurements
1 Introduction
Suspension system of heavy off-road vehicle is suffers extremely loads during crusing
in heavy terrain. Loads of two or three rear axles of three-axles or four-axles vehicles
respectively are usually balanced by mechanical system of loads distribution. In case of
off-road vehicle’s front axle, which are responsible for steering and are driven. Usually
there is no load distribution systems across first and second axle. Overcoming terrain
obstacles is demanding for suspension system of front axle and cause accelerated wear
out of springs and dampers. The aim of this paper is to analising of suspension response
while overcoming of terrain obstacles. For analyse experimental methods were used
with Finite Element Method software [3]. Object of test was 4 axle vehicle with total
mass of 32 tones (Fig. 1).
Experimental test are devoted to analysis of performance suspension system
equipped with parabolic springs (Fig. 2) crossing over roadblock with constant height.
2 Test Condition
The vehicle are usually tested on test tracks with varied and unmeasured geometry [1,
2, 4]. To ensure equal test condition and result reproducibility tests were conducted on
test rig. Test rig was designed as single hurdle with height of 300 mm. Test regime
assumed driving through obstacle by one side only. Dynamics loads which that
occurred in this condition cause additional forces for front suspension system than
double wheel drive through obstacle. Tests were conducted for different vehicle
velocity. In results the static and dynamic loads of suspension elements were recorded.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_87
Static and Dynamic Tests of Suspension System 753
Fig. 1. Vehicle considered in paper
Fig. 2. Front suspension considered vehicle with parabolic springs.
Parameters recorded during the tests:

– visual measurement of suspension and vehicle movement
– work parameter of springs and dumpers with digital image correlation method
– measurement of strain and calculated to stress (strain gauges)
– deflection of suspension system measured by draw wire encoder
– acceleration measurement
The visual measurements vehicle was performed by set of cameras localized in

surrounded area of front axle. Suspension elements were marked by visual-recognized
pattern. Movement of suspensions elements was designated based on change of
position captured point by camera sensor. Next group of cameras recorded vehicle
response during driving through roadblock (Figs. 3, 4).
Fig. 3. Hurdle used in test with height of 300 mm
Measurement of stress state of spring’s leaf was conducted by strain gauges. Strain
gauges are placed at four springs of front axle. Each of strain gauges was placed in
distance of 500 mm behind driven axle. Measurements of acceleration were performed
by piezoelectric accelerometers placed inside the vehicle. Purpose of acceleration
measurements was to determine acceleration which act to driver during driving through
obstacle. Suspension travel was measured by draw wire encoder placed in close area of
each spring.
Fig. 4. Draw wire encoder for deflection measurements and camera for record movement of
suspension during the test.
3 Test Results
Based on performed measurement authors gained time domain signals of stress (cal-
culated from strain), deflection and acceleration. Figures 5 and 6 show exemplary
signal of stresses and deflection during driving through obstacle by first wheel. Those
signals are related to first axle spring of right wheel. Figure 5 shows results for slowest
velocity, whereas Fig. 6 shows results for the fastest velocity. Increasing of velocity
was obtained by changing gear. The procedure has required stabilization of velocity
before taking approach to obstacle. Figures 5 and 6 shows results for velocity 0.25 m/s
and 2 m/s respectively.
Fig. 5. Stress state of spring and deflection recorded during crossing over with minimal
velocity.
Obtained results show that increasing velocity of vehicle for driving through the
same terrain obstacle significantly increase stress state of suspension spring. Difference
of stress state between maximum and minimum velocity is 42%. High stresses of
suspension are also observed in vehicle driving through obstacle only by one side of
axle. In result vehicle start to swing causing additional loads. Stress’s sign is changing
and compression stress state is changing to compression - tension stress state. For low
velocity and crossing hurdle simultaneously by two wheels stress equal Δr = 343
MPa, whereas for highest speed it is equal to Δr = 760 MPa. However, after cross
over roadblock by one side of vehicle and swinging of the vehicle, stress cause until
stabilization of the car decrease approximately Δr = 484 for minimum velocity and
reduction for maximum velocity is equal Δr = 450.
Fig. 6. Stress state of spring and deflection recorded during crossing over with maximal velocity
for wheel first and second axles.
Fig. 7. Maximum stress recorded at front right axel during crossing over hurdle for different
velocities.
At Fig. 7 are shown maximum values of stresses obtained during passing through
roadblock recorded for strain gauge placed at first axle. Maximum stresses are constant
in range of velocity from 0.25 m/s up to 1.85 m/s. From this point massive rise of
stress is observed in spring. The explanation of this trend has higher influence of
dynamic forces during crossing over hurdle. For higher velocity wheel starts to loose
contact with ground during passing obstacle (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Dynamic crossing over roadblock. Note lose of contact of front wheel.
Presented in paper results of static and dynamic test show that velocity of crossing over
roadblock has great influence for stress state of spring. All terrain unevenness are
overtaken by springs, which to accumulate energy it leads in longer perspective to
shorter lifetime of suspension element, especially springs, due to fatigue wear out.
Experiments show parallelly that swinging of the vehicle body caused by unsym-
metrical approach to hurdle has massive influence for stress state. Moreover,
improperly selected dumper might be one of the reason of significantly increase stress
states. Obtained results were used and helped in design of new generation parabolic
spring suspension. Geometry was established based on conducted experiments and
supported by numerical calculation performed in FEM software.
References
1. Stańco M, Kosobudzki M (2016) The loads identification acting on the 4 4 truck. Mater
Today Proc 3(4):1167–1170
2. Kosobudzki M, Stańco M (2016) The experimental identification of torsional angle on a load-
carrying truck frame during static and dynamic tests. Eksploatacja i Niezawodność -
Maintenance and Reliability 18(2):285–290

4. Kong YS, Omar MZ, Chua LB, Abdullah S (2014) Fatigue life prediction of parabolic leaf
spring under various road conditions. Eng Fail Anal 46:92–103
Studies of Resistances of Natural Liquid Flow
in Helical and Curved Pipes
Michał Stosiak1, Maciej Zawiślak1(&), and Bohdan Nishta2

1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wrocław University of Science
and Technology, Wybrzeże Stanisława Wyspiańskiego 27,
2
Department of General Mechanics and Dynamics of Machines,
Sumy State University, Rymskogo-Korsakova Str., Sumy 40007, Ukraine
Abstract. The main aim of this research was to determine in two ways, i.e.
experimentally and by means of numerical modelling, the resistances of the flow
of a natural liquid in a helical pipe and in curved pipe. The analyses were carried
out for two pipes: one helical pipe and one curved pipe. Each of the pipes was
2 m long and its inside diameter was 4 mm.
The experiment was carried out on a test stand making it possible to measure
the rate of the flow of the liquid, the temperature at the pipe’s inlet and outlet
and the pressure at the pipe’s inlet and outlet. Moreover, numerical modelling
was performed using the finite volume element method.
Keywords: Flow Resistance of flow Helical pipe Curved pipe

Natural liquid Laminar flow
1 Introduction
Losses of pressure always occur during the transport of liquids or gases through
conduits [1, 2]. The size of the losses affects the demand for power needed to transport
the liquids or the gases and thereby has a bearing on the operating costs of the entire
transmission system. On the other hand, in structural integrity assessment of pressure
vessels, pipelines, ducts, based on philosophy leak before break, it is important to
predict the critical crack size as well fatigue crack growth rate in structures subjected to
cyclic loading. The prediction of pressure losses (necessary for stress intensity factor
[11] variations assessment) is an additional factor in modelling of fatigue crack growth
in pressure vessels [5].
Therefore calculations of flow losses in hydraulic systems are of vital importance.
The number of pipe configurations is huge and so not all of them can be presented here.
Therefore two different pipes: a helical pipe and a curved pipe were selected for
consideration in this paper.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_88
760 M. Stosiak et al.
2 Experimental Determination of Liquid Flow Resistances

2.1 Description of Studied Pipes
As part of this research the resistances of the flow of a liquid in two rigid pipes which
had been formed from steel pipes were studied. Each of the pipes is 2 m long and its
inside diameter amounts to 4 mm:
№1 – a helical pipe (Fig. 1a),
№2 – a curved pipe with two long straight sections and a bend having a radius of
32.5 mm (Fig. 1b),
Fig. 1. Studied pipes
Measurements of the roughness of the pipe’s interior side (Fig. 2) were carried out
using a HOMMEL TESTER T1000. The results of the measurements are presented in
Table 1.
Fig. 2. Interior side of pipe
Table 1. Roughness measurement

Parameter Measurement №1 Measurement №2 Measurement №3 Average
Ra, µm 1.29 1.22 1.26 1.257
Rz, µm 7.78 7.54 8.12 7.813
Rt, µm 9.34 8.36 9.48 9.06
2.2 Description of Laboratory Test Stand

The test stand shown in Fig. 3 was used to measure the resistances of the flow of the
hydraulic oil. The hydraulic oil FUCHS RENOLIN VG 46 [3] is delivered to the
Studies of Resistances of Natural Liquid 761
studied pipe’s inlet, where temperature T1 and pressure p1 are measured, by a pump
via a pipe with a relief valve. Temperature was measured by a HYDROTECHNIK
HySense TE100 ISDS temperature sensor. The pressure at the studied pipe’s inlet was
measured by a STAUFF SPD-DIGI-B0100-B pressure gauge with a measuring range
of 0–100 bar. The pressure at the pipe’s outlet was measured by a STAUFF SPD-DIGI-
B0016-B pressure gauge with a measuring range of 1–16 bar. After leaving the studied
pipe the oil was delivered to a HYDROTECHNIK HySense QG100 flow meter. Then
the oil returned to the tank. The data from the temperature sensors and the flow meter
were read off a HYDROTECHNIK Multi System 8050 multichannel measurement and
control instrument.
Fig. 3. Measuring stand: 1 – pipe in which flow resistance is investigated, 2 – digital pressure
gauge at pipe’s inlet, 3 – digital pressure gauge at pipe’s outlet, 4 – thermometer at pipe’s outlet,
5 – thermometer at pipe’s outlet, 6 – flow meter, 7 – relief valve, 8 – tank, 9 – multichannel
measurement and control instrument.
2.3 Determination of Measurement Uncertainty

In order to determine the accuracy (by determining the maximum systematic uncer-
tainty) of the pressure, flow rate and liquid temperature recording one should add up the
individual uncertainties occurring in the whole measuring circuit. The maximum
measurement uncertainty for the circuit measuring pressure p, flow rate Q and tem-
perature is expressed by the relation [4]:

dmax ¼ jdsensor j þ damplifier þ dcomputer ð1:1Þ
The following were used in the experiments:

– a HYDROTECHNIK HySense TE100 ISDS temperature sensor with
dT sensor < ± 1% of the end value;
– a STAUFF SPD-DIGI-B0100-B pressure gauge with dp sensor ± 0.5%;
– a STAUFF SPD-DIGI-B0016-B pressure gauge with dp sensor ± 0.5%;
– a HYDROTECHNIK HySense QG100 flow meter with dQ sensor ± 0.4%;
– the frequency input of the HYDROTECHNIK Multi System 8050 multichannel
measurement and control instrument for flow rate recording, with
dQ computer ± 0.02%;
– the analogue inputs of the HYDROTECHNIK Multi System 8050 multichannel
measurement and control instrument for temperature recording, with
dT computer ± 0.1%.
Taking into account the individual measurement uncertainties, the pressure
recording uncertainty was evaluated to amount to dp max 0.5%, the flow rate
recording uncertainty to dQ max 0.42% and the temperature recording uncertainty to
dT max 1.1%.
2.4 Processing of Measurement Results

The obtained measurement results are presented as graphs in Fig. 4.
According to Fig. 4, the highest pressure losses occur in the helical pipe, whereas
the lowest pressure losses are in pipe №2 which has the longest straight section of all
the studied pipes.
Fig. 4. Pressure losses versus flow rate.

3 Calculation of Liquid Flow Resistances by Means

of Numerical Modelling
3.1 Problem Setup
In this section the problem of the flow of the hydraulic oil in the studied pipes is solved
by means of numerical modelling in ANSYS CFX. The solution was reached in several
steps: the creation of the investigated object’s geometry of, the generation of a finite
volume element mesh, the setting of proper liquid parameters and boundary conditions,
computations, an analysis of the pressure distribution in the pipes and of the pressure
losses [10].
The parameters of the liquid needed for the calculations are: density q = 877 kg/m3
and coefficient of dynamic viscosity l = qm = 0.04 kg m−1 s−1.
The pressure at the pipe’s inlet and the mass rate of flow at the pipe’s outlet, whose
values are given in Table 3.1, were set as the boundary conditions (Table 2).
Table 2. Boundary conditions for numerical computations.

Parameter Pipe number
№1 №2
Inlet pressure, Pa 50 ∙ 105 46 ∙ 105
Outlet mass rate of flow, kg/s 0.119 0.161
3.2 Course of Numerical Modelling

First geometric models of the liquid for the studied pipes were created on the basis of
the models of the pipes used in the experiments (Fig. 3.1).
Subsequently a mesh of volume elements was generated. Prismatic elements with a
characteristic size of 0.8 mm were used for this purpose. There were 5 boundary layers,
the layer width amounted to 0.5 mm and the mesh growth rate to 1.2. A close-up of the
volume element mesh is shown in Fig. 3.2.
Then the boundary conditions were set according to Table 3.1 (Fig. 3.3). For all the
models the inlet pressure, the outlet mass rate of flow and “hydraulically smooth” walls
on all the surfaces, except for the pipe’s inlet and outlet, were set.
The laminar flow of the liquid was assumed in the computations (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8).
3.3 Analysis of Computation Results

The total pressure losses in the pipes and the computation error in comparison with the
experimentally determined pressure losses are presented in Table 3.3.
Fig. 5. Geometric models of liquid for studied pipes.
Fig. 6. Close-up of volume element mesh for

pipe №1. Fig. 7. Boundary conditions
for computing oil flow in pipe
№1.
The results of the numerical modelling computations show that the pressure losses
determined in this way are lower than the ones determined experimentally and the
computation error does not exceed 20%, while for pipe №2 with a long straight section
the error amounts to 4.1%, which can indicate good agreement between the experi-
mental data and the numerical computations (Tables 3 and 4).
Fig. 8. Distribution of pressure in pipes.
Table 3. Total pressure losses in pipes, computed by means of numerical modelling.

Parameter Pipe number
№1 №2
Inlet pressure, Pa 50 ∙ 105 46 ∙ 105
Outlet pressure, Pa 17.06 ∙ 105 15.39 ∙ 105
Pressure losses in pipe, Pa 32.94 ∙ 105 30.61 ∙ 105
Table 4. Pressure losses in pipes, computed by means of numerical modelling and determined
experimentally.
Computed quantity Pipe number
№1 №2
Total power losses in pipe computed by means of numerical 32.94 ∙ 105 30.61 ∙ 105
modelling Dp3, Pa
Experimental power losses in pipe Dp1, Pa 40.98 ∙ 105 31.93 ∙ 105
Error of computations by means of numerical modelling 19.6 4.1
[(Dp1- Dp3)/Dp1] ∙100, %
4 Conclusion
The numerical modelling showed very good agreement with the experimental data only
in the case of pipe №2 with a long straight section. Whereas for the helical pipe the
error amounts to 19.6. Conducted numerical analysis and its experimental validation
have shown, that CFD method is suitable for examining flow in microhoses. Differ-
ences between CFD modelling and experimental data are dependent on the geometry of
the element. It is recommended to conduct more experimental and theoretical research

for other types of local resistance in order to define the confidence interval for CFD
analysis of microflows.
References
1. Yeaple F (1984) Fluid power design handbook. Design News Magazine Cahners Publishing
Company, Boston, Massachusetts
2. Hwang NHC, Hita CE (1987) Fundamentals of hydraulic engineering systems. Prentice-
Hall, Inc, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
3. http://olejefuchs.pl/fuchs-renolin-vg-46–20ltr.html. Accessed 27 Aug 2017
4. Kudźma Z (2012) Damping of pressure fluctuations and noise in transient and steady states
in hydraulic systems [in Polish]. Wrocław University of Science and Technology Publishing
House, Wrocław
5. Idelchik IE (1992) Spravochnik po Gidravlicheskim Soprotivlenijam (Izdanie 3-e.
Mashinostroenie, Moscow
6. Krishna BSVSR (2012) Prediction of pressure drop in helical coil with single phase flow of
non-Newtonian fluid. Int J Appl Res Mech Eng 2(1)
7. Stryczek, S (2005) Hydrostatic drive [in Polish]. WNT, Warsaw
8. Takami T, Sudou K (1984) Flow through curved pipe with elliptic section. Bull JSME 27
(228):1176–1181
9. Huffman PJ, Ferreira J, Correia JAFO, De Jesus AMJ, Lesiuk G, Berto F, Glinka G,
Fernández-Canteli A (2017) Fatigue crack propagation prediction of a pressure vessel mild
steel based on a strain energy density model. Frattura ed Integrità Strutturale 42:74–84
10. Zawiślak M (2017) A method of designing and modernization of flow machines and systems
with use of computional fluid dynamics. [in Polish]. Poznań University of Technology
Publishing House, Poznań
11. Kucharski P, Lesiuk G, Czapliński T, Fratczak R, Maciejewski Ł (2016) Numerical
estimation of stress intenisty factors and crack propagation in lug connector with existing
flaw. In AIP conference proceedings, vol 1780, No 1. AIP Publishing, p 050002
Designing Gear Pump Bodies Using FEM
J. Stryczek(&), K. Biernacki, and J. Krawczyk
Department of Fundamentals of Machine Design and Tribology,

Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, ul. Łukasiewicza 5,
{jaroslaw.stryczek,krzysztof.biernacki,
justyna.krawczyk}@pwr.edu.pl
1 Introduction
Gear pump make the largest and the most frequently applied group of fluid power
energy generators [1]. It results from a number of the pumps’ qualities, such as:
• high delivery rate and a wide pressure range,
• high volumetric and total efficiency,
• high durability and reliability,
• small size and low weight of the pumps in relation to the generated delivery and
pressure (power).
The development work done so far in the field of gear pumps has focused pre-
dominantly on the design and research of the gears [2–7] as well as on the research into
the flow processes and phenomena observed in the channels and clearances of the
pump [8–15]. They also concern the collaboration of the gear pumps with the hydraulic
system [19] and the reduction of noise produced by the working gear pumps [17–19].
The work on the designing of the gear pump bodies, however, has been done less often.
Traditionally, the bodies have normally been formed intuitively, so that they would
tightly enclose a gear set, a system of channels and clearances. Various design solutions
of that type have been shown in [1]. The approach to the problem changed with the
start of mass production of gear pumps amounting to several thousand pieces made
yearly by individual manufacturers. It became necessary to undertake fundamental
research on the strength and durability of the pump bodies to ensure high technical
specifications, long life and reliable operation, at the small size and weight of the
bodies and In [20], a method of calculating the stress and strain in the external gear
pump body by means of classical mechanics and strength of materials was presented.
The considered pump body was a commonly used shape of a right prism with a base
similar to a rectangle. The load range of the body was verified. In [21, 22], an original
method of calculating strength of the gear pump body using FEM was presented. It was
applied in the design of high-pressure gear pumps [23]. FEM is now widely used to
analyse the strength of hydraulic machines. An example is work [24], where an
analysis of deformation in a gear pump body caused by pressure and temperature was
carried out in order to determine the axial clearance in the pump. Another example are
works [25, 26], in which FEM was used to define the stress and strain of POM

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_89
768 J. Stryczek et al.
cycloidal gears working in a gerotor pump body. This method was also used to design
the bodies of large capacity external gear pumps [27].
Based on the literature overview, the following observations can be formulated:
• there are no clear design criteria for evaluating the design solution of the pump body
• the publications dealt with some previously selected shapes of external gear pump
bodies, and generally the strength calculations concerned the determination of the
load capacity range of those bodies, but did not deal with the internal gear pumps
and gerotor pumps,
• there are no clear conclusions concerning the impact of the design solution and the
operational parameters on the strength of the pump body.
• it is noted that the commonly used method of strength analysis of bodies is the FEM
method
In this situation, the following objectives were adopted:
• to determine the rules of designing the bodies of the three basic kinds of gear
pumps, namely the external gear pump, the internal gear pump, and the gerotor
pump, and in this:
– formulating criteria for designing gear pump bodies
– analysis of various body shapes and determination of basic shape
– determination of the impact of the pump construction solution, and in particular
the use of a particular type of toothing and the arrangement of internal channels
on the shape and dimensions of the body
• carrying out strength analysis of bodies with basic shapes using the FEM method, in
order to determine the impact of the construction solution and operational loads on
the state of their stresses and deformations
• modification of the basic shape to reduce stress and deformation of these bodies.
2 Analysis of the Shape of the Gear Pump Bodies,

Determining the Basic Shape
The body of the gear pump must fulfill the basic design criteria, i.e. constructional and
technological. From a structural point of view, the body should be shaped in such a
way that it encloses a set of gears together with the shaft and bearings and a set of
channels and flow gaps. The cooperation of these teams with the body will ensure the
process of converting mechanical energy into a hydraulic one. The course and effi-
ciency of this process depends on the shape and dimensions of the body. Therefore, the
body should meet the strength conditions, i.e. the stresses in the body and its defor-
mations should be less than the allowable stresses and deformations, i.e. r < rallow,
d < dallo. From the technological point of view, the body should have a simple shape,
and its implementation should be possible by available and cheap production methods.
Figure 1 presents typical shapes of the three basic types of gear pumps:
Designing Gear Pump Bodies Using FEM 769
External gear Internal gear

Gerotor pumps
pumps pumps
shaped body
Cylinder-
1 2 3
Prism-shaped
body
4 6
5
Irreglar/Fancy-
shaped body
7 8 9
Fig. 1. Classification f gear pumps by the type of gearing and body shape [38]
• external gear pumps – no. 1, 4, 7

• internal gear pumps – no. 2, 5, 8
• gerotor pumps – no. 3, 6, 9
An analysis of the examples presented of the pumps allows for the distinguishing of
three typical body shapes:
• a cylinder-shaped body – no. 1, 2, 3
• a rectangular base prism-shaped body with optional curves - no. 4 or a square base
prism-shaped body – no. 5, 6
• irregular- or fancy-shaped body – no. 7, 8, 9
Cylindrical or prism body shapes meet the specified design and technological
criteria. The bodies with fancy shapes meet the given criteria to a lesser extent,
especially due to the complex shape and higher technological requirements. The fancy
shape normally results from the necessity to integrate the units with other fluid power
systems. It concerns, for instance, the lubrication or cooling systems for cars and other
vehicles, or power steering of vehicles and heavy-duty machines.
For further analysis, the so called basic shape of the gear pump body was assumed.
It was decided that in the case of all kinds of the pumps it was a right prism with a
rectangular like base (no. 4) or a square like base (no. 5, 6). The basic body is divided
into three parts: in the front part there is a mounting flange, in the central part there is a
gear system, whereas the hydraulic mounting ports are located either in the central or in
the back part, perpendicular to the drive shaft axis. The three parts of the body are
jointed by screws.
Taking a prism as the basic shape for the pump body, the Fluid Power Research
Group from Wroclaw University of Technology designed and manufactured models of
three gear pumps which are shown in Fig. 2, and they are:
• external gear pump [18] – Fig. 2b, c
• internal gear pump [21] – Fig. 2e, f,
• gerotor pump [22] – Fig. 2h, i.
Following the assumptions, the pump bodies were designed respectively to the
accepted gear systems and the internal channel systems collaborating with them, where
all the units were designed for the same delivery rate, which enables the comparing of
the units.
Figure 2 shows that going from the external gear systems to the internal gear
systems, and then to the gerotor systems allows for the reduction of the cross-section of
Modified shapes Basic shapes
Fig. 2. Profiles of the basic and modified shapes of gear pump body units: a, b, c: external gear
pump d, e, f: internal gear pump g, h, i: gerotor pump
the body (the prism base). It results from the comparison of b and h in Fig. 2b, e, h of
the analysed pumps.
Figure 2 also shows that the channel systems (CH) and the bearing systems of the
internal gear pumps and gerotor pumps placed in the side bodies enables the reduction
of the overall length of the body (the height of the prism), in relation to the external
gear pump. This stems from the comparison of dimensions l marked on individual
silhouettes of the pumps – Fig. 2c, f, i.
The body of basic shapes should be subjected to strength analysis in order to
determine the state of stress and deformation.
3 FEM Strength Analysis of the Gear Pump Bodies
3.1 Geometrical Models, Loads and Restraints

The basic shape gear pump bodies depicted in Fig. 2 were subject to strength analysis.
Figure 3 shows the geometrical models of the pumps with the loads and restraints
distribution.
The very models of the bodies were marked with a bold solid line, while in their
background, additionally, by means of a dashed line, pump elements (gears, shafts,
bearings and screws) collaborating with the bodies and generating the loads were
presented. In the figures of each of the models, both the mechanical and hydraulic loads
systems, as well as the restraints system were marked.
As shown in Fig. 3a, the geometrical model of the external gear pump body
consists of three parts, namely of the front body (1), the central body (2) and the back
body (3) jointed by screws (4). Inside the body, gears with shafts (5) and bearings
(6) are located. It was assumed that the models of the bodies, similar to the real pumps,
are made of a 150 MPa strong aluminium alloy, and it was decided that they would be
working in the elastic range. The pump loads result from the operational principle of
the pump.
The mechanical loads (marked in the Fig. 3a with arrows) are generated by torque
T working on the pump’s shaft and by cramp Q of the screws acting on the body. The
torque generates intertooth forces Fi1 and Fi2 which load the shafts and the bearings. At
the same time, the gears and the body are worked on by the hydraulic load in a form of
pressure p. It generates forces Fp1, Fp2 loading the gears. The summary of Fi1, Fp1 and
Fi2, Fp2 results in generating forces Fs1, Fs2 which load the gears and the bearings of
the pump. Forces Fs1 and Fs2, however, generate bearing thrust pb1, pb2 working on the
inner surface of the central body (2).
Torque T applied on the pump shaft is calculated according to [1] from the formula:
q
T¼ Dp
2p
where: q – pump delivery per 1 revolution of the shaft, Δp p – outlet pressure from
the pump
Intertooth forces Fi1, Fi2 are calculated according to [2] from the formula:
Fig. 3. Geometrical models of the gear pump bodies with the loads and restraints distribution a -
external gear pump b - internal gear pump c - gerotor pump
2T
Fi1 ¼ Fi2 ¼
dw1 cos at
where: dw1 – pitch diameter of the gears, at – pressure angle

Pressure generated forces Fp1, Fp2 are calculated from the formula:
Fp1 ¼ Fp2 ¼ p da b
where: da – outside diameter of the gear, b – gear width.

As it has been mentioned above, the hydraulic loads (marked in the Fig. 3a with
crosses) are generated by pressure p produced by the pump. The pressure acts on the
central, back and front bodies. In the central body, it works on the ports in which gears
revolve, as well as on the chambers and the outlet from the pump. Pressure p works
also on the surface between the body and the bearings. The pressure distribution has
been assumed following [1]. Pressure p works also on the front areas of the front body
(1) and of the back body (3), on the areas limited by sealings.
Following the structure of the geometrical model of the external gear pump body,
the geometrical models of the internal gear pump and gerotor pump bodies were built,
which is illustrated by Fig. 3b, c.
In order to determine the mechanical and hydraulic loads, the same rules and
formulas were used. An exception is the formula used for the determining of intertooth
force Fi1 in the gerotor, which was determined following [2] from the dependence:
2T
Fi1 ¼
dw1 sin #01
where: 0’1 – intertooth force angle

The assumed restraints distribution was the same for all the pump models. The
restraints are made by vertical panels to which the front bodies of the pumps were fixed
by means of screws.
Thrusts pb1, pb2 of the bearings on the central body are determined as:
Fs1 Fs2
pb1 ¼ ; pb2 ¼
2 db l 2 db l
where: db – bearing diameter, l – bearing length

Mechanical loads generated by force Q the screw clamp are determined as:
M
Q¼
0; 5 ds tgðc þ q0 Þ
where: M – screw torque, ds – thread diameter, c – helix angle, q’ – apparent friction

angle
3.2 Numerical Models, Research Programme

Using [28–31], numerical models of the bodies for the three analysed pump types were
developed. The views of the bodies with the assumed finite element mesh are presented
in Fig. 4a, b, c. For the making of the mesh, the 1st-order HEXA elements of the same
size were used (Fig. 4d). A HEXA element is a cubic element. The element features
eight nodes and is a 1st-order element. In each node, the element has three degrees of
freedom which are shifts ux, uy, uz relative to the coordinate axes.
a) b)
d)
c)
Fig. 4. Discrete models of the gear pump bodies a) external gear pump b) internal gear pump c)
gerotor pump d) HEXA element
Figures 2 and 4 show that the capacity of the bodies varied. It was the highest in the
case of the external gear pump, average for the internal gear pump, and the lowest for
the gerotor pump. Respectively, the number of the finite elements in the mesh of the
pumps at the same size of the elements decreased, and was;
• 559445 for the external gear pump,
• 392348 for the internal gear pump,
• 315314 for the gerotor pump.
The stress and strain analysis was carried out by means of the ABAQUS program
version 6.11-2.1
The research included the strength analysis of three selected basic models of gear
pump bodies (the external gear pump, the internal gear pump, the gerotor pump). Based
on that, the nature and values of the stress and strain in particular bodies needed to be
determined and compared.
While examining the models of the pumps, they were loaded with:
• mechanical loads, namely torque T = 8, 16, 24, 32 Nm and screw clamping force
Q = 35 Nm
• hydraulic loads, namely working pressure p = 5, 10, 15, 20 MPa.
1
The license of the program number 05UWROCLAW has been made available to the FPRG [4] by
Wroclawskie Centrum Sieciowo-Superkomputerowe of Wrocław University of Technology.
3.3 Findings and Discussion

Figure 5 presents characteristic results of the stress and strain analysis of the basic
shape gear pump bodies loaded with the total mechanical load by torque T = 16 Nm
and screw clamping forces Q = 35 Nm, as well as with the hydraulic load by pressure
p = 10 MPa. The bodies of all the pumps have been presented in the same way,
namely in a general view (Fig. 5a, c, e) and section (Fig. 5b, d, f). In the view of the
bodies, the areas of maximum stress and strain have been marked.
The analysis of the state of stress shows that in the bodies of all pump types, the
highest values of reduced stress r occur around the outlets. The areas have been
marked in Fig. 5 with letter O both in the pump views and in their sections. The
External gear pump body

a) b)
Internal gear pump body

c) d)
Geretor pump body

e) f)
Fig. 5. Distribution of stress and deformations in the basic shape gear pump bodies, a; b)
external gear pump rE, dRE, dAE, c; d) internal gear pump rI, dRI, dAI, e; f) gerotor pump rG,
dRG, dAG.
maximum stress r observed around outlets O is taken as a criterion for the assessment
of the pump body effort. Trying to determine the source of the stress, it is needed to
return to Fig. 3 which illustrates that high pressure p works on the node including the
outlet chamber, the channel, the outlet of the pump, resulting in the load concentration
in that node and in high stress r.
Based on the FEM analysis, the relation between stress r and pressure p loading
the pump, namely r = f(p), for the three considered pump types was determined. The
relations are presented in Fig. 6a, b, c. The figure shows that stress r grows along with
an increase in working pressure p according to the directly proportional dependence,
for all the pump types.
Fig. 6. Stress and strain characteristics of the basic shapes (continuous line) and the modified
shapes (dashed line) gear pump bodies depending on the working pressure. a–c) stress
characteristics sA,I,G = f(p), d–f) axial deformation characteristics dAE, dAI, dAG = f(p), g-i) axial
deformation characteristics dRE, dRI, dRG = f(p).
The analysis of the impact of the pumps’ design on the stress, however, allows for
the observation that the stress values in the internal gear pump body and in the gerotor
pump body are lower than in the external gear pump body where hydraulic and
mechanical loads concentrate around the outlet.
When assessing the state of stress, it is noted that in all basic bodies shapes, with
their loading with working pressure p = 0–20 MPa, the stresses did not exceed the
allowable values. This stress condition can be written as:
rE ; rI ; rG [ rallow ¼ 150 MPa
Analysing the deformations presented in Fig. 5, it can be noticed that the bodies of
all the pumps become deformed both axially (A) and radially (R). Consequently, axial
deformations dA and radial deformations dR of the body occur. Axial deformations dA
and radial deformations dR are assumed as the criteria for the assessment of the state of
the pump body deformations.
Analysis of Fig. 5a, c, e shows that in the case of all the pump types, the highest
values of axial deformations dA are visible mainly in the contact areas C between the
central and front bodies as well as between the central and the back bodies. Similarly,
analysis of Fig. 5b, d, e shows that the highest values of radial deformations dR are
visible in all cases in the central body M around the outlets of all the examined pumps.
Hence, reconsideration of Fig. 3 makes it possible to observe that the cause of the
axial deformations is the activity of high pressure on the front face of the front and back
body of a particular pump.
Based on Fig. 3, it is also noted that a cause of radial deformations dR is the impact
of high pressure onto the inner surface of the central body of a particular pump.
On the basis of the FEM analysis, the dependence of axial deformations dA and
radial deformations dR on pressure p loading the pump, namely dA = f (p), and dR = f
(p), was determined. Those relations are shown in Fig. 6d–i. The figures show that in
all types of pumps deformations dA and dR grow with an increase in pressure p
according to the directly proportional dependence. Comparing the deformations shown
in Fig. 6d–i, it is noted that radial deformations dR are greater than axial dA, and that is
observed for all types of pumps.
Based on the literature [1, 2, 5, 15, 20, 22, 27, 32, 33], the allowable axial dA and
radial dR deformations of the pump bodies, which are dA = 0,020 mm, dR = 0,040
mm, can be determined. When assessing deformations, it is noted that in all basic
bodies shapes, with their loading with working pressure p = 0–20 MPa, axial and
radial deformations exceed the allowable values. This stress condition can be written
as:
dAE ; dAI ; dAG [ dAallow ¼ 0; 020 mm

dRE ; dRI ; dRG [ dRallow ¼ 0; 040 mm
This ultimately leads to the conclusion that the basic shape of pump bodies should
be modified in order to reduce their axial and radial deformations.
4 Determining the Modified Body Shape of Ear Pump

and Their Strength Analysis
4.1 The Principles of Modifying the Shape of the Body
Modification of the basic shape of a pump body consists in reshaping of the whole solid
of the body or of its main nodes while maintaining the compactness of the solid and the
smallest possible dimensions. As a result of the modification, the internal stress in the
elements of the body as well as the elements’ deformations should be reduced.
Some global modification can be performed, which includes changes of the regular
shape of the body into an irregular or even fancy shape of the body. But also, some
local modification can be made, which consists in changing the design, its shape or
dimensions of individual nodes of the body.
Global and local modifications have been made to the basic gear pump bodies. The
bodies with modified shapes are shown in Fig. 2a, d, g.
The global modification made according to [34–36] consisted in a shift of the
central and back bodies in relation to the front body towards the outlet zone of the
pump by distance f (see Fig. 2a, d, g). Thus, the central and back bodies of the pump in
the area of the typical heavily loaded chambers, channels and outlets O, became thicker
along radius R. That should result in a reduction of stress r in the outlet O zone, and,
more importantly, of a reduction in the radial deformations of the central and back
bodies. At the same time, it should be pointed out that the axis of the drive shaft of the
pump, as well as gears’ axes O1, O2 remain situated symmetrically in relation to the
front body and to the flange and mounting holes. This ensures smooth installation of
the pump and its connection to the motor. It should also be noted that the pump body as
a whole still has the form of a prism with a cross-section similar to a square, and
unchanged overall dimensions.
The local modification was carried out according to the type of pump. In the case of
the external gear pump, the number of screws jointing the bodies was increased.
6 screws were used instead of 4 screws typically used before. Two additional screws S
were introduced at the top and bottom of the body (see Fig. 2).
The local modification in the case of the internal gear pump consisted in the
decreasing of the diameter of outlet O of the back body (see Fig. 2d). In that way, the
area affected by high pressure was reduced, and, consequently, the forces deforming
the body in axial direction A were reduced. A similar modification of outlet O was
made in the gerotor pump (see Fig. 2g).
4.2 Findings and Discussion

The modified shape bodies of the three considered pump types were subject to the FEM
strength analysis. The loads and restraints distribution, as well as the numerical models,
were developed according to the rules similar to those for the basic shape bodies. Also,
the research programme adopted for the modified shape bodies was the same as the one
for the basic shape bodies.
Figure 7 shows the results of the stress and strain analysis of the modified shape
pump bodies loaded with torque T = 16 Nm, Q = 35 Nm and pressure P = 10 MPa.
External gear pump body

a) b)
Internal gear pump body

c) d)
Gerotor pump body

e) f)
Fig. 7. Stress and strain distribution in the modified shapes pump bodies a; b) external gear
pump c; d) internal gear pump e; f) gerotor pump
The analysis of the stress distribution shows that the greatest reduced stress r, as in
the case of the basic shape, occurs on the outlet side of the bodies, in the area of outlet O.
Treating stress r as the criterial stress, its interrelation to pressure p loading the
pump, namely r = f(p) for three modified kinds of bodies was studied. The interre-
lation is shown in Fig. 6a, b, c in a form of the dashed line. Figure 6a, b, c show that
the stress increases along with an increase in pressure p according to the direct pro-
portional dependence for all the modified bodies.
When assessing the state of stress, it is stated that for all bodies with modified
shapes, when their working pressure is p = 0–20 MPa, the stresses do not exceed the
permissible values. At the same time, the stresses were lower than the stresses in the
basic body.
Analyzing the state of deformation, shown in Fig. 7, it is stated that modified
bodies, similarly to basic bodies, are deformed in the axial (longitudinal) A and radial
(transverse) R directions. In Fig. 7a, c, e show that still the greatest axial deformation
dA occur on contact surfaces C between middle and front body, as well as between
middle and back body. In turn, Fig. 7b, d, f shows that the largest radial deformations
dR occur in the middle body near outlets O. Figure 6 shows that axial dA and radial dR
deformations also increase in direct proportion to the pressure p that loads the pump
bodies.
When assessing deformations, it is noted that in all bodies with modified shapes,
axial and radial deformations are smaller than in bodies with basic shapes, in the range
of the same loads p = 0–20 MPa. It was particularly advantageous to reduce radial
deformations that fell below the permissible values, which can be written:
dRE ; dRI ; dRG \dRallow ¼ 0; 040 mm
Axial deformations dAE, dAI, dAG were also reduced, but to a lesser extent. This
signals that further modification of the bodies should be made.
5 Conclusion
Realizing the objectives of the article, the author’s method of designing gear pump
bodies has been developed, which includes:
• formulation of basic design criteria
• determining the basic shape of the body and its strength analysis
• modification of the basic shape and its strength analysis
• adopting the shape of the final body.
It has been established that the basic shape can be a prism with a rectangular or
square base, divided into three parts, which are jointed by screws. The body of this
basic shape can be used for pumps with external, internal and gerotor meshing. The
subsequent transition from the external to internal and gerotor meshing allows reducing
the dimensions of the basic body. Strength analysis of the bodies were carried out using
the FEM method using the ABAQUS program. It was found that the stresses in the
basic bodies were smaller than the allowable ones, but the deformations of the bodies
were greater than the allowable ones. A global and local modification of basic bodies
was carried out and bodies with modified shapes were obtained. Repeated strength
analysis showed that stresses and deformations in the modified bodies visibly decreased
in relation to the stresses and deformations occurring in the basic bodies. This means
that the use of shape modification of the bodies is useful in the design process. It is
noted that the introduction of asymmetrical shapes may be useful in design practice. At
the same time, it is noted that the shape modification process is “open” and can be
continued to achieve further reduction of stresses and deformations.
References
1. Stryczek S (2014) Napęd hydrostatyczny, tom 1, str. 47–228, Wydawnictwo Naukowo-
Techniczne, Warszawa
2. Stryczek J (2007) Koła zębate maszyn hydraulicznych, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki
Wrocławskiej. Wrocław. http://www.dbc.wroc.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=20045&from=
&dirids=1
3. Pippes R, Mayer C, Gap-compensated high-pressure internal gear pumps. In: 3rd
International fluid power conference, Aachen, Germany, conference proceedings pp. 203–
214
4. Nang A, Maiti R, Unification of epitrochid oring profile design approches for external lobed
star member used in hydrostatic and gear units. In: Proceedings of the institution of
mechanical engineers Part C–Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 272(2):299–310
5. Biernacki K (2014) Selection of the optimum tooth profile for plastic cycloidal gears. J Mech
Eng Sci 228(18):3395–3404. SAGE
6. Krawczyk J, Stryczek J, Construction and experimental research on plastic cycloidal gears
used in gerotor pumps. In: 8th FPNI PhD symposium on fluid power [Dokument
elektroniczny], Lappeenranta, Finland, June 11–13, 2014. [New York]: ASME, cop. 2014. s.
1–6
7. Banaś M (2015) Low-speed hydraulic pump as a tool for setting and measuring torque 220–
221:969–973. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.220-221.969
8. Krawczyk J, Stryczek J (2014) Badania pompy gerotorowej z kołami zębatymi wykonanymi
z PPS, Hydraulika i Pneumatyka, 1/2014, s. 15–18
9. Garcia-Vilchez M, Gamez-Montero PJ, Codina E, Castilla R, Raush G, Freire J,Rio C (2015)
Computational fluid dynamics and particle image velocimetry assisted design tools for a new
generation of trochoidal gear pumps. Adv Mech Eng 7(7):1–14, SAGE
10. Erturk E, Vernet A, Ferre JA, Castilla R, Codina E (2008) Analysis of the turbulent flow f an
external gear pump by time resolved particle image velocimetry. In: 14th Symposium on
applications of laser techniques of fluid mechanics, Lisbon, Portugal, (July 2008) pp 1–12
11. Slodczyk D, Stryczek J (2012) Designing a pumping system of gear pumps featuring the
involute internal gearing. Key Eng Mater 490
12. Wustmann W, Helduser S, Wimmer W (2008) CFD-simulation of the reversing processes in
external gear pumps. In: 6th International fluid power conference, Dresden, pp 455–468
13. Dhar S, Vacca A, Lettini A (2012) A novel elastohydrodynamie model for the lubricating
gaps in external gear machines: evaluation of axial balance. In: Proceedings of the 7th FPIN
PhD symposium on fluid power, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, June 27–30
2012, Reggio Emilia, Italy, pp 831–851
14. Fiebig W (2014) Influence of the teeth volumes on the noise generation in external gear
pumps. Arch Acoust 39(2):261–266
15. Stryczek J, Antoniak P, Jachno O, Kostyuk D, Kryuchkov A, Belov G, Rodionov L (2014)
Visualization research of the flow processes in the outlet chamber – outlet bridge – inlet
chamber zone of the gear pump. Archiv Civil Mech Eng. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.
2014.02.010
16. Shakhmatov EV, Prokofiev AB, Kruchkov AN, Makaryants GM (2012) The instability of
the pipeline due to transporting fluid’s pressure ripples. in: Proceedings of the 28th ICAS, 3
(2012), pp 2101–2108
17. Rodionov L, Pomatilov F, Rekadze P (2015) Exploration of acoustic characteristics of gear

pumps with polymeric pinion shafts. In: Proceedings of the dynamics and vibroacoustics of
machines (DVM2014), 2015, vol 106, pp 36–45. Special Issue Tittle: Dynamics and
Vibroacoustics of Machines
18. Rodionov L, Rekadze P, Stryczek J (2015) A gear micropump without bearings production.
Appl Mechan Mater 775:352–356
19. Osiński P, Kollek W (2013) Assessment of energetistic measuring techniques and their
application to diagnosis of acoustic condition of hydraulic machinery and equipment. Arch
Civil Mech Eng 13(3):313–321
20. Maćkiewicz J (1991) Kształtowanie kadłubów pomp I silników zębatych, Monografia,
Wydawnictwo Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław
21. Grossman K (1980) Design of the bodies of gear pumps by the FEM method, PhD Thesis,
Wrocław University of Technology, Faculty of Machine Design, Wrocław (in Polish)
22. Grossman K (1984) Computer aided design of hydraulic components bodies. In: 6th
International Conference and Exhibition on Computer Aided Design, Brighton, Sussex, UK,
3–5 April 1984
23. Grossman K (1987) Optimization of the bodies of the Fluid Power Elements. Przegląd
Mechniczny 6:17–21
24. Dhar S, Vacca A, Lettini A, An experimental investigation of the lateral lubricating gaps on
external gear machines with axially balanced lateral bushes. In: Proceedings of conference
9th International fluid power Kollokvium, Aachen, Germany, pp 421–431
25. Biernacki K, Stryczek J (2010) Analysis of stress and deformation in plastic gears used in
gerotor pumps. J Strain Anal Eng Des 45(7):465–479
26. Stryczek J, Bednarczyk S, Biernacki K (2014) Strength analysis of the polyoxymethylene
cycloidal gears of the gerotor pump. Arch Civil Mech Eng 14(4):647–660
27. Stryczek J, Antoniak P, Banaś M, Bednarczyk S, Biernacki K, Wieczorek K, Trotzko S
(2012) Typoszereg pomp zębatych WPZ o dużych wydajnościach, Międzynarodowa
Konferencja Naukowo-Techniczna Napędy i Sterowanie Hydrauliczne i Pneumatyczne
2012. Polish Society of Mechanical Engineers and Technicians, Wrocław
28. Karliński J, Rusiński E, Smolnicki T (2008) Protective structures for construction and
mining machine operators. Autom Constr 17(3):232–244
29. Rusiński E, Czmochowski J, Moczko P (2009) Half-shaft undercarriage systems - designing
and operating problems. J Achiev Mater Manuf Eng 33(1):62–69
30. Rusiński E, Czmochowski J, Moczko P, Pietrusiak DP (2017) Surface mining machines
problems of maintenance and modernization surface mining machines problems of
maintenance and modernization. © Springer International AG 2017
31. Smolnicki T (2012) Large - size bearings in opencast mining machines. In: Bhattacharya J
(ed) Design and selection of bulk material handling equipment and systems: mining, mineral
processing, port, plant and excavation engineering, vol 1. Wide Publishing, Kolkata,
pp 105–130
32. Słodczyk D, Stryczek J (2012) Fundamentals of designing the internal involute gearing
pumps. In: Milani M, Montorsi L, Paltrinieri F (eds) Proceedings of the 7th FPNI PhD
symposium on fluid power, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, June 27–30, 2012,
Reggio Emilia, Italy. [Reggio Emilia: Tecnograf], cop. 2012. S 19–36
33. Bednarczyk S, Stryczek J (2008) Axial clearance compensation in the gerotor pump. 20.
mezinarodni konference Hydraulika a pneumatika: [sbornik], Praha, Ceska republika, 29.
zari-1. rijna 2008/ ed. Petr Konarik. Ostrava: Ceska strojnicka spolecnost a VSB-Technicka
Univerzita Ostrava. Fakulta strojni. Katedra automatizacni techniky a rizeni, s 152–159
34. Biernacki K, Stryczek J, Hydrauliczne urządzenie, Polski Urząd Patentowy, Nr zgłoszenia
W123143, znak sprawy 71/14
35. Biernacki K, Stryczek J, Hydrauliczne urządzenie zębate o zazębieniu wewnętrznym, Polski

Urząd Patentowy, Nr zgłoszenia W123142, znak sprawy 70/14
36. Biernacki K, Stryczek J, Hydrauliczne urządzenie gerotorowe, Polski Urząd Patentowy, Nr
zgłoszenia W123140, znak sprawy 69/14
37. www.fprg.pwr.wroc.pl
38. Internet webs: WPH Pompy zębate, Typ PS; http://www.wph.pl/ps.htm Pompy zębate
Tuthill seria C, http://www.tuthillpump.com/index.cfm/products/productdetail/?p=9&ps=26
SKF, Pompa gerotorowa, http://www.skf.com/pl/products/lubrication-solutions/lubrication-
system-components/lubrication-pumps-and-pumping-units/oil-circulating-pump-units/143/
index.html Bosch Rexroth, Pompa zębata o zazębieniu zewnętrznym; Typ AZPB, http://
www.boschrexroth.com/ics/Vornavigation/VorNavi.cfm?Language=PL&Region=
none&VHist=Start%2Cp537304&PageID=p537303 Bosch Rexroth, Pompa zębata o
zazębieniu wewnętrznym; Typ PGH-2X, http://www.boschrexroth.com/ics/Vornavigation/
VorNavi.cfm?Language=PL&Region=none&VHist=Start%2Cp537304&PageID=p537306
Pompa zębata gerotorowa, WWW.fprg.pwr.wroc.pl Materiały własne Pompa oleju, http://
zssplus.pl/publikacje/publikacje46.htm Pompa oleju, http://www.terminalczesci.pl/pompa-
oleju/
Modal Analyses of Small Wind Turbine
Tomasz Szafranski(&), Jerzy Malachowski, and Krzysztof Damaziak
Department of Mechanics and Applied Computer Science,

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Military University of Technology,
Gen. Witolda Urbanowicza Street 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
tomasz.szafranski@wat.edu.pl
Abstract. This paper is based on the previously described optimisation algo-

rithm applied to a small wind turbine [1]. The considered optimisation proce-
dure, includes static and buckling cases although modal analyses aspect has not
been taken under consideration. The aim of this work is to evaluate how the
optimisation procedure affects modal frequencies of the turbine structure and to
determine whether a modal criterion should be included in the definition of the
optimisation process.
Keywords: Small wind turbine Modal analysis Optimisation
1 Introduction
Wind power is a rapidly developing sector of energy industry. Unfortunately, wind

conditions in the majority of Poland area are unfavourable for the utility scale of wind
turbines. Thus small wind turbines (SWTs) dedicated to individual customers may form
a grid which can increase the share of renewable energy in the energy balance of
Poland. Great majority of existing wind turbines operates inefficiently under typical
Polish wind conditions and a typical payback period is too long to make them attractive
for individual customers [2].
The project carried out by universities from Poland and Norway resulted in the
development of a prototype of a diffuser augmented wind turbine (DAWT) charac-
terized by rated power of 3.5 kW [3].
The optimization of this prototype was further performed [1, 4, 5] to create light-
weight and durable turbine capable to fulfil energy demands of typical household in
Poland. Conducted analyses included static and buckling cases although modal anal-
yses were not under consideration. The aim of this paper is to evaluate how the
optimisation process affects modal frequencies and to determine whether modal cri-
terions should be included in the future optimisation analyses.
2 Optimisation of the Small Wind Turbine
The diffuser structure consists of multiple beams and metal sheets. This type of
structure is suitable for an optimization in terms of selection of pipes quantity,
dimensions, sheet thickness etc. The optimization methodology is using genetic

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_90
Modal Analyses of Small Wind Turbine 785
algorithm to generate the optimal reinforcement layout. The developed parametrical FE

model of SWT has twelve parameters describing the diffuser and support structure
layout,. The model uses simple and effective finite elements like shells, bars and rods
which allows fast calculations of a particular samples [6]. Optimisation allowed to
reduce the mass of structure for 10% and increase its stiffness. The comparison of the
basic and optimum structure layout is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Comparison of basic (a) and optimum (b) design
The developed optimisation algorithm checks structure displacements, suscepti-

bility to buckling, and maximal stress but modal analysis has not been taken under
consideration. The main difficulty in this case is to define modal criterion to achieve
mass reduction with better frequency response.
3 Modal Analyses
Natural frequencies of the structure are frequencies at which the structure naturally
tends to vibrate when subjected to dynamic loads. All natural frequencies have cor-
responding modal shapes which are unique deformation schemes. Modal shapes are
unique because none of them can be obtained through a linear combination of any other
mode shapes [7].
Natural frequencies are calculated by solving an eigenvalue problem defined with
equation:
½A kIx ¼ 0 ð1Þ
where:
A – square matrix,
k – eigenvalues,
786 T. Szafranski et al.
I – identity matrix.
x – eigenvector
Equation 1 is derived on basis of eigenequation:
ð½K x2 ½MÞf/g ¼ 0 ð2Þ
where:
[K] – stiffness matrix,
[M] – mass matrix,
{/} – eigenvector,
x – circular natural frequency
Natural frequencies and modal shapes depends on the structure mass and stiffness
as well as on boundary conditions. In analysed case boundary conditions are invariable,
while mass and stiffness of the structure are subjected to be changed (it is the aim of the
optimisation algorithm, therefore, modal response of structure can change
significantly).
During the optimisation procedure, nearly 3000 variants were tested, many of them
did not meet the requirements. In result, the authors have chosen the total number of 6
variants for further modal analyses. In the authors’ opinion, a greater number of
analysed variants could cause difficulties in assessing results and drawing proper
conclusions.
The first considered variant is the basic (fundamental) structure (not optimised).
The next four variants are quasi-optimum designs from successive optimisation gen-
erations. The last one is the optimal design. FE models were developed on the base of
parameters of particular variants. The first 20th eigenvalues (natural frequencies) were
computed using MSC Nastran solver [7].
4 Results
Figure 2 presents how natural frequencies are changing during the optimisation
process.
The first chart (Fig. 2a) shows the natural frequencies of the basic design of a Small
Wind Turbine. The first five natural frequencies are localised in the start-up stage and
further three are localised in the operation range. It is particularly dangerous that two of
them are close to rotational speeds corresponding the turbine rated power. Further four
charts (Fig. 2b, c, d, e) show how natural frequencies change in successive generations
(every fifth) of the optimisation. It can be noticed that during optimization iterations the
values of natural frequencies are raising. This results in fewer number of natural
frequencies in the start-up stage while identifying more natural frequencies in the
operation range. After 14th generation, values of natural frequencies are increased even
Fig. 2. Natural frequencies of structure in different optimization stages
more and only three frequencies are in the start-up stage while two are localised in the
operation range. This situation remained unchanged until the optimum solution was
found. Only minor differences in values of natural frequencies can be observed in the
operation range, but beyond this range frequencies are still rising. In Fig. 3 the first six
natural frequencies are shown.
The legend of Fig. 3 is intentionally omitted - mode shapes have relative quantities.
788 T. Szafranski et al.
Fig. 3. First six natural frequencies of the optimised structure
The performed analysis revealed how the optimisation process affected modal char-
acteristics of the Small Wind Turbine. The optimisation allows the reduction of number
of natural frequencies in the start-up and operation range. Moreover, natural frequen-
cies are present in the lower part of the operation range, therefore, for rated power
speed the small wind turbine should work without excitations. Considered all the
remarks presented above, it is reasonable to add to the optimisation process a criterion
containing some modal limitations. It could be possible to find the solution, charac-
terised by no modal frequencies present in the SWT operation range with the small
change of the structure mass.
Acknowledgments. The study is supported by the Polish-Norwegian Research Programme

operated by the National Centre for Research and Development under the Norwegian Financial
Mechanism 2009-2014 in the frame of Project Contract No. Pol-Nor/200957/47/2013 as well as
project RMN 722/2017. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
References
1. Szafranski T, Malachowski J, Damaziak K, Bukala J (2017) Optimum design of a small wind
turbine. In: Shell structures: theory and applications, vol 4, Proceedings of the 11th
international conference. pp 469–472
2. Bukala J, Damaziak K, Karimi HR et al (2014) A comparative analysis of popular modern
small wind turbine design solutions in terms of estimated cost to power output ratio.
Turbomachinery 146:57–68
3. Project main site (2018) Small wind turbine optimized for wind low speed conditions
4. Lipian M, Karczewski M, Olasek K (2015) Sensitivity study of diffuser angle and brim height
parametres for the design of 3 kW diffuser augmented wind turbine. Open Eng 5:280–286
5. Lipian M, Karczewski M, Jozwik K (2016) Analysis and comparison of numerical methods
for design and development of small diffuser-augmented wind turbine (DAWT). In: Industrial
electronics society, IECON 2016 - 42nd annual conference of the IEEE. pp 5525–5531
6. Szafranski T, Malachowski J, Damaziak K (2018) Methodology of shell structure
reinforcement layout optimization. AIP Conf Proc 1922:1–6
7. MSC Software Corporation (2017) Dynamic analysis user’s guide
Force Measurement Module for Mechatronic
Nordic Walking Poles
Jaroslaw Szrek1(&), Artur Muraszkowski1, Jacek Bałchanowski1,

Slawomir Wudarczyk1, Ryszard Jasiński2, Tadeusz Niebudek2,
and Marek Woźniewski2
1
jaroslaw.szrek@pwr.edu.pl
2
Faculty of Physiotherapy, Al. Ignacego Jana Paderewskiego 35, 51-612
Wroclaw, Poland
Abstract. The article presents the investigations on force measuring system

designed for mechatronic Nordic Walking poles. The purpose of the work is to
develop special Nordic Walking (NW) poles that would provide the basic
kinematic and dynamic parameters of gait to perform investigation the effect of
walking with NW poles in the rehabilitation. In particular, a dedicated mea-
suring module is presented using resistance strain gauges, measuring circuit and
the results obtained on a dedicated rig.
1 Introduction
Nordic Walking is a method of walking with special poles. It was introduced by Finns,
who proposed the new name and form of exercise in 1997. This type of sport activity
was created by combining several sports disciplines having a positive impact on human
health, fitness and endurance like cross-country skiing and trekking. Compared to
normal walking, Nordic Walking involves the muscular system to a greater extent,
especially the upper part of the body, leading to increased response of the cardio-
respiratory system without simultaneous sense of fatigue [8, 10, 13]. From another
point of view - in comparison of brisk walking with poles to jogging shows that Nordic
Walking reduce the load on the lower limbs and reduces the risk of overloading of the
lumbosacral spine at the same rate of movement [5, 15].
The aim of this research is to develop a special mechatronic Nordic Walking poles
(NWP) that would provide information about the basic kinematic and dynamic
parameters of gait. Data acquired using the mechatronic poles will be used to analyze
the correctness of walking and to develop new rehabilitation methods that use feedback
information passed to the user (biofeedback). An important area of research that takes
into account Nordic Walking in rehabilitation are indications concerning improvement

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_91
Force Measurement Module for Mechatronic Nordic Walking Poles 791
of the mobility of people with Parkinson’s disease [2]. The mechanism of biofeedback
is increasingly being used in the rehabilitation of people with impaired postural and gait
stability as a result of diseases of the locomotor system, nervous system diseases, and
internal diseases [1, 7, 11, 14]. Feedback on the physiological state of the body or the
proper execution of a motor task is obtained by means of light and/or acoustic signals.
The use of biofeedback increases the effectiveness of rehabilitation, making it possible
to achieve significantly greater improvement in physical fitness, shorten rehabilitation
time, and reduce its costs.
The measuring system should provide information about the current value which,
after analysis, will be the basis for creating feedback to the user [3]. In the longer term,
the investigations would allow the development of an optimal model of gait with poles
and, consequently, a model of such gait for people with various disabilities. The
effectiveness, safety, availability, low financial cost, the possibility of unassisted
exercise and choice of training intensity according to individual abilities (and dedicated
therapy exercises) are some of the factors in favour of this form of movement in
primary and secondary prevention of many diseases.
In order to monitor the rehabilitation process and its effectiveness, it is necessary to
measure many parameters one of them is the force (normal) between the ground and the
NWP.
2 Methods
The force measurement is very often carried out using resistance gauges [4, 12]. The
most common applications are scales (household, industrial etc.). In the measuring
method based on strain gauges, a tensor-resistance effect is used, consisting in the
increase of resistance under the effect of tensile stress and its reduction under the effect
of compressive stresses [6]. The measuring systems using strain gauges must be
equipped with an amplifier module, due to the fact that measured strain is translated
into small changes in resistance. Additionally, to register small changes in resistance,
the strain gauges have been connected to the bridge system. The most common
Wheatstone bridge is used.
3 The Force Measuring Module
The measuring system was placed in the upper part of the NW pole due to the conical
shape and the longitudinal rolled up slit at the bottom. For this reason, sticking the
strain gauges would be difficult and could cause of measurement errors due to the
heterogeneity of the material structure. To read the expected parameters - the level of
ground reaction force - two independent measuring bridges working in two perpen-
dicular axes, were used. Figure 1 shows the view of one measurement channel. Two of
the sensors are active and are glued to the surface of the NW pole (sensors T2 and T4).
All sensors were glued with cyanopan adhesive.
792 J. Szrek et al.
Fig. 1. View of the strain gauges bridge with measuring circuit.
Two additional sensors (T1 and T3) are used to compensate the change in resis-
tance under the influence of temperature. The compensating strain gauges are glued to
an unstressed plate made of the same material as the object being tested (aluminum).
Next, the signal from the sensors (voltage Vp1) goes to a dedicated module (Wobit-
ADT4-U) that amplify it and converts it to a digital value. Finally, the data via USB is
displayed and recorded on external PC computer in dedicated application. The entire
measuring system (two channels) consists of four strain gauges with a 90-degree
spacing glued to the surface of the pole and four elements for temperature
compensation.
4 A Rig for Testing the Force Measurement Module
Testing of the measurement system was carried out at the dedicated rig [9]. On the right
side of Fig. 2 there is a frame of the device with the three bar mechanism of upper limb.
The NW pole is attached to the last element of the upper limb mechanism. In the lower
part there is located the device with scale providing reference value (Ref) of pressure on
the ground. Next, the data from the field measuring module (TM) and the scale ref-
erence (Ref) are amplified and displayed on a PC computer. During the measurement,
the NWP is located vertically and is loaded with a mass (m) equal to 0.5 and 1 kg.
Previously, the measurement system was calibrated - the pressure caused by the mass
of the limb was compensated.
Many repetitions of measurement with different mass application sequence were
performed. Selected results are shown in Fig. 3. On the left side there are character-
istics registered by the reference system (Ref), which measures the actual force of the
NW pole applied on the ground, while on the right are characteristics recorded by the
designed measuring module placed on the pole.
Force Measurement Module for Mechatronic Nordic Walking Poles 793
Fig. 2. A rig for testing the force measurement module.
Fig. 3. Measurement results: left - reference module (Ref), right - the NW pole module (TM).
The results confirmed the correct operation of the (TM) measurement module. The
response time of the system and its sensitivity is sufficient. The investigations deter-
mined the maximum value of the ground reaction force during simulated contact with
the ground, including the dynamic value during the impact. The maximum value of
force recorded during impact is up to 120 N. The presented measuring system works
well in the measurement of normal force, however, it is very sensitive to lateral forces
and torques. Therefore, further work will focus on developing a module that will be
resistant to undesirable factors (especially when it will be hammered into the ground
794 J. Szrek et al.
while walking). An additional challenge will be the development of a miniature,

(mobile) version of the measurement module including inclination and speed of the
NWP and on-line signal processing unit.
Acknowledgement. This research was supported by National Science Centre, Poland under the
project no 2016/23/B/NZ7/03310.
References
1. Allum JH, Carpenter MG (2005) A speedy solution for balance and gait analysis: angular
velocity measured at the centre of body mass. Curr Opin Neurol 18(1):15–21
2. Eijkeren FJ, Reijmers RS, Kalda R, Tahepold H, Maaroos HI (2009) Nordic Walking
improves mobility in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 23:2239–2243
3. Dzierżek K (2009) The digital system of the position measurement. Solid State Phenom
147–149: 936–941
4. Gronowicz A, Szrek J, Wudarczyk S (2012) The force reaction control of the wheel-legged
robot’s limb prototype. In: Advances in mechanisms design: proceedings of TMM 2012.
Springer
5. Hagen M, Hennig EM, Stieldorf P (2011) Lower and upper extremity loading in nordic
walking in comparison with walking and running. J Appl Biomech 27(1):22–31
6. Kowalewski ZL, Szymczak T (2013) Basics of electroless strain gauge and its practical
applications. IX Seminar, Non-destructive testing of materials. Zakopane (in Polish)
7. Moreno JC, Del Ama AJ, de Los Reyes-Guzmán A, Gil-Agudo A, Ceres R, Pons JL (2011)
Neurorobotic and hybrid management of lower limb motor disorders: a review. Med Biol
Eng: 1119–1130
8. Morgulec-Adamowicz N, Marszałek J, Jagustyn P (2011) Nordic walking- a new form of
adapted physical activity (a literature review). Hum Mov 12(2): 124–132
9. Muraszkowski AM, Szrek JJ (2017) The concept of mobile system of analysis and
visualization of human gait parameters. In: Fuis V (ed) Engineering mechanics 2017, 23rd
international conference. Brno University of Technology, Svratka, Czech Republic,
pp 678–681
10. Perez-Soriano P, Encarnacion-Martinez A, Aparicio-Aparicio I, Vicente Gimenez J, Llana-
Belloch S (2014) Nordic walking: a systematic review. Eur J Hum Mov 33:26–45
11. Syczewska M (2004) Biomechanika i Inżynieria Rehabilitacyjna, Analiza chodu w praktyce
klinicznej
12. Szrek J, Arent K (2015) Measurement system for ground reaction forces in skid-steering
mobile platform rex. In: 20th international conference on methods and models in automation
& robotics. IEEE, pp 756–760
13. Tate JJ, Milner CE (2010) Real-time kinematic, temporospatial, and kinetic biofeedback
during gait retraining in patients:a systematic review. Phys Ther 90(8): 1123–1134
14. Zijlstra A, Mancini M, Chiari L, Zijlstra WJ (2010) Biofeedback for training balance and
mobility tasks in older populations: a systematic review. Neuroeng Rehabil 9(7):58
15. Schena F, Pellegrini B, Bortolan L (2009) Kinematic and force comparison between walking
and nordic walking. A pilot study. In: Proceedings of 14th annual congress of the ECSS –
European college of sport science. Oslo, Norway
Modelling of Thermal and Flow Processes
in a Thermal Energy Storage Unit
with a Phase-Change Material
Piotr Szulc(&), Daniel Smykowski, Tomasz Tietze,

and Kazimierz Wójs
Faculty of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Wroclaw University of

Technology, Wrocław, Poland
piotr.szulc@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. This paper presents results of the studies on the impact of different
variants of the internal design of a thermal energy storage unit on the heat
exchange process in a model, representative segment of the thermal energy
storage unit filled with phase-change material (PCM). The influence of different
configuration of fins on the heat exchange process was analysed. The results
obtained from calculations were compared with the results for the design of the
thermal energy storage unit with a smooth pipe. There were analysed parameters
such as the temperature distribution in the phase-change material, the temper-
ature of the charging medium at the outlet of the thermal energy storage unit, as
well as the position and shape of the liquid-solid interface during the phase
transition process.
Keywords: Energy storage Phase-change material
1 Introduction
In the currently operated power systems, thermal energy storage is often a prerequisite
for the reliability and increased operating efficiency of such systems. For this reason,
designing a thermal energy storage unit requires a detailed analysis of both the heat
storage material and the design of the thermal energy storage unit. Among the materials
used to store heat, the simplest one is of course water. It is a cheap and environmentally
friendly material, however the possibilities of using it are very limited. The operating
temperature is limited to 100 °C, while pressure systems are costly solutions. For this
reason, the technique of thermal energy storage in phase-change materials has become
very widespread. Thanks to such materials it is possible to use the phase transition
process to store heat [1–3, 6, 8, 11, 12]. In practice, this process takes place at a
constant temperature or in a small range of temperatures, which associated primarily
with the type of the material used. The density of the energy stored is even several
times higher than in the case of a thermal energy storage unit that uses water. The
biggest problem here is the selection of phase-change material that would allow
obtaining phase transition at the temperature expected by the user. As examples of
typical phase-change materials, there can be indicated, inter alia, inorganic salts and

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_92
796 P. Szulc et al.
paraffins [4, 10]. Unfortunately many such materials have disadvantages such as low
thermal conductivity or instability, which results in a change in properties of the
material even after one charging and discharging cycle [9]. One of the solutions
reducing this problem is encapsulation; however it is very difficult to use it on a large
scale [5, 7]. In addition to the heat storage material, a proper design of the thermal
energy storage unit, which would allow transferring the maximum heat flux to PCM,
plays also a very important role. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to determine the
impact of different variants of the internal design of the thermal energy storage unit on
the heat exchange process in a model, representative segment of the thermal energy
storage unit filled with phase-change material. The influence of different configuration
of fins on the heat exchange process was analysed. The results obtained from calcu-
lations were compared with the results for the design of the thermal energy storage unit
with a smooth pipe. There were analysed parameters such as the temperature distri-
bution in the phase-change material, the temperature of the charging medium at the
outlet of the thermal energy storage unit, as well as the position and shape of the liquid-
solid interface during the phase transition process.
2 Research Methodology
The thermo-flow simulations were carried out using COMSOL Multiphysics software
[13] using a three-dimensional model of a representative segment of the thermal energy
storage unit. The geometry of the segment is presented in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. A three-dimensional model of the geometry of a segment of the thermal energy storage
unit in four variants
Modelling of Thermal and Flow Processes in a Thermal Energy 797
Four geometry variants were taken into account in the simulations: a segment with
a smooth pipe (A), a segment with fully finned pipe (B), a segment with partially finned
pipe (C), and a segment with a pipe with two types of fins (D).
A model of the segment of the thermal energy storage unit with outer dimensions of
200 mm 200 mm 500 mm was used. Inside the segment, along the longest
dimension, there was a finned pipe with the external diameter of 30 mm and the internal
diameter of 22 mm. The diameter of the fins was 120 mm, their thickness was 2 mm,
while the density of placement of the fins was 50 pieces per 1 running meter of the pipe.
Detailed parameters of individual variants of the geometry are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Selected geometric parameters for the design variants of the thermal energy storage
unit taken into account in the simulations
Variant (A) – smooth pipe
External diameter of the pipe, mm 30
Internal diameter of the pipe, mm 22
Variant (B) – finned pipe
Number of fins 25
Fin diameter, mm 120
Fin thickness, mm 4
Variant (C) – partially finned pipe
Number of fins in the finned part 13
Variant (D) – pipe with two diameters of
fins
Diameter of small fins, mm 60
Thickness of small fins, mm 4
Number of small fins 12
Number of large fins 13
The model consisted of three domains: fluid (air) inside the pipe – heat transfer with
non-isothermal flow, finned pipe (steel SS316L) - heat transfer, and a phase-change
material (PCM). As the phase-change material in the thermal energy storage unit, there
was adopted an alloy of three-salts: NaNO3 – KNO3 – NaNO2 with the phase-change
temperature of 150 °C. Based on DSC measurements [14], the heat capacity of the
PCM material as well as the phase change enthalpywere implemented in the form of a
piecewise function with the following conditions:

798 P. Szulc et al.
The simulation represents the state in which the pipe is supplied with hot air with a
temperature of 250 °C with an average velocity of 10 m/s, which corresponds to the
process of charging the thermal energy storage unit. The initial temperature of the
domain of the PCM material and pipe is 20 °C. This is the state in which the thermal
energy storage unit is fully discharged and the PCM material is overcooled. Table 2
presents the properties of the phase-change material selected for the studies, which
have been measured using TGA/DSC Netzsch STA 449 F3 Jupiter thermal analyser.
There was analysed the distribution of the temperature inside the thermal energy
storage unit in the space of the PCM material as well as the temperature at the selected
points inside the thermal energy storage unit and at its inlet and outlet, as shown in
Fig. 2. The points of temperature measurements were selected in a manner enabling the
determination of the temperature in three zones of the segment of the thermal energy
storage unit – at a depth of 10 mm from the front (inlet) of the thermal energy storage
unit (T_A1), at the half of the length of the thermal energy storage unit (T_B1), and
10 mm before the rear wall (T_C1). In each zone, the temperature was determined at
three points, each time at a distance of 10 mm, 20 mm and 30 mm from the side wall
of the segment of the thermal energy storage unit (Fig. 2).
Table 2. Physical properties of the PCM material

Temperature of the start of the phase transition, °C 147
Temperature of the end of the phase transition, °C 153
Heat of phase transition, kJ/kg 122
Heat capacity (s), kJ/kg K 1.17
Heat capacity (c), kJ/kg K 1.73
Density, kg/m3 1938
Coefficient of thermal conductivity, W/m K 0.5
Fig. 2. Arrangement of the temperature measurement points inside the segment of the thermal
energy storage unit
3 Results of the Studies and Their Analysis
Figure 3 presents the temperature distribution in the selected points of the thermal
energy storage unit for variant (A), i.e. for non-finned pipe.
In this case, the phase transition point is achieved after a long time and it can be
observed that the PCM material is melted only partially. The air temperature at the outlet
of the thermal energy storage unit ranges from 200 °C to 210 °C, which means that a
small heat flux is transferred to the thermal energy storage unit. An interesting obser-
vation can be made that the temperature difference between the analysed zones of PCM
is distinctly smaller, which means that there is a smaller difference in the intensity of
heat exchange in the “front” and “rear” parts of the thermal energy storage unit (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. Temperature distribution in the selected points of the space of the thermal energy storage
unit – variant (A). T_A1…T_C3 correspond to the points of temperature measurement according
to Fig. 2. T_INLET and T_OUTLET correspond to pipe inlet and pipe outlet respectively.
T_PCM_AVG represents the average temperature in the entire PCM volume.
Fig. 4. The temperature distribution and the isosurface representing the solid-liquid interface for
the selected times of the simulations of the segment of the thermal energy storage unit (variant A)
800 P. Szulc et al.
This is also confirmed by the shape of the phase transition isosurface, which is only
slightly “conical”. It is worth noting that the air temperature at the outlet of the thermal
energy storage unit is distinctly higher than that at the analysed measuring points inside
the PCM material. However, despite a large difference in the temperatures between the
layers of the PCM material and the pipe wall, the heat transfer is not intensive, because
the access to deeper layers of the material is hampered by its low thermal conductivity
and a small heat exchange area.
Figure 5 shows plots of the temperature at the selected points of the space of the
PCM material for the geometry variant (B).
Fig. 5. Plots of the temperature in the selected points (analogously to Fig. 3) of the space of the
thermal energy storage unit – variant (B).
As it can be seen in Fig. 5, the plots of the temperature in individual layers of the
phase-change material indicate the occurrence of phase transition – a flattened fragment
of the temperature curves in the range of the phase transition temperature is visible.
Areas of phase transition for individual layers of PCM are shifted in time in relation to
each other, which indicates that the layers reach the temperature of phase transition one
by one with a delay. This is due to a low thermal conductivity of PCM, which causes
that heat transfer occurs slowly. While the layers of PCM close to the finned pipe begin
to overheat (the temperature exceeds the phase transition temperature), deeper layers do
not reach the phase transition temperature yet. The temperature gradient can be noticed
both around the pipe and along the segment of the thermal energy storage unit. The
temperature difference in the layers of the material from the side of the air inlet in
relation to the layers at the end of the thermal energy storage unit reaches even approx.
80 °C. This phenomenon results from a drop in the air temperature inside the pipe,
which translates into a decreasing intensity of heat transfer along the segment of the
thermal energy storage unit.
The aforementioned phenomena are visualized in a direct way by the three-
dimensional temperature distribution inside the thermal energy storage unit and by the
surface representing the solid-liquid interface (Fig. 6).
The air flowing through the pipe cools down from 250 °C to the level of 160 °C –
180 °C in the phase transition area. Along with an increase in the temperature of the
phase-change material (especially at the end of the thermal energy storage unit), the air
temperature at the outlet is gradually increasing. Furthermore, the air temperature in the
rear part of the thermal energy storage unit is not much higher than the temperature of
the PCM material. A consequence of this state is a limited heat transfer in the rear part
of the thermal energy storage unit. As a result, an uneven rate of the phase transition
can be observed, which causes that the PCM material from the side of the air inlet is
relatively quickly melted, while at the end of the segment of the thermal energy storage
unit the process of melting is occurring distinctly slower. This results in a “conical”
shape of the isosurface representing the phase transition.
the selected times of the simulations of the segment of the thermal energy storage unit (variant B)
The purpose of variant (C) of the geometry of the thermal energy storage unit is to
balance the dynamics of heating of the PCM material along the pipe, by limiting the
heat transfer in the “front” part and intensifying it in the “rear” part of the thermal
energy storage unit. For this purpose, the heat exchange area in the front part was
reduced by a partial elimination of the fins. Figure 7 shows the distribution of tem-
peratures in selected points of the space of PCM for the geometry variant in question.
In this case, it can be noticed that the difference of temperatures inside PCM is smaller
than for the fully finned pipe, but larger than for the smooth pipe. Unlike in variant B,
the phase transition is clearly visible on temperature curves. In turn, in contrast to
variant (B), the air temperature at the outlet is always higher than the temperature of
PCM.
802 P. Szulc et al.
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution in the selected points (analogously to Fig. 3) of the space of the
thermal energy storage unit – variant (C)
An important observation is also the fact that in the variant (C) the PCM material in
the front part of the thermal energy storage unit (T_A1…3) has a lower temperature
than the central zone (T_B1…3) and the zone at the outlet (T_C1…3). This means that
the heat transfer in the front part of the thermal energy storage unit is too limited. The
aforementioned effects reflect the distributions of temperature inside the PCM material
and the shape of the isosurface representing the liquid-solid interface (Fig. 8).
the selected times of the simulations of the segment of the thermal energy storage unit (variant C)
Based on the simulation results for the three variants, another geometry variant of
the segment of the thermal energy storage unit was created – variant (D). Results of the
simulation for this case, in the form of plots of temperature as a function of time, are
shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. Temperature distribution in the selected points (analogously to Fig. 3) of the space of the
thermal energy storage unit – variant (D)
The simulations carried out indicate that the design (D) is the optimal variant from
the point of view of uniformity of heat transfer in the thermal energy storage unit. The
heat transfer is sufficiently intensive to bring the PCM material to the point of phase
transition and the heat transfer in the front part of the thermal energy storage unit has
been sufficiently limited so that this zone does not heat up much faster than other zones,
like in the case of the geometry variant (B). As a result, the differences of temperatures
in the analysed zones of PCM are relatively small and the melting of the material
occurs fairly evenly over the entire length of the segment. This is confirmed by the
distributions of the temperature inside the thermal energy storage unit, shown in
Fig. 10, and the shape of the phase transition isosurface.
Fig. 10. The temperature distribution and the isosurface representing the solid-liquid interface
for the selected times of the simulations of the segment of the thermal energy storage unit
(variant D)
804 P. Szulc et al.
4 Summary
The study analyses an impact of different variants of the internal design of the thermal
energy storage unit on the heat exchange process in a model, representative segment of
the thermal energy storage unit filled with phase-change material. The effect of heat
transfer was analysed for different configurations of fins and the results were compared
with the heat transfer results obtained for the model with a smooth pipe. The analysis
took into account parameters such as the temperature distribution in the phase-change
material, the temperature of the charging medium at the outlet of the thermal energy
storage unit, as well as the position and shape of the liquid-solid interface during the
phase transition process. Four variants of the geometry of the segment of the thermal
energy storage unit were proposed for the studies and dynamic simulations of the
process of charging the thermal energy storage unit with the use of hot air were carried
out. The simulation results were analysed in terms of the dynamics of heat transfer in
the thermal energy storage unit and the optimization of the design in order to ensure
possibly uniform heating of PCM.
The simulations indicated also that the greatest limitation in the selection of design
variant of the thermal energy storage unit was a poor thermal conductivity of PCM,
which caused that the phase-change material heats up not only slowly, but also
unevenly. An effective solution that intensifies the heat transfer is the use of an
additional heat transfer surface in the form of fins. Based on the analysis of the sim-
ulation results, it can be concluded that the variant with a uniformly finned pipe does
not solve the problem of uneven heating of the material inside the thermal energy
storage unit and this effect is increased even further. The optimal solution is to use fins
in two sizes – fins with a smaller diameter in the front part of the thermal energy storage
unit and fins with a larger diameter in its rear part. In this way, the PCM material heats
up quite uniformly and there is no effect of overheating in certain zones while other
zone are underheated.
References
1. Lichota J et al (2012) Research on the effectiveness of heat accumulation in a variable phase
material (in polish). In: Conference Rynek Ciepła 2012. Lubin, pp 405–419
2. Wójs K et al (2011) Mathematical modeling and applications of waste heat accumulation
from power plants in materials with phase transformation (in polish). Rynek Energii 5:66–73
3. Lichota J et al (2013) Dynamics of heat accumulation of PCM balls (in polish). Rynek
Energii 2:97–103
4. Starościk J (2015) Heat storage - is the problem already solved? (in polish). Polski Instalator
Numer Specjalny
5. Pomorski M et al (2015) Energy storage techniques - part 2. Sources of heat and electricity
(in polish)
6. Zalba B et al (2003) Review on thermal energy storage with phase change: materials, heat
transfer analysis and applications. Appl Therm Eng 23(2003):251–283
7. Oertel D (2008) Energiespeicher – Stand und Perspektiven, TAB, Arbeitsbericht Nr. 123
8. Gomez JC (2011) High-temperature phase change materials (PCM) Candidates for thermal
energy storage (TES) applications, Milestone Report NREL/TP-5500-51446, Contract
No. DE-AC36-08GO28308
9. Jankowski NR et al (2014) A review of phase change materials for vehicle component
thermal buffering. Appl Energy 113(2014):1525–1561
10. Agyenim F et al (2010) A review of materials, heat transfer and phase change problem
formulation for latent heat thermal energy storage systems (LHTESS). Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 14(2010):615–628
11. Hyun DC et al (2014) Emerging applications of phase-change materials (PCMs): teaching an
old dog new tricks. Angew Chem Int Ed 53: 3780–3795
12. Nomura T et al (2015) Microencapsulation of metal-based phase change material for high-
temperature thermal energy storage. Sci Rep 5: 9117
13. Foong CW et al (2010) Numerical study of a high temperature latent heat storage (200–300 °
C) using Eutectic Nitrate salt of Sodium Nitrate and Potassium Nitrate. In: Proceedings of
the COMSOL Conference 2010
14. Redzicki R (2018) Research on medium-temperature phase change materials used in the heat
accumulation process (in polish). Rynek Energii 2:72–77
FEM Analysis of Mini-Plate for Osteosynthesis
of Mandibular Fractures Dedicated for Future
Manufacturing with Additive
Technologies (AM)
Patrycja Szymczyk(&), Małgorzata Rusińska, Grzegorz Ziółkowski,

Beata Łoś, and Edward Chlebus
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, CAMT-FPC, Wroclaw University

of Science and Technology, Łukasiewicza 5, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
patrycja.e.szymczyk@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to design a 3D geometry of mini-plate

for mandibular angle fracture, based on biomechanical properties, that will be
possible to manufacture with additive technologies (AM). Three types of
internal structures (lattice, cross and honey comb) were selected and compare
the results of displacement and von Mises stress distributions based on Finite
Element Method (FEM). The results show that the mini-plate with optimal
structure (cross-shaped) for which the thickness of struts was applied at the level
of 0.5 mm is characterized with best properties can be fabricated with use of
AM to satisfy the urgent time requirements for treatment.
Keywords: 3D mini-plate Biopolymer Additive manufacturing FEM
1 Introduction
A bone fracture is called a total or partial disconnection of its continuity. Fracture of the
jaw bone applies to over 65% fractures of all craniofacial bones [1]. The most common
fractures of the mandible are traumatic fractures resulting from accidents and they can
be comminuted. 23–42% of all cases are mandibular body fractures located in the area
of the mandibular angle [2, 3], that results from the specific anatomical structure in this
region - the smallest cross-section. Moreover, these injuries are of the highest proba-
bility of complications [2].
Currently, in above described cases the intra oral stabilization and fixation are used
(the so-called ORIF - Open Reduction Internal Fixation). The most common is rigid
internal stabilization - the Champy technique [2], based on the use of one or two mini
plates placed in different configurations at the edge of the oblique or lateral surface of
the angle of the mandible. According to an experimental studies, short mini-plates
perform better the stabilizing role than long plates [3]. In the case of a single mini-plate
placed at an oblique edge, the most preferred choice will be a 4-wafer plate, which
carries the loads and maintains good contiguity with the bone tissue [3]. In the cases of
simple jaw angle fractures, the mini-plate allows to achieve a satisfactory stiffness of
the anastomosis [4]. However, in other, more complex cases, this solution does not
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_93
FEM Analysis of Mini-Plate for Osteosynthesis of Mandibular 807
provide the required stabilization - very often near the lower edge of the mandible the
dislocation and rotation of bone fragments occurs [5]. Therefore two or more plates
have to be used. Both the number and localization of plates influence the strength of the
fixation. Among the traditional plates, there are also micro-plates used, with screw
holes diameters within 1.0–1.5 mm [6]. This type of plates is often used in the middle
part of the craniofacial region, where the muscular strengths are much smaller.
Increasingly, instead of traditional, in which holes are arranged in the long axis, so-
called 3D plates are used. They are distinguished by an increased width compared to
traditional ones and an increased number of rows of holes - the holes are not placed in
only one axis. The achieved three dimensional stability does not result from their
thickness, but from the fact that its fixation to bone is located in four corners with
mono-cortical screws [7–10]. The biggest challenge for this plates usage is their
placement on side surface of mandible angle without injuries to cardiovascular or nerve
system [8]. The 3D plates present better performance in compare with traditional ones,
they provide proper stabilization and occlusion and minimize infection risk [7].
A special type of 3D plates are square ones, which are smaller and have only two
vertical beams and four holes placed in the corners [9]. For the maximum effective
stabilization, square plates should be entirely placed in the neutral region of the
mandibular angle - between the areas in which the compressive stresses tensile stresses
occur. The lattice plate then ensures reduction of both compressive and tensile forces,
as a result of which solid fracture stabilization can be achieved [8, 11]. Combination of
wide structural shaping possibilities of additive technologies with restorable biomate-
rials characteristics provides new level of 3D plates for mandible fractures treatment.
The greatest advantage of plates made of bioresorbable polymers compared to standard
titanium plates is elimination of second operation need. After healing process the plate
will naturally be dissolved and removed from the body. Moreover there is a mini-
mization of inflammatory or allergic reaction on metal alloy. In cases of the mandible
fractures, in which large displacements do not occur, the use of bioresorbable plates
allows for achieving comparable stabilization effects that are achieved using titanium
plates [12, 13].
The usage medical imagining data, CAx systems and additive manufacturing
technologies it is possible to extend the potential application on the more complex
cases. The customization of geometry and possibility of mechanical properties modi-
fication through construction parameters gives a green light for further development of
3D biopolymer plates. The study described below presents influence of internal
structure used for customized mini-plate on fracture stabilization performance. The
numerical research was conducted with FEM.
Within the study three-dimensional (3D) mini-plate was designed (Fig. 1a) with
dimension of 16.6 13.0 1.5 mm. The mini-plate is symmetrical in relation to the
long and short axis, and its geometry is limited by a frame with 2 and 1.5 mm width,
respectively for horizontal and vertical struts. In each of the corners, holes with a
diameter of 2 mm were designed, located at a distance of 4.5 mm and 5 mm,
808 P. Szymczyk et al.
respectively from the long and short axis of the model. The tests were carried out for
plates with variable internal geometry: (a) Type 1 – frame (reference), (b) Type 2 –
lattice, (c) Type 3 – cross, (d) Type 4 – honeycomb. All geometries were tested for two
different widths of the struts that created the internal structure: 0.3 mm and 0.5 mm.
Fig. 1. 3D plates geometry: (a) Type 1- frame (reference), (b) Type 2 - lattice, (c) Type 3 - cross,
(d) Type 4 - honey comb
For numerical simulations, the mandible bone model based on medical data
achieved from Computer Tomography (CT) was developed in the Ansys 11.0 software.
The model includes the internal structure of the bone (division into a cortical (compact)
and cancellous (spongy tissue) along with a fracture located in the region of the angle
of the mandible (Fig. 2c). The lack of direct contact between the plate and the bone
surface is an important factor when testing the plate as a load bearing element [14],
therefore only the plate surface was imported into the program so that its shorter
symmetry line would cover the fracture line. The fracture is located in the area of the
mandibular angle and was modeled by separating the part of the bone, then for
achieved fracture volume with thickness of 1 mm (Section f - marked with a red line on
Fig. 2a, b) the appropriate material properties for the initial connective tissue were used
in the region of bone fracture.
Fig. 2. Support scheme, fixing in points: A (mandibular condyle); B, C (muscle forces) and
loads: (a) asymmetrical load, (b) symmetrical load, (c) discretization of the model (type of
element SOLID 187)
Finally, models of identically bent plates, spaced from the bone surface by 0.2 mm,
were obtained. The plate was fixed with 7 mm monocortical screws. The screws
geometry was reduced to 2 mm diameter roller. All the stabilizing elements were
assigned with material parameters suitable for PLA: Young’s modulus, E = 3 MPa;
Poisson’s ratio, m = 0.3 [15, 16].
The plates were tested under asymmetric and symmetric loading conditions. The
model was loaded with forces corresponding to the natural physiological conditions
during chewing – 210 N (asymmetrical load) or biting – 140 N (symmetrical load).
Schemes and load values were selected based on the simplified model proposed by
Chladek [17], in which supports point replace also muscle strength (temporal (B) and
masseter (C) muscles).
3 Results
The occurring displacements for the region of the fracture and the von Mises stresses
for the plate-screw system were analyzed for each of the plates. Displacement distri-
butions in the fracture area were evaluated based on the distributions in the callus
fragment. Table 1 presents examples of maximum displacement values for asymmetric
loads for fracture volume (Section f).
Table 1. Maximum displacement values in the fracture area - asymmetrical load

3D plate Internal strut Plate ux þ ux uy þ uy uz þ uz
model diameter (mm) volume (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm3)
Type 1 – 131.7 0.0045 0.0095 0.0237 0.0007 0.0250 0.0064
Type 2 0.3 170.1 0.0047 0.0079 0.0227 0.0008 0.0242 0.0061
0.5 190.8 0.0047 0.0074 0.0213 0.0028 0.0229 0.0076
Type 3 0.3 169.8 0.0047 0.0081 0.0199 0.0048 0.0211 0.0094
0.5 190.0 0.0042 0.0070 0.0201 0.0064 0.0208 0.0109
Type 4 0.3 168.1 0.0043 0.0092 0.0221 0.0029 0.0235 0.0082
0.5 189.0 0.0046 0.0071 0.0200 0.0048 0.0214 0.0093
The largest displacement values, irrespective of the direction vector, were obtained
for the reference frame plate (Type 1). Each time, the structure placed in the plate
caused a decrease in the displacement values over the fracture region both in the case of
asymmetric and symmetrical loads. The displacement values in both cases are influ-
enced by both: the type of structure and the thickness of the struts.
When analyzing the displacements in the transverse axis for the asymmetrical load,
the least favorable results were obtained for the honeycomb plate (Type 4) and the
0.3 mm strut thickness. This plate has limited displacement by only about 3% com-
pared to the reference plate (Type 1). The plates with lattice and cross structure
(0.3 mm) have minimized displacements in the transverse axis by about 15%. When
increasing the width of the struts caused a reduction of displacements in this axis by
20%. The biggest reduction of displacement (at the level of 25%) was ensured by plates
with cross and honeycomb structures (0.5 mm). The displacements in the vertical and
sagittal axes for asymmetrical loads are biggest for the plates with the lattice structure
with 0.3 mm strut thickness. This plate (Type 2) has less than 5% displacement
reduction compared to the reference plate. Increasing the strut width allows for a 10%
reduction in displacements. The cross-shaped structure, regardless to beam thickness,
shows a decrease in displacements in the vertical and sagittal axes by approximately
15%. Similar result was obtained for a plate with a honeycomb structure (0.5 mm). The
smaller strut thickness in the honeycomb structure (Type 4) returns much worse results.
In the case of a symmetrical loads, a large increase in the displacement values were
observed. For the reference plate, the maximum displacements in the vertical and
sagittal axis are higher by 116% and 112%, respectively.
The largest reduction in displacements was achieved for a cross-shaped plate with a
strut thickness of 0.5 mm. This type of internal structure allows for minimization of
vertical displacements by almost 30%, and the others by about 20% (Fig. 3). In the
next step, the distributions of von Mises stresses [MPa] were analyzed for all plates
type.
Fig. 3. Distribution of displacements over the region of the fracture – Section f (marked with a
black arrow in Fig. 2c) on the example of distribution for stabilization with a cross-shaped plate
(0.5 mm)—symmetrical load: (a) component ux , (b) component uy ; (c) component uz
These distributions, regardless of the nature of the load, are similar to each other. In
all plates type, the highest stress concentration occurs in the outer frame of the plate,
and more precisely in the upper horizontal area. Most of the loads are transferred by
these structural elements. Figure 4 presents an example of von Mises stress distribution
for asymmetric and symmetrical loads.
Residual stresses are mainly concentrated around the upper frame of the reference
plate (Fig. 4a, f) which indicates the occurrence and transmission of bending forces in
this area. The highest concentration of residual stress is visible around the holes and on
the upper edge of the plate, regardless of the type of structure used.
The average values of max. residual stress are at the level of 7 MPa and 17 MPa,
respectively for asymmetrical and symmetrical nature of loads.
There were no significant changes in the value of stresses due to the type of the
internal structure shape used (Table 2).
Fig. 4. Distribution of von Mises stress for asymmetrical load (a–d) and symmetrical load
(f–i) –view from the bone side (0.5 mm)
Table 2. Maximum residual stress values over the fracture area - asymmetrical load
3D plate model Strut width (mm) Maximum von Mises stress (MPa)
Symmetrical load Asymmetrical load
Type 1 – 6.682 15.506
Type 2 0.3 7.024 16.005
0.5 7.513 17.161
Type 3 0.3 8.283 18.861
0.5 7.506 17.091
Type 4 0.3 7.765 17.754
0.5 6.597 17.726
Presented research was based on FEM analysis oriented on the selection of the most
favorable geometry of the 3D mini-plates. The results show that the cross-shaped
structure (Type 2) for which the thickness of struts was applied at the level of 0.5 mm
is characterized with best properties.
It can be concluded that the mini bone plate made of the polymer (PLA), developed
within the presented work allows to obtain stabilization comparable to the standard
stability with the use of one titanium mini-plate. This is also confirmed by other work
[15], where the authors revealed that the P(L/DL)LA plate with a volume of 315 mm3
ensures the stabilization quality achieved for the 172 mm3 titanium plate, at the level of
residual stresses value equal 22.6 MPa. The ratio of the maximum residual stress value
to the yield strength is much lower for the bioabsorbable plate than for the titanium
plate. Based on this it is assumed that the polymer plate will be less susceptible to
destruction by dynamic loads. A similar conclusion can be drawn in relation to the
developed cross-shaped mini-plate, for which the obtained value of the maximum von
Mises stresses is 25.5 MPa and is close to the value obtained by Baack et al. The
stresses occurring for the the min-plate (Type 2) determined in the numerical tests, also
for critical load conditions, do not exceed the tensile strength of polylactide (PLA) (40–
70 MPa), including processed using FFF (Fused Filament Fabrication) technology
[16], which suggests that the additively manufactured mini-plate under such conditions
will not be destroyed. In addition, the use of additive manufacturing technologies will
allow to obtain a geometry matched to the curvature of the bone surface. Currently,
most of the plates are bended during the process of surgery, and such a solution not
only introduces additional stress (both in the plate itself and in the place of connection
with the tissue), but also significantly extends the operation time.
However, it should be noted that presented simulations include only the results for
the polymer (PLA) in its original form, it will be necessary to check the properties of
the designed mini-plate for the subsequent stages of polymer degradation.
References
1. Kryst L (1993) Maxillo-facial surgery. PZWL, Warsaw
2. Murr A (2008) Internal fixation of mandibular angle fractures with the champy technique.
Oper Tech Otolaryngol 19:123–127
3. Adamczyk K (2016) Assessment of structure of plate implants used in mandibular
osteosyntheses. Biomed Eng 22:172–179
4. Motamedi MH (2013) Mandibular angle fractures: comparison of one miniplate vs. two
miniplates. Trauma Mon 18:17–20
5. Agrawal A (2011) Single miniplate osteosynthesis in angle fracture. Natl J Maxillofac Surg
2:47–50
6. Motamedi MHK (2013) A textbook of advanced oral and maxillofacial surgery. InTechOpen
7. Prasad K (2013) A comparative evaluation between single noncompression titanium
miniplate and three dimensional titanium miniplate in treatment of mandibular angle
fracture. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 41:103–109
8. Saad Khedr M (2015) Comparison of three-dimensional plate versus double miniplate
osteosynthesis for treatment of unfavorable mandibular angle fractures. Tanta Dent J 12:89–
98
9. Thakkar D (2014) Use of a 2.0 mm three-dimensional rectangular grid compression
miniplate in treatment of mandibular angle fracture: a prospective clinical study. J Orofac
Res 4:152–156
10. Pereira-Filho V (2011) Use of rectangular grid miniplates for fracture fixation at the
mandibular angle. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 69:1436–1441
11. Sharara A (2015) Evaluation of the 3-dimensional threadlock plate in the management of
mandibular angle fractures: a clinical and radiographic study. Tanta Dent J 2:140–148
12. Janjua O (2013) Bioresorbable versus titanium plates for mandibular fractures. J Coll
Physicians Surg Pak 23:480–483
13. Park YW (2015) Bioabsorbable osteofixation for orthognathic surgery. Maxillofac Plast
Reconstr Surg 37:6
14. Kozakiewicz M (2013) “A” shape plate for open rigid internal fixation of mandible condyle
neck fracture. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 42:730–737
15. Baack B (2011) Minimally invasive bioabsorbable bone plates for rigid internal fixation of
mandible fractures. Arch Facial Plast Surg 13:31–35
16. Lanzotti A (2015) The impact of process parameters on mechanical properties of parts
fabricated in PLA with an open-source 3-D printer. Rapid Prototyp J 21(5):604–617
17. Chladek W (2000) System of modeling the selected mechanical states of human mandible,
vol 59, Scientific Papers. Silesian University of Technology, pp 109–114
Correlation of Hydraulic and Pneumatic
Tightness for Brake Fluid Reservoir Non
Return Valve
Maciej Wnuk(&) and Artur Iluk

{maciej.wnuk,artur.iluk}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The tightness and leakage of the fluid vessel used in automotive
industry is a factor important for safety of the car users. In the paper an alter-
native method of calculation and test of leakage in Non-Return Valves (NRV) in
brake fluid reservoirs was presented. The valves were designed to keep
hydraulic tightness in case of connection loss between the reservoir and a pump,
i.e. during crash of a car. The factory hydraulic tightness tests are problematic
and time consuming. A research of a possibility of testing valves with air instead
of brake fluid was presented in the paper.
Keywords: Car safety Valve tightness Braking system Hydraulic leakage
1 Introduction
NRV valves provide tightness in reservoir system and prevent leakage of a brake fluid
during accident. For companies that are producing brake fluid reservoirs a possibility to
test 100% samples for tightness of the NRV valves would ensure that product has a
good quality. Such a tests with usage of a standard brake fluid is not a good solution.
The example view of NRV valve is presented in Fig. 1.
The DOT4 brake fluid is chemically very aggressive. To avoid tests with a real
brake fluid, a possibility of test with compressed air instead of brake fluid was verified.
That solution allows to perform tightness tests in short time on manufacturing line in
clean conditions, without usage of a real brake fluid in production process.
The review of the hydraulic leakage test method was provided in [1]. A correlation
between results hydraulic and pneumatic leaks was investigated in paper [2], the data fit
of the measurement results by polynomial equations was used. In order to apply
alternative test method in manufacturing process, in the paper the analytical approach
to the liquid and air leakage combined with experimental verification was presented.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_94
Correlation of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Tightness 815
Fig. 1. An example of NRV valve
2 Modeling Approach
The main aspect of the work is modelling of a leakage through NRV valves. The
acceptable leakage value according to manufacturing specification is limited to 10
drops per 5 min.
Direct leakage measurement is difficult because of a few reasons:
• limited time for test on the production line –direct test requires 5 min,
• shortening of test time dramatically decrease accuracy of measurement,
• usage of brake fluid or any liquid would cause contamination of tested reservoirs,
• loss of tightness may results in contamination of production line.
A non-direct method - testing valves with air may result in overcoming of all the
pointed above disadvantages.
For analytical calculation of leakage, a model of simple hole with circular section
was chosen as a first step. This simplification may have impact on final results, because
a real section of the gap has different shape. However this approach may be very useful
in the first stage – that correlates calculations with physical tests. It allows to avoid
other calculation methods, which can be used to determine flow in the gap of irregular
shape (i.e. CFD simulation).
The procedure for the leakage calculation was as follows:
• analytical description of the flow and speed of the leakage for brake fluid,
• analytical description of the air flow and velocity in the gap,
• determination of the gap dimensions that results in flow of the brake fluid with the
speed of the acceptable leakage (10 drops per 5 min) for defined fluid level in
reservoir,
• determination of air pressure drop rate for the chosen pressure range which is
equivalent to acceptable leakage of the brake fluid,
• verification of modelled flows in experimental tests.
The gap model of a cylindrical shape described by diameter (d) and length (l) was
chosen for the first stage of the research:
Because of unknown orientation of the possible gap in the valve, the impact of
gravity on test results was neglected. In order to include in the model the effect of
816 M. Wnuk and A. Iluk
velocity distribution in a channel for a fluid with specified viscosity, the cylindrical
wall of the gap was considered as frictional, but without any specified roughness.
A flow at constant temperature was assumed for simplifying of calculations.
The parameters of DOT4 brake fluid and dry air in temperature of 25 °C were used.
The values of parameters are collected in the Table 1.
Table 1. Parameters of fluids used in the research

Symbol DOT4 Air Unit
Density q 1040 1.205 kg/m3
Kinematical viscosity m 1.20E-05 1.53E-05 m2/s
Dynamical viscosity l 1.25E-02 1.85E-05 Pa s
3 Brake Fluid Flow
The DOT4 fluid flow was described as laminar steady flow. Acceptance limit of
leakage during tightness test is 10 drops per 5 min. While density of DOT4 fluid is
known and mass of one drop as well, average flow that must be met:
mdrop
m_ ¼ ð1Þ
tdrop
m_
QDOT4 ¼ ð2Þ
qDOT4
Where mdrop is a mass of one drop of DOT4, m_ is mass flow rate, tdrop is time of
flow on one drop, qDOT4 is density of DOT4 and QDOT4 is volumetric flow rate.
According to what was written above volumetric flow for maximum acceptance
leakage (10 drops per 5 min) is:
2; 7E 4kg kg
m_ ¼ ¼ 9E 7 ð3Þ
300s s
m_ 9E 7 m3
Qacceptance ¼ ¼ ¼ 8; 653E 10 ð4Þ
q 1040 s
Velocity of the flow was calculated with Navier-Stokes equation for axisymmetric
laminar flow of viscous fluid in cylindrical coordinates [4]:

1d dv Dp
l r ¼ ð5Þ
r dr dr l
After double integration of the Eq. (5), velocity may be written as:
1 Dp 2
v¼ R r2 ð6Þ
v ll
The volume of the paraboloid is the volumetric flow. Elementary volumetric flow
may be described generally with:
dQ ¼ v2p dr ð7Þ
In the case of laminar axisymmetric flow, for volumetric flow the Hagen-Poiseuille
law [3] can be used:
ZR
pDp
Q¼ r R2 r 2 dr ð8Þ
2ll
0
For cylindrical geometry may be simplified to:
pDp 4
Q¼ R ð9Þ
8ll
4 Air Flow
For air flow through the gap, the parameter that is object of investigation is time of the
pressure drop. Main difference in comparison to the DOT4 fluid is compressibility. For
such a calculations, with low pressure we can assume that fluids generally are
incompressible. For the air, a compressibility has to be considered to properly represent
physics. In order to calculate time of the pressure drop in selected range, general
equation of volumetric flow change in time for [5] and Clapeyron law can be used:
dV
dt ¼ ð9Þ
Q
pV
¼ nR ¼ const ð10Þ
T
where p is a pressure of ideal gas, V is volume, T is temperature, n is number of moles

and R is gas constant (R ¼ NA kB , where NA is Avogadro number and kB is Boltzmann
constant).
For chosen volume of a gas in specified conditions the nR part is constant. Volume
VG of gas that is trapped in the closed space of the test gauge under pressure pG . For a
constant temperature:
pG VG ¼ p0 V0 ð11Þ
where pressure p0 is an atmospheric pressure and V0 a volume of gas under that

pressure A small difference in the volume (leakage) dV would result in small drop of
the pressure dp:
ðpG þ dpÞVG ¼ p0 ðV0 þ dV Þ ð12Þ
VG
dV ¼ dp ð13Þ
p0
The second task connected with the air flow description is equation of the volu-
metric flow Q. To properly describe the flow, the type of the flow has to be assumed. If
the flow is laminar, equations proposed for brake fluid flow might be used. In case of
turbulent flow, it is required to find correct volumetric flow equation. The following
approach has been used:
• assuming that flow of the air in the gap is turbulent a priori,
• Darcy’s-Weisbach equation used for the pressure drop description,
• average velocity of the air calculated by Darcy’s-Weisbach equation,
• calculation of the volumetric flow,
• verification of the Reynolds number to ensure that the flow is turbulent.
Darcy’s-Weisbach equation is as follows [6]:
l qv2
Dp ¼ k ð14Þ
D 2
where for 3E3 < Re < 1E5:
0; 3164
k ¼ pffiffiffi ð15Þ
4Re
and for 1E5 < Re < 1E8:
0; 221
k ¼ 0; 0032 þ ð16Þ
Re0;237
Small part of time that is needed for small drop pressure is then:
VG 1 dp
dt ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð17Þ
p0 A 7 1 16d ðp p0 Þ47
5
0;31644 l4 q3 l
After integration from pmax to pmin time is equal to:

7 VG 1 3
3

t¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ðpmax p0 Þ7 ðpmin p0 Þ7 ð18Þ
3 p0 A 7 1 16d5
0;31644 l4 q3 l
The results of calculations with the use of presented method were shown in Fig. 2.
The graph presents a relation of number of drops per 5 min, the diameter and the length
of hole.
Fig. 2. Dependence of number of drops in 5 min related to length and diameter of the gap, and
selected point of the test parameters.
On the graph intersection curve of resultant surface and required 10 drops per
5 min was highlighted (the red curve). With two varying parameters (diameter and
length) usage of small value of diameter would be a problematic to manufacture. From
the other hand with larger diameters thickness of the gap will increase.
The selected point was shown on the curve in Fig. 2. From manufacturing point of
view, the dimensions 0.15 mm diameter and 1.75 mm length are a good compromise to
obtain 10 drops per minute in test gauge with possibility of manufacturing.
In order to verify the analytical calculation, the test stand for hydraulic and pneumatic
verification was designed. There were two main goals of the experiment:
• was the verification of the analytical calculations of hydraulic leakage rate and
pneumatic pressure drop rate,
• verification of sensitivity of hydraulic leakage rate and pneumatic pressure drop rate
to changes in geometry of the gap.
The design contains demountable nozzles with the holes of different size. Three
nozzles were designed with hole sizes: 0.10 mm, 0.15 mm (nominal) and 0.20 mm.
Because of manufacturing tolerances, the real diameters of holes were measured
with optical microscope and are equal respectively to: 0.121 mm, 0.178 mm,
0.226 mm.
Hydraulic tests were conducted by simple filling the reservoir with DOT4 (150 mm
height of liquid) with different nozzles and measuring total mass of dropped fluid
during each 5 min. Tests were repeated a few times and average values was taken.
For pneumatic tests pressure drop in time was measured. There were 2 pressure
ranges selected: from 6 to 2 bars and from 5 to 3 bars. First of the ranges was selected
because 6 bars is typical pressure available in production factories and 2 bars were
chosen as lower boundary to avoid very long time of pressure drop to 1 bar. The
second range was selected as shorter alternative of the full range (6–2 bars)
Results obtained in the hydraulic tests with DOT4 are shown in Figs. 3, 4, 5. The
time on horizontal axes starts 5 min after filling the reservoir.
Fig. 3. Experimental tests results for the hole diameter of 0.121 mm

Because a drops of brake fluid are not identical, the mass of leaked fluid was
measured. The number of drops at given time was calculated by dividing the mass of
leaked fluid by standard average mass of single drop equal to 0.027 g.
The results obtained in the pneumatic tests with the air are collected in Table 2.
Table 2. Times of pressure drop in experimental tests in comparison to the calculated [s]
Pressure drop from 6 to 2 Pressure drop from 5 to 3
bars bars
Hole dimeter (mm) 0.121 0.178 0.226 0.121 0.178 0.226
Test times 175 107 72 81 52 32
170 108 72 80 50 34
175 108 71 85 51 35
Average 173 108 72 82 51 34
Calculated 85 30 16 41 14 08
% difference 203.9% 358.9% 447.9% 200.0% 364.3% 420.8%
Results obtained in experimental tests for hydraulic leakage are in good agreement with
calculated values, but only in the beginning of the leakage. The tests showed that flow
in the gap is not constant. A phenomenon that causes sealing of the gap should be
considered to predict the flow with good agreement in time domain. However, the
requirement for leakage are defined only for 5 min test, so correlation of calculated
leakage with experiment for the first 5 min of test is sufficient.
Results obtained in experimental tests for pneumatic leakage are in poor agreement
with values that were calculated. Difference are up to 440%. However it could be
observed that trend of error for two different pressure drops is very similar for each
case.
The formula extracted from Darcy’s-Weisbach equation uses values of flow

resistance based on empirical estimations. A small changes in values of the flow
resistance significantly changes the pressure drop rate. The final formula for time
calculation is very sensitive to small changes in values of the coefficients. Taking into
account that the case is small gap flow of high viscous fluid, some modifications of the
flow resistance could be verified.
The model of flow through a simple cylindrical gap is not matching very well for
pneumatic leakage and do not include a phenomena of flow decrease in time for
hydraulic leakage. The presented method of testing hydraulic leakages with pneumatic
tests, could not be used directly for correlation of the pressure drop rate with the
hydraulic leakage rate. However, the analytical and experimental revealed a strong
correlation between both rates.
The improvement of description of physics, or introduction of other tools could be
beneficial for that method. For example leakages could be predicted better with usage
of Computational Fluid Dynamics analysis, or representation of gap shape could be
done more accurately to improve quality of the estimation.
In the experimental tests, the sensitivity of the pneumatic method for the gap size is
higher than predicted by analytical model. The small changes in the gap size causes
very significant change in pressure drop rate. It means that acceptable hydraulic leakage
rate (10 drops per 5 min) can be correlated with relatively wide and easy to measure
range of air pressure drop rate.
The preliminary assessment of the air pressure drop rates corresponding to the
acceptable hydraulic leakage rate can be done with presented analytical method, but
obtaining the equivalent pressure drop rates for real tests should be done experimen-
tally on the real object.
The presented measurement method, after tuning the acceptable air pressure drop
rates, can be potentially used to test the leakage rate of the real valve.
References
1. Colombo A, Lee P, Karneya B (2009) A selective literature review of transient-based leak
detection methods. J Hydro-Environ Res 2(4)
2. Zhang J, Shang J, Pramanik N (2016) Development of low-cost air-based hydraulic leakage
detection system through real-time pressure decay data acquisition technology. Int J Adv
Manuf Technol 87
3. Fries N, Dreyer M (2008) An analytic solution of capillary rise restrained by gravity. J Colloid
Interface Sci 320(1)
4. Jeżowiecka – Kabsch K, Szewczyk H (2001) Mechanika Płynów. Oficyna Wydawnicza
Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław
5. Kisiel J (2009) Opróżnianie Jednokomorowych Zbiorników o Kształcie Brył Obrotowych.
Czasopismo Techniczne Politechniki Krakowskiej, Kraków
6. Al – Shemmeri T (2012) Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 2012 T. Al-Shemmeri & Ventus
Publishing ApS
Linked a Priori and a Posteriori Models
of Composite Manufacturing Process Chain
J. Wollmann(&), D. R. Haider, M. Krahl, A. Langkamp, and M. Gude
Institute of Lightweight Engineering and Polymer Technology, Technische

Universität Dresden, Holbeinstraße 3, 01307 Dresden, Germany
joanna.wollmann@tu-dresden.de
Abstract. Efficient production process chains are a prerequisite for a novel

automated process for the large-volume production of lightweight structures.
The authors demonstrated that by combining high-strength steel, continuous
fiber reinforced thermoplastic (organic sheet) and long fiber reinforced ther-
moplastic molding compound (LFT), components can be produced efficiently in
“3D-Hybrid” technology with high lightweight potential. To reach this goal - by
reason of the complexitivity of these technologies - the development of novel
simulation methods was required, which formed a link between the previous
standalone solutions for process simulations and an interface to the structure
simulation. Pure ‘a priori’ simulation models did not meet requirements for
accuracy of obtained results. Furthermore, online quality assurance system in
component manufacturing was developed, which enabled continuous data
measurement of the production parameters in all process steps. Outcomes from
experiments and simulations are collected in a database and analyzed with
stochastic methods. An effective linked ‘a priori’ and ‘a posteriori’ design of a
complex manufacturing process chain was investigated and described in the
article.
Keywords: Hybrid structure Simulation chain Online quality assurance
1 Introduction and State of the Art
Lightweight construction through multi-material design is often implemented in

automotive large series production by steel-aluminum car bodies. To fully exploit the
lightweight construction potential of the multi-material design a material- and process-
oriented joining is a technological challenge. Especially in automotive applications, the
crash behavior can be improved by combining metals with textile or long fiber rein-
forced thermoplastic polymers. Novel thermoplastic-metal hybrid structures and the use
of alternative joining technologies enables the production of intrinsic hybrids [1]. The
newly developed 3D-Hybrid technology, shown in Fig. 1, combines cold-formed steel
and a local reinforcement with tempered steel, pre-treating with special adhesion
promoter systems or by surface structuring, glass-fiber reinforced organic sheets and
injection molding compound to create a rip structure. The intrinsically joined hybrid
structure is produced in a single-stage process without a subsequent joining step [2].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_95
824 J. Wollmann et al.
The resulting hybrid components provide high energy absorption at lower weight
compared to conventional steel-sheet structures [3].
Fig. 1. Components of the demonstrator structure in multi-material-design: a) CAE design, b)

photography
2 Manufacturing Process of 3D-Hybrid Structure
The intrinsic manufacturing process is a combination of a compression and an injection

molding process. Figure 2 shows the single process steps for the manufacturing of a
basic structure, which is one of the demonstrator parts of the project.
Fig. 2. Process steps for manufacturing of a 3D-Hybrid structure
The demonstrator construction is made of cold-formed steel, which is reinforced

with hot-formed high-strength steel. The two steel parts are joined together conven-
tionally by spot welding. The joined steel part is inserted in the upper half of the mold,
which is positioned in a fast stroke press. The mold temperature is regulated at 110 °C.
The steel part heats up by contact. At the same time, the robot deposits the organic
sheets in an infrared unit. Here the sheets are heated above the melting temperature of
the polyamide 66 matrix up to a maximum process temperature of 320 °C by infrared
radiation. Subsequently, the robot is used to grip the organic sheets and put them in the
lower mold. The organic sheet is thermoformed by closing the press and is bonded to
Linked a Priori and a Posteriori Models 825
surface of the steel part. When the mold is closed, the long fiber reinforced thermo-
plastic mass is injected and fills the rib structure inside the profile by an injection
molding machine.
3 Simulation of the Manufacturing Process Chain
For the development phase of the 3D-Hybrid structure individual: sheet metal forming,
organic sheet thermoforming and injection molding process simulations were per-
formed. Significant material testing was conducted to develop a complex viscoelastic
material model for the draping simulation of organic sheets, including tensile tests,
cantilever bending tests, friction tests and, picture frame tests. Respectively, experi-
mental and numerical investigations of rheological properties of an injection molding
compound were carried out. The determined material characteristics were temperature
and velocity dependent. Process simulation outputs were validated by comparing its
prediction with the experimental results [4].
The thermoforming simulation of organic sheets was carried out in the software
Pam-Form. The model consists of 2 layers of organic sheets with the thickness of 2 and
4 mm and discretized by using shell elements, 2 merged metal sheets formed in the
preceding process and working as a stamping tool, punch and die, as well as 8 tem-
perature and pressure sensors. By means of draping simulations the resulting local fiber
orientations, thicknesses, shear angles (Fig. 1), amongst others, were determined and
transferred to the structure simulation (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Draping simulation of the basic profile structure: initial configuration (top left), forming
result (top right) and shear angle distribution after forming (bottom).
Subsequent LFT-injection molding simulation was executed in Autodesk Moldflow

software. As the draping and injection molding processes are integrated into one
process step, the geometry of organic sheet and the temperature of the material after
thermoforming were imported as a part insert to the Moldflow. Fill, pack and warp
analysis was conducted to predict the polymer flow inside of the mold during filling
and packing analysis as well to diagnose the cause of warping.
Figure 2 shows some results of injection molding simulation carried out for three
different materials. The difference in form filling and fiber orientation after the end of
the process can be seen (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Results of injection molding simulation for 3 different materials [4].
To form a link between the standalone solutions for process simulations and the
structure simulation, the development of novel simulation method was required. Thus,
the Digimat software has been used to build the continuous mapping of the manu-
facturing influences between: draping and injection molding and explicit structural
FEA. As a result, fiber orientation tensor, weld lines location and residual stresses
resulting from the injection molding simulation and fiber orientation and thickness
from draping simulation were transferred to FEA in Pam-Crash. A 2-point-bending test
is shown in Fig. 5 for testing the basic profile. Furthermore, hybrid solution method in
Digimat was defined using multiscale coupling techniques for nonlinear material
properties.
Fig. 5. Basic profile and testing stand model in Pam-Crash: a) initial position, b) final position.
4 Interface Formation for Virtual Quality Assurance
A big focus of the research was put on the online quality assurance system in com-
ponent manufacturing. Novel methods were investigated which allow early analysis
and determination of significant process and quality parameters. Moreover, continuous
data measurement in all process steps enables fast optimization of the process
parameters and guarantees reproducible high-quality products [5].
The main target of an automated data analysis is a sufficient description of mea-
sured values or curves using quantitative data from results of experiment and simu-
lation. All extracted data are transferred in a virtual process chain as a database with a
Linked a Priori and a Posteriori Models 827
linked ‘a priori’ and ‘a posteriori’ design, shown in Fig. 6. Here, both can be analyzed
separated to provide conclusions on the dynamics of the individual and overall process
chain. Moreover, the virtual process chain creates an interface between the data from
experiment and simulation. Statistical methods are used to analyze the relationship
between process and component structure. The process can be further optimized in this
way and the structural properties can be increased. The process windows for the
individual process parameters can be defined for a series-based application and the
components can be evaluated over a tolerance limit. Further, the process understanding
leads to improved validation possibilities of simulation results.
Fig. 6. Process chain with continuous process data measurement and analysis
5 Summary and Future Research Objectives
In the paper, the complex manufacturing process of the 3D-Hybrid intrinsic FRP-metal
structure was presented. As a part of the research, the novel simulation chain for an
integrative approach to structure modeling, with a focus on the process-induced
material microstructure was developed. The key material- and process parameters and
the results that are most influential on the final results from both experiment and
simulation were defined and exported to the database and, in the next step, compared
between each other.
Since the parameter values are subject to change, as a part of the future research,
sensitivity analyses is to carry out and the impact of the variation on the final results
will be investigated. This highly complex sensitivity analysis is critical not only for a
model validation but delivers a guideline for future process design and optimization.
Acknowledgments. The German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) funds
the research and development project Q-PRO within the Framework Concept ‘Innovations for
Tomorrow’s Production, Service and Work’ (funding code 02P14Z040–02P14Z049). Q-PRO is
managed by the Project Management Agency Karlsruhe (PTKA).
References
1. Modler N, Adam F, Maaß J, Kellner P, Knothe P, Geuther M, Irmler C (2015) Intrinsic
lightweight steel-composite hybrids for structural components. Mater Sci Forum 825–
826:401–408
2. Haider DR, Krahl M, Gude M, Kellner P, Knötschke D (2018) Quality-assured process chains
for the production of highly loaded lightweight structures in metal-FRP design. In: Plastics in
Automotive Engineering, 14–15 Mar 2018, Mannheim
3. Kellner P (2013) Zur systematischen Bewertung integrativer Leichtbau-Strukturkonzepte für
biegebelastete Crashträger. Dissertation, Technisch Universität Dresden
4. Jakubik J, Maron B, Maaß J, Gude M, Masseria F, Bublitz D, Ropers S (2016) Virtual and
experimental analysis of a continuous 3D hybrid metal-composite process for automotive
applications. In: Advanced Metal Forming Processes in Automotive Industry, 28–29 June
2016, Wroclaw, Poland
5. Haider DR, Krahl M, Gude M, Hengstmann R, Titze S, Haupt M (2017) Continuous data
measurement and analysis in automated manufacturing processes for hybrid lightweight
structures. In: SAMPE Conference, 14–16 Oct 2017, Stuttgart
Simulation of a System for Controlling
Atmosphere in Furnace Used to Heating
of Blanks
Ireneusz Wróbel(&) and Krzysztof Sikora

University of Bielsko-Biala, Willowa 2 5, 43-300 Bielsko-Biala, Poland
{iwrobel,ksikora}@ath.bielsko.pl
Abstract. In the paper is presented an example of the CFD (Computational

Fluid Dynamics) system to control of air humidity inside chamber of the furnace
used for heating of blanks made from 22MnB5 steel in process of hot-stamping.
Such systems are installed in the furnaces to eliminate a hazard of so called
hydrogen embrittlement occurring in produced workpieces. The simulation was
performed for a single segment of chamber of vertical furnace. Parameters of the
simulation have been defined and results of the simulation have been presented
and discussed. Conclusions and recommendations have been formulated.
Keywords: Stamping of steel sheets FEM simulation Hot-stamping

Systems to controlling dew-point
1 Introduction
Together with development of the PHS hot-stamping technology (Press Hardening

Systems), requirements imposed on the manufacturing process itself are also increas-
ing. A products manufactured with use of the PHS technology are faced with very
stringent requirements concerning mechanical and metallographic parameters.
The PHS drawpieces of car body structure are responsible for safety of drivers and
passengers. During operational lifetime of the drawpieces, the hydrogen embrittlement
belongs to factors which could contribute to worsening of drawpiece properties pro-
duced by the PHS method. The hydrogen embrittlement occurs due to diffusion of
atomic hydrogen into structure of steel used in the PHS processes (22MnB5 brand
steel). In result of increasing hydrogen content a local stresses resulting in loss of
integrity of the structure are generated. Interaction effects of the hydrogen are long-
lasting, and therefore cracks in car body structure can occur during assembly process of
a car body and also during operation of the car.
The factors as specified below (Fig. 1) can favour the hydrogen embrittlement:
1. Presence of excessive quantities of atomic hydrogen. In case of hot-stamping
process, steam in chamber of the furnace can be a source of atomic hydrogen.
Decomposition of steam occurs under effect of temperature, while resulting
hydrogen can diffuse into structure of the drawpiece (Fig. 2).

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_96
830 I. Wróbel and K. Sikora
Fig. 1. Factors promoting hydrogen embrittlement
Fig. 2. Scheme of hydrogen diffusion into blanks
Too high micro-hardness of drawpiece’s material results in tendency to so called

“trapping” of the hydrogen.
2. Appearance of stresses in the drawpiece. Increase of stresses in the drawpiece
results in displacement of hydrogen atoms already being present in the material,
creating biatomic molecules of the hydrogen having bigger volume, what effects in
local increase of the stresses, and furthermore – it increases tendency to cracking.
Source of additional stresses can be found in trimming of workpieces, clipping with
use of laser, strain hardening, external forces acting on car body structure.
3. The phenomenon of hydrogen embrittlement is not comprehensively recognized up-
to-now [1, 7]. Various theories describing cracking formation resulted from
hydrogen impact are presented in the bibliography [6]. Theory of pressures belongs
to one of such theories (Fig. 3). In high temperature a single hydrogen atoms
penetrate between atoms of crystalline structure of the metal. In result of external
forces action, hydrogen atoms displace and gather on boundaries of grain or on
dislocations. As the atomic hydrogen is unstable, it quickly strives to join with
another hydrogen atom, thus increasing its volume. This is effecting in presence of
very high pressure. Very high pressure acting together with summary forces can
contribute to propagation of initiated cracks (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Mechanism of creation of micro-cracks in result of atomic hydrogen operation

Simulation of a System for Controlling Atmosphere 831
2 Systems for Controlling Atmosphere in the Furnace
Target mechanical properties, inclusive of hardness, are strictly defined and can’t be
arbitrary changed in hot-stamping process of car body elements. It is also impossible to
avoid stresses occurring in the drawpiece during operational life of car body structure.
By controlling humidity of atmosphere in the furnace it is possible, however, to restrict
quantities of the hydrogen diffusing deep into material in atmosphere of the furnace. To
achieve this, the air with low steam content is blown though special nozzles. To
eliminate risk of formation of hydrogen embrittlement in produced workpieces, air
atmosphere in the furnace should be maintained at hydration degree of about 0,0025 kg
H2O/kg of dry air, what corresponds to partial pressure of the steam equal to about
400 Pa (dew-point equal to −5 C). Special systems which dehumidify the air to the
preset parameters, and installations blowing air into chamber of the furnace are
responsible for maintaining the atmosphere. However, technical conditions for the
blowing air with the preset parameters should comply with two main assumptions:
1. Atmosphere inside the furnace should comply with all preset parameters within
entire space of the furnace. It means that the nozzles should be designed in a way
assuring the best possible mixing of the air in the furnace.
2. Stream of blown air should be oriented in direction not causing any local cooling
down of the heated blanks.
To verify if required conditions are fulfilled, a suitable computer aided simulations
of the air blowing process into the furnace have been performed. Results of these
simulations are: lines of airstream in the furnace, temperature distribution of the blanks,
and values and distribution of the pressure.
3 CAD Model and Discrete Model of Chamber

of the Furnace Prepared for Needs of the CFD Simulation
For needs of the simulation it has been prepared a suitable CAD model of chamber of
the furnace. In the Fig. 4 is shown a solid model of chamber of the furnace with the
blanks.
Fig. 4. CAD model of chamber of the furnace

In the Fig. 5 is presented a discrete model of analyzed chamber of the furnace.

Internal space of the chamber has been discretized using elements of polyhedra type.
These are elements created in the Fluent processor on the base of generated earlier
mesh with tetragonal FEM elements. Conversion to mesh of the polyhedra type has
enabled reduction of quantity of the FEM elements to about 5,8 million (initially about
8 million). It has been implemented the mesh with variable size of the FEM elements.
Density of the mesh was suitably increased in areas of the air inlet and outlet.
Fig. 5. Discrete model of chamber of the furnace
In the Fig. 6 are presented boundary conditions of the calculation model. The dry
air having ambient temperature is blown with total volumetric flow rate 30 m3/h into
the furnace through eight pipes located on three walls of the furnace. The furnace is
heated by resistance-type heaters having temperature equal to 960 °C.
Fig. 6. Boundary conditions of the model of chamber of the furnace

The model constructed in such way was used in the calculations performed with use
of the Ansys-Fluent system. The transient scheme with 1 s calculation step has been
used, making use of the pressure-velocity coupling method. The SST zonal model was
used to description of turbulence, while the Discrete Ordinates model was used to
description of radiation.
4 Results of the Analysis
Results of the CFD analysis of the furnace are: lines of air velocity in the furnace and
distribution of temperature of heated blanks. In the Fig. 7(a) are presented lines of air
velocity in chamber of the furnace. Making analysis of the Fig. 7(a) it is possible to see
that increased motion of the air occurs in frontal part of the chamber. The air doesn’t
mix uniformly.
a) b)
Fig. 7. (a) Lines of air velocity in chamber of the furnace, m/sec, (b) Distribution of temperature
of blanks in the furnace (K)
It results in excessive cooling of the blanks in area where increased movement of

the air occurs. Distribution of temperature of the blanks is presented in the Fig. 7(b). In
such areas there are regions on the blanks cooler by about 40 K, comparing to other
blanks. This could be a reason of technological problems in the PHS process.
To prevent phenomenon of undercooling of the blanks, shape of the rear nozzles,
blowing the air into chamber of the furnace has been changed. In the first design
solution the nozzle blowing the dry air had shape of tube. In the modified design
solution, the ending of the tube was blinded and 6 holes have been drilled on cir-
cumference of the tube to blow the dry air (Fig. 8) .
The model corrected in such way had underwent repeated analysis. Discrete model
was constructed in the same way as in the first case. Boundary conditions were
identical.
Fig. 8. Changed shape of the nozzles
5 Results of the Analysis of Corrected Model
Results of the CFD analysis of the new design solution are: lines of air velocity in the
furnace and distribution of temperature of heated blanks. In the Fig. 9(a) are shown
lines of air velocity in the furnace. Making analysis of the Fig. 9(a) it is possible to
notice more uniform motion of the air inside entire volume of the chamber. Such shape
of the nozzles results in more uniform motion of the air inside chamber of the furnace.
More uniform heating of the blanks in chamber of the furnace has been also noticed;
and phenomenon of undercooling in some regions of the blanks, resulted from blowing
of big quantities of dry but relatively cool air was eliminated.
a) b)
Fig. 9. (a) Lines of air velocity in chamber of the furnace, m/s, (b) Distribution of temperature of
blanks in the furnace in K, after change of shape of the nozzles
Making analysis of the Fig. 9 and comparing it with the Fig. 7 it is possible to see
that change in shape of the nozzles resulted in a considerable improvement in heating
uniformity of the blanks in the furnace (differences do not exceed 2 K) – what can have
significant effect on later technology of the hot-stamping.
6 Conclusions
Making use of systems to the CDF analysis is very helpful in complex approach to
development of systems controlling humidity in the furnaces. Owing to the CDF
analysis it was possible to verify effects of humidity controlling systems on heating of
the blanks (uniformity of temperature distribution) in chambers of the furnaces. Shape
of the nozzles blowing dry air into chamber of the furnace was changed is result of
simulations presented in this paper; also more uniform heating of the blanks in chamber
of the furnace was obtained.
Scheme of the proceeding, as proposed and described in this paper, has been
positively verified within industrial practice.
References
1. Karbasian H, Tekkaya AE (2010) A review on hot stamping. J Mater Process Technol
210:2103–2118
2. Kim Hye-Jin, Jeon Soon-Hyeok, Yang Won-Seog, Yoo Byung-Gil, Chung Yoo-Dong, Ha
Heon-Young, Chung Hyun-Young (2018) Effects of titanium content on hydrogen
embrittlement susceptibility of hot-stamped boron steels. J Alloy Compd 735:2067–2080
3. Lin L, Li BS, Zhu GM, Kang YL, Liu RD (2017) Effect of niobium precipitation behavior on
microstructure and hydrogen induced cracking of press hardening steel 22MnB5. Mater Sci
Eng
4. Koyama M, Akiyama E, Lee YK, Raabe D, Tsuzaki K (2017) Overview of hydrogen
embrittlement in high-Mn Steels. Int J Hydrog Energy 42:12706–12723
5. Birnbaum HK (1988) Mechanisms of hydrogen–related fracture of metals. In: Proceeding of
the international conference on environment-induced cracking of metals, national association
of corrosion engineers, Houston, Texas, USA, s. 21–29
6. Janka RM, Pietkun I, Pietrov L. i Pietrzak R (2006) Effect of electrolic hydrogenation on
corrosion properties of steels. Zesz. Nauk. Uniwersytetu Opolskiego, Nauki techniczne, Ser.
Inżynieria Procesowa w Ochronie Środowiska, 23, 95–101
7. Mori K, Bariani PF, Behrens B-A, Brosius A, Bruschi S, Maeno T, Merklein M,
Yanagimoto J (2017) Hot stamping of ultra-high strength steel parts. CIRP Ann Manuf
Technol 66:755–777
8. Ansys-Fluent help
Kinematic Design of the Drilling Rig Boom
Sławomir Wudarczyk, Jacek Bałchanowski, and Jarosław Szrek(&)

{slawomir.wudarczyk,jacek.balchanowski,
jaroslaw.szrek}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. Drilling rigs are widely used in mining and road tunnel construction.
An important requirement for these machines is maintain the drill orientation
constantly parallel to the main axis of the machine. In the work the problems of
designing the kinematics of the drill boom mechanisms are considered. The
paper presents selected aspects of designing the kinematics of the boom. For the
representative solution the results were verified by simulations in the multibody
system.
1 Introduction
The basic method of excavations drilling as well as road tunnels construction in mining
industry is the blasting method. It essentially consists in making numerous deep holes
in the rock, then placing explosives in them, which are detonated. The holes drilling is
a very important part of the whole tunnel construction process. The proper process of
drilling requires the use of specialized machines – drilling rigs. The wide range of
solutions offered on the market results from the specific application of these devices
[5]. A common requirement for all these types of machines is the ability to drill holes
so that their axes are parallel. The fulfillment of this criterion requires the use of an
appropriate boom kinematics. It must enable a working mode of straight line mecha-
nism, which ensure the maintenance of the drill axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the machine for each point of the working space. Failure to meet this criterion causes
the walls of the hollowed corridors to be very uneven. The consequence for the mining
industry is a greater percentage of rock in excavated material that not contain the
wanted raw material. This entails additional costs for the separation of crushed rocks
(output material). Obtaining the smoothest walls is particularly important in the con-
struction of road or rail tunnels. The process of removing unevenness of tunnel walls is
very expensive.
2 The Kinematic Schemes of the Booms
Drilling rigs offered on the market have an identical solution of the boom itself, at the
end of which the drill frame is placed. On the other hand, they differ significantly in the
mechanisms that excites the movement in rotational joints. The most commonly used
simplified solutions are presented in Fig. 1.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_97
Kinematic Design of the Drilling Rig Boom 837
Fig. 1. Different types of booms commonly used in mining drilling rigs
The common feature of all solutions is that element 1 is connected rotationally to

the main body 0. Relative to the machine 0 it can perform rotation among the vertical
axis in joint A. The other end of element 1 is connected to the boom via rotational joint
B, which axis remains horizontal. The axes of these two revolute joints are mutually
perpendicular, but they do not intersect. The swivel 4 is connected in the analogous
way to the boom (via element 3) at its distal end. Another possible movement is a
rotation among two perpendicular and non-intersecting axes relative to the boom 2 (C
and D joints). The boom has two DOF relative to the machine frame and swivel relative
to boom has also two DOF. The kinematic excitations in four rotational joints are
realized by means of appropriate hydraulic actuators P1, S1, P2, S2 (Fig. 1). In the
kinematic manner, the mechanisms that change the orientation of the swivel are similar
to those responsible for changing the orientation of the boom. An additional rotation of
the drill frame (joint O) among the longitudinal axis of the swivel is intended to
increase the working space of the rig and prevent from collision between the moving
parts during operation.
In order to facilitate the work of the operator in drilling rigs, so called straight-line
mechanism mode is used. It consists in the orientation change of the boom 2, that
entails simultaneously the orientation change of the swivel 4 axis in order to keep the
constant orientation of this axis in relation to the body 0. In order to meet this criterion
the change of swivel 4 orientation actuators length (P2, S2) must be coupled with the
change in length of the corresponding boom orientation actuators (P1, S1). The motion
correlation of representative pairs of actuators coupling is realized by hydraulic system.
The condition for the correct operation of the drilling rig according to kinematics is the
appropriate selection of dimensions corresponding to orientation change of the swivel
and the boom.
The main difference in the kinematic systems already applied is the excitation of
rotational movements of its individual elements using hydraulic actuators. In the case
of the boom in Fig. 1a, the excitation of the movement in the joint A (boom slew) is
realized by changing the length of the S1 actuator. While excitation of the movement
the joint B (lifting of the boom) is realized by changing the length of the actuator P1.
838 S. Wudarczyk et al.
The same principle works for the orientation change of the swivel mechanisms. In the
scheme shown in Fig. 1b, the boom orientation mechanism has two identical branches
(parallel mechanism) [7], symmetrically embedded in the machine body and the boom.
A characteristic feature of this solution is that only slew or lift of the boom requires
changing the length of both actuators (P1 and S1) at the same time. An analogous
situation occurs when the orientation of the swivel is changed. The boom shown in
Fig. 1c has a kinematically simpler structure of the boom and the swivel 4 orientation
change mechanisms. Excitations in rotational joints are implemented by actuators
which ends are connected to the adjacent parts. The kinematic analysis of this boom
solution is the subject of this work.
3 Kinematic Analysis of the Rig’s Boom
The kinematic scheme of the boom subjected to detailed kinematic analysis is pre-
sented in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. The kinematic scheme the drilling rig’s boom mechanism: 0 - the machine body, 1 - an
intermediate element, 2 - the boom, 3 - swivel connector, 4 - swivel, 5 - the frame of the rig, P1
– boom lift actuator, P2 – swivel lift actuator, S1 – the boom torsion actuator, S2 – the swivel
torsion actuator
Excitation of the movement in the joint A is caused by the change of actuator S1

length (boom slew), while exaction of the motion in the joint B is realized by the
change of the length of the actuator P1 (lifting and lowering the boom). At the distal
end of the boom in terms of the kinematic scheme there is an analogous mechanism.
Rotation in the joint C is excited by the change in length of the actuator P2 (tilting the
swivel). However, the turn of the swivel (rotation in joint D) is realized by change of
the S2 actuator length.
Defining the basic dimensions is determined by the assumption that the mechanism
of the boom operates in the hydraulic straight line mode [3]. In the designed kinematic
system of the drill’s boom it is required that the drill axis ow should be parallel to the
axis of the machine om. The condition of such a mechanism operation is an appropriate
selection of basic dimensions and kinematic excitations [1]. The way that chosen
straight line hydraulic mechanism operates is presented in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. The principle of the hydraulic straight line mechanism operation (a) when lifting the
boom, (b) when the pivoting boom
During the extension of the actuator Pl (lifting the boom) the hydraulic oil from
above the piston is pumped into the piston cylinder P2 causing proportional elongation.
During the lowering of the boom, the process is reversed. However the correlation
between the S1 (boom’s slew) and S2 (swivel’s pivot) actuator movement has a dif-
ferent character. It resulted due to the fact that the pivot actuators are located on the
same side of the boom. During the extension of the actuator Sl the hydraulic oil from
the chamber above the piston is pumped beneath the piston cylinder S2 causing pro-
portional abbreviation. The result is an opposite angle change in joint C in relation to
the angle change in joint D. The hydraulic coefficients fp, fs, form the basis for the
geometrical synthesis of the boom mechanisms working in a straight line mode
(Fig. 3).
In the first place the theoretical movement description of the boom, which the main
objective was to determine the working space for the drilling rig, for the given length of
the boom and maximal pivoting and lifting angles, was elaborated. A Denavit-
Hartenberg method was used for this purpose [4]. In order to make the description
independent from the dimensions of the drill frame and the angle of its rotation in the
joint O, a theoretical point O on the part 4 (swivel axis - DO) has been added. The local
cartesian coordinate systems and other symbols necessary for a description of mech-
anism configurations are presented in Fig. 4
This approach allows to describe the coordinates of the point O and axis orientation
of the swivel 4 in the global coordinate system (x0, y0, z0) - in the function of
dimensions and kinematic excitations [6], corresponding to the Fig. 4.
Describing the position of the O point located on the swivel 4, the coordinates can
be defined as follows:
Fig. 4. Chosen coordinate systems used in kinematic description (actuators are skipped)
0
rO ¼ 0 A4 4 rO ¼ 0 A1 1 A2 2 A3 3 A4 4 rO ð1Þ
where:
i
rO, – position vector of the O point in i-th coordinate system.
i
Aj – transformation matrix from j-th system to i-th system.
and:
0 T T
0
rO ¼ xO 0 yO 0 z O 1 ; 4 rO ¼ 4 xO 4 yO 4 z O 1
2 3 2 3
cos a1 sin a1 0 0 cos a2 sin a2 0 AB
6 sin a 7
cos a1 0 0 7 1 6 1 7
6 1 6 0 0 0 7
0
A1 ¼ 6 7; A2 ¼ 6 7;
4 0 0 1 0 5 4 sin a2 cos a2 0 0 5
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
2 3 2 3
cos a3 sin a3 0 BC cos a4 sin a4 0 CD
6 sin a cos a3 7 6 0 7
6 3 0 0 73 6 0 0 1 7
2
A3 ¼ 6 7 A4 ¼ 6 7;
4 0 0 1 0 5 4 sin a4 cos a4 0 0 5
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
After transformation 0A4 can be enrolled:

0
A4 ¼ ½ A B ð2Þ
Where (s = sin, c = cos):

2 3
cða1 Þcða4 Þcða2 þ a3 Þ sða1 Þsða4 Þ cða1 Þsða4 Þcða2 þ a3 Þ sða1 Þcða4 Þ
6 sða Þcða Þcða þ a Þ þ cða Þsða Þ sða1 Þsða4 Þcða2 þ a3 Þ þ cða1 Þcða4 Þ 7
6 1 4 2 3 1 4 7
A¼6 7
4 sða2 þ a3 Þcða4 Þ sða2 þ a3 Þsða4 Þ 5
0 0
2 3
cða1 Þsða2 þ a3 Þ ðAB þ BCcða2 Þ þ CDcða2 þ a3 ÞÞcða1 Þ
6 sða Þsða þ a Þ ðAB þ BCcða2 Þ þ CDcða2 þ a3 ÞÞsða1 Þ 7
6 1 2 3 7
B¼6 7
4 c ð a2 þ a3 Þ BCsða2 Þ þ CDsða2 þ a3 Þ 5
0 1
When the actuator attachment points are adopted as starting and ending points of
the linear excitation vector, and thus the actuator as a vector (P1, P2, S1, S2), its
components can be described as follows:
P1 ¼ 1 rF 1 rE ¼ 1 A2 2 rF 1 rE ð3Þ
P2 ¼ 2 rH 2 rG ¼ 2 A3 3 rH 2 rG ð4Þ
S1 ¼ 0 rL 0 rK ¼ 0 A1 1 rL 0 rK ð5Þ
S2 ¼ 3 rN 3 rM ¼ 3 A4 4 rN 3 rM ð6Þ
where:
i
rJ, – vector of the actuator mounting point J in i-th coordinate system.
i
Aj – transformation matrix from j-th system to i-th system.
Assuming that the boom is working in the straight-line mechanism mode, the
provided mathematical description allows to specify the working space of the drilling
rig. Secondly, for specific maximal angles of lifting and pivoting the boom, it allows to
choose the mounting points of the actuators [2]. Determination of the mounting points
of the actuators responsible for the swivel orientation was made based on the knowl-
edge of the proportionality factors fP and fs (Fig. 3).
Theoretical analyzes carried out on the basis of the completed mathematical
description of kinematics allow to state that the ideal lifting straight line can be
obtained. The necessary condition is to maintain similar triangles of EBF and HCG
(Fig. 2) with a scale equal to the hydraulic factor (fP). On the other hand, in the case of
the straight line mechanism pivot, the condition of the similarity between the triangles
KAL and NDM (Fig. 2) cannot be ensured for the entire range of motion. This means
that the straight line mechanism pivot can only be implemented in an approximate way.
The magnitude of this error can be minimized by optimization.
4 Numerical Model of the Rig’s Boom
In order to verify the conducted theoretical analysis, an exemplary rig’s boom solid
model in accordance with the kinematic scheme presented in Fig. 2 was built in the
multibody dynamics system - ADAMS. View of the model is presented in Fig. 5. The
main dimensions necessary for model construction are: AB = 0.2 m, BC = 0.2 m,
CD = 0.2 m, DE = 0.2 m (marking assumed as in Fig. 2). These dimensions should be
considered as an example.
Fig. 5. A view of the boom model at an example position
The extension velocity of the lift and pivot actuators was adopted in accordance to
the assumed hydraulic coefficients (fP = 0.5, fS = −0.75). In the first stage of simula-
tion research, the change of the boom’s lifting and pivoting angles was investigated and
the working space was determined. The orientation of the swivel was checked for
various motions in two planes - vertical and horizontal. The measured angle change of
the swivel in the horizontal and vertical planes as a function of the boom’s pivot angle
is presented in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. The deviation of the swivel axis in the horizontal and vertical plane
The simulation research allows to state that after adopting the appropriate geo-
metrical quantities for the assumed kinematic scheme of the drilling rig’s boom, a fixed
orientation of the swivel axis in the vertical plane can be obtained. Otherwise like the
situation in the horizontal plane. In this case it is not possible to obtain a constant
orientation of swivel axis. The error rate of the straight-lineless is a function of the
boom’s angle. However, the error in the pivoting plane can be minimalized so that its
value remains at an acceptable level.
The simulation research regarding the boom’s kinematics confirmed the validity of
previous theoretical considerations. The presented design approach allows to take into
account the influence of uncontrolled deviation of the drill axis in the horizontal plane
at the early stage of designing process. The description can be used in a simple way to
limit this disadvantageous feature. The error rate of the parallel of axes (om and ow)
remains at an acceptable level. The easiest way to obtain a theoretically perfect pivot of
the straight line mechanism is to place the pivoting actuators on an opposite sides of the
boom. As in the case of boom lifting mechanisms. The problem is that such a solution
requires significant structural changes in the currently used boom type.
When designing the basic dimensions of a drilling rig’s kinematic system, one must
be aware of the multitude of structural and technological constraints. It should be
emphasized that the dynamic and mechanical properties of the boom are also important
in the drilling rig’s operation. They constitute a significant limitations for obtaining the
optimal solution of the drilling rig’s boom operating in the straight line mechanism
mode. For these reasons, some deviations from the parallelism of the swivel axis for
various points of the working space should often accepted.
References
1. Bałchanowski J (2016) General method of structural synthesis of parallel mechanisms. Arch
Civ Mech Eng 16(3):256–268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2015.11.002
2. Bałchanowski J, Szrek J, Wudarczyk S (2017) Kinematic aspects of the drilling ring boom
design, Mechanika. In: Proceedings of the 22nd international scientific conference. Kaunas
University of Technology, Kaunas, pp 27–31
3. Gronowicz A (2003) Basics of Analysis of Kinematic Systems (in Polish), Oficyna
Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław, Poland
4. Knapczyk J, Morecki A (1999) The basics of robotics WNT, Warszawa (in Polish)
5. Pieczonka K (2007) Engineering work machines, volume 1: mining base, driving, lifting and
rotation (in Polish), Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław, Poland
6. Trochimczuk R (2013) Conception of arm of medical robot dedicated to application of
minimally invasive surgery. In: Solid state phenomena, vol 198, pp 3–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.
4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.198.3
7. Tsai LW (1999) Robot analysis. The mechanics and parallel manipulators. Wiley, New York
Modeling of Energy Recovery from Lowering
the Fork Carriage Using the Adams System
P. Zajac(&) and S. Kwasniowski
Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

27 Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego St.; 50-370, Wroclaw, RP, Poland
{pawel.zajac,stanislaw.kwasniowski}@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract. The paper discusses a model of energy consumption of a forklift

equipped with an innovative fork carriage lifting system. This solution is pro-
tected by patent right [16] and may be employed in typical forklifts. The concept
of recovering potential energy in the forklift’s lifting mechanism is effected by
employing ball screw instead of a hydraulic actuator with chain strand. This
solution ensures the best conditions for recuperation and allows to extend the
machine’s battery life without a need for loading. Hereinafter presented is a
three-dimensional model developed with the use of Autodesk Inventor, as well
as a simulation of that solution developed in MSC Adams program. The prin-
ciple and the conditions required for that solution were determined. The amount
of recovered energy is dependent on the potential energy of the lowered load
and the energy recovery efficiency. This issue will be subject to further work.
Keywords: Forklift trucks Modeling Logistics warehouse systems
1 Introduction
The idea of utilizing the energy from lowering loads in forklifts has been used for
several years. The existing solutions are based on recovering energy from the hydraulic
system through the use of the energy of hydraulic medium’s pressure to drive the
engine/alternator by hydraulic motor. These devices, due to their complex design,
generate energetic losses. The efficiency of those systems is not very high. The pro-
posed system seems to be more beneficial in this regard. Such mechanism was
employed in the forklift mast in the [16] patent, Fig. 1a (Fig. 2).
In both cases it was assumed that the fork carriage lifting mechanism is based on an
asynchronous electrical engine. Energy recovery is effected with the use of engine 1
(Fig. 3a) which periodically performs a generator function. Both direct current, as well
as alternate current electrical motors have such capability. The system is designed in
the view of installing on a mobile device, hence direct current motors were excluded
from further consideration due to high costs and their much larger mass compared to
alternating current motors of the same capacity. Three operating states of the engine are
distinguished: if 0 < s < 1, the drive is in engine mode. By drawing electrical energy,
the engine creates a spinning magnetic field in the stator. Thanks to the induction
phenomena, torque acts on the impeller’s circuits, causing the shaft to turn. If s > 1, the
drive operates in braking mode, also called natural braking. This means that the shaft

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_98
Modeling of Energy Recovery from Lowering 845
Fig. 1. a) energy recovery in a system with ball screw, where: 1. mast, 2–3. screw bearing, 4.
ball nut, 5. carriage, 6. Ball screw, 7. Engine/generator/battery/supercapacitor assembly; b)
energy recovery in a system with actuator, where: 1. mast, 2. chain wheel, 3. lifting chain, 4.
carriage, 5. actuator, 6. hydraulic pump, 7. Engine/generator/battery/supercapacitor assembly
rotates in direction opposite to the torque produced by the motor. The motor coun-
teracts the load, converting mechanical energy to heat. Excessively long braking
operation without the use of an additional cooling system may cause damage to the
motor, which is a disadvantage of this state. If s < 0, the drive begins to work as a
generator. Despite that, it continues to draw electrical energy from the source in order
to maintain the whirling magnetic field. For s = 0 slip, the motor does not generate
torque, therefore it is not possible for it to enter this state independently. In order to
switch it to it, external torque for driving the shaft is needed; its mechanical energy is
then converted to electro-motoric force that reaches the source. This phenomenon is
utilized in this case.
The recovered energy originates from a ball screw driven by a nut loaded with the
fork carriage weight QK and load QL – see Fig. 2b. Usually, manufacturers specify the
values of starting, critical and nominal torques.
Mpr ¼ Msr g ð1Þ
At a minor error, the portion of the diagram may be approximated where the slip s
assumes values 1 0, as a fixed function of value equaling the value of arithmetic
average of critical torque and starting torque. A similar simplification was made at the
second stage. It was assumed that the motor produces torque equal to half of the critical
torque. The system’s operation consists of two stages: carriage lifting and lowering.
When lifting the carriage, electrical energy stored in the battery and in the superca-
pacitor is transformed at the inverter to three-phase alternating current (Fig. 4a) which
supplies the electrical motor. At the motor, by way of induction, electrical energy is
converted to mechanical energy in the form of rotating motion. The transmission gives
the screw adequate rotating speed. Then, the nut transforms rotating speed to linear
movement of the carriage, causing the carriage to lift. The lifting consists of three
stages: a, b, c. Stage a: starting the lifting, when the inverter begins to control the
846 P. Zajac and S. Kwasniowski
Fig. 2. a) Induction motor characteristics - M = f(n); b) driving force of fork carriage
motor, maintaining constant U/f rate. At the same time, the electromagnetic brake on
the motor’s shaft is disengaged. The carriage accelerates until the engine reaches
working point; Stage b: carriage lifting at uniform movement and predefined speed;
Stage c: slowing down until stopping: the receiving of signal from limit switch causes
the brake to engage and decelerate until stopping. The carriage is lowered in the same
way, except that the motor must rotate at over synchronous speed for the generator
function to work. This stems from the fact that, in this case, the weight is not a load but
an additional source of kinematic energy. For the induction motor’s generator function
to work properly, it must be constantly connected to a supply. Otherwise, the whirling
magnetic field will fail to generate at the stator, and induction will not occur. Electrical
energy is drawn from the source until reaching synchronous speed, and then the motor
simultaneously draws passive energy and returns active energy resulting from the
applied torque. The amount of passive energy drawn by the motor is not large, hence a
large portion of the amount of energy used for lifting the carriage is recovered. This
capacity of the system will be tested through an experiment to check the energy drawn
or returned by the motor and to test the voltage at battery terminals. The voltage will be
highest before lifting the load, lowest upon achieving nominal height, and should reach
an intermediate value after lowering with recovery.
Fig. 3. a) Stand diagram: 1. Induction motor, 2. DC/AC converter 3f, 3. Current measuring
instrument, 4. Supercapacitor, 5. Battery, 6. Planetary gear, 7. Clutch, 8. Forklift, 9. PLC, 10. B,
11. Brake Incremental encoder, 12. Computer; b) axonometric view
2 Simulation of the System in MSC Adams 2014 Software
The main element is the frame – Fig. 3b. The gear, upper bearing and guides are affixed
to it. Also, the screw is fixed to them through rotating joints. In order to reduce the
number of elements, the carriage, joint and forklift with nut were treated as one ele-
ment. The nut is joined with the screw with a screw joint. The joint’s parameters are:
screw pitch (20 mm) and friction (0,01). Ready-made drive was applied with the use of
a function available in the program. Asynchronous motor of power 1.5 kW and syn-
chronous speed 3000 RPM was chosen. Load of total weight of assumed 500 kg was
placed on the carriage forks.
Height [mm]
t (s)
velocity
[turn a second]
t (s)
Torque
t (s)
Fig. 4. Results of the simulation of changes in altitude in time, speed and moment
The simulation was divided into two parts: lifting and lowering. For lifting, the
forks carriage was positioned at 0 mm height. Upon the simulation start, the motor is
activated to propel the system. The rotating speed of the screw increases until the motor
reaches working point. The moment of working point stabilization is illustrated in
Fig. 5a, b, on which the passage through critical slip at which the torque is maximal
can be observed. The lifting simulation took 10.853 s, the screw’s rotating speed
stabilized at 100 mm/s, and the motor power is 1.5 kW. Height, motor speed and
torque curves will be furnished by the authors in correspondence.
Fig. 5. Definition of energy recovery zone
For lowering, the simulation starts from the moment in which the model was upon
completing the lifting simulation. The direction of rotations on the motor was changed
in order to enable the generator function. At the beginning, the motor was applying
torque that was consistent with the direction of screw rotation. Thus, synchronous
operation was obtained much faster than in case of lifting. After the motor started work
at over synchronous speed obtained with the help of gravity, the torque assumed
direction opposite to the screw torque, until rotating speed stabilized at 360 RPM,
which is 20% higher compared to lowering. The duration of lowering was 8.472 s. The
working point was stabilized immediately after beginning the lowering.
3 Conclusions
In order to assess the effectiveness of use of potential energy recovery in a forklift with
the use of the subject solution, the so-called minimum lifting height H for which
recovery occurs must be determined based on the motor’s driving characteristics. The
use of this solution is more effective than the hydraulic drive employed at present.
The acceleration and braking zones will be similar and not dependent on lifting
height H. The higher lifting height H will be, the larger, i.e. longer recuperation of
potential energy the recovery phase h will enable. From the initial test results it may be
concluded that the largest amount of electrical energy in time (as shown in the example
simulation) of 8.4 s may be accumulated in a supercapacitor battery.
References
1. Czmochowski J, Gorski A, Paduchowicz M, Rusinski E (2012) Diagnostic method of
measuring hanger rods tension forces in the suspension of the power boilers combustion
chamber. J Vibroengineering 14(1):129–134
2. Derlukiewicz D, Karlinski J, Iluk A (2010) The operator protective structures testing for
mining machines. In: Mechatronic systems and materials: materials production technologies.
Series: solid state phenomena, vol 165, pp 256–261
3. Karlinski J, Ptak M, Dzialak P (2014) Strength analysis of bus superstructure according to
regulation. no. 66 of UN/ECE, Arch Civ Mech Eng 14(3):342–353
4. Karlinski J, Ptak M, Dzialak P (2016) The approach to mining safety improvement: accident
analysis of an underground machine operator. Arch Civ Mech Eng 16(3):503–512
5. Kosobudzki M, Stanco M (2016) The experimental identification of torsional angle on a
load-carrying truck frame during static and dynamic tests. Maint Reliab 18(2):85–290. http://
dx.doi.org/10.17531/ein.2016.2.17
6. Kosobudzki M (2014) The use of acceleration signal in modeling process of loading an
element of underframe of high mobility wheeled vehicle. Maint Reliab 16(4):595–599
7. Paduchowicz M, Gorski A, Czmochowski J, Rusinski E (2012) Numerical and experimental
identification of vibration convection chamber of fluid power boiler. J Vibroengineering 14
(1):151–156
8. Rusinski E, Iluk A, Stanco M (2016) Innovative simulation systems. In: Nawrat A,
Jedrasiak K (eds) Springer Corporation, Cham, pp 217–230
9. Zajac P (2015) Ecoproduction, environmental issues in logistics and manufacturing. In:
Evaluation method of energy consumption in logistic warehouse systems, pp 145–158.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22044-4
10. Zajac P (2011) The idea of the model of evaluation of logistics warehouse systems with
taking their energy consumption under consideration. Arch Civ Mech Eng 11(2):479–492.
http://www.acme.pwr.wroc.pl/repository/329/online.pdf
11. Zajac P, Kwasniowski S (2017) Modeling forklift truck movement in the VDI cycle and the
possibility of energy recovery. In: Fuis V (ed) 23rd International conference on engineering
mechanics, May 15–18, 2017. Brno University of Technology, Brno, Svratka, Czech
Republic, pp 1094–1097. http://www.engmech.cz/im/doc/EM2017_proceedings_all.pdf
12. Zajac P, Kwasniowski S (2017) Reliability of automatic identification systems in logistics
systems. In: Fuis V (ed) 23rd International conference engineering mechanics, Book of full
texts, May 15–18, 2017. Brno University of Technology, Corporation, Svratka, Czech
Republic, Brno, pp 1098–1101. ISSN 1805–8248
13. http://www.engmech.cz/im/doc/EM2017_proceedings_all.pdf
14. Zajac P, Kwasniowski S (2017) Zero energy buildings in the logistics warehouse systems.
In: Kaźmierczak B (ed) International conference on advances in energy systems and
environmental engineering (ASEE17), July 2–5, 2017. EDP Sciences, 2017. art. 000198,
Poland, pp 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20172200198
15. Kwasniowski S, Zajac P (2017) Method of assessment of energy consumption of forklifts in
warehouses with specific operating conditions. In: Rusinski E, Pietrusiak D (eds) Proceedings
of the 13th international scientific conference computer aided engineering. Lecture notes in
mechanical engineering. Springer Corporation, pp 303–312. ISSN 2195–4356. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-319-50938-9_31
16. Kierzkowski A, Kwasniowski S, Zajac M, Zajac P Patent Polska, nr 227089, Układ
napędowy z odzyskiem energii karetki wideł wózka widłowego. http://pubserv.uprp.pl/
PublicationServer/generuj_dokument.php?plik=PL_000000000227089_B1_PDF
Modeling of the Energy Consumption
of a Forklift Truck Using the Matlab Simulink
System
P. Zajac1(&) and P. Skorupski2

1
Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 27 Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego
st.; 50-370, Wroclaw, RP, Poland
pawel.zajac@pwr.edu.pl
2
Daicel Safety Systems Europe, Strefowa st. 6, 58-130, Zarow, RP, Poland
Abstract. Forklifts used in warehouse logistics systems are used for reloading
and/or handling works. This paper discusses the subject of handling work, i.e.
the overcoming of straight routes by forklifts, with load placed on its forks, or
without load, in alleys (corridors) arranged around storage racks. After col-
lecting or putting the cargo away, they must reach the reloading terminal or
other operating places in the warehouse, and then they have to make another
turn left or right. These turns are usually sharp, at a 90° angle. The calculations
in the paper were performed at time-minimized travels, with the use of Matlab
Simulink package.
Keywords: Forklift trucks Modeling Logistics warehouse systems
1 Introduction
Three-wheeled forklifts (the reason for selecting three-wheeled forklifts is discussed in

[1, 10]), with electric drive are used in warehouses for storing unit packages, such as
euro pallets. These warehouses are of typical design, comprise of a reloading front that
is used for accepting goods for storage and issuing goods from the pallets warehouse.
Moreover, there is a stack-away place for pallets that may be situated on the floor or on
storage racks. Usually, the proper utilization of storage space is taken into considera-
tion by the designers; stack-away places for pallets on racks, and a parking spot for the
forklift are organized. A forklift is usually used for handling pallets (of weight about
300–500 kg) from a reloading front to the rack, and the other way round. Racks are
usually positioned to form a sort of long alleys (i.e. corridors) of width enabling the
crossing of forklifts, or - depending on the situation - even their passing by. The ISO
Standard (power efficiency) commonly applied in the European Union requires engi-
neering tasks to be solved in such way that the equipment does not over-consume
energy, in order to prevent waste. Due to this fact, the article’s authors were curious
how the shape of the handling routes (the alley on which the forklift is driving) impacts
energy consumption of the forklifts [2, 3, 9]. At present, it is common to search for
methods that would allow for more effective use of forklifts by applying equipment that
increases the level of friction between the forks and the pallet (with the pallet made of:

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_99
852 P. Zajac and P. Skorupski
wood, plastic, steel sheet) [2]. The effect of these efforts would be increasing the
forklift speed, which translates into efficiency. However, would such large number of
turns not spoil the effect?
2 Calculations of Resistance of Forklift Movement During

Turning
In order to calculate the turning resistance for an unloaded and loaded forklift, the
position of its center of gravity must be determined. The distribution of forces acting on
an unloaded forklift is presented in Fig. 1 in the form of a beam [4, 8, 13]. The same,
for a loaded forklift, is presented on Fig. 2.
Momentary
center of rotation
Fig. 1. Distribution of powers acting on an empty forklift while turning, and position of the
center of gravity.
Additional turning
resistance
Fig. 2. Center of gravity position on loaded forklift, and the distribution of acting forces.
Modeling of the Energy Consumption of a Forklift 853
The forklift’s mass was determined using a total of loads on the front and rear axis:
where: mŁ is the mass of loaded forklift, mp is the load on the forklift’s front axis, mT is
the load on the forklift’s rear axis.
ð1Þ
The distance from the center of gravity may be calculated by the using rear axis
pressure formula (2), where RT means pressure on the rear axis of a loaded forklift, G is
the forklift weight, b’ is the distance of the center of gravity from the forklift’s front
axis, and a + b is the forklift axis wheelbase [5, 8, 12].
G b0
RT ¼ ½N ð2Þ
aþb
Wskrpr ¼ Wturncentrif þ Wturnr ½N ð3Þ
In the formula for (3) total turning resistance of an unloaded forklift, Wturncentrif is
turning resistance resulting from centrifugal force, while Wturnr – is turning resistance
resulting from the rolling of wheels on the floor. Apart from the existing turning
resistance, the forklift’s turning also causes the emergence of additional resistance
resulting from drilling resistance, which is approximately equal to rolling resistance,
hence, in order to obtain the final value of resistance acting during the forklift’s turning,
a value equal to rolling resistance must be added.
V 2 b0
Wturnl ¼ ml ½N ð4Þ
R2p
Formula (4) expresses the turning resistance of a loaded forklift, where ml is the
mass of loaded forklift, V is the speed during turning, b0 is the distance of center of
gravity from the front axis of forklift, Rp is turning radius [6, 7, 11].
3 Model in MatlabSimulink System, Results and Discussion
Simulation calculations were made based on a model described in [7]. The paper also
presents the drawing of a forklift route, adopted according to VDI 2198 standard.
Moreover, the following assumptions were made: operator weight 75 kg, forklift load
500 kg, forklift turning radius R = 2.0[m]. The simulative calculations were made for
speeds V1 = 0.25, V2 = 0.5, V3 = 0.75, V4 = 1.0, V5 = 1.25 [m/s]. On the diagrams
presented in Fig. 3, individual speeds are color-coded: blue, orange, yellow, violet,
green. The technical specification of Jungheinrich EFG 220 forklift was assumed for
the calculations.
In addition to the rolling resistance, cornering resistance also has additional drag
resistance that is roughly equal to the rolling resistance. Before the bend, the forklift
should reduce its speed to the one at which the load on the forks does not move and the
trolley remains stable. The calculations were carried out for various cornering speeds
through a forklift.
854
P. Zajac and P. Skorupski
Fig. 3. Diagram of MatlabSimulink simulation.

a) Traction force versus distance curve b) Speed versus distance curve
c) Traction force versus time curve d) Distance versus time curve
e) Acceleration versus time curve
Fig. 4. Results of simulation in MatlabSimulink system.

856 P. Zajac and P. Skorupski
The energy of lifting the empty and load fork is only 8.5% of the energy used for
driving processes. In contrast, the energy from lifting the forks in relation to the total
energy consumed in the VDI2198 process, i.e. from the driving and lifting processes,
constitutes approx. 7.8%. The largest part of the process are driving processes and it
amounts to approx. 92.2%. “Braking energy” to “driving energy” it is 15.4% and
“braking energy” to “driving energy” and “lifting energy” is 14.2%. The tests and
calculations showed that the energy dissipated during braking is equal to approx.
54.9 kJ, which is approx. 15.4% of the energy used for the drive. However, when
comparing the braking energy to the total energy consumed in the VDI2198 process,
approx. 14.2% was obtained.
4 Conclusions
For V = 0.25 m/s forklift speed at a curve (e.g. the forklift’s turning into another
corridor at the warehouse), the time of covering the test route according to VDI 2198 is
the longest–over twice as high, which is illustrated by the route versus time function
presented in Fig. 4. The values of the other speeds do not have significant impact on
the driving time. The energy consumed, i.e. the area under the traction force curve
versus time is the longest at forklift speed of V = 1.25 m/s. With forklifts that feature a
system for recovering energy from the driving system, the braking energy before the
turn–under the curve–may be stored in the energy recovery system and then re-used
during the forklift’s acceleration following the completion of turn. In the simulative
calculations, the assumed maximum V for making the turn was 1.25 m/s, since the
centrifugal force acting on the load suspended on the forks does not cause its shifting
(friction coefficient between the pine tree plank of the pallet and the forging of the
forklift’s carriage). If the forklift does not have to perform work at the warehouse
within a so-called “time window”, a forklift without energy recovery employed in the
drive system should drive at a speed at which energy consumption is the smallest.
Responding to the question raised at the beginning of the paper, it must be stated that
the speed of a forklift at a curve does not have significant impact on the energy
consumption of loads handling.
References
1. Kwasniowski S, Zajac P (2017) Method of assessment of energy consumption of fork-lifts in
warehouses with specific operating conditions. In: Rusinski E, Pietrusiak D (eds) Proceedings
of the 13th international scientific conference computer aided engineering. Lecture notes in
mechanical engineering. Springer, Corporation, pp 303–312
2. Zajac P (2015) Evaluation method of energy consumption in logistic warehouse systems.
EcoProduction, environmental issues in logistics and manufacturing, pp 145–158. http://dx.
doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22044-4
3. Zajac P (2014) Model of forklift truck work efficiency in logistic warehouse system. In:
Golinska P (ed) EcoProduction: environmental issues in logistics and manufacturing,
pp 467–479. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07287-6_33
4. Zajac P, Kwasniowski S (2017) Modeling forklift truck movement in the VDI cycle and the
possibility of energy recovery. In: Fuis V (ed) 23rd International conference on engineering
mechanics, May 15–18, 2017, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Svratka, Czech
5. Zajac P, Kwasniowski S (2017) Reliability of automatic identification systems in logistics
systems. In: Fuis V (ed) 2017: 23rd international conference on engineering mechanics,
Book of full texts, May 15–18, 2017, Brno University of Technology, Corporation, Czech
6. Zajac P, Kwasniowski S (2017) Zero energy buildings in the logistics warehouse systems.
In: Kaźmierczak B (ed) International conference on advances in energy systems and
environmental engineering (ASEE17) Poland, July 2–5. EDP Sciences, 2017: art. 000198,
pp 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20172200198
7. Derlukiewicz D, Karlinski J, Iluk A (2010) The operator protective structures testing for
mining machines, mechatronic systems and materials: materials production technologies,
series. Solid State Phenom 165:256–261
8. Karlinski, J, Ptak M, Dzialak P (2014) Strength analysis of bus superstructure according to
Regulation. No. 66 of UN/ECE, Arch Civ Mech Eng 14(3):342–353
9. Karlinski J, Ptak M, Dzialak P (2016) The approach to mining safety improvement: Accident
analysis of an underground machine operator. Arch Civ Mech Eng 16(3):503–512
10. Kosobudzki M (2014) The use of acceleration signal in modeling process of loading an
element of underframe of high mobility wheeled vehicle. Maint Reliab 16(4):595–599
11. Jamroziak K, Kosobudzki M, Ptak J (2013) Assessment of the comfort of passenger
transport in special purpose vehicles. Maint Reliab 15(1):25–30
12. Jamroziak K, Bocian M, Kulisiewicz M (2017) Identification of a subsystem located in the
complex dynamical systems subjected to random loads. J Comput Nonlinear Dyn 12(1):1–5
13. Jamroziak K, Bocian M, Kulisiewicz M (2013) Energy consumption in mechanical systems
using a certain nonlinear degenerate model. J Theor Appl Mech 51(4):827–835
Brown Coal – Today and in the Future
Sławomir Zawada1,2(&)
1
Faculty of Economics, Management and Tourism, Department of Regional
Economy, University of Economics in Wrocław, Nowowiejska 39 St, 58-500
Jelenia Góra, Poland
slawomir.zawada@post.pl
2
Mechanical and Power Engineering Faculty/Department of Thermodynamics,
Theory of Machines and Thermal Equipment of the Wroclaw University of
Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27 St, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
Abstract. The article presents the characteristic of Polish lignite mining

industry against the European and global backdrop. Issues related to defined
limitations for the future development of the lignite mining industry have been
raised, both in terms of formal, legislative and investment aspects. Moreover, the
potential that we currently own for maintaining the strategic role of lignite in
Polish energetic mix after 2030 has been indicated. It ensures stable, socially
and environmentally friendly as well as cheap electricity for the country’s
economy and society. Therefore, the retention of potential of the lignite mining
industry after 2030 on the level 20–25% seems to be necessity rather than
possibility.
Keywords: Lignite Perspective Climate policy of the EU
1 Brown Coal as an Energy Raw Material
Brown coal (lignite) has been for decades a key factor in ensuring the country’s energy
security in Poland, guaranteeing stable levels of electricity production. It is currently
the cheapest source of primary energy, hence brown coal power plants provide about
25% of power in the National Power System and cover domestic demand for electricity
in 30–35%.
The resources of prospective deposits that are unique in the European Union, can
guarantee the fuel base for energy industry for future generations. The existing fuel and
power generation complexes using brown coal, with the Bełchatów and Turów com-
plexes at the front, are now an important guarantor of Poland’s energy security,
ensuring together with hard coal the long-term self-sufficiency of electricity production,
which is unique compared to other EU countries. At moderate prices of CO2 emission
allowances they stabilise electricity prices for domestic households and industrial
companies.
In terms of economy, the current capital structure in Poland means that the notions
of brown coal producer and electricity producer are practically not used. Such entities

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1_100
Brown Coal – Today and in the Future 859
are usually connected businesses creating large energy complexes. Such relations have
built up a competitive advantage (among others through elimination of high transaction
costs and joint management of the integrated chain of value creation from coal mining
to sale of energy on the market). Vertical integration additionally generates a chance for
further improvement of the operational economic efficiency by optimising the com-
bined activities on the electricity market and flexible adjustment to changes in the
demand for energy (Fig. 1).
Currently, brown coal mining in Poland is concentrated under the three organisa-
tional units: PGE Mining and Conventional Power Generation (PGE GiEK), Pątnów-
Adamów-Konin Power Plants (ZEPAK), and the lignite mine Sieniawa. These com-
panies have been operating on the market for several decades and their lignite resources
are gradually decreasing. Therefore, for several years efforts have been made to open
new deposits that will allow to fill the gap after the end of coal excavation in currently
operated mines. In case of PGE GiEK the efforts are aimed at obtaining two coal
mining concessions for the Złoczew and Gubin deposits, while ZE PAK focuses its
interest on the Ościsłowo deposit. These deposits are of strategic importance for these
companies.
The brown coal industry due to its resource potential, technical level and human
resources, its scientific, research and development bases developed over decades, and
the ever-increasing environmental focus of power generation based on this fuel has a
good chance of permanently inscribing into the target structure of primary energy
carriers used to generate electricity. It should be remembered that the national geo-
logical (balance) resources of brown coal amount to over 23 billion tonnes. Proper
management of this potential can provide enduring and attractive jobs for many
generations.
60.47% hard coal

brown coal
gas fuels
biogas/biomass
30.79%
liquid fuels
6.54%
2.18% 0.02%
Fig. 1. The structure of consumption of primary fuels in electric power generation industry in
2017 (own concept based on source [1])
860 S. Zawada
2 Brown Coal Mining Today

2.1 World, Europe
For years, Poland has been one of the main producers of brown coal in the world.
Despite the recorded global decline in the volume of mining, brown coal still takes a
stable position in many countries and in the European Union (EU) countries. Over 81%
of the total brown coal production in the EU is concentrated in Germany, Poland,
Greece and the Czech Republic (Table 1). Percentage share of brown coal producers in
the European Union shown Fig. 2.
Table 1. Brown coal producers in the world in years 2012–2016 [mln tonnes] (own concept
based on source [2])
Country 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
1. Germany 185,4 182,7 178,2 178,1 171,5
2. USA 71,6 70,1 72,1 64,1 66,2
3. Russia 77,3 73,7 68,9 73,2 73,7
4. Poland 64,3 65,8 63,9 63,1 60,2
5. Turkey 68,1 57,5 62,6 50,4 50,9
6. Australia 71,4 62,3 60,5 65,4 59,7
7. Greece 63,0 53,9 50,6 45,4 32,6
8. India 46,5 44,3 48,3 43,2 45,3
9. Czech Republic 43,5 40,4 38,2 38,1 38,5
10. World’s production 887,2 834,7 815,9 811,1 783,3
11. Dynamics (ref. 2012) – −52,3 −71,3 −76,1 −103,9
Hungary
Czech Rep. 2%
10%
Romania
6%
Bulgaria [NAZWA
8% KATEGORII]
371 mln Mg 46%
Greece
9%
[NAZWA
KATEGORII]
[WARTO ]%
Fig. 2. Percentage share of brown coal producers in the European Union, 2016 (own concept
2.2 Poland
Brown coal is mined in Poland in five opencast mines: Bełchatów Lignite Mine, Turów
Lignite Mine belonging to PGE GiEK, Konin and Adamów Lignite Mines belonging to
ZEPAK, and Sieniawa Lignite Mine. Annual production in Poland was between 56 and
66 million tonnes in years 2010–2017 (Fig. 3).
62.75 64.21 65.73 63.77 63.06 60.18 61.12

56.36
10.32 9.26 7.58 7.32
10.37 7.51 6.86
10.27 10.12 10.16 9.38 9.36 8.63
9.25 9.05
8.77
38.57 40.16 42.05 42.39 42.08 40.17 42.69

32.90
4.42 4.56 3.61 4.27 4.42 4.29 3.45 2.94

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Adamów Bełchatów Konin Turów Total
Fig. 3. Brown coal production in Poland in years 1991–2017 [mln tonnes] (own concept based
on source [4])
The oldest open cast mine in Poland, where mining operation began before the II
World War and continues to this day, is the Turów Brown Coal Mine. Today, the
industrial resources of the deposit in the Zittau Basin are approx. 300 million tonnes.
The main customer for the fuel is the Turów Power Plant adjacent to the mine, which
receives 97% of the extracted coal. The mining output depends on demand of the
power plant for the fuel and is currently at the level of 7 million tonnes per year. In
2015, the construction of a new power generation unit began with a capacity of approx.
496 MW, which will be the most modern unit, fully adapted to stringent environmental
requirements with a net efficiency over 43%. The capacity of the power plant after
completion of the modernisation of existing units and the construction of a new power
unit will reach around 1900 MW, and demand for coal will amount to approx.
10 million tonnes.
The largest opencast mine in Poland and one of the largest opencast mines in
Europe is today the Bełchatów Brown Coal Mine, which extracts coal with output of
40–43 million tonnes/year from the two mining fields: the Bełchatów Field and
Szczerców Field. In 2017, the mining output reached a record high value and amounted
to 42.6 million tonnes. The customer for the fuel is the Bełchatów Power Plant, whose
available power from 21st March 2017 is 5472 MW. It allows to generate electricity to
cover over 20% of Poland’s annual electricity demand.
Both mines and power plants are part of PGE GiEK, which is a leader in the brown
coal mining industry and the largest domestic producer of electricity. The production of
862 S. Zawada
electricity in PGE GiEK based mostly on brown coal (Fig. 4). Basic production data of
PGE GiEK in 2017 are shown in Table 2.
53 TWh
Fig. 4. Structure of fuel consumption in PGE GiEK in 2017 (own concept)
Table 2. Basic production data of PGE GiEK, year 2017 (own concept)
Brown coal mining Electrical power installed Net production of electricity
49.50 mln tonnes 10.7 GW 53.0 TWh
47.67 mln tonnes in 2016 10.6 GW in 2016 51.6 TWh in 2016
The remaining coal deposits for the purpose of conventional power generation are
exploited in the Konin basin region and are operated by the ZE PAK capital
group. Exploitation is currently taking place in five opencast mines: Jóźwin – Pątnów
IV deposit (annual extraction – 5.5 million tonnes/year), Drzewce (1.5 million
tonnes/year), Tomisławice (2–2.5 million tonnes/year), Adamów (3 mln tonnes/year)
and Koźmin – Pątnów III deposit (0.5 mln tonnes/year). In these opencasts the
industrial resources of coal are running out. It is anticipated that in the near future
exploitation will end in the opencasts of Koźmin and Adamów, then around 2020,
opencasts Jóźwin and Drzewce will end, while the opencast Tomisławice has resources
that allow it to operate until 2030 (Table 3). The main customers for coal are Pątnów
and Konin Power Plants. The Adamów power plant with a capacity of 600 MW has
ceased its operations, the last unit was shut down on 1st January 2018.
Table 3. List of current concessions for brown coal mining in Poland (own concept based on
source [5])
Deposit Owner of Concession Concession Industrial resources
concession issued on valid until (2016) [103 tonnes]
Adamów PAK BCM 1994-05-18 2020-05-15 9 875
Adamów
Bełchatów – PGE GiEK 1994-08-08 2026-12-31 47 472
Bełchatów field
Bełchatów – PGE GiEK 1997-10-01 2038-09-17 616 106
Szczerców field
Drzewce PAK BCM 1998-12-04 2020-12-04 9 772
Konin
Pątnów III – PAK BCM 1998-12-29 2020-12-31 7 552
Jóźwin Konin
Pątnów IV – PAK BCM 1994-08-26 2020-08-31 13 279
Koźmin Konin
Tomisławice PAK BCM 2008-02-06 2030-12-31 32 809
Konin
Turów* PGE GiEK 1994-04-27 2020-04-30 309 845
*pending change of the concession for brown coal mining, BCM – Brown Coal Mine
3 Prospects for Brown Coal Mining – Conditions

and Barriers
Brown coal resources in the currently exploited deposits enable to maintain a stable
level of mining output and operation of energy complexes only until around 2030.
Then, due to depletion of the resource base, the process of gradual extinction of
exploitation will begin. Without modernisation of the existing power generation units
and development of new deposits or the construction of new energy complexes, in
Output [million tonnes/year]
Fig. 5. Forecast of resources sufficiency in the existing complexes (own concept based on
source [6])
864 S. Zawada
2040–2045 the brown coal-based power generation capacities in Poland will com-
pletely disappear and the industry will be practically closed (Fig. 5).
The majority of the currently operating mines will use up their resources in the
perspective of 20–30 years and will be closed. The Turów lignite mine has a chance to
work for the longest time and applies for a prolongation of the mining concession,
which will allow to excavate coal from the deposit for the next 25 years, while the
largest brown coal mine in Poland will cease operations within 20 years. Opencast
mines belonging to ZE PAK, except for Tomisławice, will close operations in 3 years.
According to the preliminary Program for the brown coal mining sector in Poland,
the prospective deposits planned for development in the base variant are the Złoczew
and Gubin deposits, where PGE GiEK is applying for the mining concession and
Ościsłowo, which is of interest to ZE PAK. Among the development scenarios con-
sidered in the Program, the recommended scenario is the so-called baseline scenario.
According to this scenario, investments in the below-mentioned new lignite deposits
provide an opportunity to effectively fill the gap after depletion of the currently
operating energy complexes basing on this raw material. These options are particularly
promising, taking into account technical, economic and social conditions as well as
advancement of conceptual and design works (Fig. 6).
Output [million tonnes/year]
Gubin option
Złoczew option
Tu
Fig. 6. Currently available options for the construction of new fuel and energy complexes based
on brown coal/lignite (own concept based on source [6])
Assuming that all of the options indicated are met, the power capacity of the energy
complexes using lignite would be around 6000 MW, and the potential for electricity
production would be around 40–45 TWh/year. After extraction of coal in currently
operating opencasts is completed, it would cover about 25% of the forecasted (inter alia
by the Polish National Energy Conservation Agency, 2013) demand for electricity
during that period, leaving space for use of other technologies and diversification of the
future domestic fuel mix. The geological balance resources for prospective resources
are: the Złoczew deposit – 0.612 billion tonnes, Gubin 2 – 1.09 billion tonnes, Ości-
słowo – 0.05 billion tonnes. This will allow to maintain production of coal-based
electricity over the next decades.
4 Barriers for the Implementation of Concession Projects
Construction of new opencast mines is a necessary requirement for maintaining the role
of the brown coal industry in Poland as a guarantor of the country’s energy security and
a reliable primary energy supplier
The experiences gained so far from the implementation of concession projects
prove that they have been subject to various barriers. Obtaining a concession for the
exploitation of new lignite deposits under the current legal requirements is a very
complicated, difficult and extremely time-consuming process. Today, it is not enough
to identify and document resources and develop a deposit development plan, but one
should also obtain an environmental decision and ensure compliance with communities
planning documents. Environmental decisions are issued by regional environmental
protection directors after agreement with the competent authority of the National Water
Management Authority established at the beginning of 2018. A decision is preceded by
an environmental impact assessment based on a report on environmental impact with
public consultations in the proceeding. The parties to the proceedings are usually
environmental organisations negatively oriented to planned opencast mines.
The currently existing legislation in Poland applies to concession proceedings, in
which communities, where deposits exist, are interested in starting exploitation. When
there are social conflicts and communities do not want investments in their area, they
cannot be forced to change planning documents. The extraction of deposits covered by
the mining property is a public purpose in our country, and opencast mines are public
purpose investments. Communities are obliged to introduce into their planning public-
purpose investments documents that result from the provincial spatial development
plan or from governmental programs. If they do not do it, the voivode (province
governor) is obliged to draw up a local spatial development plan for a commune and
issue substitute decision in such matter. A change of the provincial plan also requires a
strategic environmental impact assessment with public participation. It should be noted
that even after the public purpose investment has been introduced into the provincial
plan, the reluctant communities may prevent a voivode from using the substitute
decision instrument by simulating or deliberately extending the admission of planning
documents.
The procedures for obtaining concessions alone are not the only barrier to the
implementation of concession projects. Another important barrier, if not the most
important, are the aims at the EU level, the so-called decarbonisation policy.
In 2015, at the initiative of the European Commission, with support of the Euro-
pean Parliament, the Energy Union Strategy was created, the aim to provide cheap,
sustainable and safe energy for EU countries, companies and citizens. The strategy is
based on the five priorities, which are:
866 S. Zawada
• energy security understood as reducing dependence on specific fuels, suppliers and

delivery channels,
• internal energy market understood as better connections between national systems
through interconnectors, cooperation of member states in shaping energy policies,
full implementation and strict energy regulations,
• improvement of energy efficiency, especially in construction and transport,
• decarbonisation of the economy implemented by investments in low-emission
technologies,
• research, innovation and competitiveness (clean fossil fuels, the world’s safest
nuclear energy, ecological transport, smart energy grids).
5 Directions of Climate, Energy and Environmental Policy –

Threats and Challenges for the Development of Brown
Coal Based Energy Industry
We live and act in the era of extremely dynamic changes in the world of energy,
increasingly referred to as the energy revolution. Generally, the perspectives for global
energy are defined by the three short phrases: digitalisation, decentralisation and
decarbonisation. Digitalisation refers to the construction of intelligent transmission
systems, but also information systems and digitisation in the field of energy manage-
ment, environmental management, or extraction of fossil fuels. Decentralisation is a
term which means boosting the importance of dispersed, prosumer energy sources,
including renewable sources and energy storages. The decarbonisation term is mainly
expressed in the endeavour to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Irrespective of the climate policy, the prospects for the operation of mining and
energy complexes based on lignite are influenced by the EU policy of environmental
protection. European regulations are a tool to combat environmental pollutions and
introduce increasingly stringent emission standards when granting integrated permits.
The process of reducing industrial emissions in conventional power generation industry
is currently influenced by the six different EU regulations:
• ETS Directive – affects industrial emissions through the need to invest in low CO2
emission electricity production sources,
• IED Directive – introduction of emission standards (SO2, NOx, particulates),
• BAT conclusions – more stringent emission standards (SO2, NOx, particulates,
mercury, etc.), to increase the effect of retreat from coal in energy production,
• NEC Directive – setting caps (quantitative) of pollutant emissions (SO2, NOx,
particulates) at the level of Member States,
• RES regulations – aimed at stimulating the development of renewable energy and
retreat from conventional energy (reduction of industrial emissions),
• Energy Efficiency – aimed at reducing energy consumption, which will also have an
impact on reducing industrial emissions.
The current BAT conclusions for large combustion plants were adopted on 31st July
2017 (publication in the EU Official Journal took place on 17.08.2017). The energy
installations must be adapted to the new requirements of the BAT conclusions within
four years from the date of publication. This document specifies, inter alia, the emis-
sions to air and water associated with application of Best Available Techniques
(BAT) used as a reference when setting permit conditions for installations. The new
conclusions expand the catalogue of substances for which standards are set and
introduce more restrictive air emission limits for sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
and particulates. New substances covered by the regulation and monitoring obligation
include: hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, mercury and metals. The
table below presents a comparison of LCP emission requirements, IED, and BAT
Conclusions (Table 4).
Table 4. Comparison of emission requirements LCP, IED, BAT conclusions (own concept
Thermal capacity of the LCP [mg/Nm3] 1ED cBAT [mg/Nm3]
source (MWt) [mg/Nm3]
SO2 50–100 2000 400 360
100–225 2000-400 Linear 250 200
225–300 decline
300–500 200 130/180
>500 400 (particulates) (fluid)
NOx 50–100 600 300 270
100–300 180
300–500 200 150/175
>500 500/200 (hard coal) (fluids and
lignite)
Particulates 50–100 100 30 18
100–300 25 14
300–500 10
500– 50 20
1000
>1000 8
Environmental quality standards depend on the development of the Best Available

Technology (BAT), which is a result of the technical progress. BAT conclusions are
reviewed every 8 years. The next figure presents how legal changes at the EU level
have been introduced in the area of the environment and their impact on the costs of
868 S. Zawada
modernisation of power generating units due to the need to adapt them to the envi-
ronmental requirement (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. EU regulations in the area of environmental standards in the context of power generating
units modernization costs (own concept)
The most important event that in the long term may affect the shape of the Polish
conventional power generation industry is undoubtedly the climatic summit in Paris,
which took place in 2015. The fruit of the talks is the conclusion by 195 countries,
including Poland, of the COP21 climate agreement, the essence of which is to stop
global warming at below 2 °C to the end of the XXI century. A decision was made to
further increase the share of renewable energy sources in the energy balance, and to
develop new technologies. This is another agreement on the climate, after the UN
Framework Convention signed by the EEC in New York in 1992 and the Kyoto
Protocol signed by the European Commission in 1998.
On 7th February 2018, the European Parliament also adopted another revision of the
ETS Directive, which is awaiting adoption by the EU Commission. It contains a
proposal to change the emissions trading system after 2021. The change consists in the
creation of the so-called market stability reserve (MSR) mechanism, which is going to
force the withdrawal of some allowances from the market, setup of a Modernization
Fund, from which more than 40% of emission allowances will go to Poland, but they
will not be used for fossil fuels, because the Fund is to improve energy efficiency and
renewable energy sources development. Poland will have the right to manage 60% of
free allowances, but through an auction and after meeting investment criteria, which
include the diversification of energy sources. Analysts predict that the price of an EUA
may increase significantly.
6 Summary
The conditions for the development of brown coal mining in Poland depend to a large
extent on decisions taken at the EU level. In this context, investors are very uncertain
about investment directions. On the one hand, the brown coal industry has the nec-
essary geological resources, human resources, scientific and technical facilities on the
other hand there is the EU policy aiming at decarbonisation.
The conventional power generation industry based on brown coal is today a

guarantor of the country’s energy security and may be the guarantor in the future, that
is why it is so important to provide access to prospective deposits of Złoczew, Gubin 2.
The volume of industrial resources for these deposits amounts to approx. 1.4 billion
tonnes, which may contribute to maintaining the role of brown coal in the Polish
energy mix after 2030, guaranteeing the country’s economy and society a stable,
socially safe, environmentally friendly and cheap electricity.
Imposing a single path of development in the area of climate and energy on the EU
member states can contribute to transformation of the Polish energy sector from an
independent, safe and cheap energy industry into an expensive, unstable and dependent
on geopolitical factors. Therefore, maintaining the potential of the brown coal industry
after 2030 at the level of 20–25% seems to be a necessity rather than a possibility.
References
1. Energy market agency (ARE) (2017)
2. International Energy Agency (2017) Data of the European Hard Coal and Brown Coal
Association
3. Eurocoal (2016)
4. Production information of brown coal mines for December and cumulatively in 2017, PPWB
(2017)
5. List of existing concessions for brown coal mining in Poland, Own concept based on the PIG
lignite deposit list and lists of exploration concessions, testing and mining concessions for
solid minerals of the ministry of the environment
6. Kraków Tajduś A, Kaczorowski J, Kasztelewicz Z, Czaja P, Cała M, Bryja Z, Żuk St (2014)
Brown coal–an offer for the Polish power industry. The possibility of developing lignite
mining in Poland until 2050. Mining Committee of the Polish Academy of Sciences
7. BREF reference document and BAT conclusions
Author Index
A D
Abratowski, Paweł, 1 Damaziak, Krzysztof, 784
Andruszko, Jakub, 8, 15, 29 Danielczyk, Piotr, 120
Araszkiewicz, Piotr, 36 Deptuła, Adam, 128, 136
Attinger, Michał, 636 Derlukiewicz, Damian, 8, 744
de Sousa, Ricardo J. Alves, 545
B Dobosz, Tomasz, 144, 627
Bajcar, Adam, 527 Dolata, Michał, 183
Bałchanowski, Jacek, 276, 510, 790, 836 Dominiak, Jakub, 144
Baranowski, Paweł, 388 Doudkin, Mikhail, 155
Bardziński, Piotr J., 44 Duda, P., 175
Barszcz, Zbigniew, 537 Duda, Sławomir, 163
Bednarczyk, Sławomir, 55 Dunaj, Paweł, 183
Bednarz, Łukasz, 64 Działak, Paulina, 319, 736
Berczyński, Stefan, 183
Bienioszek, Grzegorz, 379 F
Biernacki, K., 767 Fernandes, Fábio A. O., 545
Błażejewski, Wojciech, 446 Furtak, Jacek, 462
Bocian, Miroslaw, 581
Bodziony, Przemysław, 72 G
Böhm, Michał, 80, 346 Galas-Szpak, Anna, 661
Borowiecki, Cezary, 88 Garbaciak, Leszek, 565
Bošnjak, Srđan, 215 Gendarz, Piotr, 191, 199, 207
Gniłka, Jacek, 163
C Gnjatović, Nebojša, 215
Chlebus, Edward, 403, 411, 806 Górniak, Aleksander, 236, 301
Chorowski, M., 175 Górski, Artur, 64, 144, 252, 744, 636
Cieślicki, Rafał, 96 Górski, Piotr, 242, 370, 433
Ćmil, Michał, 104 Grabowski, M., 175
Craen, A. V., 175 Grendysz, Fabian, 627
Czerwińska, Dorota, 545 Gruber, Konrad, 403
Czmochowski, Jerzy, 112, 636 Grygier, Dominika, 259
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 871

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04975-1
872 Author Index
Gude, M., 823 Kurzynowski, Tomasz, 403, 411

Gunia, Dominik, 266 Kwasniowski, S., 844
Gwiazda, Aleksander, 191, 199, 207
L
H Łagoda, Karolina, 446
Haider, D. R., 823 Łagoda, Tadeusz, 80, 353, 395, 446
Handke, A., 276 Ladra, Piotr, 419
Hejduk, Maciej, 736 Langkamp, A., 823
Hetmańczyk, Mariusz Piotr, 284 Leśniewski, Tadeusz, 427, 574
Lewandowski, Bogusz, 712
I Lewandowski, Jacek, 242, 433
Ignjatović, Dragan, 310 Lewandowski, Tadeusz, 242, 252, 433
Iluk, Artur, 88, 293, 752, 814 Łoś, Beata, 806
J M
Jamroziak, Krzysztof, 581 Machoczek, Tomasz, 379
Janicka, Anna, 236, 259, 301 Macko, Marek, 454, 462
Jasieńko, Jerzy, 64 Malachowski, Jerzy, 388, 784
Jasiński, Ryszard, 510, 790 Małczuk, Adrian, 470
Jovančić, Predrag, 310 Maneski, Taško, 310
Maślak, Paweł, 478
K Melańczuk, Patryk, 537
Karliński, Jacek, 96, 319 Merek, Maciej, 433
Kasztelewicz, Zbigniew, 72 Michalska, Żaneta, 556
Kaszyca, Tomasz, 163 Michniewicz, Daniel, 301
Kawalec, Witold, 44, 327 Mikołajczak, Joanna, 236
Kawlewski, Krzysztof, 379 Mikołajewska, Emilia, 462
Kaźmierczak, Andrzej, 337 Mikołajewski, Dariusz, 462
Kciuk, Sławomir, 163, 379 Misiewicz, Robert, 485
Kim, Alina, 155 Moczko, Przemysław, 15, 112, 497, 527, 627
Kim, Vadim, 155 Moraś, Łukasz, 653
Klimas, Olga, 565 Mroziński, Adam, 454
Kocikowska, Agnieszka, 259 Muraszkowski, Artur, 510, 790
Koruba, Piotr, 591 Mysior, Marek, 518
Kosiński, Piotr, 619
Kot, Kacper M., 720 N
Kowalewski, Piotr, 556 Niebudek, Tadeusz, 790
Kowalski, M., 346 Nishta, Bohdan, 759
Koziarska, Justyna, 353 Novaković, Dragan, 310
Koziołek, Sebastian, 518 Nowak, Joanna, 462
Krahl, M., 823 Nowak, Radosław, 619
Krawczyk, J., 767
Krawiec, Michał, 361 O
Kroll, Lothar, 191, 199, 207 Odyjas, Piotr, 497
Król, Robert, 44, 327 Olejnik, Maciej, 112
Krot, Kamil, 370 Onichimiuk, Marek, 527
Krowicki, Paweł, 242, 433 Osiński, Piotr, 96, 128
Krysiński, Paweł, 88
Krzystała, Edyta, 379 P
Kucewicz, Michał, 388 Pach, Joanna, 581
Kudelski, Rafał, 72 Pac, Paweł, 653
Kulesa, Anna, 446 Paduchowicz, Michał, 144, 636
Kurek, Andrzej, 353, 395, 446 Parma, V., 175
Kurek, Marta, 395 Partyka, Marian A., 128, 136
Author Index 873
Patyk, Michał, 72 Sokolski, Marek, 696

Pawlak, Andrzej, 411 Sokolski, Piotr, 688, 696
Piętas, Dariusz, 236 Sparr, Holger, 611, 705
Pietraszewski, B., 510 Sperzyński, Przemysław, 712
Pietrusiak, Damian, 15, 112, 527 Sroka, Zbigniew J., 720
Podkowski, Krzysztof, 537 Staco, Mariusz, 736
Polinski, J., 175 Stańco, Mariusz, 293, 728, 744, 752
Posiadała, Bogdan, 419 Stosiak, Michał, 759
Pryda, Bartosz, 518 Stryczek, J., 767
Przybyłek, Grzegorz, 15, 485 Świder, Jerzy, 284
Ptak, Anita, 556 Szafranski, Tomasz, 784
Ptak, Mariusz, 252, 545, 565 Szczepański, Zbigniew, 462
Pustułka, Agnieszka, 574 Szrek, Jaroslaw, 510, 790, 836
Pyka, Dariusz, 581 Szulc, Piotr, 678, 795
Szymańczyk, Leszek, 388
R Szymczyk, Patrycja, 806
Radkiewicz, Przemysław, 591
Reclik, Grzegorz, 565 T
Reiner, Jacek, 591 Tietze, Tomasz, 678, 795
Rogacki, Igor, 599 Tkaczyk, Marcin, 337
Rosikowski, Piotr, 653 Trzciński, Waldemar, 388
Roszak, Robert, 611
Rudiak, Alina, 259 W
Rumianek, Przemysław, 619 Warzyńska, Urszula, 653
û, Małgorzata, 806 Więckowski, Jędrzej, 485, 497
Rusiński, Eugeniusz, 15, 29, 64, 88, 599, 627, Wilhelm, Johannes, 545, 565
636 Włostowski, Radosław, 236
Rutkowska-Gorczyca, Małgorzata, 259 Wnuk, Maciej, 814
Wójs, Kazimierz, 678, 795
S Wollmann, J., 823
Sawicki, Marek, 88, 599, 752 Woźniewski, Marek, 510, 790
Schob, Daniela, 611, 705 Wróbel, Ireneusz, 829
Sikora, Krzysztof, 829 Wudarczyk, Sławomir, 510, 790, 836
Sitnik, Lech J., 645 Wygoda, Marian, 527
Siwulski, Tomasz, 653
Skorupski, P., 851 Z
Skretowicz, Maria, 236, 661 Żach, Piotr, 619
Slavković, Časlav, 310 Zajac, P., 844, 851
Słomski, Wiktor, 252 Zawada, Sławomir, 858
Smolnicki, Michał, 669 Zawiślak, Maciej, 236, 259, 301, 759
Smolnicki, Tadeusz, 266, 478, 669 Ziegenhorn, Matthias, 611, 705
Smykowski, Daniel, 678, 795 Ziółkowski, Grzegorz, 806
Sobczak, Krzysztof, 259 Zrnić, Nenad, 215
Sokolska, Justyna, 688

Proceedings of The 14th International Scientific Conference: Computer Aided Engineering

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Proceedings of The 14th International Scientific Conference: Computer Aided Engineering

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering

To submit a proposal or request further information, please contact the appropriate

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11236

Proceedings of the 14th

ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018967408

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Numerical Analysis and Tests on Selected Dynamic Parameters

Use of Artiﬁcial Neural Networks for the Estimated Prediction

Aspects of the Cryogenic Equipment Mechanical Calculations

Comparison of Stress Distribution Between Geometrically

Selection of Geometric Features of V-Belt Transmission Through

CAE/FDM Methods for Design and Manufacture Artiﬁcial

Use of Radiography to Identify the Gangue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574

Numerical Modelling of Thermal and Mechanical Properties

Force Measurement Module for Mechatronic Nordic

Institute of Aviation, Transport Systems Departament, Al. Krakowska 110/114,

Abstract. To build a machine gun on a helicopter board sufﬁciently rigid frame

Keywords: FEM dynamic analysis Stand frame tests Clearance modeling

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Fig. 1. Shooting stand frame with the machine gun

2 The Loads and Numerical Model

Fig. 2. Dynamic force F(t) [N]

Fig. 3. Loads, supports and clearance model

Fig. 5. U0 [mm] displacement static results

½C ¼ a½M þ b½K; ð1Þ

where, a = 0, three coefﬁcients b are applied: 0.0007, 0.001 and 0.0015.

Fig. 6. Free vibrations. U1 [mm] displacement results

Fig. 7. U0 displacement results [mm]

5 Summary and Conclusions

Jakub Andruszko(&) and Damian Derlukiewicz

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,

Abstract. An electric machine for construction works is a multi-functional,

Keywords: Demolition machine Electric machine Arm working system

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Fig. 1. Visualization of the electric D-REX demolition machine

Speed of the camera: 10 000 frames

Density of sampling of displacement

Fig. 3. Displacement of the fastening system point during breaking

Fig. 5. Discrete model of the working system

4 Results of the Simulation

Table 1. Comparison of exemplary natural frequencies

Fig. 6. An example of the deformation of the model

Fig. 7. Dependence of stresses from time in the breaking process

Fig. 9. Equivalents (using H-M-H theory) stress distribution in individual components

5 Summary and Conclusions

Studies using a fast camera to measure displacements and accelerations, allowed to

Jakub Andruszko, Przemysław Moczko, Damian Pietrusiak(&),

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Machine Design and

Keywords: Mining Excavator Bucket-wheel Cracks

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

wheel excavator is a mining system consisting of a carrying structure, which is a bucket

Fig. 1. SchRs4600 bucket-wheel excavator

2 Investigation of the Problem

Fig. 3. Location of the cracks in SchRs4600 bucket-wheel excavator

Fig. 5. Bucket-wheel - research areas

As a result of the conducted tests, numerous material discontinuities in the structure

3 Investigation of the Cause

3.1 Experimental Research Using Strain Gauges

Fig. 9. Stress alternations during the exploitation of SchRs4600 excavator recorded at

At the symmetrical point C3 slightly lower values of stresses were recorded:

3.2 Numerical Calculation

Fig. 12. Scheme of application of loads on the bucket-wheel - fatigue case